Wrestling with Angels

A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP

BETWEEN ANGELS AND HUMANS IN

ANCIENT JEWISH LITERATURE

AND THE NEW TESTAMENT

KEVIN P. SULLIVAN
DORE: JACOB AND T H E ANGEL, 19th C.
Credit: The Granger Collection, New York
WRESTLING WITH ANGELS
 ARBEITEN ZUR GESCHICHTE
DES ANTIKEN JUDENTUMS
UND DES
URCHRISTENTUMS

Ancient Judaism, and Early Christianity

h e r a u s g e g e b e n von

Martin Hengel (Tbingen),

Pieter W. van der Horst (Utrecht), Martin G o o d m a n (Oxford),
D a n i e l R . S c h w a r t z ( J e r u s a l e m ) , Cilliers B r e y t e n b a c h (Berlin),
Friedrich A v e m a r i e (Marburg), Seth Schwartz (New York)

LV
WRESTLING WITH ANGELS
A Study of the Relationship between Angels and
Humans
in Ancient Jewish Literature and the New
7 estament

BY

K E V I N P. SULLIVAN

? 4 A,
< S
'68

BRILL
LEIDEN BOSTON
2004
 Library of C o n g r e s s Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Sullivan, Kevin P. (Kevin Patrick), 1972

Wrestling with angels : a study of the relationship between angels and humans in ancient
Jewish literature and the New Testament / Kevin P. Sullivan.
p. cm. (Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums, ISSN
0169-734X ; 55)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 90-04-13224-4
1. AngelsHistory of doctrinesEarly church, ca. 30-600. 2. AngelsBiblical teaching.
3. Angels Judaism)History of doctrines. 4. Judaism History- Post-exilic period, 586
B.C.-210 A.D. I. Title. II. Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des
Urchristentums ; Bd. 55.

BT966.3S85 2003
235'.3'0901dc22

2003065166

ISSN 0169-734X
ISBN 90 04 13224 4

Copyright 2004 by Koninklijke Brill rw, Laden, The Netherlands

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in
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Fees are subject to change.

PRINTED IN THE NETHERLANDS

 To

P a u l a n d K a t h y Sullivan

and

In loving m e m o r y of

William ( 1 9 2 0 - 2 0 0 1 ) a n d
M a r y (1923-1999) Kuzava
 CONTENTS

Acknowledgments xi
Abbreviations xiii

1 I n t r o d u c t i o n : Wrestling with Angels 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 M e t h o d o l o g y a n d Sources 2
1.3 Survey of Previous Scholarship 3
1.4 Historical C o n t e x t 16
1.5 Outline 22

PART O N E

APPEARANCE

Introduction 27

2 "Blinded by the Light": Angels as H u m a n Beings 37

2.1 T h e Book of Genesis 37

2.2 T h e Book of J o s h u a 55
2.3 T h e Book of J u d g e s 57
2.4 T h e Books of Z e c h a r i a h a n d Ezekiel 59
2.5 T h e Book of D a n i e l 61
2.6 T h e Book of T o b i t 65
2.7 T h e Gospels 66
2.8 T h e Acts of the Apostles 71
2.9 T h e Apocalypse of J o h n 74
2.10 J o s e p h a n d A s e n e t h 76
2.11 T h e S h e p h e r d of H e r m a s 79
2.12 T h e Apocalypse of A b r a h a m 81
Conclusions 82
3 " Y o u L o o k Positively Angelic": H u m a n Beings as
Angels 85

3.1 A d a m 85
3.2 Seth(el) 90
3.3 Enoch 91
3.4 Noah 93
3.5 Melchizedek 96
3.6 Jacob/Israel 98
3.7 Moses 103
3.8 David 107
3.9 T h e Prophets 109
3.10 J o h n the Baptist Ill
3.11 J e s u s 114
3.12 S t e p h e n 118
3.13 Paul 121
3.14 T a x o 125
3.15 T h e H i g h Priest in H e c a t e u s of A b d e r a 127
3.16 T h e D a u g h t e r s of J o b 129
3.17 O n Being like Angels in H e a v e n 131
Conclusions 139

PART T W O

INTERACTION

Introduction 145

4 "Angels in O u r M i d s t " : H u m a n - A n g e l C o m m u n i t i e s 147

4.1 T h e Songs of the S a b b a t h Sacrifice ( 4 Q 4 0 0 - 4 0 7 ,

11 Q,17, Maslk) 149
4.2 T h e W a r Scroll ( 1 Q M a n d 4 Q 4 9 1 - 4 9 6 ) 155
4.3 The Hodayot (1QH) 161
4.4 T h e R u l e of the C o m m u n i t y ( 1 Q S , l Q S a , a n d
1 Q S b) 163
4.5 Songs of the Sage ( 4 Q 5 1 1 F r a g m e n t 35) 165
4.6 T h e Corinthian Community 167
4.7 T h e C o m m u n i t y of the R e c h a b i t e s (Hist. Rech) 171
5 " G u e s s W h o ' s C o m i n g to D i n n e r " : Hospitality a n d
E a t i n g with Angels 179

5.1 T h e Book of Genesis 1 8 - 1 9 182

5.2 T h e Book of J u d g e s 6 a n d 13 184
5.3 T h e Book of T o b i t 5 - 1 2 186
5.4 J o s e p h a n d A s e n e t h 15 16 187
5.5 T h e T e s t a m e n t of A b r a h a m 189
5.6 T h e Gospel of L u k e 191
5.7 T h e Epistle to the H e b r e w s a n d Christian Hospitality.... 193
Conclusions 194

6 " T h e y M i g h t Be G i a n t s " : H u m a n - A n g e l H y b r i d
Offspring 197

6.1 Genesis 6 : 1 4 in the H e b r e w Bible 197

6.2 1 E n o c h 6 11: T h e Book of W a t c h e r s 200
6.3 T h e S e p t u a g i n t 205
6.4 T h e D e a d Sea Scrolls 207
6.5 T h e Book of J u b i l e e s 213
6.6 J o s e p h u s a n d Philo 215
6.7 O t h e r S e c o n d T e m p l e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s 219
6.8 Early C h r i s t i a n Writings 221
6.9 L a t e r J e w i s h I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s 223
Conclusions 224

7 C o n c l u s i o n : L i m p i n g t o w a r d a Better U n d e r s t a n d i n g 227

7.1 T h e R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n H u m a n s a n d Angels 227

7.2 C o s m o l o g y a n d Angelology 229
7.3 Christology a n d Angelology 231
7.4 Early J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n Mysticism a n d Angelology.... 235

Select Bibliography 237

Modern Author Index 255

Subject I n d e x 260
Ancient Literature Index 265
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

T h i s book is a modified f o r m of m y doctoral thesis s u b m i t t e d to the

Faculty of T h e o l o g y at the University of O x f o r d in M a y of 2002. I
c o m p l e t e d t h e m a n u s c r i p t while a Visiting Assistant P r o f e s s o r at
Illinois W e s l e y a n University.
T h e r e are m a n y people w h o I w o u l d like to take the o p p o r t u n i t y
h e r e to t h a n k for their s u p p o r t over m y m a n y years of study on
t h r o u g h to the c o m p l e t i o n of this book.
First, I w o u l d like to t h a n k m y dissertation supervisors: Professors
M a r t i n G o o d m a n a n d C h r i s t o p h e r R o w l a n d . O x f o r d was a n incred-
ible e d u c a t i o n a l experience a n d t h a t was d u e in large p a r t to this
d e d i c a t e d a n d l e a r n e d p a i r of m e n t o r s . I w o u l d like to t h a n k C h r i s
R o w l a n d f o r suggesting the w o r k i n g title "Wrestling with Angels."
T h e title stuck a n d p r o v e d to b e a fitting m e t a p h o r for the entire
e n d e a v o u r . I w o u l d like also to t h a n k M a r t i n G o o d m a n for sug-
gesting t h a t I send m y m a n u s c r i p t to Brill.
T h e s u p p o r t of m y friends while at O x f o r d was invaluable in m y
c o m p l e t i n g the D.Phil. Listing their n a m e s h e r e is a paltry w a y to
recognize their respective gifts of time, s u p p o r t a n d c o m p a n i o n s h i p ,
b u t it is at least a start t o w a r d t h a n k i n g t h e m : G e o r g a G o d w i n ,
R e v d . J o h n Lewis, R e v d . D r . A n t h o n y D a n c e r , D r . S t u a r t C h e p e y ,
K i m C h e p e y , J e r e m y a n d T r i s h a Boccabello, H e l e n a n n Francis, Nick
Smith, A t s u h i r o A s a n o , D r . P a u l Foster a n d D r . C h e r r y Kingsley.
Special t h a n k s to m y dissertation e x a m i n e r s Prof. Alison Salvesen
a n d Prof. A n d r e w C h e s t e r . T h e i r t h o u g h t f u l r e a d i n g of m y thesis
was a p p r e c i a t e d , a n d their f e e d b a c k p r o v e d m o s t helpful as I c o n -
v e r t e d f r o m thesis to m o n o g r a p h .
I n r e g a r d to p u b l i c a t i o n I w o u l d like to acknowledge gratefully
the permission of the G r a n g e r Collection to include the i m a g e of
G u s t a v e D o r e ' s ' J a c o b Wrestling the A n g e l . " I w o u l d also like to
the t h a n k Ms. Louise S c h o u t e n a n d M s . A n i t a R o o d n a t of Brill
Academic Publishers for their p r o m p t a n d professional support through-
out the publication process, a n d M s . M a r g a r e t L o u r i e for h e r copy-
editing skills.
A n u m b e r of scholars h a v e b e e n very supportive a t various stages
of m y studies. A m e r e m e n t i o n of t h e m does n o t do justice to their
respective c o n t r i b u t i o n s , b u t I w o u l d like to m a k e sure t h e y a r e
a c k n o w l e d g e d here: Prof. J a r l Fossum, Prof. C h a r l e s Gieschen, Prof.
Brian S c h m i d t , Prof. A n n H a n s o n , Prof. E u g e n e Ulrich, Prof. R e x
M a s o n , Prof. T e r r y W i l f o n g , a n d Prof. J a n e S c h a b e r g . M o s t i m p o r -
tantly, t h o u g h , I w o u l d like to acknowledge the g u i d a n c e a n d s u p p o r t
of Prof. April D e C o n i c k . H e r help this past y e a r in p a r t i c u l a r with
b o t h t e a c h i n g a n d the publication process has b e e n truly invaluable.
M y family a n d friends h a v e always b e e n supportive of m y e d u -
cational e n d e a v o u r s . I fear t h a t a n y a t t e m p t to n a m e t h e m w o u l d
only prove exclusionary, but s o m e n a m e s deserve a m e n t i o n h e r e
for h a v i n g been particularly supportive: Virginia Markowski, Kris a n d
R e n e ' K u z a v a , C a s e y Sullivan, K e v i n Bragg, M i c h a e l G . C a r p e n t e r ,
M a r c L a n o u e , K a t i e Littlepage, M i c h e l e M a c o i t T e d Milliner, D a v i d
N a t h a n i e l , K e v i n V a n d e r L a a n , a n d H a r v e y Wilson.
Ver) special t h a n k s go to m y sister, Kelly Sullivan. A loving sis-
ter, p a t i e n t p r o o f - r e a d e r , a n d email p a r t n e r , all in one. I w o u l d n o t
have m a d e it t h r o u g h all the tough times I faced t h r o u g h o u t m y
studies w i t h o u t her.
Lastly, this b o o k is d e d i c a t e d to f o u r p e o p l e w i t h o u t w h o m it
would n o t h a v e b e e n possible. T o m y g r a n d p a r e n t s , William a n d
M a r y K u z a v a , b o t h of w h o m passed a w a y d u r i n g m y t e n u r e in
O x f o r d . M a y they rest in p e a c e . M o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , t h o u g h , to m y
p a r e n t s , Paul a n d K a t h y Sullivan. T h e r e is n o w a y to t h a n k t h e m
for e v e r y t h i n g they have d o n e t h r o u g h o u t m y life. I h o p e t h a t they
rightly take d u e p r i d e in this a c h i e v e m e n t .
 ABBREVIATIONS

T h e a b b r e v i a t i o n s used in this m o n o g r a p h follow the Society of Biblical

Literature Handbook of Style: For Near Eastern, Biblical and Early Christian
Studies (ed. Patrick H . A l e x a n d e r , Society of Biblical L i t e r a t u r e , 1997)
5 8 - 1 6 2 with the addition of:

Gen. Apoc. f o r the Genesis Apocryphon ( - 1 Q a p G e n a r = 1Q20)

HJPAJC for Emil S c h r e r , The History of the Jewish People in the Age
of Jesus Chiist
JA f o r Joseph and Aseneth
Mss. for m a n u s c r i p t s
SSS for the " S o n g s of the S a b b a t h Sacrifice" ( 4 Q 4 0 0 - 4 0 5 , 11Q17).

A m o n g the m o s t frequently used a b b r e v i a t i o n s in this b o o k are:

ABD The Anchor Bible Dictionary

CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly
ODD K . v a n d e r T o o r n , B. Becking, a n d P. van d e r H o r s t , eds.,
Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible
HTR Harvard Theological Review
JBL Journal of Biblical Literatim
JJS Journal, of Jewish Studies
JSJ Journal, for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and
Roman Period
JSNT Journal for the Study of the New Testament
JTS Journal of Theological Studies
LXX Septuagint
NT New Testament
NTS New Testament Studies
OTP J . C h a r l e s w o r t h ed., Old Testament Pseudepigrapha
RQ Revue de Qumran
SBLSP Society of Biblical Literature Seminar Papers
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION: WRESTLING WITH ANGELS

1.1 Introduction

T h i s m o n o g r a p h investigates t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s and
a n g e l s as discussed in t h e l i t e r a t u r e of t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d
e a r l y C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d (200 B C E - 1 0 0 C E ) .
A n g e l s a r e f o u n d in m a n y b o o k s of t h e H e b r e w S c r i p t u r e s , t h e
N e w T e s t a m e n t , a n d a significant n u m b e r of t h e e x t a n t extra-Biblical
writings. T h e discovery of the D e a d S e a Scrolls s e r v e d t o r e m i n d
m o d e r n s c h o l a r s t h a t m a n y , if n o t all, J e w i s h g r o u p s h a d beliefs
a b o u t angels. Angels, t h e n , w e r e a significant p a r t of late Second
T e m p l e J e w i s h a n d early C h r i s t i a n c o s m o l o g y . Y e t t h e s t u d y of a n g e l
beliefs o n t h e w h o l e h a s n o t b e e n a serious t o p i c in e a r l i e r studies.
R e c e n t l y , s c h o l a r s h a v e b e g u n to investigate this significant c o r p u s
of m a t e r i a l o n angels, p r i m a r i l y o u t of a n interest in t h e i m p a c t of
a n g e l t r a d i t i o n s o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of C h r i s t o l o g y .
O n e a s p e c t of t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n t h a t h a s r e c e i v e d o n l y modest
a t t e n t i o n t h u s f a r is t h e s o m e t i m e s c o m p l e x r e l a t i o n s h i p between
h u m a n s a n d angels. W h e n t h e y a p p e a r to h u m a n s , a n g e l s o f t e n take
o n t h e f o r m of h u m a n s . H u m a n s a r e s o m e t i m e s c h a r a c t e r i z e d in
angelic c a t e g o r i e s , a n d s o m e h u m a n s a r e e v e n said to t r a n s f o r m i n t o
angels. M o r e o v e r , angels i n t e r a c t w i t h h u m a n s in i n t i m a t e ways, s u c h
as b y c o e x i s t i n g in specific c o m m u n i t i e s , a p p e a r i n g to p a r t a k e of
h u m a n hospitality, a n d also, in a t least o n e line of t r a d i t i o n , h a v i n g
viable o f f s p r i n g w i t h h u m a n women.
B e c a u s e of this close a n d c o m p l e x r e l a t i o n s h i p , s o m e s c h o l a r s h a v e
s u g g e s t e d t h a t a n c i e n t a u t h o r s e q u a t e d h u m a n s w i t h angels. The
e x a m i n a t i o n u n d e r t a k e n in this s t u d y a i m s to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a n d
to w h a t e x t e n t a n c i e n t a u t h o r s m a d e a n y s u c h i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b e t w e e n
h u m a n s a n d angels. As will b e seen f r o m the survey of s c h o l a r s h i p
b e l o w (1.3), t h e a n s w e r to this q u e s t i o n is itself n o t only i n t e r e s t i n g
a n d v a l u a b l e b u t also h a s i m p l i c a t i o n s for u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e e m e r -
g e n c e of C h r i s t o l o g y a n d e a r l y J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n mysticism.
Ultimately, the p r e p o n d e r a n c e of t h e evidence suggests n o compelling
reason to believe t h a t writers f r o m this p e r i o d h a d a n y difficulty dis-
tinguishing b e t w e e n the two g r o u p s of beings.

