Concrete

CONCRETE
AMATERIALFOR
THENEWSTONEAGE
AMASTModule
MaterialsScienceandTechnology
1995
Acknowledgments:
Theauthorswouldliketothankthefollowingpeoplefortheiradviceandsupportinthe
developmentofthismodule:
Dr.JenniferLewis
DirectoroftheMaterialsScienceWorkshop
Dr.JamesAdams
AssistantDirector
Dr.FrancisYoung
DepartmentofMaterialsScienceandEngineering
UniversityofIllinoisatUrbanaChampaign,Urbana,IL
Dr.DavidLange
DepartmentofCivilEngineering
Authors:
BethChamberlain
TuscolaHS.,Tuscola,IL
NewellChiesl
JeraldDay
TurkeyRunHS.,Marshall,IN
LesaDowd
BishopNoilInstitute,Hammond,IN
BettyOverocker
AntiochHS.,Antioch,IL
DenisePape
HarlemHS.,MachesneyPark,IL
MarciaPetrus
DanvilleHS.,Danville,IL
ii
MarySwanson
JohnToles
SycamoreHS.,Sycamore,IL
iii
Foreword
ThisisoneinaseriesofMASTmodulesdevelopedandrevisedduringtheMaterialsTechnology
WorkshopheldattheUniversityofIllinoisatUrbanaChampaignduring199395.
A combination of university professors, high school science teachers, and undergraduate

students,cametogethertocreateandrevisethismoduleoverathreeyearperiod.
Thismoduleistobeusedasacurriculumaidebyhighschoolscienceteacherswhowouldliketo
introducetheirstudentstoconceptsofMaterialsScienceandTechnology.Teachersareurgedto
useone,some,oralloftheMASTmodules.Someteachersmaywishtoimplementthismodule
initsentiretyasasubjectunitinacourse.Othersmaywishtoutilizeonlypartofthemodule,
perhaps alaboratory experiment. We encourage teachers tousethese materials in their
classroomsandtocontacttheworkshopwithanyassessments,comments,orsuggestions
theymayhave.
FinancialsupportfortheMaterialsTechnologyWorkshopwasprovidedbytheNationalScience
Foundation(NSF)EducationandHumanResourceDirectorate(Grant#ESI9253386),theNSF
CenterforAdvancedCementBasedMaterials,theDowChemicalFoundation,theMaterials
ResearchSociety,theIronandSteelSociety,andthePeoriaChapteroftheAmericanSocietyfor
Metals.TheUniversityofIllinoisatUrbanaChampaignDepartmentofMaterialsScienceand
Engineering and the College of Engineering and the College of Engineering Office of
ExtramuralEducationprovidedorganizationalsupport.
iv
TableofContents
Acknowledgments.................................................................................... ii
Foreword............................................................................................... iii
Introduction............................................................................................ 1
AShortStory:AHardLessontoLearn........................................................... 2
WhatisConcrete?..................................................................................... 3
TheHistoryofConcrete:PictorialTimeline....................................................... 9
TheHistoryofConcrete:TextualTimeline........................................................ 11
ScientificPrinciples................................................................................... 15
References............................................................................................. 25
Resources.............................................................................................. 26
MasterMaterialsandEquipmentGrid.............................................................. 27
Demonstrations
1:MakingaSiltTest......................................................................... 29
2:ConductinganOrganicMatterTest..................................................... 30
3:EffectofAggregateonWorkabilityofConcrete...................................... 31
4:It'sHeatingUp........................................................................... 32
5:pHofCement............................................................................. 33
LaboratoryActivities
TheBasicMix................................................................................ 34
Lab1:What'stheMatter?.................................................................. 36
Lab2:HowDenseIsIt?.................................................................... 40
Lab3:HotandColdpHun!................................................................ 44
Lab4:TheFleetAfloat!.................................................................... 49
Lab5:StressandStrain!................................................................... 55
Lab6:MakeandTake!..................................................................... 63
Assessments........................................................................................... 66
Glossary................................................................................................ 74
Introduction
ModuleObjective:
Studentswilllearnaboutcementhydration,materialproperties,andmakingconcrete.
KeyConcepts:
Importanceandwidespreadusesofconcrete.
Componentmaterialsusedtomakeconcrete.
Macroscopicandmicroscopicstructureofconcrete.
Roleofwaterinthepreparationofaconcretemixture.
Roleofwaterinthehardeningofconcrete.
Effectiveratiosofcomponentmaterialsinvariousconcretestructures.
Effectofporosityandaggregatesonthestrengthofconcrete.
Buildingandtestingvariousconcretestructures.
Derivationofanoptimumratioofcomponentmaterialsfordifferentconcrete
applications.
Chemicalreactionswhichtakeplacewhenconcreteismixed.
Prerequisites:
It is assumed that students will have studied the following concepts priorto beginning this
module:
Calculationofratiosandusingfractions
Usingalaboratorybalancetomeasuremass
Usingagraduatedcylindertomeasurevolume
Makingandinterpretinggraphs
PlacementofModuleinCurrentCurriculum:
Thematerialcoveredintheconcrete module maybeadaptedforuseinclasses ofgeneral

science,chemistry,andphysics.Thebasicconceptswhichmaybetaughtorenhancedbyusing
thismoduleinclude:
Matterclassification
Density
Compressionandtension
Hydration
Heatsofreaction
pH
Thematerialsandactivitiesinthismoduleareintendedtointroducethestudenttothetopicof
concrete.Furtherlecture,audiovisual,reading,speakers,fieldtrips,worksheets,andevaluation
1
instrumentscouldbeusedtosupportandexpanduponthematerialsprovided. Anexcellent
activitywouldinvolveafieldtriptoalocalreadymixconcreteplantoracementmanufacturing
plant. Thiswouldgivestudentstheopportunitytonotonlyseehowconcreteisproducedbut
alsothemanyapplicationsofconcrete.Thereisalistofprofessionalconcreteorganizationsin
theResourcessectionwhichcanprovideyouwithfurtherinformation.
2
AHardLessontoLearn
AShortStory
ByBettyOverocker
"Heyyou!Let'sgoforawalk."saidagruffvoicebehindmeasIsatonaconcretepark
bench.Withoutquestion,Istoodupandwalkedalongtheconcretesidewalkinthedirectionthe
darksuitedmanpointedto. Theheatofthedaywasintenseasitradiatedofftheconcrete
buildingthatlinedtheconcretestreetwewerewalkingbeside. Ipausedmomentarilytolean
againstaconcretelamppostandconcentratemyslurryofthoughtsintoamorerigidmass.The
menindarksuitscontinuedtomovemealongthissetjourney.
Atalargeconcretearchway,thementoldmetoenter.Theentrancewasverysteep,and
containedtwoconcretestatuesofviciouslookingdogsguardingtheway.Thedooropenedinto
alargeroom.Thewallsweremadeofconcreteblocksarrangedinanoffsetpattern.Mymind
triedtotraceanescaperoutein the mortar trailsbetweenthebricks,butIkeptrunninginto
deadendsmuchlikethesituationIwasin,therewerenoconcreteanswers.
Theroomwasarrangedinacourthallformationconsistingofmassivepouredconcrete
chairsandbenches.Amanofquestionablecharactersatinthefrontoftheroom,inthelargest
oftheconcretethrones.Themenindarksuitsmotionedformetoapproachthefront.Being
tiredfromthelongwalk,IleanedagainsttheconcretepillarsthatoutlinedthepaththatIleast
wantedtotravel.
Iapproachedthedomineeringgodfather.Hetoldmetoplacemylegsintoacylindrical
containerthatcameuptomyknees.
Thetwogoonsthathadbeenwatchingmeheadedtoaconcreteboxnearby.Oneofthe
goonscarriedabagofpremixconcrete.Theother,acontainerofwater.Astheybegantomix
theseingredients,Ibegantorealizewhatwasabouttooccur.Ibrokethecodeofsilenceand
askedthegodfatherifIcouldhaveonelastrequest.Henodded.Isurveyedthescene.Knowing
thatthislonglookofthetallconcreteskyscrapersmaybeoneofmylast,Iaskedforalargesoda
andalargecottoncandy.Notbad,Ithoughtforadiabeticonhissupposedlastbinge.
Asmylastrequestsarrived,thegoon'stransferredthecontentsoftheconcretemixinto
thebucket.Icouldfeeltheweightofthewetmassenteringmyshoes.Isquirmedjustasthe
delivererwashandingmethefood. Intheshuffle,thelargesodaslippedoutofhishandand
spilledintothebucketinwhichIwasstanding.Thecottoncandyalsowaslosttothemesson
myfeet.Thedomthoughtnothingofthenewadditivesinthemixture.I,ontheotherhand,was
pleasedthatmyplanhadworked.
Whatfollowedwastheusualtakeandgetridoftheguyroutine. Thegoonswerenot
toobrightonthewaysofconcrete. Theyjustfolloweddirections. Asforme,thetrainingI
receivedinahighschoolmoduleonconcretehadtaughtmeallabouttheeffectsofadmixtures
onthecuringprocessesofconcrete. Thesugarinthecandyandthesodawouldpreventthe
concretefromsetting.Astheassistantscarriedmeandmy"hardened"bootstothewater'sedge,
Ihopedthatallthatmodularinformationwasaccuratebecausemylifenowdependedonit.The
bucketsandIweresetonadollyforeaseofmovement.Thedollywasrolledtotheedgeofthe
dropoffandIwasreleasedintothewater.
3
Duetotheretardationeffectofsugaronthesettingofconcrete,Imanagedtowigglemy
legsoutofthefreshconcreteanchorandrisetothesurface.NoonewasinsightandIdecidedto
learnmoreaboutotherindustrialmaterialssoIcouldsavemylifeagainsomeothertime.
4
WhatisConcrete?
BrainStormingActivity1:ConcreteSurvey
1.Whenwasconcretefirstmade?
9000BC500BC100AD17561824
2.Circlethepossiblecomponentsofconcrete.
watercementgravelsandairsteelrods
3.Whatisthepurposeofcementinconcrete?
4.Whatroledoeswaterplayinproducingconcrete?
5.Whydoesconcreteharden?
6.Whydoesconcreteset(harden)slowly?
7.Howcanyoumakeconcreteset:
faster?
slower?
8.Isconcretestrongerincompression,tension,orthesameineither?
9.Howstrongcanconcreteorcementbe(inpoundspersquareinch(psi))?
50,00020,00050002000
10.Howlongcanconcretelast(inyears)?
50,000500050050
scores: 810materialssciencemajor;57concretecontractor;24concretelaborer;
01homeowner
5
ConcreteSurvey(Key)
1.Whenwasconcretefirstmade?
9000BC500BC100AD17561824
2.Circlethepossiblecomponentsofconcrete.
watercementgravelsandair
3.Whatisthepurposeofcementinconcrete?
Itactsasaprimarybindertojointheaggregateintoasolidmass.
4.Whatroledoeswaterplayinproducingconcrete?
Waterisrequiredforthecementtohydrateandsolidify.
5.Whydoesconcreteharden?
Thechemicalprocesscalledcementhydrationproducescrystalsthat
interlockandbindtogether.
6.Whydoesconcreteset(harden)slowly?
Ittakestimeforthehydratedcementcrystalstoform
7.Howcanyoumakeconcreteset:
faster?addcalciumchlorideor"accelerator"
slower?addsugaror"setretarder"
8.Isconcretestrongerincompression,tension,orthesameineither?
Itisstrongerincompression.
9.Howstrongcanconcreteorcementbe(inpoundspersquareinch(psi))?
50,00020,00050002000
10.Howlongcanconcretelast(inyears)?
50,000500050050
scores: 810materialssciencemajor;57concretecontractor;24concretelaborer;
01homeowner
(Note: Correctanswersaregiveninbold.)
6
Concrete Anartificialstonelikematerialusedforvariousstructuralpurposes.Itismade
by
mixingcementandvariousaggregates,suchassand,pebbles,gravel,shale,etc.,
withwaterandallowingthemixturetohardenbyhydration.
Herearejustafewfactstohelpconvinceyouthatthetopicofconcretedeservestobecomea
partofyoursciencecurriculum:
Concreteiseverywhere!!Roads,sidewalks,houses,bridges,skyscrapers,pipes,dams,
canals,missilesilos,andnuclearwastecontainment.Thereareevenconcretecanoesand
Frisbeecompetitions.
Itisstrong,inexpensive,plentiful,andeasytomake.Butmoreimportantly,itsversatile.
It canbemoldedtojustaboutanyshape.
Concreteisfriendlytotheenvironment.Itsvirtuallyallnatural.Itsrecyclable.
Itisthemostfrequentlyusedmaterialinconstruction.
Slightlymorethanatonofconcreteisproducedeveryyearforeachpersonontheplanet,
approximately6billiontonsperyear.
Byweight,onehalftotwothirdsofourinfrastructuresaremadeofconcretesuchas:
roads, bridges,buildings,airports,sewers,canals,dams,andsubways.
Approximately60%ofourconcretehighwaysneedrepairand40%ofourconcrete
highway bridgesarestructurallydeficientorfunctionallyobsolete.
Largecitiesloseupto30%oftheirdailywatersupplyduetoleaksinconcretewaterpipes.
Ithasbeenestimatedthatthenecessaryrepairsandimprovementstoourinfrastructureswill
cost$3.3trillionoveranineteenyearperiod.$1trillionofthatisneededforrepairing
thenationsconcrete.
Cementhasbeenaroundforatleast12millionyearsandhasplayedanimportantrolein
history.
7
BrainstormingActivity2:WhyisConcreteImportant?
Objective: Studentswillcreatealistoftheimportanceofconcreteandexplainhowitaffects
theirlives.
Procedure: 1. "Whyconcreteisimportant?"Inalargegroupstudentswillcreatealistofthe
importanceofstudyingconcrete.
2. Uponcompletionoftheirlist,studentswilldevelopacronymsforconcrete
basedontheirlistofconcrete'simportance.(Seeexamplebelow.)
3. Studentswilldiscusstheimplicationsthatwouldoccurifwecouldnolonger
makeconcrete.(i.e.increasinglevelsofCO2productionorfederal
regulations)
S P
R T L V E N I
E R E S E V A N
CONCRETE
Y N T I S R U X
C G I E A Y R P
L F N T W A E
A U C I H L N
B L E L E S
L E R I
E E V
E
8
9
BrainstormingActivity3:ApplicationsofConcrete
Objective: Studentswillcreatealistofthepast,present,andfutureapplicationsofconcrete
andhowtheseapplicationsaffecttheirlivesandlifestyles.
Procedure:
Insmallgroups,thestudentswilllistapplicationsforconcrete:
1. Inthepast:
Studentswillcreatealistofpastapplicationsforconcretethathasinfluenced
theirlivesand/orlifestyles.
2. Currently:
Studentswilldescribecommonapplicationsofconcretethatthey
encounterdaily.Labeltheseaspresentapplicationsofconcrete.
3. Inthefuture:
Studentswillcreatealistoffutureapplicationsofconcretebypredicting
howconcretewillaffecttheirlivesinthefuture.
4. Studentswillpresenttheirliststotheclassintheformofacollageoramobile
displayingthecorrelationbetweentheirlivesandlifestyleswiththeapplications
of concretethroughouttheirlives.
10
11
APPLICATIONSOFCONCRETE
Past,Present,andFuture
roads sidewalks houses

