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wx)
(d) :
w w(x)
Figure 1.3 (Contd). (¢) Column under follower force. (d) Transition to non-equilibrium states
6Fundamental Concepts
av/v F
Figure 13 (Contd). (¢) Transition from primary 10 secondary equilibrium path.
and A V/V represents the volumetric strain. Line OA represents the primary of fun-
damental equilibrium path of the unbuckled configuration of the cylindrical panel. Line
BC represents the secondary path of the buckled non-cylindrical configuration of the
panel. In such strutures a finite disturbance during the application of the load can force
the structure to pass from the primary equilibrium path to the secondary equilibrium
path even before the classical critical load is reached.
In each type of loss of stability, there is seen a change in the geometry or position
of the system due to the ‘appearance’ of the characteristic displacement. The geometry
change in the system, a consideration of which is one of the typical features of struc-
tural stability analysis, is the cause for either introducing additional new forces or
changing the nature of the forces that existed prior to the loaded position. In terms of
these new forces which appear duritig the loss of structural stability, there can be a
further classification of instability as follows:
~ Flexural buckling
~ Torsional buckling
= Flexural-torsional buckling
— Snap-through buckling
Consider a centrally loaded I-section column, If the external disturbance in the form
of characteristic displacement is in the plane of the web, then in addition to compres-
sion, bending moment appears, Loss of stability in this case is by flexural buckling in
the plane of the web. On the other hand, if the external disturbance given is in the
plane of the flanges, loss of stability is again by flexural buckling but in the piane of
the flanges. However, if the external disturbance in the form of characteristic displace-Stability of Structures
ment is given such that flanges bend in their planes but in opposite directions, the
column will then be subjected to torsion in addition to compression, Instability, in this
case, is by torsional buckling.
As an example of flexural-torsional buckling, consider an eccentrically loaded I-
column with no lateral support to its compression flange. Initially, the column deflects
by bending in the plane of the web. At a certain load, however, the column may fail
due to loss of stability by a combined mode of twist and lateral bending of the cross-
section. The compression flange becomes unstable due to the external disturbance in
the form of lateral displacement and tends to buckle laterally, at the same time the
tension flange is stable and tends to remain straight. This phenomenon of torsional
bending buckling is also known as lateral buckling.
In the case of snap-through buckling, the loss of stability is due to transition to a
non-adjacent equilibrium configuration with a sudden change in the nature of internal
forces of the structure. A typical example is the Mises truss as shown in Fig. 1.3(b).
Such types of instability are quite common in convex shell-like structures, for example
in shallow arches.
1.4 ANALYTICAL APPROACHES TO STABILITY ANALYSIS
Stability analysis involves determination of the mode of loss of stability and the cor-
responding critical load under which the structure gets into a critical state. Except in
the case wherein loss of stability is due to transition from a state of rest to a state of
motion (and which is often called instability by flutter), the structure remains at rest
before and after buckling. This is called instability by divergence. Analytical ap-
proaches to stability analysis based on the static concept are
= Equilibrium approach
— Imperfection approach
~ Energy approach
Stability investigation based on the dynamic concept is referred to as the vibration
method. In fact this method presents a very general approach and can be used for the
stability analysis of any type of structure.
Equilibrium Approach
Stability analysis by this approach is concerned with the answer to the following ques-
tion: What are the values of the load for which a perfect system admits two or more
different but adjacent equilibrium states? By different equilibrium States it is meant
that the response of the structure is such that equilibrium can be maintained with
8Fundamental Concepts
different deformation patterns. The fact that the system occupies an equilibrium con-
figuration ‘close’ to the initial one enables us to consider the slope of the deflection
curve (representing the adjacent equilibrium configuration) as small compared to unity.
The result is that the expression for the curvature of the deflection curve can be
linearized. The method, then, requires the solution of the governing differential equa-
tion subject to some prescribed boundary conditions. It leads to an eigenvalue problem.
This approach is also known as the Euler's approach or the method of adjacent equi-
librium configuration.
Imperfection Approach
This approach is essentially for stability analysis of imperfect elastic structures, im-
perfect either in the geometric form of the structure or in the condition of loading.
Like the equilibrium approach for perfect systems, mathematical formulation of the
imperfection approach is based on the equilibrium condition in the adjacent deformed
configuration.
However, the transition from an undeformed configuration to an adjacent deformed
configuration is not due to any unknown small external disturbance but to the presence
of imperfection itself. For example, consider a simple supported column (Fig. 1.4)
loaded axially at the left end and with an eccentricity at the right end of the column.