1.2 Methodology and Sources

It is t h e a i m of this study to e x a m i n e all the relevant literary sources

f r o m the p e r i o d of c. 200 B G E to c. 100 C E to d e t e r m i n e w h a t
they reveal a b o u t the relationship b e t w e e n angels a n d h u m a n s . T h e
sources to be assessed are, o n the whole, texts w h e r e the w o r d s
^ [ / (Latin: angelus) a p p e a r . H o w e v e r , a n u m b e r of t e r m s
m a y refer to the beings k n o w n as angels (e.g., spirits, stars, hosts,
princes, powers, et al.). Since t e r m s derive t h e i r m e a n i n g f r o m use
in context, the selection of evidence has b e e n driven by usage. If it
seems p r o b a b l e given the c o n t e x t of a passage t h a t the evidence c a n
p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d
angels, t h e n it h a s b e e n included.
S u c h a n e x a m i n a t i o n , h o w e v e r , is extensive in scope, since this
evidence is f o u n d in a variety of genres a n d c o m e s f r o m a variety
of social contexts. T h e p r i m a r y sources are the writings f r o m : the
H e b r e w Bible, the L X X , the D e a d Sea Scrolls, r a b b i n i c literature,
the T a r g u m i m ; Philo a n d J o s e p h u s , the N e w T e s t a m e n t , the early
c h u r c h fathers, a n d the so-called P s e u d e p i g r a p h a . T h e use of each
source is discussed as the material a p p e a r s in the course of the e x a m -
ination. T w o specific g r o u p s of sources deserve s o m e c o m m e n t f r o m
the outset, h o w e v e r . T h e evidence f r o m the T a r g u m i m a n d the r a b -
bis d a t e s in l a r g e p a r t well a f t e r t h e p a r a m e t e r s of this s t u d y .
Nevertheless, the traditions therein m a y d a t e b a c k to a m u c h ear-
lier period. T h e r e f o r e , it is i m p o r t a n t at least to c o n s i d e r w h a t this
evidence m a y h a v e to say a b o u t h u m a n - a n g e l relationships. T h e
P s e u d e p i g r a p h a represents a different p r o b l e m . A m o n g the bodies of
literature m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , it is the least c o h e r e n t as a c o r p u s . I n
fact, the collections of the O T P s e u d e p i g r a p h a by R . H . C h a r l e s
a n d , m o r e recently, J . C h a r l e s w o r t h h a v e to some extent solidified
their consideration as a c o r p u s , b u t these writings r e p r e s e n t a vast
variety of genres, c o m e f r o m different social contexts, h a v e different
transmission histories, a n d d a t e f r o m q u i t e a r a n g e of t i m e periods.
T h e r e f o r e , careful attention will be p a i d to contextualizing these docu-
m e n t s in p a r t i c u l a r b e f o r e assessing the evidence they provide.
 G i v e n this r a n g e of p r o v e n a n c e , t h e c h a l l e n g e is t o assess this evi-
d e n c e i m p a r t i a l l y a n d p r e s e n t t h e p i c t u r e t h a t e m e r g e s as a c c u r a t e l y
as possible. T h e m e t h o d e m p l o y e d h e r e is to i n t e r p r e t e a c h p i e c e of
evidence separately. A r g u m e n t s for inclusion a n d dating are m a d e
as n e c e s s a r y . T h e i m p a c t of t h e g e n r e of t h e l i t e r a t u r e in w h i c h t h e
e v i d e n c e is f o u n d is discussed. I n a s m u c h as it is possible to d e t e r -
m i n e , t h e social c o n t e x t of t h e e v i d e n c e is c o n s i d e r e d . O n c e t h e evi-
d e n c e is situated as m u c h as possible in its c o n t e x t , it is assessed f o r
w h a t it c a n tell us a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels.
Before examining the evidence, however, there are three prelim-
i n a r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . First, a discussion of t h e p r e v i o u s s c h o l a r s h i p
a i m s to set this s t u d y w i t h i n t h e w i d e r s c o p e of s c h o l a r s h i p . S e c o n d ,
a s u r v e y of t h e history a n d v a r i e t y of t h e a n g e l beliefs in this p e r i o d
situates t h e l i t e r a r y e v i d e n c e t o b e investigated w i t h i n its l a r g e r his-
torical c o n t e x t . T h i r d , t h e p a r t s of t h e b o o k a r e briefly o u t l i n e d to
o r i e n t t h e r e a d e r to the a p p r o a c h t a k e n .

1.3 Survey of Previous Scholarship

T h e following section surveys p r e v i o u s s c h o l a r s h i p in o r d e r to d e m o n -

strate (a) w h a t s c h o l a r s h a v e said a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between
h u m a n s a n d angels, (b) w h e r e c o n f u s i o n h a s arisen, a n d (c) t h a t t h e r e
is a n e e d f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h in this a r e a .

(a) Early Studies

P. S c h f e r 5 s 1975 s t u d y Rivalitt zwischen Engeln und Menschen: Unter-

suchungen z- rabbin. Engelvorstellung collected a n d e x a m i n e d 74 r a b b i n i c
texts t h a t d e m o n s t r a t e d a rivalry b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. 1 Al-
t h o u g h his s t u d y l o o k e d a t e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e l a t e r r a b b i n i c p e r i o d ,
m u c h of w h i c h is difficult t o d a t e , it is n o t e w o r t h y for this discus-
sion, since his b o o k w a s a m o n g t h e first look systematically at a n y
a s p e c t of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. G i v e n the
difficulty of d a t i n g t h e m a t e r i a l s f r o m w h i c h h e d r a w s evidence,
S c h f e r p r u d e n t l y c h o s e a t h e m a t i c a r r a n g e m e n t (e.g., Israel, the
h i g h priest, Moses) f o r t h e text a n d his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . 2 H i s overall

1
P. Schfer, Rivalitt zwischen Engeln und Meuchen: Untersuchungen z rabbin. Engelvorstellwig
(New York: de Gruyter, 1975).
2
P. Schfer, Rivalitt, pp. 75-218.
c o n c l u s i o n w a s t h a t in t h e r a b b i n i c m a t e r i a l a n g e l s o p p o s e h u m a n s
b e c a u s e h u m a n n a t u r e is sinful a n d a t o d d s w i t h G o d ' s ( a n d the
3
angels') holiness.
S c h f e r briefly s u r v e y e d a s p e c t s of post-Exilic a n g e l beliefs as a
p r e c u r s o r to his analysis of t h e r a b b i n i c m a t e r i a l to s h o w b o t h c o n -
tinuity in a n d n e w aspects of a n g e l beliefs in t h e r a b b i n i c writings. 4
Little e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e post-Exilic p e r i o d d e m o n s t r a t e s a n y explicit
rivalry b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. 5 It s e e m s likely t h a t t h e w i d e
v a r i e t y of a n g e l beliefs in this p e r i o d m a y h a v e led t o c o n f u s i o n o v e r
t h e p l a c e of h u m a n s in t h e celestial h i e r a r c h y , p a r t i c u l a r l y when
h u m a n s a r e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o angels. T h e seeds of t h e rivalry in t h e
sinfulness of h u m a n s a r e c e r t a i n l y p r e s e n t in t h e G e n 6 m a t e r i a l a n d
its i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .
A. S e g a l ' s Two Powers in Heaven l o o k e d a t t h e " t w o p o w e r s " h e r e s y
of r a b b i n i c J u d a i s m t h a t is, t h e belief t h a t p o w e r in h e a v e n was
s h a r e d b e t w e e n G o d a n d a n o t h e r p r e e m i n e n t (but c r e a t e d ) b e i n g . 6
Segal sees e l e m e n t s in e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y as r e p r e s e n t i n g o n e of t h e
earliest f o r m s of this " h e r e s y . " W i t h i n this f r a m e w o r k , h e a r g u e s t h a t
the e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s identified s o m e " h u m a n figures in h e a v e n and
angelic m e d i a t o r s " w i t h J e s u s . 7 Segal w a s n o t t h e first, a n d c e r t a i n l y
n o t t h e last, s c h o l a r to c o n s i d e r t h e i m p a c t of a n g e l o l o g y o n the
8
d e v e l o p m e n t of C h r i s t o l o g y . So, c e r t a i n l y , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s c r e a t e s a n a v e n u e f o r discussion in t h e p e r s o n
of J e s u s . As will b e seen in t h e c o m m e n t s b e l o w , s t u d y in this a r e a
b u r g e o n e d in t h e 1990s.
I n a s h o r t b u t salient 1980 article J . C h a r l e s w o r t h collected seven
texts t h a t h e s a w as d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e p o r t r a y a l of r i g h t e o u s h u m a n s

8
P. Schfer, Rivalitt, p. 222.
4
P. Schfer, Rivalitt, pp. 9-40. Although useful for his study and without par-
allel at the time, this survey is largely superseded by M. Mach's extensive analysis
(see discussion of Mach beiow).
5
A notable exception perhaps being the Apoc. Ab. 9-32.
6
A. Segal, Two Powers in Heaven: Early Rabbinic Reports about Christianity and Gnosticism
(Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1977).
7
A. Segal, Two Powers in Heaven, p. 208.
8
A comprehensive survey of the history of research in angel Christology can be
found in C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology: Antecedents and Early Evidence (Leiden:
E. J. Brill, 1997) 7-25; M. Werner (1941) was among the first scholars to make a
strong case for angel Christology. lie was rebuked harshly by W. Michaelis (1942),
and the subject was not picked up for some time until J. Danilou (1964) reopened
the discussion. This survey of scholarship resumes in the 1980s, when angelology
began to be studied more broadly, and not simply with regard to angel Christology.
as angels. 9 T h e texts h e p r e s e n t e d p r i m a r i l y c a m e f r o m w o r k s t h a t
f o u n d t h e i r w a y i n t o t h e t w o - v o l u m e Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, w h i c h
h e w a s e d i t i n g a t t h e s a m e t i m e . H e a r g u e s t h a t this p h e n o m e n o n
of a n g e l i c p o r t r a y a l a n d also angelic t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of h u m a n s "is
c e r t a i n l y a J e w i s h c o n c e p t t h a t a n t e d a t e s the s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E a n d
m a y p r e d a t e t h e fall of J e r u s a l e m i n 70." 1 0 Y e t t h e d a t i n g of a n u m -
b e r of t h e texts t h a t a r e i n c l u d e d , s u c h as 2 E n o c h o r t h e " H i s t o r y
of t h e R e c h a b i t e s , " is v e r y m u c h d e b a t e d . A l t h o u g h s p a c e did n o t
p e r m i t C h a r l e s w o r t h to m a k e solid, i n d i v i d u a l cases f o r t h e d a t i n g of
a n u m b e r of t h e texts, t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of his s t u d y w a s n e v e r t h e l e s s
significant. His article b r o u g h t to scholarly a t t e n t i o n t h e possibility
t h a t h u m a n portrayal in angelic categories a n d also h u m a n t r a n s f o r m a -
tion i n t o a n g e l s w a s p o t e n t i a l l y a first-century C E p h e n o m e n o n . As
will b e seen in c h a p t e r 3 of this s t u d y , t h e figures often associated
with such t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s w e r e individuals w h o h a d lived a particularly
righteous life a n d / o r h a d a special r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d in t h e i r
h u m a n e x i s t e n c e (e.g., A d a m o r J a c o b ) .
I n his b o o k , The Open Heaven, a n d in several s u b s e q u e n t articles,
C. Rowland h a s d i s c u s s e d a s p e c t s of a n g e l o l o g y . 1 1 In particular,
R o w l a n d h a s d r a w n a t t e n t i o n to t h e role t h a t i m a g e r y used to c h a r -
a c t e r i z e angels h a s p l a y e d in d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e risen C h r i s t . T h i s
h a s led h i m to a d v o c a t e u s i n g t h e t e r m " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " 1 2 (based
o n t h e w o r k of J . D a n i l o u ) in discussions a b o u t t h e i n f l u e n c e of
angel traditions o n Christology r a t h e r t h a n "angelic'' since, as R o w l a n d
states, " T h i s kind of description [angelomorphic] in n o w a y implies t h a t
C h r i s t w a s identified entirely w i t h t h a t c r e a t e d o r d e r [the a n g e l s ] . " 1 3
T h e t e r m " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " h a s p r o v e n i n v a l u a b l e f o r m a k i n g sense
of c o m p l e x Christological d e v e l o p m e n t s , w h i c h c e r t a i n l y s e e m to h a v e
a p p r o p r i a t e d angelological motifs. As will b e seen b e l o w , h o w e v e r , t h e
t e r m h a s also b e e n a p p l i e d t o discussions of h u m a n s m o r e g e n e r a l l y ,

9
J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as an Angel" in Ideal Figures
in Ancient Judaism (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1980) 135-151.
10
J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous," p. 135.
11
C. Rowland, Hie Open Heaven: A Study of Apocalyptic in Judaism, and Early Christianity
(New York: Crossroad, 1982). Also see his articles, "The Visions of God in Apocalyptic
Literature" JSJ 10 (1979) 137-154 and "A Man Clothed in Linen: Daniel 10:6ff.
and Jewish Angelology" JSKT 24 (1985) 99-110.
12
The depiction of particular beings in the form () of angels.
1S
C. Rowland, "A Man Clothed in Linen," p. 100.
so t h a t s o m e s c h o l a r s n o w s p e a k of a n " a r i g e l o m o r p h i c " h u m a n i t y . 1 4
T h e m e r i t of t h i n k i n g i n t e r m s of a n g e l o m o r p h i c h u m a n i t y in t h e
late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d early C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d d e e p l y i n f o r m s t h e
p r e s e n t study.
A r o u n d t h e s a m e t i m e as R o w l a n d a n d Segal, J . F o s s u m was inves-
t i g a t i n g t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d a n d t h e N a m e of
G o d a n d t h e i r i m p a c t o n S a m a r i t a n a n d G n o s t i c t h o u g h t . 1 5 H i s study
led h i m to c o n c l u d e t h a t

the identification of the lieutenant of G o d as the Angel of the Lord

made it possible for various groups to detect this figure in their respec-
tive heroes of the pastAdam, Enoch, Melchizedek, J a c o b , Moses,
Jesus or Simon Magus. Whether 01 not actual pre-existence was claimed
for these men, a part of the tradition which identified the mediator
with a h u m a n being seems to have been that the hero ascended to
heaven and demonstrated his identity as God's plenipotentiary through
heavenly enthronement. 1 6

T h u s , for Fossum the evidence allowed r o o m for particular h u m a n s

to b e identified w i t h t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d , b u t p r i m a r i l y this w o u l d
t a k e p l a c e only w h e n t h e i n d i v i d u a l h a d a s c e n d e d to h e a v e n .
T h e t o p i c of a s c e n t s to h e a v e n in a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t i n g s w a s t a k e n
u p by M . H i m m e l f a r b several y e a r s later. 1 7 I n p a r t i c u l a r , h e r c h a p t e r
o n " T r a n s f o r m a t i o n a n d t h e R i g h t e o u s D e a d " f o c u s e d o n t h e ability
of h u m a n s to i n t e r a c t with angels. S h e u n d e r s t a n d s J e w i s h a n g e l o l o g y
as a n a t t e m p t t o b r i d g e t h e g a p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d G o d . S h e c o n -
e l u d e s , " I n d e e d it t u r n s o u t t h a t t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n human
b e i n g s a n d a n g e l s a r e n o t v e r y c l e a r . ' " 8 S h e sees t w o m a i n s t r a n d s
of t r a d i t i o n : o n e in w h i c h g r e a t h e r o e s of t h e p a s t r e p r e s e n t h o w
close h u m a n i t y c a n c o m e to the divine, a n d a n o t h e r in w h i c h o r d i n a r y

14
Angelomorphic Christology and angelomorphic humanity are separate pheno-
mena, however. Thinking of the development of Christology (i.e., ways of thinking
and talking about the risen Jesus) in angelic terms is not the same as saying there
was a widespread belief about humans being understood as angels, as authors such
as Fletcher-Louis and Gieschen have suggestedsee section (d) below.
15
J. Fossum, The Name of God and the Angel of the Lord: Samaritan and Jewish Concepts
of Intermediation and the Origin of Gnosticism (Tbingen: J . C. B. Mhr, 1985) and later
his Image of the Invisible God: Essays on the Influence ofJewish Mysticism on Early Christianity
(Gttingen: Vanderhoeck and Ruprecht, 1995).
16
J. Fossum, The Name of God, p. 333.
17
M. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven in Jewish and Christian Apocalypses (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1993).
18
M. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven, p. 70.
h u m a n s w h o a r e r i g h t e o u s c a n t a k e t h e i r p l a c e in the h e a v e n l y h i e r -
a r c h y a f t e r d e a t h . T h e s e traditions, t h e n , focus on h u m a n relationships
with a n g e l s in t h e h e a v e n s , usually a f t e r t h e i r m o r t a l life h a s e n d e d .