bricks/blocks bridges walls
beams foundations floors
sewerpipes watermains computerchipbacking**
canals missilesilos containmentofnuclearwaste
dams churches automobilebrakelining**
caskets monuments solidificationofhazardouswastes
tombs indoorfurniture gardenornaments
swimmingpools airportrunways sailingboats
canoes barges subways
tunnels parkinggarages patiobricks
holdingtanks cementovershoes sculptures
flowerpots&planters chimneys mantels
ballast bathtubs gravevaults
bankvaults basements lampposts
telephonepoles electriclightpoles Frisbees
headstones steps fenceposts
business/creditcards** fertilizer bonereplacement**
insulatingtiles/bricks cornsilos parkbenches
parkingstones rooftiles watertroughs
watertanks curb&gutters nuclearreactorcontainment
structures
artificialrocks officebuildings parkinglots
railroadties airports monorails
picnictables swimmingpools breakwaters
wharves&piers birdbaths barbecuepits
stadiumseats fountains lunarbases**
**Denotesfutureapplications.
12
3000B.C.
Egyptiansusedmudmixed
withstrawtobindbricks.They b
usedgypsumandlimemortarsinthe Pant
pyramids. Animal
admixtu
CONCRETE
HISTORICAL Joh
li
TIMELINE Ligh
1824
JosephAspdinofEngland
13
inventedportlandcementbyburning
1886 1889
Firstrotarykilnwasintroduced Firstconcretereinforced
inEngland,whichallowedfor bridgewasbuilt.
continuousproductionofcement.
1891
Firstconcretestreetinthe
USAwasplacedinBellefontaine,
OhiobyGeorgeBartholomew
1936
Firstmajorconcretedams,
theHooverDamandGrand
CooleyDam,werebuilt.
1992
1967
Tallestreinforcedbuilding
Firstconcretedomesport
(946ft)constructedin
structureconstructedatthe
Chicago,IL
UniversityofIllinois,AssemblyHall.
14
The History of Concrete:
A Timeline
Cementhasbeenaroundforatleast12millionyears. Whentheearthitselfwasundergoing
intensegeologicchangesnatural,cementwasbeingcreated. Itwasthisnaturalcementthat
humansfirstputtouse.Eventually,theydiscoveredhowtomakecementfromothermaterials.
12,000,000BC Reactionsbetweenlimestoneandoilshaleduringspontaneous
combustionoccurredinIsraeltoformanaturaldepositofcement
compounds.ThedepositswerecharacterizedbyIsraeligeologistsinthe
1960sand70s.
3000BC Usedmudmixedwithstrawtobinddriedbricks.Theyalsousedgypsum
Egyptians mortarsandmortarsoflimeinthepyramids.
Chinese Usedcementitiousmaterialstoholdbambootogetherintheirboatsandin
theGreatWall.
800BC UsedlimemortarswhichweremuchharderthanlaterRomanmortars.
Greeks,Crete
&Cyprus
300BC Usedbitumentobindstonesandbricks.
Babylonians
&AsSyrians
300BC476AD UsedpozzolanacementfromPozzuoli,ItalynearMt.Vesuviustobuild
the
Romans AppianWay,Romanbaths,theColiseumandPantheoninRome,and
thePontduGardaqueductinsouthFrance.Theyusedlimeasa
cementitiousmaterial.Plinyreportedamortarmixtureof1partlimeto4
partssand.Vitruviusreporteda2partspozzolanato1partlime.Animal
fat,milk,andbloodwereusedasadmixtures(substancesaddedtocement
toincreasetheproperties.)Thesestructuresstillexisttoday!
12001500 Thequalityofcementingmaterialsdeteriorated.Theuseofburninglime
TheMiddleAges andpozzolan(admixture)waslost,butreintroducedinthe1300s.
1678 JosephMoxonwroteaboutahiddenfireinheatedlimethatappearsupon
theadditionofwater.
15
1779 BryHigginswasissuedapatentforhydrauliccement(stucco)forexterior
plasteringuse.
1780 BryHigginspublishedExperimentsandObservationsMadeWiththe
ViewofImprovingtheArtofComposingandApplyingCalcereous
CementsandofPreparingQuicklime.
16
1793 JohnSmeatonfoundthatthecalcinationoflimestonecontainingclaygave
alimewhichhardenedunderwater(hydrauliclime).Heusedhydraulic
limetorebuildEddystoneLighthouseinCornwall,Englandwhichhehad
beencommissionedtobuildin1756,buthadtofirstinventamaterialthat
wouldnotbeaffectedbywater.Hewroteabookabouthiswork.
1796 JamesParkerfromEnglandpatentedanaturalhydrauliccementby
calciningnodulesofimpurelimestonecontainingclay,calledParkers
CementorRomanCement.
1802 InFrance,asimilarRomanCementprocesswasused.
1810 EdgarDobbsreceivedapatentforhydraulicmortars,stucco,andplaster,
althoughtheywereofpoorqualityduetolackofkilnprecautions.
18121813 LouisVicatofFrancepreparedartificialhydrauliclimebycalcining
syntheticmixturesoflimestoneandclay.
1818 MauriceSt.Legerwasissuedpatentsforhydrauliccement.
NaturalCementwasproducedintheUSA.Naturalcementislimestone
thatnaturallyhastheappropriateamountsofclaytomakethesametype
of concreteasJohnSmeatondiscovered.
18201821 JohnTickellandAbrahamChamberswereissuedmore
hydrauliccementpatents.
1822 JamesFrostofEnglandpreparedartificialhydrauliclimelikeVicatsand
calleditBritishCement.
1824 JosephAspdinofEnglandinventedportlandcementbyburningfinely
groundchalkwithfinelydividedclayinalimekilnuntilcarbondioxide
wasdrivenoff.Thesinteredproductwasthengroundandhecalledit
portlandcementnamedafterthehighqualitybuildingstonesquarriedat
Portland,England.
1828 I.K.Bruneliscreditedwiththefirstengineeringapplicationof
portlandcement,whichwasusedtofillabreachintheThamesTunnel.
1830 ThefirstproductionoflimeandhydrauliccementtookplaceinCanada.
1836 Thefirstsystematictestsoftensileandcompressivestrengthtookplacein
Germany.
17
1843 J.M.Mauder,Son&Co.werelicensedtoproducepatentedportland
cement.
1845 IsaacJohnsonclaimstohaveburnedtherawmaterialsofportlandcement
toclinkeringtemperatures.
1849 Pettenkofer&Fuchesperformedthefirstaccuratechemicalanalysisof
portlandcement.
1860 Thebeginningoftheeraofportlandcementsofmoderncomposition.
1862 BlakeStonebreakerofEnglandintroducedthejawbreakerstocrush
clinkers.
1867 JosephMonierofFrancereinforcedWilliamWands(USA)flowerpots
withwireusheringintheideaofironreinforcingbars(rebar).
1871 DavidSaylorwasissuedthefirstAmericanpatentforportlandcement.
He
showedtheimportanceoftrueclinkering.
1880 J.GrantofEnglandshowtheimportanceofusingthehardestanddensest
portionsoftheclinker.Keyingredientswerebeingchemicallyanalyzed.
1886 ThefirstrotarykilnwasintroducedinEnglandtoreplacetheverticalshaft
kilns.
1887 HenriLeChatelierofFranceestablishedoxideratiostopreparethe
properamountoflimetoproduceportlandcement.Henamedthe
components:Alite(tricalciumsilicate),Belite(dicalciumsilicate),and
Celite(tetracalciumaluminoferrite).Heproposedthathardeningiscaused
bytheformationofcrystallineproductsofthereactionbetweencement
and
water.
1889 Thefirstconcretereinforcedbridgeisbuilt.
1890 Theadditionofgypsumwhengrindingclinkertoactasaretardanttothe
settingofconcretewasintroducedintheUSA.Verticalshaftkilnswere
replacedwithrotarykilnsandballmillswereusedforgrindingcement.
1891 GeorgeBartholomewplacedthefirstconcretestreetintheUSAin
Bellefontaine,OH.Itstillexiststoday!
18
1893 WilliamMichaelisclaimedthathydratedmetasilicatesformagelatinous
mass(gel)thatdehydratesovertimetoharden.
1900 Basiccementtestswerestandardized.
1903 ThefirstconcretehighrisewasbuiltinCincinnati,OH.
1908 ThomasEdisonbuiltcheap,cozyconcretehousesinUnion,NJ.
Theystillexisttoday!
1909 ThomasEdisonwasissuedapatentforrotarykilns.
1929 Dr.LinusPaulingoftheUSAformulatedasetofprinciplesforthe
structuresofcomplexsilicates.
1930 Airentrainingagentswereintroducedtoimproveconcrete'sresistanceto
freeze/thawdamage.
1936 Thefirstmajorconcretedams,HooverDamandGrandCouleeDam,were
built.Theystillexisttoday!
1956 U.S.CongressannexedtheFederalInterstateHighwayAct.
1967 Firstconcretedomedsportstructure,theAssemblyHall,wasconstructed
atTheUniversityofIllinois,atUrbanaChampaign.
1970's Fiberreinforcementinconcretewasintroduced.
1975 CNTowerinToronto,Canada,thetallestslipformbuilding,was
constructed.
WaterTowerPlaceinChicago,Illinois,thetallestbuildingwas
constructed.
1980's Superplasticizerswereintroducedasadmixtures.
1985 Silicafumewasintroducedasapozzolanicadditive.
The"higheststrength"concretewasusedinbuildingtheUnion
PlazaconstructedinSeattle,Washington.
1992 Thetallestreinforcedconcretebuildingintheworldwasconstructedat
311S.WackerDr.,Chicago,Illinois.
19
ScientificPrinciples
WhatisinThisStuff?
Theimportanceofconcreteinmodernsocietycannotbeunderestimated.Lookaroundyouand
youwillfindconcretestructureseverywheresuchasbuildings,roads,bridges,anddams.There
isnoescapingtheimpactconcretemakesonyoureverydaylife.Sowhatisit?
Concreteisacompositematerialwhichismadeupofafillerandabinder.Thebinder(cement
paste)"glues"thefillertogethertoformasyntheticconglomerate.Theconstituentsusedforthe
binderarecementandwater,whilethefillercanbefineorcoarseaggregate.Theroleofthese
constituentswillbediscussedinthissection.
Cement,asitiscommonlyknown,isamixtureofcompoundsmadebyburninglimestoneand
claytogetheratveryhightemperaturesrangingfrom1400to1600C.
Althoughthereareothercementsforspecialpurposes,thismodulewillfocussolelyonportland
cement and its properties. The production of portland cement begins with the quarrying of
limestone,CaCO3. Hugecrushersbreaktheblastedlimestoneintosmallpieces.Thecrushed
limestoneisthenmixedwithclay(orshale),sand,andironoreandgroundtogethertoforma
homogeneous powder. However, this powder is microscopically heterogeneous. (See
flowchart.)
20
PRODUCTIONOFPORTLANDCEMENT
Raw materials
1.LIMESTONE 2.CLAY/SHALE
QUARRYING PROCESS
CRUSHING PROCESS
CRUSHEDLIMESTONE+CLAY/SHALE
ARE MIXED AND GROUND TOGETHER
MIXTUREISHEATEDINAKILN
CLINKER
GYPSUMISADDEDANDTHEMIXTUREIS
GROUND TO A POWDER RESULTING IN
PORTLANDCEMENT
Figure1: AflowdiagramofPortlandCementproduction.
21
Themixtureisheatedinkilnsthatarelongrotatingsteelcylindersonanincline.Thekilnsmay
beupto6metersindiameterand180metersinlength.Themixtureofrawmaterialsentersat
thehighendofthecylinderandslowlymovesalongthelengthofthekilnduetotheconstant
rotationandinclination.Atthelowendofthekiln,afuelisinjectedandburned,thusproviding
theheatnecessarytomakethematerialsreact.Itcantakeupto2hoursforthemixturetopass
throughthekiln,dependinguponthelengthofthecylinder.
Raw
Materials
freewater
claydecomposes
limestonedecomposes
formationofinitialcompounds
initialformationofdicalciumsilicate
formationof
tricalciumsilicate
dehydration
zone
calcinationzone heat
clinkering
zone
coolingzone
gastemp.
C450800120013501550
clinker
Figure2: Schematicdiagramofrotarykiln.
Asthemixturemovesdownthecylinder,itprogressesthroughfourstagesoftransformation.
Initially,anyfreewaterinthepowderislostbyevaporation.Next,decompositionoccursfrom
thelossofboundwaterandcarbondioxide.Thisiscalledcalcination.Thethirdstageiscalled
clinkering. Duringthisstage,thecalciumsilicatesareformed. Thefinalstageisthecooling
stage.
Themarblesizedpiecesproducedbythekilnarereferredtoas clinker. Clinkerisactuallya