Equilibrium requires the presence of reactions P and P,/L as indicated. Because of
imperfection in the loading condition in the form of eccentricity e, the column deforms
from the straight position to some adjacent bent position, as the load P increases from
zero, If we plot P vs 6 (mid-span deflection), as shown in Fig. 1.4, it is found that
the deflection is no more proportional to load P. All the curves have a common horizon-
tal asymptote at P = x? EJ/L*, This means that no matter how small eccentricity e is,
the deflections becomes infinite at the above value of load which is the critical load
of a perfect hinged-hinged column. These topics are dealt in detail Chapter 3.
Energy Approach
The method is based on the law of minimum potential energy which may be expressed
as follows: ‘A conservative holonomic system is in a configuration of stable equilibrium
if, and only if, the value of the potential energy is a relative minimum (relative with
respect to its immediate neighbourhood).
A mechanical system is said to be ‘conservative’ if the virtual work W vanishes for
a virtual displacement that carries the system completely around any closed path, In
other words, the virtual work W corresponding to any virtual displacement of a con-
servative system from one configuration Xo to another configuration X; in space
depends only on the terminal configurations X) and Xj. A conservative system thatStability of Structures
p fit Length L & a=?
= a aA
sg
yr
cutoff (because of
small deformation
assumption)
increasing
eccentricity
6
Figure 1.4. Load ys. mid-span deflection for an imperfect column,
can pass from one configuration to another in space which is connected, with no con-
straints to follow a certain path, is called a holonomic conservative system. Accord-
ingly, the virtual work W in a virtual displacement from a given configuration Xo to
a variable configuration X_ is independent of the path. It may be denoted by
W=- V (Xo, X) (1.2)
If Xo is a fixed prescribed configuration, the function V (Xo, X)_ is called the potential
energy of the system in configuration X, In fact, the virtual work
w=wr+w
where W; is the part of virtual work performed by internal forces and W, is the part
performed by external forces of the system during virtual displacement.
10Fundamental Concepts
‘Using the ‘law of kinetic energy’, which observes that the work of all the forces
(internal and external) that act on a mechanical system equals the increase of kinetic
energy of the system,
We+W.=T a3)
where Tis the increase of kinetic energy. Let us now state the first law of ther
modynamics are use it to define the work done by the external forces. If electromag-
netic effects are disregarded, the law is expressed as follows: The work that is perfomed
on a mechanical system by external forces plus the heat that flows in the system from
the outside equals the increase of kinetic energy plus the increase of internal energy’,
ie.
We + O=T+U aa)
where Q is the heat that flows into the system, and U_ is the increase of intemal
energy. Therefore,
Ww=Q-U d.5)
A process for which Q = 0. is said to be ‘adiabatic’. For such a process, eqn. (1.5)
leads to an important special case,
Wea-U (1.6)
It is easy enough to now show that
V(X%,X) =U - We
‘The configuration Xo, called the ‘zero configuration’, merely gives rise to an additive
constant in the potential energy and is irrelevant since only the change in potential
energy is significant. Consequently,
V(X) =U — We (7)
For an elastic continuum, the potential energy depends on one or more functions of
one or more variables representing the displacement field. In Euler's column problem,
for instance, Vis so-called functional (i.e. a function of a function) of the form
V[w (x)], where w (x) is an arbitrary admissible function. The term admissible means
that all the kinematic constraints of the problem are satisfied. In the case of a column,
admissible displacement fields or configurations are represented by the continuouslity of Structures
function w (x) having continuous first derivatives and satisfying the kinematics (or
geometric or force) end conditions. This requitement of continuity is essential to ex-
clude fracture of the column.
Let us denote the trivial equilibrium configuration of system by w(x) = 0 and
non-trivial equilibrium configuration by w(x) # 0, where w(x) is an arbitrary admissible
function sufficiently close to the trivial function w(x) = 0. We define the increment in
potential energy as,
AV = V[w # 0] - V[w = 0]
where V [w = 0] = potential energy in the trivial (initial) equilibrium configuration
V fw # 0} = potential energy in the non-trivial equilibrium state
If Vpw = 0] = 0 then,
V[w # 0] = AV (1.8)
If AV is positive, that is V(w) is positive definite, then Viw = 0) is minimum and
hence, according to the aw of minimum potential energy, the trivial equilibrium con-
figuration w = 0 is stable. From calculus of variation arguments it can be shown that
the requirement AV > 0 leads to the variational problem 8V = 0, restricted to admis-
sible variations 8w (w) of w(x). A function 8w(x) is called an admissible variation of
w(x) if it results in a new admissible configuration w(x) + 8w(x) in the vicinity of
w(x). It conforms to the kinematic constraints and thus satisfies the kinematic bound-
ary conditions.
Apart from the sign, 8V may be interpreted as the virtual work done by the internal
and external forces in an admissible virtual displacement 6. Our problem is therefore
equivalent to one of finding the smallest load for which a non-trivial equilibrium exists.