(b) Michael Mack's Entwicklungsstadien

M . M a c h ' s Entwicklungsstadien des judischen Engelglaubens in vonabbinischer

Zeit is a c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t u d y t r a c i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a n g e l beliefs
t h r o u g h r o u g h l y t h e s a m e p e r i o d as t h e p r e s e n t p r o j e c t (c. 2 0 0 B C E -
100 CE). 1 9 H i s b o o k is w i d e in s c o p e , a t t e m p t i n g to t r a c e t h e devel-
o p m e n t of a n g e l beliefs f r o m t h e Biblical p e r i o d t h r o u g h to t h e e n d
of t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d . L i m i t a t i o n s of s p a c e a n d f o c u s o n t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t of ideas o v e r t i m e m e a n t t h a t h e w a s n o t a b l e t o deal
with s o m e t h e m e s r e l a t i n g to his g e n e r a l t o p i c in detail, b u t h e h a s
significant sections on h u m a n - a n g e l communities.20 H e also, like
C h a r l e s w o r t h , h a s a section o n h u m a n t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . 2 1
T w o of M a c h ' s initial c a v e a t s m e r i t r e i t e r a t i o n h e r e . First, M a c h
n o t e s t h a t Biblical " a n g e l o l o g y " is a p r o b l e m a t i c t e r m , since it sug-
gests t h a t t h e r e w a s a c o h e r e n t set of a n g e l beliefs f o r t h e e n t i r e
H e b r e w Bible. 2 2 I n d e e d , t h e r e is r e a s o n f o r c a u t i o n in t h e use of this
t e r m , since it implies a s y s t e m a t i c d o c t r i n e r e g a r d i n g angels. The
e v i d e n c e f r o m this p e r i o d suggests t h a t t h e r e w a s a w i d e v a r i e t y of
beliefs. N e v e r t h e l e s s , at t i m e s it will be useful t o talk of a specific
a u t h o r ' s o r g r o u p ' s " a n g e l o l o g y , " b u t w h e n s p e a k i n g of this p e r i o d
as a w h o l e , it is n o t a b l y m o r e p r u d e n t t o s p e a k of " a n g e l o l o g i e s . "
S e c o n d , M a c h n o t e s t h a t p r e v i o u s studies of angels a r e oversimplified
b e c a u s e t h e y a n a l y z e only t h o s e p a s s a g e s c o n t a i n i n g t h e w o r d " a n g e l
( ) . " T h e p r e s e n t s t u d y will largely (as M a c h himself d o e s despite

19
M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien des judischen Engelglaubens in vorrabinischer ^eit (Tbingen:
Mohr Siebeck, 1992).
20
In his third chapter see especially pp. 159-163; 209-219; 241-255. His chap-
ter 4, "Die Gefahren Der Gemeinschaft," is also relevant. In English, "The Danger
of Communion" suggests the central therne is human-angel communities, but actu-
ally the discussion focuses more upon the ideological problems of the fusion of what
Mach calls "Biblical Angelology" (ideas he discussed in chapter 1) and Graeco-
Jewish Angelology (chapter 2).
21
M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien, pp. 163-173.
22
So also S. Olyan, who warns that, "The use of the common term 'angelology'
by scholars is problematic. It implies a single, systematic doctrine of angels, some-
thing that may have existed for some specific groups (perhaps the Qiimran sectar-
ians), but certainly does not exist in rabbinic texts." S. Olyan, A Thousand Thousands
Served Him: Exegesis mid the Naming of Angels (Tbingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1991) 1 . 1.
his o w n w a r n i n g ) look a t e v i d e n c e w h e r e t h e t e r m " a n g e l " a p p e a r s ,
b u t it will also c o n s i d e r e v i d e n c e w h e r e divine b e i n g s a p p e a r to b e
i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h h u m a n s e v e n if v a r i o u s t e r m s a r e e m p l o y e d .
M a c h divides t h e m a t e r i a l i n t o f o u r c h a p t e r s t h a t follow t h e stages
of d e v e l o p m e n t . H i s first c h a p t e r looks a t Biblical a n g e l o l o g y . He
sorts t h e m a n y a n g e l r e f e r e n c e s in t h e H e b r e w Bible a c c o r d i n g t o
f u n c t i o n , d i s c e r n i n g t w o m a i n s t r a n d s of t r a d i t i o n t h e heavenly
c o u n c i l m o t i f a n d a n g e l s ( ) as " m e s s e n g e r s " t h a t eventually
f u s e d in texts like t h e L X X of J o b . " T h e G r e c o - R o m a n termino-
logy for t h e N e w A n g e l o l o g y " is t h e s u b j e c t of M a c h ' s s e c o n d c h a p -
ter. H e looks at issues i n v o l v e d in t h e t r a n s l a t i o n of a n g e l t e r m s f r o m
t h e H e b r e w Bible i n t o t h e S e p t u a g i n t . I n t e r e s t i n g l y f o r o u r study,
M a c h sees t h e use of in t h e L X X as a b l a n k e t t e r m f o r des-
i g n a t i n g heavenly beings.
I n his t h i r d a n d largest c h a p t e r M a c h c o n s i d e r s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
of a n g e l beliefs in extra-Biblical writings, s u r v e y i n g t h e b r e a d t h of
the t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t angels. H i s sections o n c o m m u n i o n w i t h angels
(pp. 1 3 2 - 3 3 , 2 0 9 - 1 9 ) a r e r e l e v a n t t o this s t u d y . I n a somewhat
b r o a d e r sense t h a n is t a k e n in c h a p t e r 4 of this study, M a c h dis-
cusses c o m m u n i o n w i t h a n g e l s in t h e f o r m s of c o m p a n i o n s in h e a v -
enly a s c e n t , i n t e r p r e t e r s / m e s s e n g e r s , stars, et al. H e a t t r i b u t e s the
g r o w t h of a n g e l o l o g y in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d to t h e rise
of a p o c a l y p t i c i s m . O n t h e w h o l e t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y a g r e e s w i t h this
assertion. M a c h also sees t h e f u s i o n of Biblical a n g e l o l o g y w i t h G r e e k
m y t h o l o g y in texts like Joseph and Aseneth.
I n his final c h a p t e r M a c h looks at w h a t h e calls " t h e d a n g e r s of
h u m a n - a n g e l c o m m u n i o n " (Die Gefahren Dei Gemeinschaft). On those
o c c a s i o n s w h e n a n g e l s m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d b u t a r e a b s e n t (e.g., 2 C h r
36:15) o r in p a r t i c u l a r w h e n t h e i r role is d o w n p l a y e d , n a m e l y in t h e
N e w T e s t a m e n t a n d t h e w r i t i n g s of J o s e p h u s , M a c h suggests this
a b s e n c e r e p r e s e n t s a n e g a t i v e r e s p o n s e to t h e o t h e r w i s e b u r g e o n i n g
a n g e l beliefs of t h e p e r i o d . A c c o r d i n g to M a c h , J o s e p h u s c o n s i d e r s
a n g e l beliefs d a n g e r o u s b e c a u s e of t h e i r i n t i m a t e c o n n e c t i o n to t h e
"political-ideological" p r o b l e m of a p o c a l y p t i c i s m . T h a t is, a p o c a l y p t i c
writings o f t e n h a d politically d a n g e r o u s t h o u g h t s a n d ideas, s u c h as
the o v e r t u r n i n g of t h i s - w o r l d p o w e r s , so t h a t J o s e p h u s a n d also t h e
r a b b i s a f t e r h i m d o w n p l a y e d b o t h a p o c a l y p t i c i d e a s as well as a n g e l
beliefs in t h e i r desire to c o o p e r a t e w i t h R o m a n rule. 2 3 S u c h a c o n n e c -

23
M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien, pp. 300-333.
tion b e t w e e n t h e b u r g e o n i n g of a n g e l beliefs a n d t h e political aspects
of a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t i n g s is n o t w a r r a n t e d b y t h e e v i d e n c e , h o w e v e r .
F o r M a c h , t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t also reflects a d e l i b e r a t e a n d c o n -
sistent d o w n p l a y i n g of a n g e l beliefs. T h i s is d u e , h o w e v e r , to t h e
theological a n d C h r i s t o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s t h a t w e r e c r e a t e d as C h r i s t
c a m e to b e u n d e r s t o o d as divine. W h i l e this m a y b e p e r c e p t i b l e as a
t r e n d in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a n g e l beliefs o v e r a n e x t e n d e d p e r i o d of
t i m e (with t h e b e n e f i t of hindsight), the 78 o c c u r r e n c e s of t h e w o r d
in t h e N T reflect a v a r i e t y of beliefs. S i n c e t h e d o c u m e n t s
of t h e N T c o m e f r o m a v a r i e t y of c o m m u n i t i e s a n d slightly d i f f e r e n t
times, it m a y n o t b e p r u d e n t to t h i n k of t r e n d s w i t h i n w h a t is n o w a
c o r p u s t h e N T a s if it w e r e a single b o d y of literature in t h e past. 2 4
T h u s , M a c h ' s w o r k is v e r y u s e f u l in t h a t it h a s b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r
a n d s o u g h t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a n g e l beliefs in t h e
p r e - r a b b i n i c p e r i o d . H i s s t u d y t o u c h e d u p o n s o m e of t h e s a m e a r e a s
as t h e p r e s e n t investigation, s u c h as t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the right-
e o u s i n t o a n g e l s a n d t h e c o m m u n i o n of a n g e l s w i t h h u m a n s . The
r e l a t i o n s h i p of h u m a n s a n d angels, h o w e v e r , still m e r i t s g r e a t e r a t t e n -
t i o n , especially in light of s o m e r e c e n t c o n c l u s i o n s m a d e b y t h o s e
studying angelomorphic Christology.25

(c) Other Important Studies on Angel Beliefs

T w o a u t h o r s h a v e l o o k e d closely a t a n g e l t r a d i t i o n s in the D e a d S e a
Scrolls. 2 6 C . N e w s o m p u b l i s h e d t h e first c o m p l e t e t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e
l o n g - a w a i t e d Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice ( 4 Q 4 0 0 - 4 0 5 ) f r o m Q u m r a n
in 1985. 2 7 T h e Songs c o n t a i n a s u b s t a n t i a l a m o u n t of m a t e r i a l on
angels (including a w i d e r a n g e of t e r m s for h e a v e n l y beings). N e w s o m ' s
p u b l i c a t i o n of the texts, a l o n g w i t h s o m e s u b s e q u e n t analysis in v a r -
i o u s articles, h a s h e l p e d to m a k e this difficult m a t e r i a l m o r e accs-
sible to scholars. 2 8 Also, h e r e n t r y 011 " a n g e l s " in t h e A n c h o r Bible

24
For a similar critique of this point, see the review by L. Hurtado in J TS 45
(1994) 636.
25
See section (d) below.
26
More recently, M. Mach has written the entry for "Angels" in the Encyclopedia
of the Dead Sea Scrolls (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) 24-27, which con-
tains a helpful summary of the DSS evidence and some useful insights on the rela-
tionship of humans and angels in that literature.
27
C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice: A Critical Edition (Atlanta: Harvard
Semitic Studies, 1985).
28
C. Newsom and Y. Yadin, "The Masada Fragment of the Qiirnran Songs of
the Sabbath Sacrifice" Israel Exploration Journal 34 (1984) 77-88; C. Newsom,
D i c t i o n a r y is a n excellent s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r a n y look a t angels. 2 9 E v e n
a c u r s o r y g l a n c e at this e n t r y , h o w e v e r , will s h o w t h a t n o t much
w o r k h a s b e e n d o n e o n t h e relationship b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. 3 0
M . D a v i d s o n ' s m o n o g r a p h , Angels at Qumran, c o m p a r e d a n g e l t r a d i -
tions in t h e D e a d Sea Scrolls a n d 1 E n o c h ( c h a p t e r s 1 - 3 6 , 7 2 - 1 0 8 ) . 3 1
D a v i d s o n ' s s t u d y filled a n o t a b l e void b y c o l l e c t i n g a n d beginning
to a n a l y z e t h e large b o d y of a n g e l i c l i t e r a t u r e f o u n d in t h e w r i t i n g s
from the D e a d S e a Scrolls. H i s analysis, h o w e v e r , d i d n o t delve
deeply into t h e relationship b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. Nevertheless,
D a v i d s o n says t h a t t h e a u t h o r s of t h e Q u m r a n sectarian writings
a n d t h e m a t e r i a l f r o m 1 E n o c h largely c o n c e i v e of t h e r e a l m s of
h u m a n s a n d of angels as t w o distinct r e a l m s . H e a d m i t s t h a t

All writers presuppose a separation between the realms of angels and

humans, a spatial dualism, but this gap, in various ways, is frequently
bridged. Nevertheless, it appears that all our authors would hold to the
view that the proper dwelling-place of angels is in heaven, even though
m a n y of the angels engage in various activities around the cosmos. 32

So, in D a v i d s o n ' s analysis, t h e g a p is b r i d g e d , b u t n o i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

is m a d e b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels.
S o m e o t h e r s c h o l a r s h a v e m a d e i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s to t h e
g e n e r a l discussion of t h e n a t u r e of h u m a n s a n d angels. C . R . A.
M o r r a y - J o n e s h a s p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e a t t a i n m e n t of a n g e l i c life m a y
b e seen as " t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l m y s t i c i s m . " 3 3 T h o u g h h e focuses o n t h e
r a b b i n i c a n d H e k h a l o t traditions, h e also looks a t t h e J e w i s h p s e u d e p i -
g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l . H e h a s also s e e n this s a m e p h e n o m e n o n in Paul. 3 4
M . B a r k e r ' s The Great Angel c o n s i d e r e d t h e i m p a c t of a n e x a l t e d
a n g e l t r a d i t i o n o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of C h r i s t o l o g y . 3 5 I n l o o k i n g at

"Merkabah Exegesis in the Qumran Sabbath Shirot" JJS 38 (1987) 11 30 ;C. Newsom,
"He Has Established for Himself Priests" in Archaeology and History in the Dead Sea
Scrolls, ed. L. Schiffman (Sheffield: J S O T Press, 1990) 101-120.
29
C. Newsom, "Angels: O T " in ABD 1:248-253.
30
See her subsection on "Relations between Angels and Humans" in ABD 1:250
for a brief discussion on Gen 6:1-4.
31
M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran: A Comparative Study of 1 Enoch 1-36, 72-108 and
the Sectarian Writings from Qumran (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994).
32
M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran, p. 291.
33
C. R. A. Morray-Jones, "Transformational Mysticism in the Apocalyptic-
Merkabah Tradition" JJS 43 (1992) 1-31.
34
C. R. A. Morray-Jones, "Paradise Revisited (2 Cor 12:1-12): The Jewish Mystical
Background of Paul's Apostalate. Part 1: The Jewish Sources" HTR 86 (1993)
177-217; "Part 2: Paul's Heavenly Ascent and Its Significance," pp. 265-292.
35
M. Barker, The Great Angel: A Study of Israel's Second God (London: SPCK, 1992).
t h e e v i d e n c e of " t h e sons of G o d , " she states, "All t h e texts in t h e
H e b r e w Bible distinguish clearly b e t w e e n t h e divine sons of E l o h i m /
E l y o n a n d t h o s e h u m a n b e i n g s w h o a r e called sons of Y a h w e h . " 3 6
T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n is v a l u a b l e , since " s o n s of G o d " is a t e r m that
s o m e t i m e s refers to angels. H e r distinction a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h f o r m
of t h e divine n a m e is used m a y h a v e a n i m p a c t o n o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g
of t h e t e r m " s o n s of G o d " a n d its r e l a t i o n t o h u m a n s a n d divine
beings. H e r a s s e r t i o n is b o r n e o u t by t h e e v i d e n c e , in t h a t t h e t e r m
" s o n s of E l o h i m " d o e s s e e m r e g u l a r l y t o r e f e r t o angels. 3 7 It is less
c l e a r t h a t t h e t e r m " s o n s of Y a h w e h " is exclusive to h u m a n s , since
t h e e v i d e n c e is fairly limited. 3 8
W . H o r b u r y ' s r e c e n t b o o k , Jewish Messianism and the Cult of Christ,
c o n t a i n s a n insightful section o n t h e " C o - o r d i n a t i o n of angelic a n d
[ h u m a n ] m e s s i a n i c deliverers." 3 9 H o r b u r y asks, " C o u l d t h e a n g e l i c
figures w h o w e r e e n v i s a g e d as h e a v e n - s e n t deliverers h a v e readily
b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e a r t h l y l e a d e r s ? " 4 0 T o this h e r e s p o n d s in t h e
a f f i r m a t i v e , t h o u g h h e n o t e s t h a t , " d e l i v e r e r s c o n s i d e r e d in c o n t e m -
p o r a r y discussion of d i v i n e a g e n t s a r e n o t a l w a y s unambiguously
angelic." 4 1

(d) Angelomorphic Christology

In t h e 1990s several s c h o l a r s r e f o c u s e d scholarly a t t e n t i o n u p o n t h e

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of J e s u s C h r i s t w i t h t h e f o r m a n d / o r f u n c t i o n of a n
a n g e l t h a t is, a n g e l o m o r p h i c C h r i s t o l o g y . A t t h e f o r e of this series
of studies w a s L. H u r t a d o ' s One God, One Lord, w h i c h a p p e a r e d in
its first e d i t i o n in 1988. H i s s t u d y s o u g h t to u n d e r s t a n d h o w n a s c e n t
C h r i s t i a n i t y c o u l d i n c o r p o r a t e J e w i s h m o n o t h e i s m and t h e w o r s h i p
of C h r i s t . H i s analysis i n c l u d e d a discussion of t h e r e l a t i o n of a n g e l o -
logy t o C h r i s t o l o g y . 4 2 H u r t a d o suggests t h a t t h e e a r l y Christians
believed in a b i f u r c a t i o n of t h e g o d h e a d : G o d a n d C h r i s t . T h i s b i f u r -
c a t i o n s t e m s f r o m t h e i m p a c t of J e w i s h " d i v i n e a g e n c y " t r a d i t i o n s
u p o n t h e early C h r i s t i a n c o n c e p t i o n s of C h r i s t ' s role. T h e distinctive