mixtureoffourcompoundswhichwillbediscussedlater. Theclinkeriscooled,ground,and
mixedwithasmallamountofgypsum(whichregulatessetting)toproducethegeneralpurpose
portlandcement.
22
Wateristhekeyingredient,whichwhenmixedwithcement,formsapastethatbindsthe
aggregate together. The water causes the hardening of concrete through a process called
hydration. Hydrationisachemicalreactioninwhichthemajorcompoundsincementform
chemicalbondswithwatermoleculesandbecomehydratesorhydrationproducts.Detailsofthe
hydrationprocessareexploredinthenextsection. Thewaterneedstobepureinorderto
preventsidereactionsfromoccurringwhichmayweakentheconcreteorotherwiseinterferewith
thehydrationprocess.Theroleofwaterisimportantbecausethewatertocementratioisthe
mostcriticalfactorintheproductionof"perfect"concrete. Toomuchwaterreducesconcrete
strength,whiletoolittlewillmaketheconcreteunworkable.Concreteneedstobeworkableso
thatitmaybeconsolidatedandshapedintodifferentforms(i.e..walls,domes,etc.). Because
concretemustbebothstrongandworkable,acarefulbalanceofthecementtowaterratiois
requiredwhenmakingconcrete.
Aggregatesarechemicallyinert,solidbodiesheldtogetherbythecement.Aggregatescomein
variousshapes,sizes,andmaterialsrangingfromfineparticlesofsandtolarge,coarserocks.
Becausecementisthemostexpensiveingredientinmakingconcrete,itisdesirabletominimize
theamountofcementused.70to80%ofthevolumeofconcreteisaggregatekeepingthecost
of the concrete low. The selection of an aggregate is determined, in part, by the desired
characteristicsoftheconcrete.Forexample,thedensityofconcreteisdeterminedbythedensity
oftheaggregate.Soft,porousaggregatescanresultinweakconcretewithlowwearresistance,
whileusinghardaggregatescanmakestrongconcretewithahighresistancetoabrasion.
Aggregatesshouldbeclean,hard,andstrong.Theaggregateisusuallywashedtoremoveany
dust,silt,clay,organicmatter,orotherimpuritiesthatwouldinterferewiththebondingreaction
withthecementpaste.Itisthenseparatedintovarioussizesbypassingthematerialthrougha
seriesofscreenswithdifferentsizeopenings.
RefertoDemonstration1
Table1: ClassesofAggregates
class

examplesofaggregatesused

uses

ultralightweight vermiculite lightweightconcretewhich

ceramicspheres canbesawedornailed,also
perlite foritsinsulatingproperties
lightweight expandedclay usedprimarilyformaking

shaleorslate lightweightconcretefor
crushedbrick structures,alsousedforits
insulatingproperties.
23
normalweight crushedlimestone usedfornormalconcrete
sand projects
rivergravel
crushedrecycledconcrete
heavyweight steelorironshot usedformakinghighdensity

steelorironpellets concreteforshieldingagainst
nuclearradiation
Thechoiceofaggregateisdeterminedbytheproposeduseoftheconcrete. Normallysand,
gravel,andcrushedstoneareusedasaggregatestomakeconcrete. Theaggregateshouldbe
wellgradedtoimprovepackingefficiencyandminimizetheamountof cementpaste needed.
Also,thismakestheconcretemoreworkable.
PropertiesofConcrete
Concrete has many properties that make it a popular construction material. The correct
proportionofingredients,placement,andcuringareneededinorderforthesepropertiestobe
optimal.
Goodqualityconcretehasmanyadvantagesthataddtoitspopularity. First,itiseconomical
wheningredients are readily available. Concrete's long life and relatively low maintenance
requirementsincreaseitseconomicbenefits.Concreteisnotaslikelytorot,corrode,ordecayas
otherbuildingmaterials.Concretehastheabilitytobemoldedorcastintoalmostanydesired
shape.Buildingofthemoldsandcastingcanoccurontheworksitewhichreducescosts.
Concrete is a noncombustible material which makes it firesafe and able withstand high
temperatures.Itisresistanttowind,water,rodents,andinsects.Hence,concreteisoftenused
forstormshelters.
Concretedoeshavesomelimitationsdespiteitsnumerousadvantages.Concretehasarelatively
lowtensilestrength(comparedtootherbuildingmaterials),lowductility,lowstrengthtoweight
ratio, and is susceptible to cracking. Concrete remains the material of choice for many
applicationsregardlessoftheselimitations.
HydrationofPortlandCement
24
Concreteispreparedbymixingcement,water,andaggregatetogethertomakeaworkablepaste.
Itismoldedorplacedasdesired,consolidated,andthenlefttoharden.Concretedoesnotneed
todryoutinordertohardenascommonlythought.
Theconcrete(orspecifically,thecementinit)needsmoisturetohydrateand cure (harden).

Whenconcretedries,itactuallystopsgettingstronger.Concretewithtoolittlewatermaybedry
butisnotfullyreacted. Thepropertiesofsuchaconcretewouldbelessthanthatofawet
concrete. The reaction of water with the cement in concrete is extremely important to its
propertiesandreactionsmaycontinueformanyyears. Thisveryimportantreactionwillbe
discussedindetailinthissection.
Portland cement consists of five major compounds and a few minor compounds. The
compositionofatypicalportlandcementislistedbyweightpercentageinTable2.
CementCompound WeightPercentageChemicalFormula
Tricalciumsilicate 50% Ca3SiO5or3CaO.SiO2
Dicalciumsilicate 25% Ca2SiO4or2CaO.SiO2
Tricalciumaluminate 10% Ca3Al2O6or3CaO.Al2O3
Tetracalciumaluminoferrite 10% Ca4Al2Fe2O10or
4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3
Gypsum 5% CaSO4.2H2O
Table2: Compositionofportlandcementwithchemicalcompositionandweightpercent.
Whenwaterisaddedtocement,eachofthecompoundsundergoeshydrationandcontributesto
thefinalconcreteproduct.Onlythecalciumsilicatescontributetostrength.Tricalciumsilicate
isresponsibleformostoftheearlystrength(first7days).Dicalciumsilicate,whichreactsmore
slowly,contributesonlytothestrengthatlatertimes.Tricalciumsilicatewillbediscussedinthe
greatestdetail.
Theequationforthehydrationoftricalciumsilicateisgivenby:
Tricalciumsilicate+Water>Calciumsilicatehydrate+Calciumhydroxide+heat
2Ca3SiO5+7H2O>3CaO.2SiO2.4H2O+3Ca(OH)2+173.6kJ
Upontheadditionofwater,tricalciumsilicaterapidlyreactstoreleasecalciumions,hydroxide
ions,andalargeamountofheat. ThepHquicklyrisestoover12becauseofthereleaseof
alkalinehydroxide(OH)ions.Thisinitialhydrolysisslowsdownquicklyafteritstartsresulting
inadecreaseinheatevolved.
25
Thereactionslowlycontinuesproducingcalciumandhydroxideionsuntilthesystembecomes
saturated.Oncethisoccurs,thecalciumhydroxidestartstocrystallize.Simultaneously,calcium
silicate hydratebegins toform. Ions precipitate outofsolution accelerating thereaction of
tricalciumsilicatetocalciumandhydroxideions.(LeChatlier'sprinciple).Theevolutionof
heatisthendramaticallyincreased.
Theformationofthecalciumhydroxideandcalciumsilicatehydratecrystalsprovide"seeds"
uponwhichmorecalciumsilicatehydratecanform.Thecalciumsilicatehydratecrystalsgrow
thickermakingitmoredifficultforwatermoleculestoreachtheunhydratedtricalciumsilicate.
Thespeedofthereactionisnowcontrolledbytherateatwhichwatermoleculesdiffusethrough
thecalciumsilicatehydratecoating.Thiscoatingthickensovertimecausingtheproductionof
calciumsilicatehydratetobecomeslowerandslower.
a. b.
c. d.
Figure3: Schematicillustrationoftheporesincalciumsilicatethroughdifferentstagesof
hydration.
Theabovediagramsrepresenttheformationofporesascalciumsilicatehydrateisformed.Note
indiagram(a)thathydrationhasnotyetoccurredandthepores(emptyspacesbetweengrains)
arefilledwithwater. Diagram(b)representsthebeginningofhydration. Indiagram(c),the
hydrationcontinues.Althoughemptyspacesstillexist,theyarefilledwithwaterandcalcium
hydroxide.Diagram(d)showsnearlyhardenedcementpaste.Notethatthemajorityofspaceis
filled with calcium silicate hydrate. That which is not filled with the hardened hydrate is
primarilycalciumhydroxidesolution. Thehydrationwillcontinueaslongaswaterispresent
andtherearestillunhydratedcompoundsinthecementpaste.
Dicalciumsilicatealsoaffectsthestrengthofconcretethroughitshydration.Dicalciumsilicate
reactswithwaterinasimilarmannercomparedtotricalciumsilicate,butmuchmoreslowly.
Theheatreleasedislessthanthatbythehydrationoftricalciumsilicatebecausethedicalcium
silicateismuchlessreactive.Theproductsfromthehydrationofdicalciumsilicatearethesame
asthosefortricalciumsilicate:
26
Dicalciumsilicate+Water>Calciumsilicatehydrate+Calciumhydroxide+heat
2Ca2SiO4+5H2O>3CaO.2SiO2.4H2O+Ca(OH)2+58.6kJ
The other major components of portland cement, tricalcium aluminate and tetracalcium
aluminoferritealsoreactwithwater. Theirhydrationchemistryismorecomplicatedasthey
involve reactions with the gypsum as well. Because these reactions do not contribute
significantlytostrength,theywillbeneglectedinthisdiscussion.Althoughwehavetreatedthe
hydrationofeachcementcompoundindependently,thisisnotcompletelyaccurate.Therateof
hydrationofacompoundmaybeaffectedbyvaryingtheconcentrationofanother.Ingeneral,
theratesofhydrationduringthefirstfewdaysrankedfromfastesttoslowestare:
tricalciumaluminate>tricalciumsilicate>tetracalciumaluminoferrite>dicalciumsilicate.
Heatisevolvedwithcementhydration. Thisisduetothebreakingandmakingofchemical
bondsduringhydration.Theheatgeneratedisshownbelowasafunctionoftime.
R
A
T E
E V
O
O L
F U
T
H I
E O
A N
T
MINUTES HOURS DAYS

Figure4: Rateofheatevolutionduringthehydrationofportlandcement
ThestageIhydrolysisofthecementcompoundsoccursrapidlywithatemperatureincreaseof
several degrees. Stage II is known as the dormancy period. The evolution of heat slows
dramaticallyinthisstage.Thedormancyperiodcanlastfromonetothreehours.Duringthis
period,theconcreteisinaplasticstatewhichallowstheconcretetobetransportedandplaced
withoutanymajordifficulty.Thisisparticularlyimportantfortheconstructiontradewhomust
transportconcretetothejobsite.Itisattheendofthisstagethatinitialsettingbegins.Instages
IIIandIV,theconcretestartstohardenandtheheatevolutionincreasesdueprimarilytothe
hydrationoftricalcium silicate. StageVisreachedafter36hours. Theslowformationof
hydrateproductsoccursandcontinuesaslongaswaterandunhydratedsilicatesarepresent.
27
StrengthofConcrete
Thestrengthofconcreteisverymuchdependentuponthehydrationreactionjustdiscussed.
Waterplaysacriticalrole,particularlytheamountused. Thestrengthofconcreteincreases
whenlesswaterisusedtomakeconcrete. Thehydrationreactionitselfconsumesaspecific
amountofwater.Concreteisactuallymixedwithmorewaterthanisneededforthehydration
reactions.Thisextrawaterisaddedtogiveconcretesufficientworkability.Flowingconcreteis
desiredtoachieveproperfillingandcompositionoftheforms.Thewaternotconsumedinthe
hydrationreactionwillremaininthemicrostructureporespace.Theseporesmaketheconcrete
weakerduetothelackofstrengthformingcalciumsilicatehydratebonds. Someporeswill
remainnomatterhowwelltheconcretehasbeencompacted.
Figure5: Schematic drawings todemonstrate therelationship between the water/cement

ratio andporosity.
Theemptyspace(porosity)isdeterminedbythewatertocementratio.Therelationshipbetween
thewatertocementratioandstrengthisshowninthegraphthatfollows.
28
8000
compacted concrete
6000
Strength (psi)
4000
incomplete
2000 compaction
0
0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70
water:cementratio
Figure6: Aplotofconcretestrengthasafunctionofthewatertocementratio.
Lowwatertocement ratioleadstohighstrengthbutlowworkability. Highwatertocement

ratioleadstolowstrength,butgoodworkability.
Thephysicalcharacteristicsofaggregatesareshape,texture,and size. Thesecanindirectly

affectstrengthbecausetheyaffecttheworkabilityoftheconcrete.Iftheaggregatemakesthe
concreteunworkable,thecontractorislikelytoaddmorewaterwhichwillweakentheconcrete
byincreasingthewatertocementmassratio.
Timeisalsoanimportantfactorindeterminingconcretestrength. Concretehardensastime
passes.Why?Rememberthehydrationreactionsgetslowerandslowerasthetricalciumsilicate
hydrateforms. Ittakesagreatdealoftime(evenyears!)forallofthebondstoformwhich
determine concrete's strength. It is common to use a 28day test to determine the relative
strengthofconcrete.
Concrete's strength may also be affected by the addition of admixtures. Admixtures are
substancesotherthanthekeyingredientsorreinforcementswhichareaddedduringthemixing
process. Someadmixturesaddfluiditytoconcretewhilerequiringlesswatertobeused.An
exampleofanadmixturewhichaffectsstrengthissuperplasticizer.Thismakesconcretemore
workable or fluid without adding excess water. A list of some other admixtures and their
functionsisgivenbelow.Notethatnotalladmixturesincreaseconcretestrength.Theselection
anduseofanadmixturearebasedontheneedoftheconcreteuser.
29
SOMEADMIXTURESANDFUNCTIONS
TYPE