It follows that for the type of systems considered here, the energy approach is
equivalent to the equilibrium method. It may be remarked here that one of the ad-
vantages of the energy approach is that in the formulation, definitions of a coordinate
m and a sign convention are deemed unnecessary, Only expressions for strain
energy and the work done by the external forces are needed.
Vibration Method
The vibration method examines the motion of the elastic system in the vicinity of the
equilibrium configuration and thus is based on the dynamic concept. This method is
more general in the sense that the other approaches, based on the static concept, are
special cases of this approach when inertia forces are neglected. Since the vibration
12Fundamental Concepts
method takes into account the inertia forces in its formulation, the mass
of the elastic system becomes as important as the elastic stiffness of the s
response of the system, therefore, becomes a function of both the space and the time
coordinates. The method consists of following stipulations and concepts: An unper-
turbed state whose stability is being investigated, is specified. A perturbation is then
applied to the unperturbed state so that it is transformed into a perturbed one. Certain
characteristic, called norms, are emphasized, which define the state at any desired time.
The change in norms during the transition from the unperturbed state to the perturbed
one, under the influence of perturbations, is determined. Based on this behaviour, a
conclusion can be reached regarding the stability of the unperturbed state or its in-
stability, This is also the basic underlying idea in Liapunov's method of stability in-
vestigation which is discussed in Chapter 8.
In practice, tall structures like towers, guyed masts and multistoreyed buildings are
subject to wind and earthquake forces which are random in nature. In analytical in-
vestigations, the load P is then no more a constant but is a function of time. The
stability of these systems requires some knowledge of random vibrations and stochastic
stability which are beyond the scope of this book.
132
Discrete Systems
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the stability behaviour of some simple structural models is inves-
tigated. The discussion is limited to conservative systems. The large deflection
analysis leading to the concept of postbuckling (in the context of discrete systems)
is also introduction and explained through a few examples. It is also intended to
highlight the effect of geometric imperfections on the critical load of such systems.
The energy approach which uses the law of minimum potential energy (sec. 1.4) is
employed throughout. This is done intentionally as it helps in better understanding
of stability of elastic systems.
2.2 MATHEMATICAL IMPLICATION OF LAW OF MINIMUM POTENTIAL
ENERGY
The implication of the law of minimum potential energy is first developed for a single
degree of freedom system and then generalized to a system having n degree of freedom.
2.2.1 System with Single Degree of Freedom
Let Q denote the degree of freedom in the generalized coordinates. At a given value
of the load P, the potential energy Vis a single-valued function of Q, ie.
14Discrete Systems
V = V(Q). The idea is to explore the V-Q curve around Qo, the given equilibrium
state. One sets Q = Qy + q and takes Taylor’s series expansion as
Vio + 4) = ViQo) + 7 wl4 (2.1)
Now V(Q) = Vy) + AV
= Vy + [8V + # Bv4 OV (2.2)
av
ry FV >
where 8V = ‘ot 4 BV = Oa
are the first, second, ..., variations of the potential energy. The first variation must
vanish for the maximum or minimum to exist; this yields
qv
do 0 (2.3)
which gives the equilibrium position of the system. Then, the condition for the mini-
mum is that &°V > 0; this yields the following condition for the equilibrium position
to be stable
dv >0 (2.4)
a
Obviously, the condition 8°V < 0 implies unstable equilibrium while 8°V = 0 refers
to neutral equilibrium.
2.2.2 System with n Degrees of Freedom
At constant load P, the potential energy Vis a single-valued function of all the
generalized coordinates Q,(i = 1...) ie.
V = V(Qi, Qn...Qn) (2.5)
To explore the potential energy hypersurface in the V—Q; space, set Q,= Qis + qi and
take the Taylor’s series expansion asStability of Strnemres
. ny
V(Q) = VQu +4) =VOn +> ate DD ahaa oat
fat Zi 2 90:22),
- (2.6)
Proceeding as in the case of a single degree of freedom system, the conditions of
equilibrium are obtained by setting 8V = 0 i.
wv
3g, 79 8= 12, . oil (2.7)
Further, for stability, the second variation of V_ must be positive definite at the position
of equilibrium, ie.
s ~~ _aV
sv= YD 300g (aur? (2.8)
izt jai
For this condition to hold, the determinant
av
gi
av
90200
av _é
90,00; 90,00
ay well as all its principal minors must be positive (principal minors are subdeter-
minants whose principal diagonals coincide with the principal diagonal of D).
= | ove (2.8a)
9000;
2.3 ILLUSTRATIONS,
The application of the energy approach will now be illustrated through examples.
Example 1: A rigid bar of length L is hinged at one end free at the other. The hinged
end is provided with a linear rotational spring (spring constant c). The free end is
loaded with a force P in the direction of the bar. It is assumed that the direction ofDiscrete Systems
Figure 2.1. Example 1: single degree of freedom.
the force remains unchanged (Fig. 2.1). What is the value of the force P up to which
the given straight configuration is in stable equilibrium?