36
M. Barker, The Great Angel, p. 10.
37
E.g., Gen 6:2; Deut 32:8 (LXX); Job 1:6, 38:7; Ps 29:1. 82:1, 6; Dan 3:25.
38
See 1 Chr 28:6; Ps 2:7; Isa 9:6-7.
39
W. Horbury, Jewish Messianism and the Cult of Christ (London: SCM, 1998) 83.86
40
W. Horbury, Jewish Messianism, p. 83.
41
W. Horbury, Jewish Messianism, p. 84.
42
L. Hurtado, One God, One Lord: Early Christian Devotion and Andent Jewish Monotheism,
2nd ed. (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1998).
f e a t u r e of t h e C h r i s t i a n " m u t a t i o n " w a s t h a t t h e risen C h r i s t w a s
worshipped unlike a n y o t h e r divine a g e n t in t h e w i d e r J e w i s h m a t r i x .
H u r t a d o ' s discussion of " d i v i n e a g e n c y " d e a l t w i t h v a r i o u s aspects of
angelology f r o m t h e p e r i o d , including a c h a p t e r o n " E x a l t e d P a t r i a r c h s
as D i v i n e A g e n t s , " w h i c h a c t e d as a b a s i s f o r f u r t h e r s t u d y by
43
G i e s c h e n , F l e t c h e r - L o u i s , a n d this a u t h o r .
L. H u r t a d o ' s w o r k elicited several responses, 4 4 t h e fullest of w h i c h
w a s b y L. S t u c k e n b r u c k , w h o looked specifically a t t h e issue of a n g e l
v e n e r a t i o n in t h e B o o k of R e v e l a t i o n a n d o t h e r r e l a t e d literature. 4 5
H i s m o n o g r a p h w a s largely a r e s p o n s e t o H u r t a d o ' s c l a i m s t h a t v e n -
e r a t i o n / w o r s h i p w a s a decisive f a c t o r in C h r i s t i a n i t y ' s "mutation"
a w a y f r o m J u d a i s m . T h e w o r s h i p of a n g e l s as discussed b y both
H u r t a d o a n d S t u c k e n b r u c k implies, at least, t h a t t h e r e is a c l e a r dis-
t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels; t h a t is, if angels w e r e in a n y
w a y a n o b j e c t of w o r s h i p by s o m e , t h e n t h e y w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n
c o n s i d e r e d to b e e q u i v a l e n t in n a t u r e t o h u m a n s . W h a t is u n c l e a r ,
h o w e v e r , is t o w h a t e x t e n t a n g e l v e n e r a t i o n w a s p r a c t i c e d . Y e t in
g e n e r a l a n g e l s ' r e f u s a l of w o r s h i p b y h u m a n s s e e m s to b e m o t i v a t e d
b y a c o n c e r n n o t for h u m a n - a n g e l e q u a l i t y b u t i n s t e a d f o r f o c u s i n g
reverence on God.
P. Carrell also investigated angel traditions in the Book of Revelation.
H i s a i m w a s to u n d e r s t a n d h o w a n d to w h a t e x t e n t t h o s e t r a d i t i o n s
i m p a c t e d t h e a n g e l o m o r p h i c C h r i s t o l o g y t h e r e i n . 4 6 H i s d e f i n i t i o n of
t h e t e r m " a n g e l s " is " h e a v e n l y b e i n g s , distinct f r o m G o d a n d from
human bangs, w h o exist t o serve G o d as m e s s e n g e r s , as t h e h e a v e n l y
c o n g r e g a t i o n a t w o r s h i p , a n d as a g e n t s of t h e divine will fulfilling a
variety of o t h e r functions." 4 ' E v e n t h o u g h h e e m p l o y s a tight definition

43
L. Hurtado, One God, One Lord, pp. 51-70; C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology,
pp. 153-161; C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts: Angels, Christology and Soteriology (Tbingen:
Mohr Siebeck, 1997) 145-164; chapter 3 below.
44
P. Rainbow, "Jewish Monotheism as the Matrix for New Testament Christology:
A Review Article" N0vT33 (1991) 78-91; A. Chester, "Jewish Messianic Expectations,
Mediatorial Figures and Pauline Christology" in Paulus und das antike Judentums, ed.
M. Hengel and U. Heckel (Tbingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1991) 17-89; P. Davis, "Divine
Agents, Mediators, and New Testament Christology" JTS 45 (1994) 479-503.
45
L. Stuckenbruck, Angel Veneration and Christology. A Study in Early Judaism and in
the Christology of the Apocalypse of John (Tbingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1995).
w
P. Carrell, Jesus and the Angels: Angelology and Christology in the Apocalypse of John
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). R. Gundry, "Angelomorphic
Christology in the Book of Revelation" SBLSP (1994) 662-678, foresaw the need
for a study such as Carrell's.
47
P. Carrell, Jesus and the Angels, p. 14; italics mine.
of " a n g e l , " h e still i n c l u d e s a s e c t i o n o n e x a l t e d h u m a n s in his
" A n g e l o m o r p h i c F i g u r e s " c h a p t e r as a p a r t of the " a n g e l o l o g i c a l c o n -
text of t h e A p o c a l y p s e ' s C h r i s t o l o g y . " 4 8 F r o m t h e v a r i e t y of e v i d e n c e
t h a t h e surveys r e g a r d i n g h u m a n s a n d angels, h e c o n c l u d e s that,
" W e c a n n o t b e c o n f i d e n t , h o w e v e r , t h a t J o h n [ a u t h o r of the A p o c a -
lypse, w r i t i n g a t t h e e n d of t h e first c e n t u r y C E ] w o u l d h a v e b e e n
familiar with the idea t h a t a h u m a n could b e c o m e an angel."49
D. H a n n a h examined traditions regarding the archangel Michael
to see w h e t h e r these i n f o r m t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a n angel Christology. 5 0
T h e p r o m i n e n c e of t h e a n g e l M i c h a e l in texts s u c h as D a n i e l , t h e
W a r Scroll, a n d t h e B o o k of R e v e l a t i o n l e n d s s u p p o r t to t h e asser-
tion t h a t a n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of J e s u s C h r i s t w i t h t h e a n g e l M i c h a e l is
highly plausible. H a n n a h ' s specific f o c u s o n M i c h a e l u n d e r s c o r e s t h e
c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n J e w i s h a n g e l t r a d i t i o n s a n d early Christianity.
In his b o o k a n d in a l a t e r review of C . G i e s c h e n , H a n n a h is c a u -
tious in his a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e t e r m s " a n g e l , " " a n g e l i c , " a n d " a n g e l o -
m o r p h i c " w i t h r e g a r d to Christology. 5 1 O f p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e is his
n o t e t h a t " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " s h o u l d r e f e r to visual p o r t r a y a l s of C h r i s t
in t h e f o r m (based literally o n ) of a n a n g e l . T h e t e r m " a n g e l o -
m o r p h i c " in this s t u d y will refer to instances of h u m a n beings a p p e a r -
i n g in t h e f o r m of angels. T h e visual c o m p o n e n t of a n g e l p o r t r a y a l s
will b e discussed in c h a p t e r 2.
I n a s h o r t article o n p a t t e r n s of m e d i a t i o n a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n to
C h r i s t o l o g y , P. D a v i s h i n t e d a t t h e d i r e c t i o n s c h o l a r s w o u l d next
explore. H e concludes:

O t h e r scholars have already noted a certain fluidity in the distinction

between God and his chief agents in some t e x t s . . . . By the same token,
when that agent is a h u m a n being, there might be some fluidity in the
distinction between the divine and the h u m a n in that particular case. 52

T w o s u b s e q u e n t studies o n C h r i s t o l o g y e x p l o r e d this possibility of

fluidity in t h e distinction b e t w e e n t h e h u m a n a n d divine.

48
P. Carrell, Jesus and the Angels, pp. 77-90.
49
P. Carrell, Jesus and the Angels, p. 90.
50
D. Hannah, Michael and Christ: Michael Traditions and Angel Christology in Early
Christianity (Tbingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1999). Hannah's work built upon the seminal
study by W. Lueken, Michael (Gttingen: Vanderhoeck and Ruprecht, 1898).
51
D. Hannah, Michael and Christ, see esp. pp. 12-13; Review of C. Gieschen,
Angelomorphic Christology: Antecedents and Early Evidence (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1997) in JTS
51 (2000) 230-236.
52
P. Davis, "Divine Agents, Mediators, and New Testament Christology" JTS
45 (1994) 499.
 C . G i e s c h e n is p e r h a p s t h e s t r o n g e s t a d v o c a t e f o r a n g e l o m o r p h i c
C h r i s t o l o g y . G i e s c h e n ' s w o r k is a collection of t h e a n t e c e d e n t s t o a n d
early e v i d e n c e for a n g e l o m o r p h i c C h r i s t o l o g y t h r o u g h the f o u r t h c e n -
t u r y C E . 5 3 It is his a i m to d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t " a n g e l t r a d i t i o n s . . . h a d
a significant i m p a c t o n t h e early e x p r e s s i o n of C h r i s t o l o g y . " 5 4 His
s u r v e y of t h e a n t e c e d e n t s i n c l u d e d a s e c t i o n o n "angelomorphic
h u m a n s . " 5 5 F r o m his s u r v e y h e c o n c l u d e s t h a t " M a n y of these texts
testify t h a t h u m a n s c a n b e , o r b e c o m e , a n g e l o m o r p h i c w h i l e still
alive o n e a r t h , " a d d i n g , " h u m a n o n t o l o g y is n o t a q u e s t i o n t h a t t r o u -
bles t h e w r i t e r s of this l i t e r a t u r e . " 5 6 T h e c l a i m t h a t h u m a n s c o u l d
b e in s o m e w a y i d e n t i f i e d as angels in t h e i r e a r t h l y lives p u s h e d f u r -
tlier t h e b o u n d a r i e s of s c h o l a r s ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e relationship
b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels.
C . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s s t u d i e d t h e C h r i s t o l o g y a n d soteriology of L u k e -
Acts in light of a n g e l o m o r p h i c traditions. 5 Like G i e s c h e n , F l e t c h e r -
L o u i s ' s b a c k g r o u n d r e s e a r c h i n c l u d e d a significant section (the m o s t
t h o r o u g h of the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d studies) o n a n g e l o m o r p h i c human-
58
ity. F l e t c h e r - L o u i s c o n c l u d e s his s u r v e y of this e v i d e n c e by saying
h e h o p e s to h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t " t h e r e w a s a well e s t a b l i s h e d
a n d significant t r a d i t i o n , o r e v e n t r a d i t i o n s , in w h i c h h u m a n iden-
59
tity w a s u n d e r s t o o d in a n g e l i c c a t e g o r i e s . " H e g o e s o n to say:

W e submit that an approach to the data . . . which does not impose a

rigid dualism, but rather accepts the openness and fluidity of h u m a n ,
angelic and Divine categories, allows for simplicity of interpretation,
and does most justice to the texts' own worldviews(s). Accordingly our
label 'angelomorphic', has proved heuristically invaluable. (Though of
course J e w s themselves used m a n y different terms equivalent to angelo-
morphic, such as holy ones, host, glorious ones, and were not afraid
to recognise that an angelomorphic h u m a n could be regarded as equiv-
aient to 'a god'). 60

This approach does create considerable confusion, however, and

61
F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s c o m e u n d e r s o m e criticism. J . O ' N e i l l h a s cri-

53
C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology.
54
C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 6.
55
C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, pp. 152-183.
56
C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 183.
57
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts.
58
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, "Part : Jewish Angelomorphic Traditions," pp.
109-215.
59
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 211.
60
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 211-212.
61
Fletcher-Louis sometimes employs the term (angelic life) to
t i q u e d F l e t c h e r - L o u i s ' s c o n c l u s i o n s b e c a u s e " t h e s e c l a i m s to onto-
logical i d e n t i t y a r e simply m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of t h e J e w i s h e v i d e n c e , "
a d d i n g , " t h e r e is a c l e a r a n d consistently m a i n t a i n e d d i f f e r e n c e in
kind b e t w e e n G o d a n d a n g e l s a n d h u m a n b e i n g s . " 6 2
O n e e x a m p l e f r o m a m o n g t h e texts to b e s t u d i e d will b e useful
for illustrating t h e q u e s t i o n a t h a n d . I n G a l a t i a n s 4 : 1 4 P a u l writes,
" a n d t h o u g h m y c o n d i t i o n w a s a trial to y o u , y o u d i d n o t s c o r n o r
despise m e , b u t r e c e i v e d m e as a n a n g e l of G o d , as C h r i s t J e s u s "
( , ). M o s t interpreters
a r g u e t h a t P a u l h a s s o m e sort of c o m p a r i s o n in m i n d f o r i n s t a n c e ,
" y o u r e c e i v e d m e (as you) w o u l d receive a m e s s e n g e r / a n a n g e l of
G o d , as y o u w o u l d receive C h r i s t J e s u s [ h i m s e l f ] . " I n his highly
r e g a r d e d c o m m e n t a i ) o n G a l a t i a n s , h o w e v e r , H . B e t z m a k e s this
interesting observation a b o u t the relationship between h u m a n s a n d
angels in his gloss o n 4:14, " T o b e s u r e , in a n t i q u i t y t h e r e w a s n o t
a g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e two, b e c a u s e o n e c o u l d n e v e r b e sure
w h e t h e r o n e was encountering a divine angel or a human messenger."63 B e t z ' s
s t u d e n t M . M i t c h e l l says c o n c e r n i n g t h e s a m e verse t h a t " t h e r e is
n o t h i n g in t h e p a s s a g e t o suggest t h a t P a u l likens h i m s e l f to t h e
s u p e r n a t u r a l e n v o y s , a n g e l s . " 6 4 T h e s e t w o j u x t a p o s e d o p i n i o n s clearly
d e m o n s t r a t e the c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n f u s i o n t h a t h a s arisen o v e r t h e m e a n -
i n g of P a u l ' s p h r a s e , b u t also t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d
angels generally. Recently C. Gieschen has argued for a strong angel
C h r i s t o l o g y u n d e r l y i n g this p h r a s e . 6 5 H i s exegesis, h o w e v e r , h a s b e e n
c h a l l e n g e d b y a n u m b e r of scholars. 6 6 T h u s , in c u r r e n t s c h o l a r s h i p
t h e r e s e e m s t o b e c o n s i d e r a b l e d e b a t e o v e r the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels.

describe his idea that individuals and communities are angelic in "this-life." The
use of this terminology confuses the issue further, however, since the term comes
from second century CE sources. The employment of it as a technical term implies
that the idea was widespread in the literature from an earlier period, but this is
not the case. Luke-Acts, pp. 184, 214-215.
62
J. O'Neill, Review of C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts in JTS 50 (1999) 225-230.
63
H. D. Betz, Galatians: A Commentary on Paul's Letter to the Churches in Galatia
(Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979) 226; italics mine.
64
M. Mitchell, "New Testament Envoys" JBL 111 (1992) 646 n. 17. Contra
J. Fitzmyer, "But though the word is found in the New Testament in the
sense of a human messenger (Lk 7:24; 9:52; Jas 2:25), it is never used thus by
Paul." "A Feature of Qumran Angelology and the Angels of 1 Cor 11:10" NTS 4
(1957-58) 55.
65
C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, pp. 315-325.
66
See two reviews: J. Davila, JSJ 30 (1999) 344-346, and D. Hannah, JTS 51
(2000) 230-236.
(e) Summary

W h a t p r e v i o u s s c h o l a r s h i p h a s said specifically a b o u t the r e l a t i o n s h i p

b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d e a r l y
C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d is relatively limited. S c h f e r ' s s t u d y largely c o v e r e d
m a t e r i a l a f t e r o u r p e r i o d . T h e largest studies of t h e r e l e v a n t litera-
t u r e p e r t a i n i n g to a n g e l s (e.g., M a c h a n d D a v i d s o n ) did n o t c o n s i d e r
this t o p i c as its o w n s u b j e c t . S m a l l e r studies, s u c h as C h a r l e s w o r t h
a n d H o r b u r y , c o v e r e d specific a s p e c t s of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p .
I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of h u m a n s a n d angels
a r o s e in s o m e of the studies r e s e a r c h i n g a n g e l o m o r p h i c C h r i s t o l o g y .
F l e t c h e r - L o u i s a n d G i e s c h e n did m o r e d e t a i l e d w o r k o n t h e s u b j e c t ,
b u t t h a t w o r k w a s d o n e in t h e c o n t e x t of finding evidence for
a n t e c e d e n t s to a n g e l o m o r p h i c Christology. T h e s t r o n g e m p h a s i s u p o n
a n g e l o m o r p h i c C h r i s t o l o g y in r e c e n t s c h o l a r s h i p o n a n g e l beliefs r e p -
resents s o m e t h i n g of a bias in s c h o l a r s h i p . It suggests t h a t angels c a n
o n l y b e discussed v a l u a b l y as t h e y relate to t h e h u m a n J e s u s but
t h a t angels a r e n o t t h e m s e l v e s a valid s u b j e c t , p a r t i c u l a r l y in rela-
tion to h u m a n s g e n e r a l l y .
T h i s s t u d y a i m s t o investigate t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n angels a n d
h u m a n s as a p h e n o m e n o n w i t h i n t h e religious p u r v i e w of late S e c o n d
T e m p l e J u d a i s m , of which nascent Christianity was one part, a n d to a n s w e r
J. O ' N e i l l ' s a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h e r e w a s " a c l e a r a n d consistently m a i n -
tained difference in kind b e t w e e n G o d a n d angels a n d h u m a n beings." 5 7
L o o k i n g a t this p h e n o m e n o n o n its o w n , w i t h o u t t h e p u r p o s e of
d e t e c t i n g its i n f l u e n c e o n l a t e r C h r i s t o l o g y , will a l l o w f o r a more
u n b i a s e d view t h a t d o e s n o t privilege t h e e v i d e n c e r e g a r d i n g J e s u s .
N e x t , a s h o r t discussion of t h e c o n t e x t of s e c o n d T e m p l e angel
t r a d i t i o n s is r e q u i r e d in o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d t h e a n t e c e d e n t s a n d c o n -
t e m p o r a n e o u s situation of the e v i d e n c e u p o n w h i c h this study focuses.