FUNCTION

AIRENTRAINING improves durability, workability, reduces
bleeding,reducesfreezing/thawing
problems
(e.g.specialdetergents)
SUPERPLASTICIZERS increase strength by decreasing water

needed forworkableconcrete
(e.g.specialpolymers)
RETARDING delays setting time, more long term strength,

offsetsadversehightemp.weather
(e.g.sugar)
ACCELERATING speeds setting time, more early strength,

offsetsadverselowtemp.weather
(e.g.calciumchloride)
MINERALADMIXTURES improvesworkability,plasticity,strength
(e.g.flyash)
PIGMENT addscolor
(e.g.metaloxides)
Table3: Atableofadmixturesandtheirfunctions.
Durability is a very important concern in using concrete for a given application. Concrete
providesgoodperformance throughtheservicelifeofthestructurewhenconcrete ismixed
properlyandcareistakenincuringit.Goodconcretecanhaveaninfinitelifespanunderthe
rightconditions.Water,althoughimportantforconcretehydrationandhardening,canalsoplay
aroleindecreaseddurabilityoncethestructureisbuilt. Thisisbecausewatercantransport
harmfulchemicalstotheinterioroftheconcreteleadingtovariousformsofdeterioration.Such
deteriorationultimatelyaddscostsduetomaintenanceandrepairoftheconcretestructure.The
contractorshouldbeabletoaccountforenvironmentalfactorsandproduceadurableconcrete
structureifthesefactorsareconsideredwhenbuildingconcretestructures.
30
ConcreteSummary
Concreteiseverywhere.Takeamomentandthinkaboutalltheconcreteencountersyouhave
hadinthelast24hours.Alloftheseconcretestructuresarecreatedfromamixtureofcement
andwaterwithaddedaggregate.Itisimportanttodistinguishbetweencementandconcreteas
theyarenotthesame.Cementisusedtomakeconcrete!
(cement+water)+aggregate=concrete
Cementismadebycombiningamixtureoflimestoneandclayinakilnat1450C.Theproduct
isanintimatemixtureofcompoundscollectivelycalledclinker.Thisclinkerisfinelyground
intothepowderform.Therawmaterialsusedtomakecementarecompoundscontainingsome
oftheearthsmostabundantelements,suchascalcium,silicon,aluminum,oxygen,andiron.
Water isakeyreactantincementhydration. Theincorporationofwaterintoasubstanceis

knownashydration. Waterandcementinitiallyformacementpastethatbeginstoreactand
harden(set).Thispastebindstheaggregateparticlesthroughthechemicalprocessofhydration.
Inthehydrationofcement,chemicalchangesoccurslowly,eventuallycreatingnewcrystalline
products,heatevolution,andothermeasurablesigns.
cement+water=hardenedcementpaste
The properties of this hardened cement paste, called binder, control the properties of the
concrete. Itistheinclusionofwater(hydration)intotheproductthatcausesconcretetoset,
stiffen,andbecomehard.Onceset,concretecontinuestoharden(cure)andbecomestrongerfor
alongperiodoftime,oftenuptoseveralyears.
The strength of the concrete is related to the water to cement mass ratio and the curing
conditions.Ahighwatertocementmassratioyieldsalowstrengthconcrete.Thisisduetothe
increaseinporosity(spacebetweenparticles)thatiscreatedwiththehydrationprocess.Most
concreteismadewithawatertocementmassratiorangingfrom0.35to0.6.
Aggregate is the solid particles that are bound together by the cement paste to create the
syntheticrockknownasconcrete. Aggregatescanbefine,suchassand,orcoarse,suchas
gravel.Therelativeamountsofeachtypeandthesizesofeachtypeofaggregatedeterminesthe
physicalpropertiesoftheconcrete.
sand+cementpaste=mortar
mortar+gravel=concrete
31
Sometimes other materials are incorporated into the batch of concrete to create specific
characteristics. These additives are called admixtures. Admixtures are used to: alter the
fluidity(plasticity)ofthecementpaste; increase(accelerate)ordecrease(retard)thesetting
time;increasestrength(bothbendingandcompression);ortoextendthelifeofastructure.The
makingofconcreteisaverycomplexprocessinvolvingbothchemicalandphysicalchanges.It
isamaterialofgreatimportanceinourlives.
32
References
Abercrombie,S.Ferrocement:BuildingwithCement,Sand,andWireMesh.SchockenBooks,
NY,1977.
Bye,G.C.PortlandCement:Composition,ProductionandProperties.PergamonPress,NY,
1983.
Hewlett,P.C.,andYoung,J.F.PhysicoChemicalInteractionsBetweenChemicalAdmixtures
andPortlandCement,JournalofMaterialsEducation.Vol.9,No.4,1987.
IntroductiontoConcreteMasonry.Instructor'sEdition,AssociatedGeneralContractorsof
America,WashingtonD.C.,OklahomaStateDepartmentofVocationaland
TechnicalEd.,Stillwater,1988.
Kosmatka,StevenH.,andPanarese,WilliamC.DesignandControlofConcreteMixtures,
Thirteenthedition,PortlandCementAssociation,1988.
MaterialsScienceofConcreteI,II,III.editedbyJanP.Skalny,AmericanCeramicSociety,Inc,
Westerville,OH,1989.
Mindess,S.,andYoung,J.F.Concrete.PrenticeHall,Inc.,EnglewoodCliffs,NJ,1981.
Mitchell,L.Ceramics:StoneAgetoSpaceAge.ScholasticBookServices,NY,1963.
Rixom,M.R.,andMailuaganam,N.P.ChemicalAdmixturesforConcrete.R.&F.N.Spon,
NY,1986.
Roy,D.InstructionalModulesinCementScience.PennsylvaniaStateUniversity,PA,1985.
Sedgwick,J.StrongButSensitiveTheAtlanticMonthlyVol.267,No.4,April1991,
pp7082.
Weisburd,S.HardScienceScienceNewsVol.134,No.2,July9,1988,pp2426.
33
Resources
PortlandCementAssociation
5420OldOrchardRd.
Skokie,IL60077
Tel.7089666200
Fax7089669781
NSFCenterforScienceandTechnologyofAdvancedCementBasedMaterials
NorthwesternUniversity
Evanston,IL602084400
Tel.7084918569
Fax7084671078
MaterialsResources:cement,sand,and,admixturescontactyourlocalconcretedealer.Check
theyellowpages.
Admixturesources: AximConcreteTechnology
ESSROCCo.
7230NorthfieldRd.
WaltonHills,OH
Tel.2169660444
Fax2164396773
MasterBuilders
23700ChagrinBlvd.
Cleveland,OH44122
Tel.2168315500
W.R.Grace
62WhittmoreAve.
Cambridge,MA021401692
Tel.6178761400
Note: Thesecompaniessupplyadmixturestoyourlocalreadymixconcretecompanies.For
quantitiesneededforyourlabs,itisbesttocontactalocalconcretesupplier.
AberdeensConcreteConstructionisaperiodicalpublishedmonthly.Thiswouldbeagood
resourceforarticlesonapplicationsandimprovementsinconcrete.18003233550for
subscriptions($24forayear).Theiraddress:
426S.WestgateSt.
Addison,IL60101
Tel.7085430870
Fax7085433112
34
Youmaywanttocontactthemrequestingcomplimentarycopiesorsubscriptions.
35
MasterMaterialsandEquipmentGrids
Material Demo1 Demo2 Demo3 Demo4 Demo5

sand HIS HIS HIS
kittylitter DS
glasscontainerandlid(popbottle) G G
3%NaOHsolution LE
cement HIS HIS HIS
peagravel HIS
thermometer LE
insulatedcontainerwithlid DS
drinkingstraws G
plasticcup DS
glasspetridishes LE
pHhydrionpaperoruniversal LE
indicator
spatula LE
KEYFORTABLE:
H=HARDWARE
G=GROCERY
DS=DISCOUNTSTORE
HIS=HOMEIMPROVEMENTSTORE
LE=LABEQUIPMENT/SCIENTIFICCATALOG
O=OTHER
Material Lab1 Lab2 Lab3 Lab4 Lab5 Lab6

bakingsoda G
airfilledballoon DS
cornstarch G
flour G
sulfur LE
pepper G
sugar G
perlite(orStyrofoambeads) H H
clay DS
ironfilings LE
testtube LE
magnet LE
magnifyingglass LE
woodensplints LE
cement HIS HIS HIS HIS HIS HIS
sand HIS HIS HIS HIS HIS
36
gravel HIS HIS HIS HIS HIS
bananasplitdishes O
trustspacerstomakebeams HIS
mixingcontainers(sm.buckets, DS DS DS DS DS
butterbowls,lg.plasticcups)
cylindermolds(paperorplastic O O
tubes,pipeinsulation)
disposablegloves G G G G G
mixingutensils DS DS
100mlgraduatedcylinder LE LE
balance LE LE LE
dryingoven LE
refrigerator LE
Ziplocbags DS
pHpaperoruniversalindicator LE
sealablecontainerfor1cylinder DS
petridish LE
bargemold O
spreadingutensil DS
cargo(washersorweights) H
finishingtools DS
formforflowerpot DS
8'and2'2x4's HIS
largegatehinge H
sheetmetal H
copperpipecaps H
rubberstoppersorwashers H
2Cclamps(6''orlarger) H
PVCpipe HIS
hydraulicjack seelab
dowelrod DS
releasingagents G
wiremesh H
Demonstration1:
MakingaSiltTest
Objective:Thepurposeofthisdemonstrationistodeterminetheviabilityofanaggregatebased
onasilttest.
MaterialsandSupplies:
37
Sampleaggregate(sandandkittylitterworkwellforcomparison)
Glasscontainerwithlid
Water
Ruler
water
siltlayer
aggregate
Procedure:
1. Place5cmofaggregateinthecontainer.
2. Fillthecontainerwithwatersothewaterlevelis2cmabovetheaggregate.
3. Shakevigorouslyfor1minute,makingthelastfewshakesinaswirling
motiontolevelofftheaggregate.
4. Itissuggestedthatthisdemonstrationbedonetwice,oncewithsandand
oncewithkittylittertoobtainvariousresults.
5. Allowthecontainertostandforanhour,oruntiltheliquidabovethe
aggregateisclear.
6. Thelayerthatappearsabovetheaggregateisreferredtoassilt.Measurethe
siltlayer.Ifthislayerismorethan3mmthick,theaggregateisnotsuitablefor
concreteworkunlessexcesssiltisremovedbywashing.
C.ExpectedResults:
Thesandleavesa3mmlayerandthereforeisaviableaggregate.Kittylitter,whichisclay,
leavesathickerlayerandisnotasuitableaggregate.
38
Demonstration2
ConductinganOrganicMatterTest
Objective:Thepurposeofthisdemonstrationistodeterminetheviabilityofanaggregatebased
ontheamountoforganicmatterpresent.
MaterialsNeeded:
Sand
A50:50mixtureofsandanddirt
Glasscontainer(10oz.juicejarorsimilarsize)withlid
A3%solutionofsodiumhydroxideNaOH(madebydissolving9gramsofsodium
hydroxide,householdlye,orcausticsoda,in300mLofwater,preferably
distilled).
Procedure:
1.Fillcontainerwithsandtothe150mLmark.
2.Add120mlof3%NaOHsolution.
3.Shakethoroughlyfor1or2minutesandallowtostandfor24hours.
4.Repeattheprocedureusingthesanddirtmixture.
5.Indicatethecoloroftheliquidremainingonthetopoftheaggregate.
Thecoloroftheliquidwillindicatewhetherornottheaggregatecontainstoomuchorganic
matter.Acolorlessliquidindicatesacleanaggregate,freefromorganicmatter.Astrawcolored
solution,notdarkerthanapplecidervinegar,indicatessomeorganicmatterburnotenoughtobe
seriouslyobjectionable.Darkercolorsmeanthatitcontainstoomuchorganicmatterandshould
notbeusedunlessitiswashedandtestedagain.
39
ExpectedResults:
Thesandleavesacolorlessliquid.Thesanddirtmixtureproducesayellowtoorangeliquid.
40
Demonstration3:
EffectofAggregateonWorkabilityofConcrete
Objective:Thepurposeofthisdemonstrationistodeterminetheeffectofdifferentaggregates
ontheworkabilityoftheresultingconcrete.
cement twocontainerslabeled:
water "limestonechipaggregate"
smalllimestonechips(peagravel) "sandaggregate"
sand
Procedure:
1.Add1partofcementand1/2partwatertoeachcontainer.Suggested
amountsinclude50gramsofconcreteand25mlofwater.
2.Mixtomakethecementpaste.
3.Totheappropriatecontainer,add3parts(150g)oflimestonechipsandmix.
4.Tothesecondcontainer,add3parts(150g)ofsandandmix.
5.Usingglovedhands,kneadtheconcretetodetermineitsworkability.
6.Whichconcretemixtureismoreworkable?Why?
ExpectedResults:
Thesandaggregateismoreworkable,becausethesmallerparticlesfacilitateflow.Thelarger
particlesofthegravelhinderit.
41
Demonstration4
It'sHeatingUp!
Objective:Thepurposeofthisdemonstrationistotrackthetemperaturechangesthatoccur
duringthecuringprocessofconcrete.
freshcementuseatleast100gramsforbestresults
thermometer
insulatedcontainerwithacover
drinkingstraw
plasticcuptoholdcement
Suggestions:
1. Use150gramsofcementand75mLofwaterina6ounceyogurtcontaineror
otherplasticcontainer.
2. Useaninsulated1quartdrinkingmugorplacethesampleinaplasticbottlewhichis
setinsideachildsthermos.Thethermometerisinsertedintoaoneholedrubber
stopperwhichfitsthethermos.Alternatively,thesamplebottlecanbeplacedina
box filledwithStyrofoam.Anotheroptionwouldbetouseacoffeecan.Thespaceinside
thecancouldbepackedwithinsulation,andtheoutsidecouldbewrappedinpipe
insulation.Aholecanbecutinthecoffeecanlidtoaccommodatethethermometer.
Procedure:
1. Fillthecontainerwithfreshconcrete,usingaggregateisnotnecessary.
2. Foldoveraninchofthedrinkingstrawandtapeclosed.Insertthermometerinto
straw.
3. Placethefilledcontainerintoaninsulatedcontainer.Insertthedrinkingstraw
housing thethermometerintothecenteroftheconcrete.Placethelidsecurelyonthe
container.
4. Recordthetemperatureevery5minutesfor20minutes.Mostofthechangewill
occur inthefirst15minutesbutwillcontinuethroughoutthewholecuringperiod.
OptionalProcedure:
42
1. Repeatexperimentusinganadmixture,suchascalciumchloride,whichspeedsup
theprocess(Use2%ofCaCl2byweightofcement)
2. Attachtheapparatustoacomputerthermocouplethatwillrecordthetemperature
changesfortheclassoveraday.
ExpectedResults:
Youshouldseeanincreasefor4hours,mostofwhichisobservedwithinthefirst1520minutes.
Thelargerthemassofconcretethehigherthetemperaturerise.500gramsofconcreteshould
giveariseofabout10Cifwellinsulated.150gramsofcementgavea4Cchange.
43
Demonstration5
pHofCement
Objective:Thepurposeofthisdemonstrationistoshowthereactionofwaterwithcementand
theaccompanyingchangeinpH.
distilledwater
cement
petridish
overhead
universalindicatororpHhydrionpaper
spatula
Procedure:
1.FillaPetridishhalffullofdistilledwater.
2. Ifusinguniversalindicator,placeadropinthewaterandmix.Ifsolutionisnot
yellow,addadropofdiluteacidtomakeityellow.IfusingthepHpaper,lay2strips
onthebottomofthedishsothediameterofthedishiscovered.
3. Placethedishontheoverhead.
4. IntothesolutionorontopofthepHpaper,placeaspatulafullofcement.
5. Observethechange.
ExpectedResults:
Asthecementmixeswiththewater,hydroxideionsareformed,thuschangingtheindicator
solutiontoblue.Emphasisshouldbeplacedonthefactthatachemicalreactionisoccurringnot
adissolvingprocess.
44
TheBasicMix:
Ageneralteacher'sguideforconcretepreparation
The physical properties of density and strength of concrete are determined, in part, by the
proportionsofthethreekeyingredients,water,cement,andaggregate.Youhaveyourchoiceof
proportioningingredientsbyvolumeorbyweight. Proportioningbyvolumeislessaccurate,
howeverduetothetimeconstraintsofaclasstimeperiodthismaybethepreferredmethod.
Abasicmixtureofmortarcanbemadeusingthevolumeproportionsof1water:2cement:3
sand.Mostofthestudentactivitiescanbeconductedusingthisbasicmixture.Anotheroldrule
of thumb for mixing concrete is 1 cement : 2 sand : 3 gravel by volume. Mix the dry
ingredientsandslowlyaddwateruntiltheconcreteisworkable.Thismixturemayneedtobe
modifieddependingontheaggregateusedtoprovideaconcreteoftherightworkability.The
mixshouldnotbetoostiffortoosloppy.Itisdifficulttoformgoodtestspecimensifitistoo
stiff.Ifitistoosloppy,watermayseparate(bleed)fromthemixture.
Rememberthatwateristhekeyingredient.Toomuchwaterresultsinweakconcrete.Toolittle
waterresultsinaconcretethatisunworkable.
Suggestions:
1. Ifpredeterminedquantitiesareused,themethodusedtomakeconcreteistodry
blend solidsandthenslowlyaddwater(withadmixtures,ifused).
2. Itisusualtodissolveadmixturesinthemixwaterbeforeaddingittotheconcrete.
Superplasticizerisanexception.
3. Formscanbemadefrommanymaterials.Cylindricalformscanbeplasticorpaper
tubes,pipeinsulation,cups,etc.Theconcreteneedstobeeasilyremovedfromthe
forms.Pipeinsulationfromahardwarestorewasusedforlabtrials.Thisfoamlike
materialwaseasytoworkwithandisreusablewiththeadditionoftape.Thebottom
of theformscanbetaped,corked,setonglassplates,etc.Smallplasticweighingtrays
or DairyQueenbananasplitdishescanbeusedasformsforboatsorcanoes.
4. Ifcompressiontestsaredone,itmaybeofinteresttospreaduniversalindicatorover
thebrokenfaceandnoteanycolorchangesfrominsidetooutside.Youmayseea
yellowishsurfaceduetocarbonationfromCO2 intheatmosphere.Theinsidemay
be blueduetocalciumhydroxide.
45
5. Toanswertheproverbialquestion,Isthisright?aslumptestmaybeperformed.
Aslumptestinvolvesfillinganinverted,bottomlessconewiththeconcretemixture.
A Styrofoamorpapercupwiththebottomremovedmakesagoodbottomlesscone.
Make sure to pack the concrete several times while filling the cone. Carefully
remove theconebyliftingitstraightupward.Placetheconebesidethepileofconcrete.
The pileshouldbeabout1/2to3/4 theheightoftheconeforaconcretemixturewith
good workability.
(SEEDIAGRAM)
6. Tostrengthensamplesandtopromotehydration,soakconcreteinwater(afteritis
set).
7. Wetsandmaycarryconsiderablewater,sotheamountofmixwatershouldbe
reduced
tocompensate.
8. Airbubblesinthemoldswillbecomeweakpointsduringstrengthtests.Theycanbe
eliminatedby:
i. packingtheconcrete.
ii. Tappingthesidesofthemoldwhilefillingthemold.
iii. "rodding"theconcreteinsidethemoldwithathinspatula.
9. Specialchemicalscalledwaterreducingagentsareusedtoimproveworkabilityat
low watertocementratiosandthusproducehigherstrengths.Mostreadymixcompanies
usethesechemicals,whichareknowncommerciallyassuperplasticizers.Theywill
probablybewillingtogiveyousomeatnocharge.
10.Youcanbuyabagofcementfromyourlocalhardwarestore.Abagcontains94lb.
(40kg)ofcement.Oncethebaghasbeenopened,placeitinsideagarbagebag(or
two) thatiswellsealedfromair.Thiswillkeepthecementfreshduringthesemester.An
openbagwillpickupmoistureandtheresultingconcretemay beweaker. Once
cementdevelopslumps,itmustbediscarded.Thereadymixcompanyinyourarea
maygiveyoucementfreeofchargeinaplasticpail.
46
Experiment1
What'stheMatter
IntroductiontothePhysicalPropertiesofMatter
Objective:Theobjectiveofthislabistoidentifydifferentclassesofmatterbasedonphysical
properties. This lab introduces the key ingredients of concrete. It provides a deeper
understandingofthephysicalpropertiesofconcrete.
ScientificPrinciples:
Matterisdividedintothefourbasicstatesofsolid,liquid,gas,andplasma.Matterisclassified
based on composition. Homogeneous matter is matter that appears the same throughout a
mixture.Heterogeneousmatterismatterthathasdifferingappearancesthroughoutthemixture.
Theconceptmapbelowshowstherelationshipbetweensomeoftheprimaryclassesofmatter.
MATTER
PURESUBSTANCE
MIXTURE (homogeneous)
MIXTURE SOLUTIONS ELEMENT