Let the rigid bar be displaced through a small angle @. Then the strain energy stored
in the spring is
The work done by the force P in going through the virtual displacement ¢ is
W. = pee
PL
= PL. (1 = cos) = “6 (for small 6)
Therefore, the potential energy of the system is given by
ce - Pre (2.9)
-3
V=U-W=
Using the condition (2.3) for equilibrium (nothing that @=Q) we get from eqn. (2.9)
7Stability of Structures
@(c - PL) =0 (2.10)
The above equation yields that either © = 0 (which is the trivial case) or
P = c/L whenever 84 O (the nontrivial case). The condition for stability, (eqn. 2.4)
in this case gives
(c- PL >0
which implies that so long as P < c/L, the given configuration of the rigid bar is
stable. The value P = c/L will be termed as the critical value of the load.
Example 2: Consider the system shown in Fig. 2.2. The linear rotational springs have
the spring constant c. The lower bar is hinged at the bottom and is hinged to another
bar which is free at the top where the force P is applied. The aim is to find the
value(s) of P for which the given system is stable.
Let @; and 6 be the small rotations about the hinges. It is straightforward exercise
to shown that
u= 308i + 560: - 0)
P
| fe
L
2
ce! fen
L
2
%
c
Figure 2.2, Example 2: two degrees of freedom,
18Discrete Systems
cos 0 - 5 cose = & (6F + 62) (for small rotations)
As such the potential energy expression is given as
ct + Se (0: ~ on ~ (of + of)
6 +5 (#-4) - P(e + 03), P= PL/4e 4)
Application of the condition (2.7) to V in eqn. (2.11) gives (note that
Qi = @,.Q = @)
(2-2P)0-@=0
- 0+ (1 -2P)%=0
from which the existence of a nontrivial solution is assured if
4P - OP +1=0
which implies that
P= 0.19, 1.31
In order to investigate stability, the condition (2.8) has to be applied which takes the
following from
av
ae” °
ev ev (vv) }
06; 367 (06, 0%
In the present case, these inequalities are
Pcl (2.13)
GP -6P+1)<0 [P< 0.19, P> 1.31]
Obviously, the practical range of P for stability isStability of Structures
P= Pe coo (2.13a)
4c
Example 3:° Consider a system consisting of three rigid bars as shown in Fig. 2.3a.
All hinges are frictionless and contain springs such that the moment resisting a rotation
@is proportional to 8. The spring constants are cz and cz, as indicated. The aim is to
investigate stability of the system under an axial load P
Consider the deflected configuration of the system shown in Fig. 2.3b. The angles
6, and @; are adopted as the generalized coordinates. The strain energy stored in the
springs is
U= } [ev0t + 01 68 + co @ ~ 0) + c2(6: + OF] (2.14)
Also, sin@, =, sind: =", sing, = 22%
@ a 15a
Hence sin @; = 2 osin @ — sin)
or, 8s = 2 (@: — @,), for small rotations (2.15)
Eqns. (2.14) and (2.15) yield
Us Ge + #4) (@ + @)-2 Scr 0) @ (2.14a)
The work done by the force P is
= P(3.Sa ~ L) (2.16)
in which the length L is
L = acos® + acos® + 1.Sacos 0;
2 2 2
~ Bho (1-¥) ers ( 2) (2.17)
*Langhaar (1962),
20Discrete Systems
(b)
stable zone
cyleg
symmetric antisymmetric
Figure 2.3. (a) Three rigid bars system, (b) Deflected configuration. (c) Stable and unstable zones. (d)
Instability modes
Using eqns. (2.17) and (2.15), eqn. (2.16) becomes
5 2 2 .
g Pa (0 + 63) ~ 5 Pa & (2.16a)
21Stability of Structures
Thus, the total potential energy of the system from eqns. (2.15a) and (2.16a) is
ve(3 at Be re] (ai + 68) + G Pa - 2 30] 8 (2.18)
For equilibrium, application of eqn. (2.7) yields
1 29 5 2 20
(3 + 7g c2 ~ ree + (3 - Pa =0
2, 20 Mg yO po Ba Oem 2
(F- Pals a(pe +g e sPejano 2.19)
For a nontrivial solution, the requirement is that
2 2
(2 + He- re) -(5r0- Pa) =0
eee pally
or, [ge + 502 -
which implies that
c+ en
Pays. a+ Ze
7 3°
As in the previous example, to consider the nature of equilibrium for the system in
its undeflected (0, = @ = 0) position, we need to investigate stability by using the
condition (2.8). In the present case, this simply leads to the following inequalities
3
Pax 50+ Ba (2.20a)
Pa