1.4 Historical Context

Angels a r e f o u n d in texts f r o m all p e r i o d s of t h e H e b r e w t r a d i t i o n

f r o m t h e pre-Exilic d o w n to t h e B o o k of D a n i e l a n d b e y o n d . 5 8

67
J. O'Neill, JTS 50 (1999) 228.
68
For some good general summaries and surveys of angel traditions, see P. Schfer,
Rivalitat, pp. 940 ;Mach, Etitwicklwigsstadien; C. Newsom, "Angel: OT" in ABD 1:248-
253; and J . Ashton, "Bridging Ambiguities" in Studying John: Approaches to the Fourth
Gospel (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994) 71-89.
 69
T h e H e b r e w w o r d for a n g e l is . A t t h e m o s t g e n e r a l level
h a s t h e m e a n i n g of " m e s s e n g e r " o r " e n v o y . " T h e s a m e m e a n -
ings a p p l y for t h e G r e e k . 7 0 A m o r e t e c h n i c a l d e f i n i t i o n f o r
" a n g e l " is " a h e a v e n l y b e i n g t h a t m e d i a t e s b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d t h e
divine." 7 1 T h e t e r m " a n g e l " in t h e H e b r e w a n d G r e e k h a d t h e flexi-
bility t o r e f e r t o e i t h e r h u m a n o r divine m e s s e n g e r s .
I n o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d t h e a n g e l beliefs of t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e
p e r i o d , it is i m p o r t a n t to b e a w a r e of t h e beliefs t h a t p r e c e d e d t h e m ,
as well as those t h a t w e r e c o n t e m p o r a r y in t h e w i d e r G r a e c o - R o m a n
milieu. 7 2 T h e logical s t a r t i n g p o i n t , t h e n , is a n g e l beliefs f r o m t h e
H e b r e w Bible. A s M a c h suggests, beliefs a b o u t a n g e l s f r o m the
H e b r e w Bible c a n b e g r o u p e d i n t o t w o m a i n c a t e g o r i e s : t h e divine
c o u n c i l a n d t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d .
As in m a n y a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t e r n c u l t u r e s , t h e H e b r e w under-
s t a n d i n g of t h e h e a v e n l y w o r l d w a s of a royal c o u r t w i t h Y a h w e h
as king a n d various divine beings at his service (Ps 82; 1 K g 2 2 : 1 9 - 2 2 ;
Job 1-2; Dan 7). 73 T h u s , e a r l y c o n c e p t i o n s of t h e h e a v e n l y realm
e n g a g e d a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c terms. It s h o u l d c o m e as n o surprise, t h e n ,
to see l a t e r a n g e l beliefs d e m o n s t r a t i n g a similar u n d e r s t a n d i n g .
I n a n u m b e r of H e b r e w Bible texts G o d ' s visible f o r m to h u m a n s
7 4
is d e s c r i b e d as t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d ( . ( Scholars h
p r i m a r i l y c o n s i d e r e d t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d a s a p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n
(hypostasis) of G o d . 7 5 T h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d c a r r i e s o u t p a r t i c u l a r
tasks o n e a r t h : m e s s e n g e r ( G e n 16, 22; J u d g 6, 13), p r o t e c t o r / w a r -
r i o r ( N u m 22; Ps 34), a n d e v e n d e s t r o y e r ( E x o d 4 : 2 4 [ L X X ] ) . T h a t

69
For definitions of the term, see " "in TDOT 8:308-325; BDB 521-522.
70
For definitions of the term, see "" in TD.NT 1:74-87; W. Arndt and
F. W. Gingrich, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian
Writings (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1952) 7-8; Liddell-Scott, A Greek-English
Lexicon (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968) 7. The term is applied to some
gods as messengers: Hermes (Homer, Odyssey 5:29; Plato, Cratylus 407e), Iris (Homer,
liad 2:786, 3:121), and Nemesis (Plato, Laws 4:717d).
71
For definitions of "angel" see: ABD 1:248-255; DDD 81-96; Encyclopedia of the
Dead Sea Scrolls (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) 24-27.
72
For a survey of angel traditions in the Old Testament, see G. Heidt, Angelology
in the Old Testament (Washington DC: Catholic University, 1949).
78
E. Theodore Mullen, The Divine Council in Canaanite and Early Hebrew Literature
(Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1980).
74
For references to the Angel of the Lord, see Gen 16, 22, 24; Exod 3:2; Num
20, 22; Judg 2, 5, 6, 13; Zech; et al., as well as eleven references in the NT (Matt,
Luke, and Acts).
75
On the Angel of the Lord, see J. Fossum, The Name of God and the Angel of the
Lord, pp. 192-238.
G o d ' s a n g e l c a r r i e s o u t tasks o n e a r t h t h a t m i g h t r e g u l a r l y b e p e r -
f o r m e d b y h u m a n s is i n t e r e s t i n g f o r o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e rela-
t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels, since o n c e a g a i n in this c a s e
early c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s of angels, a n d in p a r t i c u l a r t h e A n g e l of t h e
Lord, apparently had an anthropomorphic character.
A n e x t e n s i o n of t h e h e a v e n l y c o u r t c o n c e p t n o t e d a b o v e m a y h a v e
led to the i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n of o n e of t h e p r i m a r y d e n i z e n s of t h e
j u d i c i a l c o u r t setting: t h e a c c u s e r o r " S a t a n . " T h e H e b r e w term
" s a t a n " literally m e a n s " a d v e r s a r y " o r " a c c u s e r " in a legal c o n t e x t . 7 6
T h i s f i g u r e a p p e a r s first in die B o o k of J o b in t h e h e a v e n l y c o u r t
scenes of c h a p t e r s 1 - 2 ; h e a p p e a r s in a similar s c e n e in Z e c h 3. 77
S a t a n r a r e l y a p p e a r s in J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e of t h e S e c o n d Temple
p e r i o d . 7 8 I n t h e w r i t i n g s of t h e N T , S a t a n h a s d e v e l o p e d i n t o an
evil b e i n g w h o s t a n d s d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s e d to G o d . T h e n a m e S a t a n
o c c u r s s o m e 39 t i m e s in t h e N T . M u c h h a s b e e n w r i t t e n a b o u t t h e
figure of S a t a n t h r o u g h o u t history. 7 9 W e will n o t b e l o o k i n g i n t o
d e m o n o l o g y in o u r discussion; n e v e r t h e l e s s , S a t a n d o e s c o m e to b e
u n d e r s t o o d as a t e m p t e r of h u m a n s o n a n i n d i v i d u a l basis a n d m a y
e v e n i n v a d e t h e m ( L u k e 22:3, M a r k 8 : 2 7 8 0 . ( 3 3
T h e p r o p h e t s a r e relatively q u i e t o n t h e s u b j e c t of angels. O n l y
the post-Exilic p r o p h e t s Z e c h a r i a h a n d Ezekiel h a v e m u c h to say
about them. T h e r e are only two references f r o m the pre-Exilic
p r o p h e t s : H o s 1 2 : 5 6 cf. G e n 3 2 : 2 2 3 0 a n d , less directly, t h e m e n -
t i o n of t h e c h e r u b i m in Isa 6 : I f f . T h e c h e r u b i m a n d s e r a p h i m a r e
o f t e n classified as angels. 8 1 S. O l y a n l o o k e d a t angelic " b r i g a d e " des-

76
BDB, p. 1370.
77
Satan also occurs once in 1 Chr 21:1.
78
Other figures mentioned in this literature do seem to fit the same role: Mastema
(Jubliees, Dead Sea Scrolls), Diablos (Life of Adam and Eve), Belial, etc.
79
For a succinct survey, see C. Breytenbach and P. L. Day, "Satan" in DDD
1369-1380. Also see V. Hamilton, "Satan" in ABD 5:985989. More thorough stud-
ies are undertaken by P. Day, An Adversary in Heaven: Satan in the Hebrew Bible (Atlanta,
GA: Scholars Press, 1988), and E. Pagels, The Origin of Satan (London: Penguin
Books, 1997).
80
The development of demonology seems to parallel that of angelology; i.e., there
is a proliferation in the Second Temple period and beyond. The discovery of the
Dead Sea Scrolls has opened up the study of demonology, which was largely cen-
tered on the New Testament. For a succinct review and look at the Dead Sea
Scrolls' demonology, see P. Alexander, "Demonology of the Dead Sea Scrolls" in
The Dead Sea Scrolls after 50 Years, ed. P. Flint and J . VanderKam (Leiden: E. J.
Brill, 1999) 2:331-353.
81
Cherubim are found in Gen 3:24; Exod 25, 26 (in descriptions of the Ark of
the Covenant), 36, 37; Kgs and Chr (in descriptions of the art of the Temple);
i g n a t i o n s in d e t a i l in his m o n o g r a p h , A Thousand. Thousands Sewed
2
Him? H u m a n s d o n o t a p p e a r to h a v e a significant i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h
t h e s e g r o u p s of angels, save t h e c h e r u b i m w i t h a fiery s w o r d d r i v i n g
A d a m a n d E v e o u t of t h e G a r d e n of E d e n in G e n 3 : 2 4 a n d I s a i a h
s e e i n g t h e s e r a p h i m in his vision (Isa 6).
O v e r t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , t h e r e s e e m s to h a v e b e e n
i n c r e a s i n g s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t i n d i v i d u a l elite angels, called a r c h a n g e l s .
T h e first m e n t i o n of n a m e d angels a p p e a r s to b e t h e B o o k of D a n i e l
( M i c h a e l 10:13, 21 a n d 12:1; a n d G a b r i e l 8:16, 9:21). 8 3 T h e f o u r m a i n
a r c h a n g e l s a r e M i c h a e l , 8 4 G a b r i e l , 8 5 R a p h a e l , 8 6 a n d Uriel, 8 7 a l t h o u g h
a n u m b e r of others are n a m e d in various texts. 88 T h e t e r m " a r c h a n g e l "
() itself d o e s n o t a p p e a r in t h e L X X . 8 9 T h e w r i t i n g s n o w
k n o w n as t h e A p o c r y p h a p r o v i d e us w i t h t w o l e n g t h y tales t h a t
involve s o m e of t h e s e p r i n c i p a l angels: R a p h a e l a p p e a r s i n t h e B o o k
of T o b i t (3:17, 5:4, 7:8, 9:1 a n d 5, 11:2 a n d 7, 12:15) as a c o m -
p a n i o n to T o b i a s ; a n d U r i e l in 4 E z r a (originally p a r t of 2 Esdras)
as a n i n t e r p r e t e r of visions. B o t h t h e c r e a t i o n of a h i e r a r c h y a m o n g
t h e a n g e l s as well as t h e i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n of s o m e a n g e l s s e e m to
b e a n t h r o p o m o r p h i s m s t h a t m a y h a v e a l l o w e d f o r a m o r e accessi-
ble n a t u r e f o r angels, w h i c h in t u m m a y h a v e p r o v i d e d t h e basis
f o r a m o r e d y n a m i c r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels.
T h e a u t h o r s of t h e L X X m a d e i n t e r p r e t a t i v e decisions as t h e y
w r o t e t h e i r n e w text. O f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t to us is h o w the t e r m
is r e n d e r e d in t h e L X X . I n a l a r g e n u m b e r of cases w h e r e
a p p e a r s , t h e L X X t r a n s l a t e s . T h e cases t h a t a r e m o s t

Ezek 10; et al. Seraphim are found in Isa 6:2, 6. As noted in DDD "Angel I" (pp.
83-84), these groups were never interpreted as "angels" in any ancient texts.
82
S. Olyan, A Thousand Thousands Sewed Him.
83
According to the rabbis, the names of the angels came from the Babylonian
Exile (Gen R. 18:1). On Michael and Gabriel in Daniel, see, "Michael and Gabriel:
Angelological Problems in the Book of Daniel" in The Scriptures and the Scrolls, ed.
F. Garcia Martinez (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1992) 114-124.
84
See "Michael" in DDD 1065-1072; ABD 4:811. See also the aforementioned
study by D. Hannah, Michael and Christ.
85
See "Gabriel" in DDD 640-642; ABD 2:863.
86
See "Raphael" in DDD 1299-1300; ABD 5:621.
87
See "Uriel" in DDD 1670-1672; ABD 6:769.
88
See G. Barton. "The Origin of the Names of Angels and Demons in the
Extra-Canonical Apocalyptic Literature to 100 AD" JBL 31 (1912) 156-167, and
Y. Yadin, The Scroll of the War of the Sons of Light against the Sons of Darkness (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1962) 237-240.
89
Yet Michael and Gabriel appear in the Book of Daniel, and an analogous
figure appears in Josh 5:13-15.
illuminating for the present study are those w h e n the L X X has taken
s o m e o t h e r t e r m a n d t r a n s l a t e d it as . The L X X of t h e B o o k
of J o b is a g o o d e x a m p l e . 9 0 T h e H e b r e w t e x t of J o b c o n t a i n s t h e
t e r m only at 3 3 : 2 3 , b u t t h e L X X h a s 14 a d d i t i o n a l r e f e r e n c e s
to , especially w h e n d e s c r i b i n g t h e h e a v e n l y c o u n c i l in c h a p -
t e r l. 9 1 T h i s suggests t h a t t h e a u t h o r of t h e L X X of J o b e n v i s i o n e d
the c o u r t scenes in p a r t i c u l a r as b e i n g p l a y e d o u t by h e a v e n l y actors.
J. G a m m i e d o e s n o t see a n y specific c h a n g e s in t h e f u n c t i o n of angels
in t h e L X X of J o b o v e r against t h e f u n c t i o n s of angels in t h e H e b r e w
Bible. 9 2 H o w e v e r , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e t e r m is u s e d so m u c h
m o r e o f t e n t h a n in t h e H e b r e w suggests a n i n c r e a s e d interest
o r i n c r e a s e d use of a n g e l l a n g u a g e t o e x p l a i n divine activity.
T h e t e r m is n o t exclusive to Biblical texts. A n g e l s a r e also
f o u n d in i n s c r i p t i o n s a r o u n d t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n region. 9 3 I t d o e s n o t
a p p e a r t h a t a n y of this m a t e r i a l suggests a close r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
h u m a n s a n d angels, h o w e v e r . V i r t u a l l y all the i n v o c a t i o n s s e e m t o
b e of deities r e f e r r e d t o w i t h t h e subtitle o r p a r t i c u l a r angels.
T h e s e i n s c r i p t i o n s m a y h a v e f u n c t i o n e d in a s i m i l a r w a y to t h e rit-
ual m a g i c spells, such as p r o t e c t i o n o r curses. T h e p r e s e n c e of inscrip-
tions t h a t use t h e t e r m " a n g e l " suggests t h a t a n g e l beliefs w e r e q u i t e
w i d e s p r e a d a n d m a y h a v e s p a n n e d religious g r o u p s (Jewish, C h r i s t i a n ,
and pagan).
M a g i c a l texts ( G r e e k , H e b r e w , a n d C o p t i c ) also m a k e m e n t i o n of
angels. 9 4 A l t h o u g h m u c h of this m a t e r i a l is difficult to d a t e ( r a n g i n g
a n y w h e r e f r o m t h e first t h r o u g h t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r i e s C E ) , s o m e of
the a n g e l beliefs d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e r e m a y d a t e b a c k i n t o o u r p e r i o d .