COMPOUND
(heterogeneous) (homogeneous)
Matterisidentifiedbyitscharacteristicphysicalproperties. Physicalpropertiesarethosethat
can be determined without altering the composition of the substance, such as, color, odor,
density,strength,elasticity,magnetism,andsolubility.Chemicalpropertiesaredescriptionsof
the substance and its reactions with other substances to create new substances with new
properties.Thesechemicalpropertiesareidentifiedthroughchemicalreactions.Evidenceofa
chemicalreactionpossiblyoccurringcanbeseenthroughacolorchange,temperaturechange,
evolution ofagas,andtheformation ofanewsubstance. This labwill onlyfocus onthe
physicalpropertiesofmatter.
Time:4550minutes
testtubes
47
magnet
magnifyingglass
water
woodensplints
Differentsamplesofmatter(anyofthefollowing):
bakingsoda
balloonfilledwithair
ironfilings
flour
sulfur
cornstarch
sugar
vermiculiteorperlite
Styrofoambeads
salt
pepper
cement
aggregates
clay
GeneralSafetyGuidelines:
Wearsafetygoggles.
Someofthematerialsmaycauseskinirritation.Weargloves.
Procedure:
1. Examineeachsample.Recordcolor,odor,andrelativeparticlesizeinthedatatable.
Useamagnifyingglassifnecessary.
2. Withamagnet,testeachsampleformagneticproperties.Recordwhetherthesample
is magneticornot.
3. Testthesolubilityinwaterofeachsamplebyadding5mLofwatertoasmalltest
tube. Addsomeofthesampletothewater.Flickthetesttubewithyourfingertohelpmix
thesampleinthewater.(Note:Ifmixingdoesnotoccur,useawoodensplint.)
Recordobservations.
DataandCalculations:
Fillinthedatatablebasedonyourobservations.
Sample Color Odor Particle Magnetic Solubilit Stateof Classof
Size y Matter Matter
48
49
Questions:
1 a. Howdoyoudeterminewhichsampleisthemostsoluble?
b. Listthesamplesfromhighesttolowestsolubility.
2. Whichofthesampleswouldbeclassifiedasamixture?
3. Whatphysicalpropertiesofmatterweretestedinthislab?
4. Whatphysicalpropertiesofconcretewouldbeimportanttoconsiderwhenmakinga
structure?
Why?
50
NotesforTeacher:
Thisisaversionofacommonclassificationexperimentconductedinmanychemistry
andgeneralsciencecourses.Itisincludedinthismoduletoprovideameansforthe
introductionofconcreteanditskeyingredients.
Thetotalnumberofsamplesislefttotheteachersdiscretion.Sand,water,gravel,
cement,andconcreteshouldbesamplesofmattertobetested.Thiswillprovidefor
theintroductionofthetopicconcreteanditskeyingredients.
Besurethemagnetisprotectedfromdirectlypickingupanyofthemagnetic
fragments inthesamples.Themagnetmaybecoveredwithtapeorstudentsmayplacea
pieceof paperbetweenthemagnetandthesample.
Itisstronglyrecommendedthattheteacherdoatrialrunofthisexperimentbefore
usingitwiththestudents.
Thisexperimentcouldbeusedasaleadintodensitybyasking,Ofthematerialsthat
didntdissolveinwater,whichwasthemostdenseandleastdense?
Notethatwhencementisaddedtowatertodeterminesolubility,thestudentsmay
concludethatcementisinsolublebecauseitsrateofdissolutionisrelativelyslow.
However,aquickcheckofpHwilldemonstratethatsomethingishappening.
Note:Vermiculiteisacompound.
AnswerstoQuestions:
1 a.Thesamplethathasthehighestmassdissolvedpervolumeofwateristhemost
soluble.
b.Answerswillvary.
2. Thisisdependentuponthesamplesused.However,mixturesareusuallyobvious
fromappearanceexceptsolutions.
3. color,odor,size,magnetism,solubility
4. Sizeofparticlesandsolubilityofsubstancesusedtomakeit.Thephysicalproperties
helpdeterminethepurityofconcrete'singredientswhichgreatlyaffecttheproduced
concrete'scharacteristics.
51
Experiment2
HowDenseIsIt?
AnIntroductiontoConcreteDensityandAggregates
Objective:Theobjectiveofthisexperimentistodeterminethedensityofaconcretesampleand
tolearntheeffectofvarioustypesofaggregatesonconcrete'sdensity.
Densityisthephysicalpropertyofmatterthatmeasuresthequantityofasubstanceperunitof
space.Densityisrecordedinunitsofgramspercubiccentimeter(g/cm 3)forsolids,gramsper
milliliter(g/mL)forliquids,andgramsperliter(g/L)forgases.Densityisawayofdetermining
howcompactonesubstanceiscomparedtoanother. Densityisalsothepropertythatenables
oneobjecttobebuoyantoranothertosink.Theobjectthatislessdensewillfloatinamore
densesubstance.Thedensityofatypicalconcreteis2.3g/cm3.
Time:4550minutes
cured1/2x2cylindersofconcretesamples(eachconsistingofadifferentaggregate)
sampleconcreterecipes
water 25mL 15mL 25mL 20mL

cement 50g 50g 50g 50g
aggregate 150gsand 35gpea 4gdry none
gravel vermiculite
100mlgraduatedcylinder
water
balance
Toavoidcrackingthegraduatedcylinder,gentlyslidetheconcretecylinderdownthe
side.
Weargoggles.
Concretecanbecaustic.Washhandsafterdirectcontact.
Procedure:
52
1. Estimatewhichsamplewillhavethehighestandwhichwillhavethelowestdensity.
Recordyourideasonthedatachart.
2. Masseachcuredcylinderonthebalance.Recordindatatable.
3. Halffillagraduatedcylinderwithwater.Recordtheinitialvolumeofwater.
4. Gentlyslidetheconcretecylinderintothegraduatedcylindersoastonotsplashout
any
waterorbreaktheglassbottom.
5. Recordthefinalvolumeofwaterwiththeconcretecylinderinit.
Subtractthefinalvolumefromtheinitialvolumeofwatertoobtainthevolumeofthe
cylinder.
6. Removetheconcretecylinderfromthewater.
7. Repeatsteps16forallothercylinders.
8. Calculatethedensityofeachcylinderbydividingcylinder'smassbyitsvolume.
DataandAnalysis:
Estimates
highestdensitycylinder_________________
lowestdensitycylinder_________________
DataTable
53
AggregateType
MassofCylinder
FinalWaterLevel
InitialWaterLevel
Totalwaterdisplaced(mL)
(Volumeofcylinder)
Densityg/mL
54
Questions
1. a.Whattypeofcylinderwastheleastdense?
b.Whattypeofcylinderwasthemostdense?
2. Giveauseforthecylinderinquestion1a.
3. Giveauseforthecylinderinquestion1b.
4. Wereyourestimatescorrect?Didanyoftheresultssurpriseyou?Why?
5. Howdoyourvaluescomparetothetypicaldensityofconcrete(2.3g/cm3)?
55
NotesforTeacher:
Manyscience coursesalreadyhaveadensityexperimentaspartofthecourse. Theuseof

concrete cylinders will add a new touch to these experiments. It is assumed the concrete
cylinderswerepreviouslypreparedbytheteacher.
This experiment could be performed as an investigation in which students prepare concrete

mixturesofdifferentingredientproportionstostudytheireffectondensity.Thesecylindersof
varyingcompositioncouldlaterbeusedintheStressandStrainexperiment.Thiscouldalsobe
donewithdifferentkindsofaggregates.Aggregatedensitiescouldbedetermined,aswellasthe
density of hardened paste. Lightweight aggregates are usually available from a ready mix
company.Horticulturalvermiculiteorperlitecanbeused.Thedensityofaggregatescouldbe
measuredandcorrelatedwiththedensityofconcrete.(Agoodprojectforadvancedstudents.)
Whenmeasuringthedensityofaggregates,itisadvisabletomeasurethedensityofsaturated
aggregates(soakinwaterforatleastonehourorovernight). Otherwisetheaggregateswill
absorb water during the displacement measurement and give erroneous results. Remember,
aggregatesinconcretebecomefullysaturated.
Thiscouldbeturnedintoamaterialssciencecompetitioninwhichthestudentsmustmakea
cylinderwiththegreatestorleastdensity.
ExpectedResults:
Thefourcylindertypeslistedfrommostdensetoleastdense:
gravel,sand,paste,vermiculite
AnswerstoQuestions:
1. a.vermiculite
b.gravel
2. Anyobjectsthatfloat.Answerswillvary.
3. Answerswillvary.Roads,bridges,andunderwaterstructures.
4. Answerswillvary.
5. Sandorgravelshouldbeclosesttothisvalue.
56
Experiment3
HotandColdpHun!
CementHydrationandpHEvolutionduringCuring
Objective: Students will calculate the amount of water that reacts during hydration when
cementbecomesconcreteunderdifferingcuringtemperaturesandobservethepHchangethat
occursinthecuringprocess.
Wateristhereactantthatmakesconcretehard.Thedegreeofhydration,ormaturity,ofthe
concretedeterminestheporosityoftheconcrete.Porosityistheamountofemptyspaceinthe
concrete.Lowporosityconcretehashighstrengthandlastsforalongtime.
Duringthehydrationofthecement,thecompoundcalciumhydroxide,Ca(OH) 2,isproduced.
Calciumhydroxideisabasiccompound(alkaline). Basesarecaustic(eatsskintissue),feel
slipperyonyourskin(likesoap),andhaveabittertaste(donttasteit!).Calciumhydroxideisa
mildbase,butcanirritatesensitiveskin,sobecareful!
Basesalsoaffectindicators(chemicalsthatchangecolor).Therearemanydifferentindicators.
Universalindicatorisamixtureofdifferentindicatorssothatcolorscanbeachievedallalong
thepHscale.ThepHscaleisanumericalrangeusedtodeterminetheacidityoralkalinityofa
substance.Thescalerangesfrom1to14.pHsfrom1to6areacidic.ApHof7isneutral.
Valuesrangingfrom8to14arebasic.
Theenvironmentalconditions,suchastemperatureandhumidity,underwhichtheconcreteis
curedcanalsoaffecttheconcretesprocessingandproperties.Coolersurroundingsresultsin
concretehydratingataslowerrate.
Time:100120minutes(21/2classperiods)
MaterialsandSuppliesforGroupsof23:
Freshcement
mixingcontainer
stirstick
balance
oven
refrigerator
labels
pHpaper
57
3glassorplasticpetridishes(seeTeacher'sNotes)
plasticwraporZiplocbags
gloves
graduatedcylinder
releasingagent(PAMcookingspray,cookingoil,aluminumfoil,plasticwrap)
58
Prolongedexposuremaycauseseverechemicalburns.
Washexposedskinaftercontact.
Glovesshouldbeworntoprotecttheskin,especiallyifyourskinissensitive.
Allheatingmustbedoneinaovenonly.
Procedure:
Day1:
1. Prepareabatchoffreshpasteusing100gofcementand40mLofwater.
2 a. Placeareleasingagent(PAMcookingspray,aluminumfoil,plasticwrap,
cooking oil)inallthreepetridishes.Besuretocovertheentireinsideofthedish.
b. Massthethreepetridishesandrecordinthedatatable.
3. a. Filleachpetridish1/4fullwiththepasteandlevelitoff.
b. Masseachdishseparatelyandrecordinthedatatable.
c. WraptwodishesinplasticwraporplaceinZiplocbags.Setoneasideatroom
temperature.Setthesecondinarefrigerator.
d. Putthethirddishintoasellablecontainerwithwater.Besurethewaterlevel
iswellbelowtheedgeofthedish.Tightlysealthecontainerandplaceitin
anovensetat40C.
4. UsingpHpaper,testthepHoftapwaterandanyleftoverfreshconcretepaste.
Record yourvaluesonthedatapage.
5. Allowformstocure24hours.
Day2:
1. Removetheconcretesamplesfromtheircontrolledenvironments.
2. Masseachdishseparatelyandrecordinthedatatable.
3. Determinethemassoforiginalwaterbyusingtheequationfoundinthedataand
calculationssection.
4. Determinethemassoftheoriginalcementbyusingtheequationfoundinthedata
and calculationssection.
59
5. Placeeachsampleinanovensetat100110C.Allowthesamplestoremaininthe
ovenfor24hours.
Day3:
1. Removethesamplesfromtheovenandallowtocool.
2. Weigheachpetridishandthendeterminethemassofonlythecementpaste.
3. Determinethemassofwaterdrivenoffintheovenbyusingtheequationsinthedata
andcalculationssection.
4. Calculatethemassofwatercombinedduringhydrationusingtheequationsinthe
data andcalculationssection.
5. Calculatethepercentofwaterreactedusingtheequationsinthedataandcalculations
section.
DataandAnalysis:
CalculationHints:
0.4
(1)Massoforiginalwater=[day2samplemass]
1.4
1.0
(2)Massoforiginalcement=[day2samplemass]
1.4
(3)Massofwaterdrivenoffintheoven=[day2samplemass][day3samplemass]
(4)Massofwatercombinedduringhydration=originalwaterwaterdrivenoff
Answerto(3)
(5)x100=Percentofwaterreacted.
Answerto(1)
Data:
pHofmixedcement_________________
pHoftapwater____________________
Day1 ROOM REFRIGERATOR OVEN

massofpetridish
massofconcreteand
dish
Day2
massofconcreteand
dish
60
massofsample
massoforiginalwater
massoforiginalcement
Day3
massofdishanddry
sample
massofdrysample
massofwaterdriven
off
massofwater
combinedinreaction
%ofwaterreacted
(hydration)
61
Questions:
1. Whichcuringenvironmentyieldedthegreatestpercentofwaterreacted?
2. a.Whatistherelationshipbetweencuringenvironmentandamountofhydration?
b.Doyourresultssupportyouranswer?
3. Whichconcretesamplewouldyouhypothesizetohavethegreateststrength?
Explainyourreasoning.
4. Whatproofdoyouhavethathydrationisachemicalchange?
5. Supposeyoucameacrossacontainerfilledwithasubstancethatlookedlikeconcrete.
WhenyoutesteditwithpHpaper,thepaperturnedred.Wasthesubstanceconcrete?
Explainyourreasoning.
62
NotesforTeacher:
Studentsmayuseanuniversalbatchormaketheirownmixturestostudywaterto
cementratioeffectonpHandhydration.
Ifplasticpetridishesareused,placeafewsheetsofpaperontheovenrackbefore
settingthedishesintheoven.Thentheyshouldn'tmelt.Ifplasticdishesareused,a
releasingagentisunnecessarysincethedishisdisposable.
Studentsmayinvestigatetheeffectofadmixtures.Calciumchloridecanbeusedto
accelerate setting(2%CaCl22H2Obyweightofcement). Sugarcanbeusedto
retard setting(0.1%byweightofcement).Commercialacceleratorsandretarderscan
be obtainedfromyourlocalreadymixcompany.
Analternativeexperimentistovarytheamountsofwateravailableforhydrationand
determinetheresults.Samplesareallkeptatroomtemperature.Oneiscoveredwith
wetpapertowelsandplasticsheeting,onewithplasticsheetingonly,andoneis
coveredwithonlyawetpapertowel.Thetestspecimenswouldthenbetreatedas
describedinDay2.
Studentscouldperformthesameprocedureoncylindersofdifferentagestoprove
that hydrationcontinuesoveralongperiodoftime.
ExpectedResults:
Hydrationofthesampleintheovenisacceleratedbyawarmenvironment.Therefore,the
sampleintheovenwillusemorewaterinitshydrationproducts.Soitwillhavethehighest
waterreactedandthecoolerenvironmentintherefrigeratorwillhavetheleast.
AnswerstoQuestions:
1. Oven
2. a.Colderenvironmentresultsinlesshydrationoccurring,morefreewateris
available.
b.Answerswillvary
3. Ovensample,becausemorehydrationcouldhaveoccurred.
4. ThepHpaperchangedcolorandnewproductswereformed,becausewaterwas
retained,notevaporated.
63
5. No.pHpaperchangestoblue,indicatingabaseisproducedduringtheformationof
concrete.Achangetoredindicatesanacidicchange,notbasic.
64
Experiment4
TheFleetAfloat!
ADesignProject
Objective:Studentswilldesignaconcretebargewhichwillfloatandcarryamaximumcargo.
Inthisexperimentthestudentswillbelearningtoworkwiththecomponentmaterialsusedto
makeconcreteandbuildingandtestingaconcretestructureforphysicalproperties.
Densityisameasureofthecompactnessofamaterial.Itisameasureofhowmuchmatteris
squeezedintoagivenspace.Densityistheamountofmatterperunitofvolume.
mass
Density= volume
Whetheranobjectwillsinkorfloatinwaterdependsonitsdensity.Anobjectwillfloatifitis
lessdensethanwater.Anobjectwillsinkifitismoredensethanwater.Ifanobjecthasa
densityequaltothatofwater,itwillneithersinknorfloat.Thedensityofwateris1.00g/cm3.
Theapparentdensityofanobjectcanbechangedbyeitherchangingthemassoftheobject,the
shapeoftheobject,orboth.Foragivenmassofconcrete,theapparentdensitycanbealtered
bychangingthevolumeitoccupies(i.e.volumedisplacedwhenplacedinwater).Concretecan
bemadetofloatifitisshapedlikeaboat.Aboatshapedorhollowobjectwilldisplacea
volumeofwatergreaterthantheactualvolumeofsolidmaterialintheobject.Theobjectissaid
tobe"buoyant"whenitfloatsduetolowdensity.Byspreadingouttheconcreteusedtomake
theboatoveralargervolume,theapparentdensityoftheboatbecomeslessthanthatofwater.
Hencetheboatfloats!
Time:90min.(1classperiodformakingthebargesand1classperiodfortesting)
Thefollowingmaterialsareneededforeachgroupof23students:
moldtomakebarge
cement
water
variousaggregates
sand
peagravel
vermiculite
smallStyrofoamballs
perlite
65
crushedcorncobs
23pairsofglovesforconcretehandling
newspapers
spreadingutensilforspreadingconcreteinbarges
boatortraytodemonstratebuoyancywithcargo
12poundsofwashers,weightsorleadshot
66
Itiseasiesttoformthecanoebyhand,butcementiscaustic.Wearplasticgloves.
Washyourhandswellafteruse.
DesignCompetitionParameters:
1. Thebargeorcanoemustbeconstructedfrommaterials(cementandvarious
aggregates)providedbytheinstructor.Theformusedtocreatethebargeorcanoeis
to beprovidedbythestudents.
2. Theproportionsoftheingredientsusedinthecementmixturearetobechosenby
thestudentsusingthefollowingasaguide,notarecipe:
3partsaggregate:2partscement:1partwater
100gramsofcementissufficientforoneDairyQueenboat.
3. Onceconstructed,thebargeorcanoeshouldbecuredforatleast24hours.
DesignTestingProcedures:
1. Themassofeachemptybargeorcanoewillbemeasured.Thelightertheshipthe
morepointsitreceives.Anyvessellessthan150gramsearnsthemaximumpoints
value.
2. Eachbargeorcanoewillbeplacedinthewater.Theemptybargeorcanoemustfloat
foroneminutebeforethecargowillbeadded.Acargowillbeaddedinincrements
untilthepointwhentheshipbeginstotakeonwater.Eachshipmustfloatfor1
minutepriortotheadditionofeachadditionalcargoincrement.Forthecanoe,
whetherthecanoeleansorfloatslevelwillbenoted.
3. Themassofthecargowillbemeasured.Forevery50gramstheshipholds,itwill
receiveonepoint.
4. Aratioof massofcargowillbecalculatedtodetermineeachbargesclassrank.
massofship
5. Bargeswhichfailtofloatwithoutanycargowillbeassignedapredeterminedpoint
value.
6. Pointswillbeawardedtoeachbargebasedonitsclassrank.
7. Thecostofconstructionwillbecalculatedforeachboatwhichsuccessfullyfloats
for12minutestodetermineitsclassrank.(optional)
67
8. Theamountofleakagewillbedeterminedandpointvalueswillbegivenforthe
differentlevelsofleakage.
68
OtherProcedures:
1. Supposeyouandafriendareinacanoewithaloadofrocks.Ifyouthrowhalfof
therocksoverboard,willthewaterlevelofthepondgoup,down,orstaythe
same?Makenoteofyourprediction.
2. Inacontainerofwater,floataboatloadedwithacargoofwashersorotheruniform
weight.Makesurethewater'sheightisgreaterthanthecombinedheightofthe
washersandtheboat.
3. Markthewaterlevelonthecontainerandonthesideoftheboat.
4. Putthecargoofwashersinthewater.Markthenewwaterlevelsonthecontainer
andthesideoftheboat.
69
Questions
1. Whathappenstothewaterlevelonthesideoftheboatwhenthecargoismoved
from theboattothewater?
2. Ifyouseeaboatridinghighinthewater,whichisitmorelikelytobecarrying:lead
bricks,glassmarbles,orStyrofoamcups?
3. Whathappenstothewaterlevelonthesideofthecontainerwhenthecargois
moved fromtheboattothewater?Wasyourpredictioncorrect?
4. Describetheshape,dimensions,andcompositionofyourbarge.Drawanillustration.
5. Whatwasthelimitingfactorinyourbargedesign?
6.a.Calculateyourratioof massofcargo
massofbarge
b.Howwouldyouchangeyourbargesdesigntoimprovethisratio?
7. Howcouldyouchangethedensityofyourbarge/canoewithoutchangingitsmass?
70
NotesforTeacher:
Severalcriteriaarelistedsothattheteachermaychoosetheguidelinesupon
whichtorankthebarges/canoes.
Thisexperimentemphasizesthephysicalgeometryofthebargeandthereforemaybe
most suitable for a physics course when discussing principles of density and
buoyancy.
Thecargocouldbeleadshot,washers,weights,oranyothermaterialofuniform
mass. Theoneminutewaitingperiodpriortotheadditionofmorecargomayneedtobe
shorteneddependingonclassperiodlengthandthenumberofbargesbeingtested.
However,awaitingperiodisnecessarytoprovidetimeforwatertoenterthebarge.
Theformmaterialscouldbeprovidedorthestudentscouldbedirectedtobringin
their ownforms,allowingtheirimaginationstowander.Limitsmightneedtobesetin
termsofdimension,weight,oramountofconcrete/cementavailable.Possibilitiesfor
thebargeformsaretravelsoapdishoratraveltoothbrushholderorevenanoldtennis
shoe.DairyQueenbananasplitboats,foaminsulation,plasticweighingdishes,old
butter/margarinecontainersaresuitableforthecanoe.
Foammeattraysorplywoodboardsmakegoodbasesforthebarges/canoestobeset
onandareveryhelpfulwhenmovingthemfromthebuildingsitetothecuringsite(if
different).Theshipsshouldbecoveredwithwetragsorplasticwhilecuringtohelp
retardevaporationandimprovehydration.
Awashtub,5gallonbucket,orasmallchildsswimmingpoolcouldbeusedforthe
testingwaters.Donotusepondsorswimmingpools.Cementiscaustictoliving
things.Avideorecordingofthetestingcouldalsobemade.Thevideocouldbeset
outinthehallwayandreplayedduringparentconferencesfortheparentstoview
while waitingtospeakwithyougreatpublicrelations.
ThisactivitycouldbetiedintoaholidaysuchasLaborDay,ColumbusDayor
WashingtonsBirthdayobservance.Decorationscouldbeaddedtothebargesand
a competitionheldtodeterminethemostaestheticallypleasingbarge.Theartclasses
mightbeaskedtojudgethebarges.
Note: Preassigndollaramountstoquantitiesofmaterialsinordertocalculatethe
cost oftheboat.(optional)Thisoptionallowsdiscussionofeconomyandefficiency.
71
AnswerstoQuestions:
1. Willgodown.i.e.,boatrideshighinthewater
2. Styrofoamcups
3. Thelevelgoesdown!
Removingthecargolowersthewaterlevelbyavolume,V1,equaltothecargo's
mass overtheapparentdensityoftheboatandcargo.Thewatervolume,V2,raisesfrom
the cargoputintothewaterbyitsmassoveritsdensity.
CargoMass
V=
1 1g/cm3
CargoMass
V=
2
2.3g/cm3
Simplemathyields:V2V1=0.57*CargoMass
Notethatthenegativesignmeansdown.
4. Answersvarybasedonstudentsdesign.
5. Possibleanswers:heavymass;lowsurfacearea;poorconstruction;settingtime
inadequate.
6. a. Answersvary.
b. Possibleanswers:changeaggregates;changeconcretecomponentproportions;
differentshapedform.
7. Bychangingitsvolume.
72
Experiment5
StressandStrain
AnIntroductiontoStressandStrain
Objective:Studentswilldesignandmakeaconcretecylinderandbeamthatcanwithstandthe
greatestappliedload.
Solidshaverigiditybecausethebondingforcesbetweentheatomsresistchanges. Whenan
external force is applied toasolid,the interatomic forcesallow for deformations tooccur.
Whenthedistortingexternalforceisremoved,theforcesbetweentheatomsbringthembackto
theiroriginalpositionsandthesolid,asawhole,backtoitsoriginalshape. Thispropertyis
calledelasticity. Allsolidmaterialsareelastictosomeextent,evenconcrete.Theamountof
elasticdeformationthatcanoccurinamaterialisdependentonthetypeofstressapplied.
Twocommontypesofstressarecompressiveandtensile.Compressiveforcesexistwhenyou
pushtogetheramaterial.Walkingonconcreteisonesuchexample.Tensilestressesdescribea
materialwhenitispulledupon.Thecablethatsupportstheloadofacraneisagoodexampleof
tensilestresses.
Whileinelasticregions,compressiveandtensilestressesdonodamagetothematerial. A
materialwillreturntoitsoriginaldimensionsoncethestresshasbeenremovedifitiswithinthis
region.Ifthestressbecomestoogreatinconcrete,microscopiccracksbegintoforminsidethe
concrete. Once cracks begin to form, the concrete will not return exactly to its original
dimensions and thus behaves inelastically. These changes are very small and not easy to
measurewithoutexpensiveequipment.Astheloadincreases,thesemicroscopiccrackscome
togethersoastoformonelargemacroscopiccrack,andtheconcretefracturesorfails.Concrete
hasverygoodcompressivepropertiesbutverypoortensilepropertiesunlesssteelreinforcements
areadded.
73
74
Time: 90min.(1classperiodformakingthebeams&cylindersand1periodfortesting)
Thefollowingmaterialsareneededforeachgroupof23students:
cement
variouskindsofaggregate
mixingcontainers
stirringutensils
formsformakingbeamsandcylinders(enoughforeachstudenttoworkindividually)
LOWTECHCOMPRESSIONTESTER
two8'long2x4's
one2'long2x4
largegatehinge
sheetmetalcutintotwo4"squares
2copperpipecapstofitoverconcretecylinders
2rubberstoppersorwasherstofitinsidepipecaps
MEDIUMTECHCOMPRESSIONTESTER
2Cclamps6"spanorlarger
PVCpipeslightlylongerthanconcretecylindersandslightlylargerindiameter
2rubberstoppersorwasherstofitinsidepipecaps
HIGHTECHCOMPRESSIONTESTER
hydraulicjackwithpressuregauge
2rubberstoppersorwasherstofitinsidecoppercaps
DesignCompetitionParameters:
1. Allcylindersandbeamswillbemadeusinguniformmoldswhichwillbeprovided.
2. Theconcreteusedtomakeeachcylinderandbeammustbemadeusingtheraw
materialsprovided.
3. Suggestedrecipeforconcreteis3partsaggregate,2partscement,and1partwater.
Anycombinationofaggregateornoneatallmaybeused.Theexactamountsofeach
componenttobeusedisuptoyou!
4. Thebeamsmustspanatleast30centimetersbutmaybelonger.
BeamTestingProcedure:
75
1. Supportthebeambetweentwotablesofthesameheight.
2. Twisttheendsofawiretogethersothatitformsacirclearoundabuckethandle.Put
thislooparoundthemiddleofthebeam.
3. Addweighttothebucketinuniformincrements.Wait30secondsbetween
eachadditionofweight.
4. Continuetoaddweightuntilthebeambreaks.
CylinderTestingProcedure:
1. Placethecylinderinthetestingapparatus.
2. Applyforceuntiltheconcreteissmashed.
76
QuestionsandAnalysis:
1. Ifahorizontalconcretebeamissupportedatoneendandadownwardsforceis
applied totheotherend,wherewouldthemicroscopiccrackstendtobeformed?Thetop
layer,thebottomlayer,orthemiddlelayer?
2. Ifaconcretebeamissupportedbutnotheldatbothendsandaloadisappliedinthe
middle,whichlayerwouldbeundercompression?Thetoplayer,thebottomlayer,or
themiddlelayer?
3. Intheconstructionofabridge,wouldconcretebebettersuitedforthecolumns
supportingthebridgeorforthebridgedecking?Explainyouranswer.
4. Writetheformulaneededtocalculatethe
a.tensilestrengthofabeam
b.compressionstrengthofacylinder
5. Calculatethestrengtheachofyourstructuresexhibitedinthecompetitions.
6 a.Writetheequationtocalculatetheforceexertedonacylinder.
b.Calculatetheforcethatwasexertedonyourcylinder.
7. Whatchangeswouldyoumaketoimproveyourbeamdesign?
77
8. Whatchangeswouldyoumaketoimproveyourcylinderdesign?
78
NotesforTeacher:
Weuseda24trussspacerasourbeamforms.Thesecanbefoundatahardwarestore.Our
trussspacerscost69centseachandarereusable.Atoothpasteboxreinforcedwithtapecanbe
usedasaform. Theplasticcasesthattoothbrushescomeincouldalsobeused. However,
obtainingaclassroomsetofthesemightprovetobeachallenge.Thebeamtestingcouldalsobe
setupasacantileverstylewithonlyoneendofthebeamfixedandtheloadappliedtothefree
end.
Freeweightscanbeaddedtothebucketuntilbreakageoccurs.Iffreeweightsarenotavailable,
watercanbeused.Becarefulofwaterspillage.
Cylindricalformscanbeplasticorpapertubes,pipeinsulation,oranyothersmalldiameter
tubing. Theconcreteneedstobeeasilyremovablefromtheforms. Pipeinsulationfroma
hardwarestoreworkswell.Thisfoammaterialiseasytoworkwith,reusable,andinexpensive.
Thebottomoftheformscanbetaped,corked,orsetonglassplates. Thegoalistoachieve
smoothtopandbottomsurfaceswhicharenecessarywhenperformingthecompressiontest.If
thesurfaceisnotsmooth,theforcewillbeappliedunequally.Werecommendthecylindersbe
nomorethan1/2indiameter.Cylinderswithalargerdiameterwillrequireagreaterforceto
fail.Agoodruleofthumbistheheightofthecylindershouldbeatleasttwicethediameterof
thecylinder.However,ifthecylinderistootallitwilltendtobuckle.
Theaggregateselectioncouldbelimitedtojustsandorcouldincludegravel.Thestrengthofthe
specimen canbeadjusted bychangingthewatertocement ratio oftheconcrete tosuitthe
capacityofyourtestsetup.Thelengthofcuringcanalsobevaried.
Theamountofforceneededtoproducefailureinabeamdependsonthebeamsdimensions.
Thetheoreticalmaximumtensilestrengthofabeamcanbecalculatedby:
Equation1 strength= (totalload)(spanlength)