90
M. Mach discusses it in a separate section, pp. 105-113; J. Gammie, "The
Angelology and Demonology in the Septuagint of the Book of Job" HUCA 56 (1985)
1-19.
91
1:6, 14, 16, 17, 18, 2:1, 4:18, 5:1, 20:15, 36:14, 38:7, 40:11, 40:19, and 41:25.
92
J . Gammie, "The Angelology," pp. 11-12.
93
A brief survey of this material is considered in W. Carr, Angels and Principalities
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981) 40-42. A more thorough exposition
of some of the material may be found in A. R. R. Sheppard, "Pagan Cults of Angels
in Roman Asia Minor" Talanta 1 2 7 7 - 1 0 1(1980-1981)13,and S. Mitchell, Anatolia:
Land, Mm, and Gods in Asia Minor (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993) 2:45-46, 106,
and 136. See also section in L. Stuckenbruck, Angel Veneration and Christology, pp. 181-191.
94
H. D. Betz, The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation: Including the Demotic Spells
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986); M. Meyer and R. Smith, Ancient
Christian Magic: Coptic Texts of Ritual Power (San Francisco: Harper Collins, 1994);
R. Lesses, "Speaking with Angels: Jewish and Greco-Egyptian Revelatory Adjura-
tions" HTR 89 (1996) 41-60; D. Aune, "The Apocalypse of John and Magic" NTS
33 (1987) 481-501. See also section in L. Stuckenbmck, Angel Veneration, pp. 192-200.
A s u r v e y of these texts s h o w s t h a t a n g e l s a r e o f t e n called u p o n b y
t h e spell-caster to p r o v i d e a w i d e v a r i e t y of services. I n p a r t i c u l a r ,
spells w e r e o f t e n cast for h e a l i n g of p a r t i c u l a r a i l m e n t s o r p r o t e c t i o n
f r o m evil forces. T h e r e w e r e also spells f o r sexual p o t e n c y to i n c r e a s e
a t t r a c t i o n to t h e o p p o s i t e sex. W h e n a n g e l s a r e i n v o k e d , it is u s u -
ally by n a m e . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e a r c h a n g e l s G a b r i e l a n d M i c h a e l w e r e
p o p u l a r , b u t R a p h a e l a n d a w i d e variety of o t h e r t h e o p h o r i c n a m e s
of a n g e l s a p p e a r . 9 5 It is n o t c l e a r h o w widely these types of ritual
texts w o u l d h a v e b e e n u s e d . It d o e s s e e m , h o w e v e r , t h a t f o r t h o s e
w h o u s e d these spells, iere w a s a n i n h e r e n t belief t h a t a n g e l s h a d
p o w e r to h e l p t h e m . M o r e o v e r , a n g e l s (and d e m o n s ) w e r e f u n c t i o n a l
p o w e r s in t h e i r w o r l d . If n o t h i n g else, t h e s e texts suggest t h a t spec-
u l a t i o n a b o u t angels c o n t i n u e d well a f t e r o u r p e r i o d of s t u d y in a
v a r i e t y of g e n r e s .
T h e w i d e s p r e a d n a t u r e of a n g e l beliefs in t h e l i t e r a t u r e suggests
t h a t a vast m a j o r i t y of J e w i s h g r o u p s in this p e r i o d held s o m e level
of belief in angels a n d also t h a t angels w e r e p a r t of t h e w i d e r G r a e c o -
R o m a n culture. 9 5 N e v e r t h e l e s s , o n e text f r o m t h e e x t a n t l i t e r a t u r e of
t h e p e r i o d s e e m s to suggest t h a t a J e w i s h g r o u p d e n i e d t h e existence
of angels, so w e will a n a l y z e it h e r e to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r it h a s
b r o a d e r implications for the p r e s e n t study. D u r i n g Paul's speech
b e f o r e t h e J e r u s a l e m c o u n c i l , A c t s 2 3 : 8 says, " F o r the S a d d u c e e s say
t h a t t h e r e is n o r e s u r r e c t i o n , n o r a n g e l , n o r spirit; b u t t h e P h a r i s e e s
a c k n o w l e d g e t h e m all." D . D a u b e h a s a r g u e d t h a t t h e i m p o r t of this
passage is t h e S a d d u c e a n d e n i a l of r e s u r r e c t i o n r a t h e r t h a n t h e d e n i a l
of t h e belief in angels. 9 7 D a u b e suggests t h a t t h e issue is w h e t h e r o r
n o t t h e S a d d u c e e s d e n y r e s u r r e c t i o n in t h e f o r m of a n a n g e l o r a
spirit. F o r D a u b e t h e S a d d u c e e s d e n y " t h e s p a n b e t w e e n d e a t h a n d

95
In the Testament of Solomon 22:20 (first-third centuries GE), we find the fol-
lowing reference to Jesus as an angel: "I [Solomon] said to him [Ephippas, a
demon], 'By what angel are you thwarted?' He said, 'By the one who is going to
be born of from a virgin and be crucified by the Jews.' "
96
For some interesting parallels, see Acts 14:11-12, where the Lycaonians believe
Paul and Barnabas to be Hermes and Zeus respectively. From classical literature we
have a number of examples where the Greek gods, in the guise of humans, visited
mortals: Apollodorus, The Library 2.4.8; Hesiod, Shield of Heracles 1-56; Homer, Odyssey
17.485; Iamblichus, De mysteriis Aegyptus 1.1 (Hermes is ); Plato,
Sophist 216B; Silus Italicus 7.176; Ps-Sophocles (in Clement of Alexandria, Stromata
5.14.111), 46; Ovid, Metamorpheses 8.611-724. See Geischen, Angelomorphic Christology,
p. 318.
97
D. Daube. "On Acts 23: Sadducees and Angels" JBL 109 (1990) 493-497. Cf.
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 57-61.
r e s u r r e c t i o n , w h i c h , in w i d e s p r e a d belief, a g o o d p e r s o n s p e n d s in
the r e a l m o r m o d e of a n g e l o r spirit." 9 8 T h i s line of a r g u m e n t is
s u p p o r t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t L u k e d i s p a r a g e s t h e S a d d u c e e s ' d e n i a l of
t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n e l s e w h e r e (cf. L u k e 2 0 : 2 7 ; A c t s 4:1).
If D a u b e is c o r r e c t , t h e n t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e t h e S a d d u c e e s d e n i e d
t h e existence of angels. If D a u b e is i n c o r r e c t , it still s e e m s h i g h l y
p r o b a b l e t h a t since this r e f e r e n c e in Acts is o u r only e x t a n t d e n i a l
of t h e belief in t h e e x i s t e n c e of angels b y a J e w i s h g r o u p , it m a y
a c t u a l l y a c t as t h e e x c e p t i o n t h a t p r o v e s t h e rule. T h a t is, L u k e m a y
specifically m e n t i o n it b e c a u s e it is peculiar t h a t t h e S a d d u c e e s d o n o t
believe i n angels. It is especially p e c u l i a r given the f a c t t h a t angels
figure p r o m i n e n t l y in t h e P e n t a t e u c h , w h i c h t h e S a d d u c e e s h e l d as
t h e i r scripture. 9 9
T h e r e m a y h a v e b e e n o t h e r g r o u p s f r o m w h o m t h e r e is n o e x t a n t
r e c o r d w h o did n o t believe in angels, b u t this s t u d y will p r o c e e d
with t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e belief in a n g e l s w a s a w i d e s p r e a d , if
n o t u b i q u i t o u s , p h e n o m e n o n for J e w i s h g r o u p s a n d t h a t t h o s e beliefs
w e r e likely k n o w n a n d s h a r e d w i t h t h e w i d e r G r a e c o - R o m a n c u l t u r e .
Lastly, a brief discussion of t h e a p p r o a c h t a k e n t o w a r d t h e evidence
is p r o v i d e d to o r i e n t t h e r e a d e r .

1.5 Outline

T h e e v i d e n c e is e x a m i n e d in t w o p a r t s : a p p e a r a n c e a n d i n t e r a c t i o n .
T h e s e t w o p a r t s r e p r e s e n t t h e m a i n ways in w h i c h angels a n d h u m a n s
h a v e a r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h e y c a n physically a p p e a r like o n e another,
a n d t h e y c a n i n t e r a c t w i t h o n e a n o t h e r in v a r i o u s ways.
T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n to e a c h of the t w o p a r t s p r o v i d e s t h e l a r g e r c o n -
text for t h e a n g e l m a t e r i a l to b e discussed. P a r t o n e c o n t a i n s t w o
c h a p t e r s , t h e first of w h i c h e x a m i n e s t h e e v i d e n c e in w h i c h angels
a p p e a r in t h e f o r m of h u m a n b e i n g s . T h e s e c o n d e x a m i n e s t h e evi-
d e n c e in w h i c h h u m a n b e i n g s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d in angelic categories.
T h e q u e s t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s is
a d d r e s s e d by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e i m p a c t a p p e a r a n c e h a s o n identification.
F o r i n s t a n c e , if a n a n g e l a p p e a r s in t h e f o r m of a h u m a n , d o e s it
m e a n t h e r e is a n y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e angel?

98
D. Daube, "On Acts 23," p. 493.
99
E. Haenchen, The Acts of the Apostles: A Commentary (Philadelphia: The Westminster
Press, 1971) 638; Str-B. 2:767.
 P a r t two consists of t h r e e chapters. I n c h a p t e r 4 the evidence f o r
the p o r t r a y a l of h u m a n s a n d angels living t o g e t h e r in c o m m u n i t i e s
is assessed. I n c h a p t e r 5 texts t h a t discuss angels e a t i n g with a n d
sharing in h u m a n hospitality are c o n s i d e r e d . I n c h a p t e r 6 the u n i q u e
case of h u m a n - a n g e l h y b r i d offspring s t e m m i n g f r o m the G e n 6:1 4
a c c o u n t is evaluated. T h e question of differentiation is considered in
these instances in w h i c h t h e r e is close c o n t a c t b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d
angels. F o r e x a m p l e , does a claim t h a t angels are a m o n g those in
a h u m a n c o m m u n i t y suggest t h e r e is a n e q u a t i o n b e t w e e n angels
a n d m e m b e r s of the c o m m u n i t y ? Close a n d i n t i m a t e c o n t a c t m a y
n o t m e a n t h a t there is a n y identification b e t w e e n angels a n d h u m a n s .
T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of this m o n o g r a p h is largely t h e m a t i c ; t h a t is to
say, m a t e r i a l is g r o u p e d b y t h e m e s such as " h u m a n s a p p e a r i n g as
angels." W i t h i n e a c h c h a p t e r the m a t e r i a l is t h e n divided into sub-
sections, w h i c h on the w h o l e discuss o n e text.
E a c h c h a p t e r will h a v e a s u m m a r y conclusion section. T h e final
c h a p t e r brings those conclusions together, analyzes t h e m , a n d states
the implications of those conclusions for c u r r e n t scholarship.
T h e necessary g r o u n d w o r k has n o w b e e n laid to p r o c e e d to the
e x a m i n a t i o n of the evidence for the relationship b e t w e e n h u m a n s
a n d angels in the late S e c o n d T e m p l e period.
 PART ONE

APPEARANCE
 PART ONE

APPEARANCE

Introduction

T h e first p a r t of this study e x a m i n e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s

a n d angels f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e i r physical f o r m o r a p p e a r -
a n c e . " A p p e a r a n c e " in this s t u d y will b e t a k e n to m e a n " t h e o u t -
w a r d f o r m as perceived ( w h e t h e r correctly o r not), especially visually." 1
Specifically, a n g e l s a p p e a r i n g in h u m a n f o r m (i.e., a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c )
a r e c o n s i d e r e d in c h a p t e r 2 a n d h u m a n s c h a r a c t e r i z e d as angels (i.e.,
a n g e l o m o r p h i c ) in c h a p t e r 3.
In attempting to understand the relationship between h u m a n s a n d
angels, it is n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c r i t e r i a by w h i c h t h e t w o
sets of b e i n g s m i g h t be identified o r distinguished. As a starting p o i n t ,
w e n o t e t h a t h u m a n s a r e flesh a n d b l o o d , w h i l e divine beings, like
angels, a r e i n c o r p o r e a l . It h a s a l r e a d y b e e n n o t e d t h a t t h e terms
a n d h a v e t h e s e m a n t i c r a n g e to r e f e r to b o t h h u m a n
a n d divine m e s s e n g e r s . T e r m s d e r i v e t h e i r m e a n i n g f r o m t h e i r c o n -
text. W h e t h e r a n d a r e m e a n t to r e f e r to h u m a n m e s -
sengers o r divine a g e n t s c a n o n l y b e d e t e r m i n e d b y l o o k i n g a t t h e i r
use in p a r t i c u l a r cases. E v e n w i t h a n a w a r e n e s s of c o n t e x t , h o w e v e r ,
S. M e i e r says, " t h e use of t h e t e r m maPk to i d e n t i f y b o t h human
a n d s u p e r n a t u r a l m e s s e n g e r s results in s o m e p a s s a g e s w h e r e it is
u n c l e a r w h i c h of t h e t w o is i n t e n d e d if n o f u r t h e r details a r e p r o -
v i d e d . " A s e x a m p l e s h e gives J u d g 2 : 1 - 5 ; 5:23; M a i 3:1; Eccl 5:5. 2
C . N e w s o m n o t e s similarly, " A s t e r m s d e n o t i n g f u n c t i o n s , b o t h agge-
los a n d maPk c a n r e f e r e q u a l l y t o h u m a n o r a n g e l i c beings. C o n s e -
q u e n t l y , t h e r e a r e p a s s a g e s in w h i c h it r e m a i n s d i s p u t e d w h e t h e r t h e
r e f e r e n c e is to a h e a v e n l y b e i n g o r a h u m a n o n e (see J u d g 2:1; M a i
3: l)." 3 It is i m p o r t a n t to r e m e m b e r t h a t , a l t h o u g h s o m e passages

1
The Concise Oxford Dictionary, 9th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998)
59. "Appearance" will be used throughout rather than "form" since, as we will see,
angels can appear in a variety of forms.
2
S. Meier, "Angel: I" in DDD, p. 48.
3
C. Newsom, "Angel: O T " in ABD 1:248-249. See also JE 2:957, "As a result
m a y p r e s e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i v e difficulties f o r m o d e r n r e a d e r s , it is n o t
c o r r e c t to a s s u m e a u t o m a t i c a l l y t h a t a n y s u c h c o n f u s i o n existed f o r
ancient authors a n d audiences. This study considers any passages
w h e r e s u c h a m b i g u i t y m i g h t exist to see (a) w h e t h e r t h e r e is a n y
lack of clarity a n d , if t h e r e is, (b) w h e t h e r this m e a n s a n identification
of angels a n d h u m a n s is i n t e n d e d .
A n o t h e r c r i t e r i o n s o m e s c h o l a r s h a v e used in i d e n t i f y i n g t h e c o n -
n e c t i o n b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels is i n s t a n c e s w h e r e angels a n d
h u m a n s s e e m to s h a r e physical f o r m o r a p p e a r a n c e . A statement
f r o m C . G i e s c h e n s u m m a r i z e s t h e c o n f u s i o n t h a t c a n arise:

Because angels often appear in the form of men, the distinction between
what is anthropomorphic and what is angelomorphic is difficult to
maintain. W h a t one person may interpret as ananthropomorphism,
another could see as a concrete description of an angelomorphic figure.4

C e n t r a l to G i e s c h e n ' s s t a t e m e n t is t h e d e f i n i t i o n of " a n g e l o m o r p h i c . "

H e defines it as " a n inclusive a d j e c t i v e w h i c h d e s c r i b e s a p h e n o m -
enon that has the variegated form a n d functions, even though the
5
figure m a y n o t b e explicitly identified as a n a n g e l . " C. Fletcher-
L o u i s d e f i n e s a n g e l o m o r p h i c as " w h e r e v e r t h e r e a r e signs t h a t a n
i n d i v i d u a l o r c o m m u n i t y possesses specifically angelic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o r status, t h o u g h for w h o m i d e n t i t y c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d to t h a t of
a n a n g e l . " H e a d d s , " I n this c a s e w e u n d e r s t a n d t h e w o r d a n g e l t o
b e d e f i n e d b y t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d motifs w h i c h
c o m m o n l y o c c u r across a b r o a d s p r e a d of J e w i s h texts f r o m t h e sec-
o n d T e m p l e a n d early r a b b i n i c p e r i o d s . " 6 A m o n g the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of a n g e l i c i d e n t i t y t h a t F l e t c h e r - L o u i s o u t l i n e s a r e : g i g a n t i s m , iri-
d e s c e n c e , w e a r i n g of s y m b o l i c c l o t h i n g , a n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the
a n g e l i c c o m m u n i t y a n d liturgy. T h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , h e a r g u e s , c a n
b e a p p l i e d to h u m a n s in s o m e a n c i e n t texts, t h e r e f o r e a l l o w i n g us
t o speak of a n " a n g e l o m o r p h i c humanity."7
T h e s e t w o d e f i n i t i o n s of " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " a r e b r o a d l y inclusive:
f o r m , f u n c t i o n , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a n d status. I n s o m e w a y s s u c h b r o a d

of this diversity, there are some passages where it is uncertain whether a human
or superhuman messenger is meant."
4
C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology: Antecedents and Early Evidence (Leiden: E . J .
Brill, 1997) '28.
5
C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, pp. 27-28.
6
G. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts: Angels, Christology and Soteriology (Tbingen: Mohr
Siebeck, 1997) 14-15.
7
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 211-225.
c a t e g o r i z a t i o n s o n l y c l o u d t h e discussion. D . H a n n a h is m o r e exclu-
sive in his use of the t e r m " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " with r e g a r d to Christology.
H e c o n f i n e s its use to i n s t a n c e s w h e r e t h e r e a r e "visual p o r t r a y a l s
of C h r i s t in t h e f o r m of a n a n g e l . " H e a d d s , " T h i s , m o r e precise
use of t h e t e r m t h a n t h a t f o u n d in m a n y r e c e n t studies, c o n f i n e s t h e
w o r d to its literal m e a n i n g : C h r i s t in t h e f o r m () of a n a n g e l . " 8
H i s m o r e exclusive use of the t e r m " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " is p r e f e r a b l e ,
since it allows f o r a precise r e l a t i o n of t h e t e r m to visual p h e n o m e n a .
T h e physical m a n i f e s t a t i o n of a n angel in h u m a n f o r m (or conversely,
a h u m a n d e s c r i b e d in a n g e l i c terms) d o e s n o t necessarily i m p l y a n y
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e two. T h u s , t h e use of t h e t e r m "angelo-
m o r p h i c " w i t h r e g a r d to h u m a n i t y s h o u l d b e c o n f i n e d to t h e visual
t h a t is, to d e s c r i b e t h e w a y i n w h i c h s o m e h u m a n s a r e portrayed
visually. U s i n g t h e t e r m m o r e b r o a d l y f o r all of h u m a n i t y o b f u s c a t e s
t h e discussion of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels.
W h a t is n e e d e d , t h e n , for this s t u d y is to survey the v a r i e t y of
w a y s in w h i c h a n g e l s a p p e a r in t h e w r i t i n g s f r o m this p e r i o d so as
to o b t a i n a n a c c u r a t e i d e a of w h a t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s m i g h t rightly b e
c o n s i d e r e d t o b e constitutive of " a n g e l o m o r p h i c . "
T h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e p e r i o d f o r t h e a p p e a r a n c e of angels fits
i n t o t h r e e categories:

(1) cases in w h i c h n o p h y s i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e a n g e l is given;

(2) cases i n w h i c h angels a p p e a r in h u m a n f o r m , o r a n t h r o p o m o r -
phically. T h i s c a t e g o r y will b e t h e f o c u s of c h a p t e r 2; a n d
(3) a n g e l o p h a n i e s c a s e s in w h i c h t h e t e r m f o r a n g e l is p r e s e n t in
t h e text.