(beamwidth)(beamthickness) 2
Theamountofforceneededtoproducefailureinacylinderdependsonthecylinderscross
sectionalarea.Thetheoreticalmaximumcompressivestrengthofacylindercanbecalculated
by:
totalload
Equation2 strength= cylinderbasearea
Somecommonvaluesneededforfailureare:Beam20MN/m2(3000psi)
Cylinder35MN/m2(5000psi)
Theexperimentcouldbeusedtoshowthedevelopmentofstrengthovertime. Thestudents
couldmakeseveralcylindersandbeamsfromeachoftheirconcretebatchesandthecompression
strengthcouldbetestedoveralongperiodoftimesuchas1day,3days,7days,and28days.
79
Theprincipleofreinforcedconcretecouldbedemonstratedbyplacingastripofhardwarecloth
(galvanizedsteelscreen)orchickenwireintothebeaminthetensionzone.
Acostfactorcouldbeincorporatedintothislabtomakeitatrueengineeringproject. The
competitioncouldinvolveassigningpointsbasedonmoststrengthforlowestcost.
Weofferthreetestingapparatusdesignsformeasuringthecompressionstrengthofthecylinders.
Eachofthesedesignsispicturedanddescribedonthefollowingpages.
LowTechCompressionTestingApparatusTheCementCracker
Two8feetlong2x4swerehingedtogetherusingalargegatehinge. Thehingeplateswill
needtobebentsoastofittothe2x4resultinginadevicesimilartoanutcracker.Aseparate
2x4whichisabouttwofeetlongshouldbenailedtothebottomsideofoneofthe8long
boardstoprovidestability.Otherwise,theunittendstorolltotheside.Toprovideadditional
strengthtothe8longboards,weattachedtwosmallpiecesofsheetmetalatthelocationwhere
thecylinderswouldbeseatedfortesting,about2or3inchesfromthehinge.Toinsureuniform
pressureactingonthecylinders,copperpipecapswereplacedovertheendsoftheconcrete
cylinders.Beforeplacingthecoppercapsonthecylinders,rubberinsertswereplacedinsidethe
copper pipe caps to cushion the ends of the cylinders. Place the copper capped concrete
cylinders onthesheet metal padsandapplyaforceonthe endofthe8longboards. By
calculating the mechanical advantage of the lever and knowing the applied force, the force
exertedonthecylinderscanbedetermined.
Samplecalculation: Assumingthecylinderisplaced3fromthehingeonan8(96)long
board,themechanicaladvantageoftheleveris32
mechanicaladvantage(MA)= effortarm = 96" =32

Equation3 resistancearm 3"
Equation4 maxweight=force
Ifa100poundstudentstandsattheendofthe8longboard,theforceexertedonthecylinderis
3200pounds.Ifthisisattempted,ensurethesafetyofthestudent.
80
LARGEGATEHINGEBENT Sheet
TOHOLDTHE2"X4"X8' metal
BOARDS
MediumTechTestingApparatusTheCClamp
Rubberinsertsarefirstplacedinsidecopperpipecapstoprovideacushionfortheconcrete
cylinders. Thecopperpipecappedcylinderisplacedinsideapieceof1diameterPVCpipe
(clearorwhite)whichhasbeencutlongenoughtocompletelycovertheconcretecylinder.The
PVCpipeisusedasasafetymeanstopreventpiecesofconcretefromflyingoutwardswhenthe
cylinderbreaks.Italsoprovidesstabilitytothetestcylinder.Anyotherpieceofpipethathas
aninsidediametergreaterthanthatofthecopperpipecapscouldbeused.ThePVCcovered
cylinderisplacedinthethroatofalarge(6orgreater)Cclamp. Tightenthethreadedshaft
ontothecoppercapsonthecylinder.Thisentiresetupisthenclampedtoatabletopusinga
secondCclamp.AsocketwhichfitsatorquewrenchisfittedoverthehandleoftheCclamp.
ThissocketwillneedtohaveslotscutintoitsothatitsnuglyfitsthehandleoftheCclamp.The
handleoftheCclampcanbetightenedfurtherdownontotheconcretecylinder. Thetorque
valuecanberecordedfromthetorquewrench.Becausethecylindersbreakratherquickly,we
suggestthatavideocameraisusedtorecordthereadingsonthetorquewrenchandplayedback
toobtainmoreaccurate readings. Bycalculating themechanical advantage ofthe Cclamp
screwandknowingthetorqueapplied,theforceexertedonthecylindercanbedetermined.
SampleCalculation:Themechanicaladvantageofascrewcanbecalculatedby:
Equation5 MA= circumferenceofscrew = 50mm =250

distancebetween2neighboringthreads 0.2mm
Themechanicaladvantageofthescrewmultipliedbythetorquereadingequalsthemaximum
forceappliedtothecylinder,neglectingfriction.
81
HighTechTestingApparatusHydraulicJack
Ahydraulicjackwithapressuregaugeprovidestheeasiestmethodfordeterminingtheforce
exertedontheconcretecylinders.BrodheadGarrettCo.(223S.IllinoisAve.,Mansfield,OH
44901)sellsahydraulicjackwithapressuregaugeandplatformforabout$100.(DanPhillip1
8009498324)
Placerubberinsertsinsidecopperpipecapstoprovideacushionfortheconcretecylinders.Cap
theconcrete cylinder andplaceintheplatform ofthejack. Beginapplyingpressurewhile
observingthepressuregauge.Allowtimebetweenpumpsforthecylinderstofailaminuteor
two. Safetyglassesareamustaspiecesofthecylinderflyoutward!! Asafetyshield
aroundthesamplewouldalsobeagoodidea.Avideocameramaybeusedtorecordreadings
onthepressuregaugeandreplayedtoobtainmoreaccuratereadings.
Tocalculatethecompressivestrengththatisappliedtothecylinder,usethefollowingequation.
totalload
strength= cylinderbasearea
82
ExpectedResults:
For1/2"cylinders,thecementpastebrokeat2000+psi,gravelat2000psi,andvermiculiteat
400psi.Thebeams'maximumloadwillvarydependingontheformused.Loadsasheavyas
100kilogramshavebeenobserved!
AnswerstoQuestions:
1. Toplayer,becauseitisintensionandconcreteisweekintension.
2. Thetoplayerwillbeincompression.Thebottomwillbeintension.
3. Thecolumnsofbridgesareconcretewhilethedeckingisusuallysteel.
Thecolumnsareonlyundercompressionwhilethedeckingisundertension.
4. a.Seeequation#1
b.Seeequation#2
5. Answerswillvary,unitswilleitherbepsiorN/meter2
6. a.Seeequations#3and#4forlowtechapparatusandequation#5formediumand
hightechapparatus.
b.Answerswillvary,unitsshouldbenewtonsorpounds
7.and8.answersmightinclude:usedifferentaggregate,varytheamountsofcomponents
usedinthecement,useadifferentformandchangethedimensions.
83
Experiment6
MakeandTake
ATakehomeProject
Objective: Studentswilldevelopanunderstandingofconcreteasaconstructionmaterial. A
concreteproductwillbedesignedandconstructed.
Concreteiseverywhere.Takeamomentandthinkaboutalltheconcreteencountersyouhave
hadinthelast24hours.Alloftheseapplicationsofconcretearecreatedfromamaterialthatisa
mixture formed from the chemical reaction of cement and water (hydration) with added
aggregate.Itimportanttodistinguishbetweencementandconcreteastheyarenotthesame.
Cementisusedtomakeconcrete.
Waterisakeyreactant. Waterandcementinitiallyformacementpastethatbeginstoreact
throughthechemicalprocessofhydration.Inthehydrationofcement,chemicalchangesoccur
slowly,eventuallycreatingnewcrystallineproducts,heatevolution,andothermeasurablesigns.
Thehydrationprocesshardens(sets)thepastewhichbindstheaggregateparticlestogether.
Theaggregateisthesolidparticlesthatareboundtogetherbythecementpastetocreatethe
syntheticrockknownasconcrete.Aggregatescanbebothfine,suchassand,and/orcoarse,such
asgravel.Therelativeamountsofeachtypeandthesizesofeachtypeofaggregatedetermines
thephysicalpropertiesoftheconcrete.
Time:1Classperiodforeachobjectmade.(45min.)
MaterialsandSuppliesforgroupsof23:
cement
peagravel
water
2flowerpotsorsuitableplasticcontainers
wiremesh
mixingbowlorwheelbarrow
finishingtools
dampsand
1"greaseddowelrod
84
Procedure:
1. Prepareenoughconcretetofillthespacebetweenyourtwocontainerswhentheyare
stackedwitha1"separation.
2. Coattheinsideofthebottomcontainerandtheoutsideofthetopcontainerwith
plastic wrap.
3. Placea1"lubricateddowel(futuredrainhole)thatis1"long,inthebottomcenterof
thefirstmoldforaroundbasedflowerpotorfourdowelsifyouaremakinga
rectangularflowerpot.Thiswillserveasaspacernowandadraininthehardened
pot.
4. Surroundthedowelswithconcretemix,placethetopmoldonthemixbeingsureto
allowforabout1"wallthickness.Addconcretemixbetweentheformsuntilthe
bottomformisfilled.Tampconcretetoremoveairpockets.Allowtohardenfor15
20minutes.Ifdecorationsaredesiredontheoutsideofthepot,removeoutermold
and addglassbeads,coloredstones,etc.Allowtoharden24hours.
5. Removemoldsandplaceinwaterforthreedaystoharden.Becautiousofthisstepif
yourpotisdecorated.
85
NotesforTeacher:
Uselargersizedaggregatestocreateaniceappearance.
Useasamoneymakingproject.
Manydifferentshapescanbemadeandmaybeagreatwaytoinspiresome
creativity.
86
CONCRETE NAME________________________
QUIZ1
1. Distinguishbetweencementandconcrete.
2. Nameatleastthreeitemsyouhaveencounteredtodaywhichareconcrete.
3. Whatarethemajoringredientsforconcrete,andwhatroledotheyplay?
4. Whatismeantby"workable?"Whyisitimportantforconcretetobeworkable?
5. Giveanexampleofanaggregate. Whatisthepracticaluseforthisaggregateinmaking
concrete?
87
CONCRETE NAME_____________________________
QUIZ2
1. Whatcanbeusedtoslowthehardeningofconcrete(giveexample?)Whywouldslowing
this processbedesirable?
2. Whatcanbeusedtospeedthehardeningofconcrete(giveexample?)Whywouldspeeding
up thisprocessbedesirable?
3. Supposeyouwereinchargeofbuildingaskyscraper. Whatwouldbeyourchoicefor
aggregateandwhy?
88
CONCRETE NAME______________________________
QUIZ3
1. Whatwillhappentoconcreteifitdriesouttooquickly?
2. Supposeyouweretobethechiefdesignerinchargeofbuildingaconcreteshiptocarry
peopleoverseas.Whataggregatemightyouchoosetoputinyourconcreteandwhy?
3. Explainwhatthedormancyperiodoffreshconcreteis.Howdocontractorsmakeuseofthe
dormancyperiod?
4. Explainhowcanyoumeasuretheconsistencyoffreshlymixedconcrete?
89
CONCRETE NAME________________________
QUIZ4
1. Brieflydiscusstheimportanceofaproperwatertocementratio.
2. Explainthepurposeofasuperplasticizerinmakingconcrete.
3. Whyshouldglovesbewornwhenmixingconcrete?Bespecific.
4. Waterisimportantinmakingconcrete,however,itcanalsobeharmfultoconcrete.Explain
thisstatement.
90
CONCRETE NAMEKEY

QUIZ1
1. Distinguishbetweencementandconcrete.
Cementisacomponentofconcrete. Cementandwatermakethe"glue"whichholds
concretetogether.
2. Nameatleastthreeitemsyouhaveencounteredtodaywhichareconcrete.
Answerswillvary.
3. Whatarethemajoringredientsforconcrete,andwhatroledotheyplay?
cementreactswithwatertoform"glue"
waterreactswithcement,theamountalsodeterminesstrength
aggregatemakesconcretestronger,moredurable,andlesscostly
4. Whatismeantby"workable?"Whyisitimportantforconcretetobe workable?
Cementwhichisworkableisabletobepouredintoformswithoutdifficulty.Aslump
test isusedtomeasureworkability.
5. Giveanexampleofanaggregate.Whatisthepracticaluseforthisaggregate in
makingconcrete?
gravel,sand,vermiculite,perlite,
Aggregatemakestheconcretestrongerandcheaper.
91
CONCRETE NAME__KEY________________________
QUIZ2
1. Whatcanbeusedtoslowthehardeningofconcrete(giveexample?)Why would
slowingthisprocessbedesirable?
Sugarcanbeaddedtotheconcretetoretardhardening. Forexample,iftheconcrete
needs tobetransportedalongdistance,thenaretardingadmixturewouldbedesired.
2. Whatcanbeusedtospeedthehardeningofconcrete(giveexample?)Why would
speedingupthisprocessbedesirable?
Calciumchloridesolutioncanbeaddedtospeedthehardeningofconcrete.Forexample,
in coldweatheritisdesirabletospeedupthehardeningprocessandproducedhigherheatof
hydration.
3. Supposeyouwereinchargeofbuildingaskyscraper.Whatwouldbeyour choice
foraggregateandwhy?
Theaggregatewoulddependuponhowtheconcreteistobeusedinthebuilding.
Lightweightaggregateslikeshaleareusedforinsulatingproperties.However,normal
weightaggregatewouldberequiredforstrength.Availabilityandeconomyofaggregate
areimportant,too.
92
CONCRETE NAME__KEY________________________
QUIZ3
1. Whatwillhappentoconcreteifitdriesouttooquickly?
Concretewillmostlikelycrackduetodryingshrinkage.Thehydrationreactionwhich
strengthensconcretewillbehaltedfromlackofwaterresultinginweakerconcrete.
2. Supposeyouweretobethechiefdesignerinchargeofbuildingaconcrete shipto
carrypeopleoverseas.Whataggregatemightyouchoosetoputin your concrete and
why?
A lightweight aggregate would be desirable for building a ship needing to float.

However, the boat would be dangerous because of poor tensile properties of
concrete.Itwouldhave tobereinforcedtobesafe.
3. Explainwhatthedormancyperiodoffreshconcreteis.Howdocontractors make
useofthedormancyperiod?
Thedormancyperiodoffreshconcreteistheperiodduringwhichtheconcreteisina
plasticstateandthereactionisvery,veryslow.Thisstatelastsfrom1to3hoursand
allowscontractorstotransportconcretetothejobsiteandconsolidateitbeforeithardens.
Afterthedormancyperiod,thehydrationreactionaccelerates,andtheconcretesetsand
becomeshard.
4. Explainhowcanyoumeasuretheconsistencyoffreshlymixedconcrete?
Aslumptestcanbeperformedonfreshlymixedconcretetodetermineitsconsistency.
Thisisdonebypouringitintoaninvertedcupwiththebottomcutout.Oncethecupis
removed,theconcreteisobserved.Itisdesirablethattheconcretestay5075%ofits
originalheightforgoodworkability.
93
CONCRETE NAME__KEY__________________
QUIZ4
1. Brieflydiscusstheimportanceofaproperwatertocementratio.
Thewatertocementratiodeterminesthestrengthofconcrete.Thelesswaterthatisused
to obtainaworkableconcrete,themorestrengththeresultinghardenedconcretewillhave.
However,rememberthatworkabilityislostifwatertocementratioistoolow.
2. Explainthepurposeofasuperplasticizerinmakingconcrete.
Asuperplasticizerisanadmixturewhichisusedtomakeconcretemoreworkablewith
the useoflesswater.Usingasuperplasticizerwillresultinastrongerconcretebecauseless
waterisused.
3. Whyshouldglovesbewornwhenmixingconcrete?Bespecific.
Gloves should be worn while mixing concrete because one of the products of the
hydration reactioniscalciumhydroxide,abase.Infact,uponmixingconcrete,the
pHrisesto12 whichmeansthesolutionisstronglybasic.Thiscanburn,irritate,anddry
outtheskin.
4. Waterisimportantinmakingconcrete,however,itcanalsobeharmfulto
concrete.Explainthisstatement.
Water transports harmful substances that lead to concrete degradation. Water is the
central issueinfreezethawdamageofconcrete.
94
95
Glossary
Accelerators:Admixturesthatdecreasethesettingtimebyincreasingtherateofhydration.
Admixture:Amaterialotherthanwater,aggregates,orcementthatisusedasaningredientof
concreteormortartocontrolsettingandearlyhardening,workability,ortoprovide
additionalcementingproperties.
Aggregate:Inertsolidbodiessuchascrushedrock,sand,gravel.
Binder:Hardenedcementpaste.
Bleed:Tohavewaterseeptothesurfaceofthecementpasteduetosettling.
Calcination:Decompositionduetothelossofboundwaterandcarbondioxide.
Cement:Finelypowderedmixturesofinorganiccompoundswhichwhencombinedwithwater
hardenswithhydration.
Cementpaste:Cementpluswater.Whenthemasshasreactedwithwateranddeveloped
strengthitiscalledhardenedcementpaste.
Clay:Typeofsoilconsistingofveryfineparticles.
Clinker:Thematerialthatemergesfromthecementkilnafterburning.Itisintheformofdark,
porousnoduleswhicharegroundwithasmallamountofgypsumtogivecement.
Compression:Forcesactinginwardlyonabody.
Concrete:Ahardcompactbuildingmaterialformedwhenamixtureofcement,sand,gravel,
and waterundergoeshydration.
Cure:Tokeepconcretemoistduringinitialhardening.
Deformation:Theprocessofchangingthedimensionsofastructurebyapplyingaforce.
Dormancyperiod:Timeperiodthatconcreteretainsitworkability.
Elasticity:Theabilityofamaterialtoreturntoitsoriginalshapeafterbeingstretched.
Forms:Holdersinwhichconcreteisplacedtoharden.
Gypsum:Calciumsulfatedihydrate,CaSO4.2H2Oaddedtocementtoregulatesetting.
Hydration:Thereactionofcementwithwatertoformachemicalcompound.
96
Kiln:Hightemperatureoven.
Limestone:Mineralrockofcalciumcarbonate.
Mortar:Cementpastemixedwithsand.
Pozzolancement:Volcanicrockpowderedandusedinmakinghydrauliccement.
Porosity:Theamountofemptyspaceinconcrete.
Portlandcement:Acementconsistingpredominantlyofcalciumsilicateswhichreactswith
watertoformahardmass.
Retardants:Admixturesthatincreasethesettingtimebyslowingdownhydration.
Set:Transformationofcementpasteorconcretefromafluidlikeconsistencytoastiffmass.
Slumptest:Testusedtodetermineworkability.
Tension:Thestressresultingfromelongation.
Workability:Howeasilyfreshconcretecanbeplacedandconsolidatedinforms.
97

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CONCRETE

A combination of university professors, high school science teachers, and undergraduate

Thematerialcoveredintheconcrete module maybeadaptedforuseinclasses ofgeneral

roads sidewalks houses

Themarblesizedpiecesproducedbythekilnarereferredtoas clinker. Clinkerisactuallya

ultralightweight vermiculite lightweightconcretewhich

lightweight expandedclay usedprimarilyformaking

heavyweight steelorironshot usedformakinghighdensity

Theconcrete(orspecifically,thecementinit)needsmoisturetohydrateand cure (harden).

MINUTES HOURS DAYS

Figure5: Schematic drawings todemonstrate therelationship between the water/cement

Lowwatertocement ratioleadstohighstrengthbutlowworkability. Highwatertocement

Thephysicalcharacteristicsofaggregatesareshape,texture,and size. Thesecanindirectly

SUPERPLASTICIZERS increase strength by decreasing water

RETARDING delays setting time, more long term strength,

ACCELERATING speeds setting time, more early strength,

Water isakeyreactantincementhydration. Theincorporationofwaterintoasubstanceis

Material Demo1 Demo2 Demo3 Demo4 Demo5

Material Lab1 Lab2 Lab3 Lab4 Lab5 Lab6

MIXTURE SOLUTIONS ELEMENT

water 25mL 15mL 25mL 20mL

Manyscience coursesalreadyhaveadensityexperimentaspartofthecourse. Theuseof

This experiment could be performed as an investigation in which students prepare concrete

Day1 ROOM REFRIGERATOR OVEN

Equation1 strength= (totalload)(spanlength)

mechanicaladvantage(MA)= effortarm = 96" =32

Equation5 MA= circumferenceofscrew = 50mm =250

A lightweight aggregate would be desirable for building a ship needing to float.

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