First, t h e vast m a j o r i t y of i n s t a n c e s w h e r e t h e t e r m s /
in t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m this p e r i o d s e e m to r e f e r to t h e h e a v e n l y o r d e r
of c r e a t u r e s o m i t a n y physical d e s c r i p t i o n (e.g., G e n 16; J u d g 2 : 1 4 ;
L u k e 1; Acts 11:13; G a l 3:19; R e v 8 1 6 1 0 , 1 4 ; et al.). It is difficult
to g l e a n m u c h i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m m a n y of t h e s e i n s t a n c e s because
t h e c o n t e x t r e m a i n s a m b i g u o u s as to w h e t h e r t h e seer is a w a r e t h a t
t h e a n g e l is a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n h u m a n .
It is u n c e r t a i n h o w best to i n t e r p r e t this i n f o r m a t i o n . It c o u l d sug-
gest t h a t t h e r e w a s a w i d e l y u n d e r s t o o d o r g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d i d e a

8
D. Hannah, Michael and Christ: Michael Traditions and Angel Christology in Early
Christianity (Tbingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1999) 13.
of h o w angels looked, such t h a t o n m o s t occasions n o description
would b e necessary. O n the o t h e r h a n d , it m i g h t suggest t h e r e was
little interest in such m a t t e r s , the interest instead b e i n g in the f u n c -
tion of angels, w h a t e v e r their a p p e a r a n c e . T h i s question will h a v e
to r e m a i n o p e n , since the evidence simply does n o t provide a n y clues
as to h o w to a d j u d i c a t e .
W e n o t e h e r e briefly t h a t the second category into w h i c h the evi-
dence of angel a p p e a r a n c e can be organized is instances w h e r e angels
a p p e a r in the f o r m of h u m a n beings, a n d in a subset of those, angels
are said to a p p e a r as y o u t h f u l males. T h e r e are also cases w h e r e a
b e i n g is r e f e r r e d to as a " m a n , " b u t the c o n t e x t suggests t h a t it m a y
be a n angel.
111 the third classification f o r t h e a p p e a r a n c e of angels t h e r e are
specific ( n o n - a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c ) visual c o m p o n e n t s associated with the
m a n i f e s t a t i o n of angels. T h e m o s t c o m m o n characteristics of this
i m a g e r y are: (a) a l u m i n o u s or fiery a p p e a r a n c e a n d (b) an awe-
s o m e / f r i g h t e n i n g a p p e a r a n c e t h a t often leads to falling to die g r o u n d
(in fear a n d / o r reverence).

(a) Luminous/Fieiy Appearance

Angels sometimes are k n o w n to a p p e a r with brilliant light. T h e Angel

of the L o r d a p p e a r s in the b u r n i n g b u s h (Exod 3:2; cf. Acts 7:30).
I n M a t t 28:3 the Angel of the L o r d is said to h a v e a n a p p e a r a n c e
t h a t " w a s like lightning, a n d his r a i m e n t white as s n o w . " Also, in
Acts 12:7, a n Angel of the L o r d a p p e a r s , " a n d a light s h o n e in the
cell."
Angels are also s o m e t i m e s described as stars (e.g.. J o b 38:7; R e v
1:20; 1 En. 23; 1 En. 104:2, 4, 6). T h e righteous are even said to be
t r a n s f o r m e d into stars after their d e a t h in 2 Bar. 5 1 : 3 - 1 3 .
In the D e a d Sea Scrolls, the " P r i n c e of L i g h t " is t h o u g h t by m o s t
scholars to be equivalent to the angel M i c h a e l (and also Melchizedek),
so this w o u l d indicate a relationship b e t w e e n a n angel a n d light.
I n R e v 10:1 the seer describes the angel in his vision: " T h e n I
saw a n o t h e r m i g h t y angel c o m i n g d o w n f r o m h e a v e n , w r a p p e d in
a cloud, with a r a i n b o w over his h e a d , a n d his face was like the
sun, a n d his legs like pillars of fire" (cf. R e v 19:17).
Interestingly in 2 C o r 11:14, Paul w a r n s t h a t " e v e n S a t a n m a y
a p p e a r as a n angel of light". T h i s suggests t h a t Paul, m u c h like m a n y
of his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , believed t h a t otherworldly beings h a v e the
ability to s h a p e - s h i f t (cf. A c t s 14:12). M o r e o v e r , S a t a n c a n d e c e i v e
p e o p l e b y t a k i n g o n t h e f o r m of a n " a n g e l of light." T h i s suggests
t h a t p e r h a p s o n e s o u r c e f o r t r u e r e v e l a t i o n w a s e x p e c t e d to b e a
luminous messenger.
I n t h e Apocalyse of Zephaniah 6:11 14 t h e a n g e l E r m i e l is d e s c r i b e d :

T h e n I arose and stood, and I saw a great angel standing before me

with his face shining like the rays of the sun in its glory since his face
is like that which is perfected in its glory. And he was girded as if a
golden girdle were upon his breast. His feet were like bronze which
is melted in a fire. And when I saw him, I rejoiced, for I thought that
the Lord Almighty h a d come to visit me. I fell u p o n my face a n d
worshipped him.

T h i s is e v e n seen in writings f r o m die N a g H a m m a d i literature ( C o d e x

II, 4). T h e Hypostasis of the Archons 9 3 : 1 3 - 2 2 describes the angel
Eleleth:

Now as for that angel, I cannot speak of his power: his appearance
is like fine gold and his raiment is like snow. No, truly, my mouth
cannot bear to speak of his power a n d the appearance of his face.
Eleleth, the great angel, spoke to me. "It is I," he said, "who a m
understanding. I a m one of the four light-givers, who stand in the
presence of the great invisible spirit." 9

T h i s brief s u r v e y of t h e e v i d e n c e across a v a r i e t y of texts ( a n d in

several texts to b e c o n s i d e r e d below) i n d i c a t e s t h a t brilliance and
fiery a p p e a r a n c e s e e m to b e fairly c o m m o n i m a g e r y associated w i t h
t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of angels. H o w e v e r , D . H a n n a h , in a c r i t i q u e of
Gieschen, w a m s against overemphasizing imagery:

If a figure appears robed in light 01 with feet and legs aflame like
molten bronze 01 with a face shining like the sun and/01 lightning,
then Gieschen, among others, automatically assumes we are dealing
with an angel or angelomorphic being. T h e fact is that apocalypses
describe heavenly beings, be they God, angels, exalted patriarchs, cheru-
b i m / s e r a p h i m , or whatever in broadly similar terms. 10

N e v e r t h e l e s s , i m a g e r y is i m p o r t a n t . N o r a r e t h e a p o c a l y p s e s t h e only
g e n r e in w h i c h this type of i m a g e r y c a n b e f o u n d . If c e r t a i n i m a g e r y
is r e g u l a r l y associated w i t h angels, t h e n it s e e m s t h a t w e c a n say

9
Translation from R. Bullard and B. Layton, in 77w Nag Hammadi Library in
English, ed. J . Robinson (New York: Harper Collins, 1988) 161-170.
10
D. Hannah, Review of C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christolog}, in JTS 51 (2000)235.
t h a t a being d e m o n s t r a t i n g such characteristics is " a n g e l o m o r p h i c "
w i t h o u t saying t h a t the b e i n g is a n angel. T a k e n f r o m the reverse
perspective, a n angel m a y b e " a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c " w i t h o u t being a
h u m a n being. G i v e n this m o r e restricted use of the t e r m "angelo-
m o r p h i c , " h o w e v e r , it will rarely be applicable to h u m a n beings.

(b) Fear and. Falling to the Ground

A n o t h e r characteristic c o m m o n l y associated with the m a n i f e s t a t i o n

of angels is fear a n d often falling to the g r o u n d o n the p a r t of the
seer. Again, b e g i n n i n g with the Angel of the L o r d , we see in N u m
22:31, " T h e n the L o r d o p e n e d the eyes of B a l a a m , a n d h e saw the
angel of the L o r d s t a n d i n g in the way, with his d r a w n sword in his
h a n d ; a n d h e b o w e d his h e a d , a n d fell o n his face." T h e r e is n o
physical description of the angel, b u t o n c e B a l a a m is able to see the
angel, h e is reverent. I n M a t t 2 8 : 4 - 5 the A n g e l of the L o r d o p e n s
the t o m b of Jesus, a n d " f o r fear of h i m [the A n g e l of the L o r d ] the
g u a r d s t r e m b l e d a n d b e c a m e like d e a d m e n . B u t the angel said to
the w o m e n , ' D o n o t be afraid; for I k n o w t h a t y o u seek J e s u s w h o
was c r u c i f i e d ' " ; also, Luke 1 : 1 1 - 1 2 has, " A n d t h e r e a p p e a r e d to h i m
an angel of the L o r d standing on the right side of the altar of incense.
A n d Z e c h a r i a h was t r o u b l e d w h e n h e saw him, a n d fear fell u p o n
h i m " (cf. L u k e 1:30).
I C h r 21:20 records the a p p e a r a n c e of a n angel t h a t causes fear,
" N o w O m a n was t h r e s h i n g w h e a t ; h e t u r n e d a n d saw the angel,
a n d his f o u r sons w h o w e r e with h i m hid themselves."
Interestingly in D a n 8 : 1 6 1 7 the angel G a b r i e l is called a " m a n , "
yet his presence causes fear in Daniel, " A n d I h e a r d a m a n ' s voice
b e t w e e n the b a n k s of the Ulai, a n d it called, ' G a b r i e l , m a k e this
m a n u n d e r s t a n d the vision.' So h e c a m e n e a r w h e r e I stood; a n d
w h e n h e c a m e , I was f r i g h t e n e d a n d fell u p o n m y f a c e . "
I n Acts 10:3 4 t h e angel w h o a p p e a r s to the c e n t u r i o n , Cornelius,
causes t e r r o r in the soldier:

About the ninth hour of the day he saw clearly in a vision an angel
of God coming in and saying to him, "Cornelius." And he stared at
him in terror, and said, "What is it, Lord?" And he said to him, "Your
prayers and your alms have ascended as a memorial before God."

All these e x a m p l e s suggest t h a t a c o m m o n reaction to the m a n i f e s -

tation of a n angel to a h u m a n is fear. T h i s seems to imply t h a t in
at least the cases m e n t i o n e d , t h e r e is likely n o e q u a t i o n b e t w e e n the
t w o beings. T h e h u m a n s a r e f e a r f u l specifically b e c a u s e t h e a n g e l is
a w e s o m e in s o m e respect.
A m o n g t h e e v i d e n c e of t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of angels l e a d i n g t o t h e
seer falling to t h e g r o u n d a r e s o m e cases in w h i c h t h e r e a s o n f o r
falling to t h e g r o u n d is i n t e n t to w o r s h i p t h e b e i n g . " W h e n J o s h u a
is told t h e t r u e i d e n t i t y of t h e b e i n g b e f o r e h i m in J o s h 5 : 1 3 - 1 5 , h e
falls to t h e g r o u n d to w o r s h i p (cf. E z e k 1:28; 1 En. 14:14). In t h e
Mart. Ascen. Isa. 7:21 t h e p r o p h e t says, " A n d I fell o n m y f a c e to
w o r s h i p h i m , a n d t h e a n g e l w h o led m e w o u l d n o t let m e , b u t said
to m e , ' W o r s h i p n e i t h e r t h r o n e , n o r angel f r o m t h e six h e a v e n s f r o m
w h e r e I w a s sent to lead y o u , before I tell y o u in the seventh h e a v e n . ' "
Similarly, in R e v 19:10, " T h e n I fell d o w n at his feet to w o r s h i p
h i m , b u t h e said to m e , ' Y o u m u s t n o t d o that! I a m a fellow ser-
v a n t w i t h y o u a n d y o u r b r e t h r e n w h o h o l d t h e t e s t i m o n y of J e s u s .
W o r s h i p G o d ' " (cf. R e v 22:8). O n c e a g a i n , t h e i d e a t h a t humans
w o u l d a t t e m p t to w o r s h i p angels implies at least s o m e i n e q u a l i t y of
status b e t w e e n them.
T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of f e a r a n d falling to t h e g r o u n d is n o t limited
to a n g e l o p h a n i e s , h o w e v e r . It s e e m s to b e a n a s p e c t of e n c o u n t e r -
i n g divine b e i n g generally. So in E x o d 3:6 at t h e b u r n i n g b u s h M o s e s
h i d e s his face b e c a u s e h e is a f r a i d to look a t G o d . F e a r t h a t h u m a n
b e i n g s will die if t h e y see G o d is a r e c u r r i n g t h e m e (cf. E x o d 20:19),
a n d in t w o cases in J u d g 6 : 2 3 a n d 13:22 (as well as E x o d 3:2) t h e
h u m a n s h a v e a c t u a l l y seen t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d a n d f e a r d e a t h as
if t h e y h a v e seen G o d .
S o t w o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e l e m e n t s o f t e n s e e m to b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of a n a n g e l in t h e e a r t h l y r e a l m . T h e s e cases sug-
gest a t least t h a t t h e angels a r e a p p e a r i n g n o t in h u m a n f o r m b u t
in a m o r e a w e s o m e f o r m w i t h b r i g h t light t h a t c a u s e s the s e e r to
fall to t h e g r o u n d in f e a r o r w o r s h i p . T h e e v i d e n c e of this c a t e g o r y
suggests t h a t , in a t least t h e s e cases, t h e r e c a n b e n o i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. T h i s is only a subset of t h e large b o d y
of e v i d e n c e , h o w e v e r .
It is i m p o r t a n t , t h e n , b e f o r e b e g i n n i n g t h e analysis of texts to s u m -
m a r i z e a n d d e f i n e fairly precisely w h a t is m e a n t b y t h e t e r m " a n g e l "
in this investigation. A g e n e r a l d e f i n i t i o n of a n a n g e l is " a h e a v e n l y /

11
On the issue of angel veneration, see L. Struckenbruck, Angel Veneration and
Christology. A Study in Early Judaism and in the Christology of the Apocalypse of John
(Tbingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1995) for a thorough survey, esp. pp. 81 85.
divine being t h a t m e d i a t e s between the earthly a n d heavenly realms."
M o r e specifically, t h o u g h , a n A N G E L is a b e i n g that:

(1) H a s as a p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n the delivery of G o d ' s m e s s a g e / p l a n

to h u m a n beings (and s o m e t i m e s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h a t message).
(2) Typically resides in h e a v e n b u t also travels to e a r t h to p e r f o r m
various tasks.
(3) Is able to alter its f o r m (e.g., c a n be a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c ) , espe-
cially w h e n o n e a r t h .
(4) Is n o t b o u n d by limitations of the earthly r e a l m , such as the pas-
sage of time, d e a t h , h u n g e r , sexual desire, etc.

T o this m o r e specific u n d e r s t a n d i n g , two m o r e pieces of i n f o r m a -

tion m a y b e a d d e d w h e n a n angel a p p e a r s to h u m a n beings (an
angelophany):

(1) T h e angel will often h a v e a fiery/luminous a p p e a r a n c e , a n d

(2) T h e angel will often cause f e a r / f a l l i n g to the g r o u n d in the seer.

T h i s definition of angel c a n b e a u g m e n t e d or s u p p o r t e d by the fol-

lowing definitions.
A N G E L O M O R P H I C r e f e r s t o t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a n a n g e l .
S o m e t h i n g t h a t is " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " looks like an angel (as described
above). T h i s t e r m , t h e n , should be e m p l o y e d in parallel with the
t e r m " a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c . " J u s t as G o d c a n be u n d e r s t o o d in " a n t h r o -
p o m o r p h i c " t e r m s w i t h o u t b e i n g a h u m a n being, so too a h u m a n
m a y be c o n s i d e r e d " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " w i t h o u t being a n angel.
G O D t h e c r e a t o r , resides in h e a v e n , is t r a n s c e n d e n t , is u n s e e n
a n d u n k n o w a b l e (except t h r o u g h m e d i a t i o n ) to those in the h u m a n
r e a l m . G o d is served by a m y r i a d of h e a v e n l y / d i v i n e beings t h a t
also reside in h e a v e n , b u t these beings are n o t e q u a l to G o d .
H U M A N t h e species Homo sapiens, c r e a t e d by G o d , b o u n d by
physical limitations, especially the passage of time, mortality, h u n g e r ,
sexual desire, etc. T h e y are u n a b l e to alter their physical f o r m a n d
u n a b l e to r e a c h the heavenly r e a l m of their o w n accord.
E A R T H L Y t h i n g s p e r t a i n i n g to the physical world of t h e senses,
c r e a t e d by G o d .
H E A V E N L Y t h i n g s p e r t a i n i n g to the spiritual world (could also
be referred to as otherworldly). It is the r e a l m of G o d a n d the o t h e r
h e a v e n l y / d i v i n e beings. Related to this definition is the t e r m D I V I N E ,
w h i c h often has the s a m e m e a n i n g as H E A V E N L Y . A possible solu-
tion to s o m e of the l a n g u a g e p r o b l e m s scholars currently face m i g h t
be limiting the use of the t e r m " d i v i n e " to G o d , while using " h e a v -
enly" for the m y r i a d of beings t h a t reside in the h e a v e n s . S u c h a
c h a n g e , h o w e v e r , works very m u c h against c o n v e n t i o n a l uses, so for
the p u r p o s e s of this study, H E A V E N L Y a n d D I V I N E will b e used
interchangeably.
 CHAPTER TWO

" B L I N D E D BY T H E LIGHT":
A N G E L S AS H U M A N BEINGS

I n this c h a p t e r t h e texts in w h i c h a n g e l s a p p e a r in t h e f o r m of
h u m a n b e i n g s as well as a p p a r e n t l y divine b e i n g s t h a t a r e r e f e r r e d
to as " m e n " a r e e x a m i n e d . I n a n u m b e r of texts, m a n y f r o m t h e
H e b r e w Bible, a n g e l s a r e d e s c r i b e d as a p p e a r i n g in t h e f o r m of
h u m a n s a n d a r e e v e n i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m h u m a n s until t h e i r t r u e
n a t u r e is revealed. I n s o m e o t h e r texts, a n g e l s a r e d e s c r i b e d as y o u n g
m e n . T h e evidence indicates that, even with such a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c
d e s c r i p t i o n s of angels, t h e y r e m a i n e d distinct f r o m h u m a n s .

2.1 The Book of Genesis

I n t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d t h e H e b r e w S c r i p t u r e s existed
side b y side w i t h t r a n s l a t i o n s of t h o s e s a m e s c r i p t u r e s i n t o G r e e k ,
t h e S e p t u a g i n t ( L X X ) , a n d p e r h a p s also into A r a m a i c , t h e T a r g u m i m .
A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e r e w e r e a l t e r n a t i v e versions of t h e P e n t a t e u c h , s u c h
as J u b i l e e s , t h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n , a n d t h e S a m a r i t a n P e n t a t e u c h
c i r c u l a t i n g . T h e H e b r e w Bible as it is n o w k n o w n c o m e s to us pri-
m a r i l y t h r o u g h t h e m e d i e v a l M a s o r e t e s . 1 T h u s it c a n n o t be g u a r a n -
t e e d t h a t a n y p a r t i c u l a r passage h a s b e e n a c c u r a t e l y t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m
S e c o n d T e m p l e t i m e s t h r o u g h to t h e p r e s e n t , n o r t h a t it w a s t r e a t e d
as n o r m a t i v e b y all J e w s a t t h a t time.
T h e safest p a t h , t h e n , is t o c o n s i d e r w h a t all v e r s i o n s t h a t w o u l d
h a v e (or at least a r e likely to have) existed in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e
a n d early C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d h a v e to say a b o u t t h e selected passages.

(a) Genesis 18-19

In G e n 18:1 3 A b r a h a m , w h o is resting in his t e n t f r o m t h e m i d -

d a y h e a t , sees t h r e e m e n ( ) . H e h u r r i e s o u t to g r e e t t h e m
a n d o f f e r t h e m hospitality in his t e n t :

1
But the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls has provided us with some direct know-
ledge of the Hebrew Scriptures in the Second Temple period (e.g., the Isaiah scroll).
 [1] And the Lord appeared to him [Abraham] by the oaks of M a m r e ,
as he sat at the door of his tent in the heat of the day. [2] H e lifted
up his eyes and looked, and behold, three m e n stood in front of him.
W h e n he saw them, he ran from the tent door to meet them, and
bowed himself to the earth, [3] and said, " M y lord, if I have found
favour in your sight, do not pass by your servant."

T h e c l a u s e , " A n d t h e L o r d a p p e a r e d to h i m " acts as a sort of i n t r o -

d u c t i o n , a l o n g w i t h t h e setting m a t e r i a l , " a s h e [ A b r a h a m ] sat at
the d o o r of his t e n t in t h e h e a t of t h e d a y " (v. 1). It is n o t entirely
c l e a r w h e t h e r t h e L o r d a p p e a r s to A b r a h a m s e p a r a t e l y f r o m t h e
t h r e e " m e n , " b u t l a t e r w e find t h a t " t w o " m e n = angels g o o n t o
S o d o m ( G e n 19:1a, 5, 8, 12, 16), while A b r a h a m d e b a t e s w i t h t h e
L o r d ( G e n 18:22). T h i s suggests t h a t o n e of t h e t h r e e " m e n " is m e a n t
to b e t h e L o r d . 2
T h e visitors tell A b r a h a m t h a t , a l t h o u g h b o t h h e a n d his wife
S a r a h a r e e x t r e m e l y old, t h e y will n e v e r t h e l e s s h a v e a child (v. 10).
T h i s p r o n o u n c e m e n t fulfills G o d ' s p r o m i s e of p r o g e n y to A b r a h a m
( G e n 12:2; 17:2 ) a n d is a p p a r e n t l y t h e r e a s o n for d i e visit to A b r a h a m
a n d S a r a h , since o n c e t h e n e w s is d e l i v e r e d , t h e " m e n " set o u t f r o m
t h e r e a c c o m p a n i e d b y A b r a h a m (v. 16). S o t h e b e i n g s c a r r y o u t a n
angelic f u n c t i o n : delivery of a d i v i n e m e s s a g e . T h e n t h e L o r d b e g i n s
to tell A b r a h a m a b o u t t h e f a t e of S o d o m a n d G o m o r r a h ( w . 1 7 - 2 1 ) .
T h e " m e n " t u m a w a y f r o m t h e r e a n d h e a d to S o d o m a n d G o m o r r a h
(v. 22), l e a v i n g A b r a h a m t o p l e a d w i t h t h e L o r d o n b e h a l f of a n y
r i g h t e o u s in S o d o m ( w . 2 2 3 3 ) .
Chapter 19 b e g i n s b y s e e m i n g l y r e f e r r i n g to t h e t w o m e n who
h a d left t h e L o r d a n d A b r a h a m (18:22) as " t w o a n g e l s " ( ) .
T h e t w o a r r i v e in S o d o m in t h e e v e n i n g (v. 1). L o t g r e e t s t h e visi-
t o r s w i t h a n e n t r e a t y to r e m a i n w i t h h i m t h r o u g h t h e n i g h t . H i s
w o r d s e c h o t h o s e of A b r a h a m t o his t h r e e visitors. T h e visitors a g r e e
t o stay w i t h L o t a f t e r first saying d i e y w o u l d r e m a i n in t h e street
(v. 2). L o t f e e d s t h e m e n (v. 3). B e f o r e t h e visitors a r e a b l e to set-
tie in f o r t h e n i g h t , h o w e v e r , t h e t o w n s m e n s u r r o u n d L o t ' s h o u s e ,
d e m a n d i n g t h e m e n b e given t o t h e m . T h e visitors a r e o n c e a g a i n
r e f e r r e d t o as a n g e l s in v. 15, w h e n t h e y w a r n L o t t o leave t h e city
with his f a m i l y o r b e d e s t r o y e d a l o n g w i t h t h e city. Immediately

2
A. Johnson has noted that there is often an ambiguity between the singular
and plural in the Hebrew Bible when referring to the Godhead. This ambiguity is
seen particularly when the Angel of the Lord is mentioned (e.g., Judg 6 and 13)
but also where angels are present, such as Gen 18 and 32. A. Johnson, The One
and the Many in the Israelite Conception of God (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1961).
a f t e r t h e y a r e r e f e r r e d t o as " a n g e l s " in v. 15, in v. 16 " t h e m e n "
seize L o t a n d his f a m i l y a n d e n s u r e t h e y leave t h e city b e f o r e t h e
d e s t r u c t i o n t h a t c o m e s in v. 24. N o m o r e is said a b o u t t h e " m e n . "
C h a p t e r s 18 a n d 19 s e e m to b e a c o n t i n u o u s n a r r a t i v e . T h e t w o
" m e n " w h o leave G o d a n d A b r a h a m in 18:16 s e e m to b e t h e s a m e
t w o b e i n g s d e s c r i b e d as " a n g e l s " in c h a p t e r 19. J . V a n S e t e r s h a s
a r g u e d persuasively o n t h e basis of linguistic analysis t h a t t h e t w o
c h a p t e r s s e e m to m a k e o n e n a r r a t i v e . 3 E v e n if t h e t w o t r a d i t i o n s
o r i g i n a t e d s e p a r a t e l y , t h e y a r e p r e s e r v e d t o g e t h e r f r o m t h e earliest
r e c o r d s , so it s e e m s safe to c o n s i d e r t h e m as a u n i f i e d n a r r a t i v e .
T o understand how Gen 1 8 1 9 as well as a n y o t h e r H e b r e w Bible
texts w e r e b e i n g u n d e r s t o o d in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , it is
necessary to e x a m i n e t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in t h e v a r i o u s e x t a n t sources
( L X X , Q u m r a n , etc.) f r o m t h a t p e r i o d . I n this s u b s e c t i o n , t h e v a r -
ious s o u r c e s will b e m a r k e d o u t w i t h h e a d i n g s for clarity. T h e s a m e
m e t h o d e x a m i n i n g all t h e e x t a n t late S e c o n d T e m p l e interpreta-
tions of Biblical textswill b e e m p l o y e d t h r o u g h o u t this m o n o g r a p h ,
e v e n if t h e v a r i o u s s o u r c e s a r e n o t m a r k e d o u t w i t h h e a d i n g s .

(i) The Septuagint

T h e L X X m a i n t a i n s t h e s a m e t e r m s as t h e H e b r e w in t h e M a s o r e t i c
text. G e n 18:2 says t h e r e w e r e " t h r e e m e n " ( ), w h i c h is
m a i n t a i n e d t h r o u g h o u t c h a p t e r 18. C h a p t e r 19 says " t h e t w o a n g e l s "
(oi ) a r r i v e d in S o d o m . T h e r e a r e n o significant v a r i a n t s .
It is difficult, if n o t impossible, t o d e t e r m i n e w h a t t h e old G r e e k o r
Hebrew Vorlage said. T h e L X X , t h e n , is m o s t useful in telling us
w h a t a t least o n e set of J e w i s h i n t e r p r e t e r s f r o m t h e p e r i o d were
t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h e b e i n g in this p a s s a g e . P r e s u m a b l y the author(s)
of t h e L X X w o u l d h a v e seen G e n 1 8 - 1 9 m u c h as it w a s told in t h e
H e b r e w t r a d i t i o n . T h r e e visitors c a m e to A b r a h a m , t w o a n g e l s a n d
t h e L o r d , likely in h u m a n f o r m . T h e angels w e n t o n to S o d o m to
see to t h e salvation of L o t a n d his f a m i l y . W i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t of t h e
n a r r a t i v e , t h e h u m a n s i n v o l v e d d o n o t s e e m a b l e to d i s c e r n t h e t r u e
n a t u r e of t h e " m e n . " A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e " m e n " s e e m to b e m o r e
t h a n m e r e l y h u m a n beings: o n e , explicitly called t h e L o r d , d e b a t e s
w i t h A b r a h a m a b o u t t h e f a t e of S o d o m , w h i l e t h e o t h e r t w o , w h o
a r e t h e n called angels, see to the salvation of L o t a n d his family.

s
J. Van Seters, Abraham in History and Tradition (New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1975) 214-216.
(ii) The Dead Sea Scrolls

N o n e of t h e e x t a n t Biblical f r a g m e n t s of G e n e s i s f r o m t h e D e a d S e a
Scrolls c o n t a i n s c h a p t e r s 1819. H o w e v e r , in a small f r a g m e n t k n o w n
as " 4 Q A g e s of C r e a t i o n " ( 4 Q 1 8 0 ) , w h i c h h a s b e e n d a t e d o n p a l e o -
g r a p h i c g r o u n d s to t h e first c e n t u r y C E , f r a g m e n t s 2 4 i n c l u d e a
s t a t e m e n t t h a t s e e m s to r e f e r to G e n 18. 4 S i n c e t h e text is f r a g -
m e n t a r y , its g e n r e c a n n o t b e d e t e r m i n e d w i t h a n y c o n f i d e n c e . It
d o e s s e e m , h o w e v e r , given t h e v a r i o u s allusions t o P e n t a t e u c h a l n a r -
ratives, as if t h e f r a g m e n t is o n e of a n u m b e r of texts f r o m a m o n g
t h e finds a t Q u m r a n t h a t r e p r e s e n t a r e w o r k i n g o r m i d r a s h of t h e
Biblical texts. I n t e r e s t i n g l y , f r a g m e n t 1 m a k e s r e f e r e n c e to A z a z e l
a n d also t o t h e " a n g e l s " to w h o m a r e b o r n t h e g i a n t s ( p e r h a p s a
reference to G e n 6 or 1 En.).
T h e s h o r t r e f e r e n c e in f r a g m e n t 2 says, " [ m e ] n f r o m t h e o a k s of
M a m r e a n g e l s [ ] t h e y [. . .]" 5 T h o u g h f r a g m e n t a r y , t h e state-
m e n t s e e m s t o r e f e r to G e n 18:1 a n d calls t h e visitors " a n g e l s . " T h i s
is n o t a p a r t i c u l a r l y s u r p r i s i n g exegesis, since r e a d i n g c h a p t e r s 18
a n d 19 of G e n e s i s as a c o n t i n u o u s n a r r a t i v e leads to t h e s a m e c o n -
elusion, b u t 4 Q 1 8 0 p r o v i d e s e v i d e n c e t h a t a t least o n e interpreter
was making the connection.

(iii) The Book of Jubilees

T h e B o o k of J u b i l e e s ( Jub.) largely tells its tale in t h e first p e r s o n

f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of a n a n g e l of P r e s e n c e , w h o in 1 : 2 7 - 2 8 is told
b y G o d t o i n s t r u c t M o s e s a b o u t t h e " c r e a t i o n until m y s a n c t u a r y is
built in t h e i r m i d s t f o r e v e r a n d e v e r . " A t 16:1 the G e n 18 n a r r a -
tive is r e c o u n t e d , " A n d o n t h e n e w m o o n of t h e f o u r t h m o n t h , w e
a p p e a r e d to A b r a h a m a t t h e o a k of M a m r e a n d w e t a l k e d w i t h h i m
a n d w e also c a u s e d h i m to k n o w t h a t a son w o u l d b e g i v e n t o h i m
b y S a r a h , his w i f e . " T h e first-person plural " w e " indicates that the
speaker is identifying himself as o n e of the diree w h o visited A b r a h a m
e i t h e r the L o r d o r his c o m p a n i o n angels. Also a t 18:7, t h e angels
record that "we saved Lot because the L o r d r e m e m b e r e d Abraham
a n d h e b r o u g h t h i m o u t f r o m t h e m i d s t of t h e o v e r t h r o w . "
Jub. is a retelling of t h e n a r r a t i v e of G e n e s i s t h r o u g h E x o d 12,

4
See HJPAJC III.i:421-422 and 318-325.
5
Original text by J. Allegro in DJD F (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1968)
pp. 77-79, pi. xxvii.
w h i c h is n o t unlike a n u m b e r of texts f o u n d a t Q u m r a n , s u c h as
t h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n . T h e p r e s e n c e of c o p i e s of Jub. a t Q u m r a n .
as well as a r e f e r e n c e t o Jub. in t h e D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t (CD
1 6 : 3 - 4 ) , m e a n s it d a t e s t o n o l a t e r t h a n a r o u n d 100 B C E . Jib. is
p r e s e n t e d as a r e v e l a t i o n to M o s e s a t Sinai b y a n " a n g e l of t h e
P r e s e n c e . " T h e a n g e l o f t e n speaks in t h e first-person singular and
first-person p l u r a l w h e n associating himself w i t h o t h e r angels. T h i s
is u n i q u e in t h e l i t e r a t u r e of t h e p e r i o d .
It s e e m s c o r r e c t t o i n f e r h e r e , t h e n , t h a t t h e a u t h o r of Jub. has
i d e n t i f i e d t h e a n g e l of t h e P r e s e n c e as also h a v i n g a p p e a r e d to
Abraham l o n g a g o . Jub. r e p r e s e n t s a n o t h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e
G e n e s i s story in w h i c h a n a n g e l is t h e visitor to A b r a h a m . The
angels' p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n is to deliver t h e n e w s of S a r a h ' s p r e g n a n c y
b u t also to save L o t . Jub., t h e n , r e p r e s e n t s a witness to t h e o n g o i n g
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of G e n e s i s in t h e earliest p e r i o d . It focuses o n angels
a n d uses t h e m as n a r r a t o r s in t h e tale of t h e i r visit to A b r a h a m .

(iv) Josephus

J o s e p h u s ' Antiquities (Ant.) p r e s e n t s J e w i s h h i s t o r y f r o m t h e c r e a t i o n

t h r o u g h his o w n d a y . I n Ant. 1.196 J o s e p h u s says t h a t A b r a h a m " s a w
t h r e e a n g e l s [] a n d t a k i n g t h e m t o b e s t r a n g e r s [
] , a r o s e a n d saluted t h e m . " It is n o t entirely c l e a r in
J o s e p h u s w h e t h e r A b r a h a m k n e w t h e t r u e n a t u r e of t h e t h r e e m e n ,
b u t h e n e v e r t h e l e s s t r e a t e d t h e m as h e w o u l d a n y h u m a n g u e s t to
his h o m e . W e l e a r n f r o m J o s e p h u s t h a t t h e angels () w h o h a d
visited A b r a h a m , u p o n arrival in S o d o m , w e r e " y o u n g m e n of r e m a r k -
a b l y fair a p p e a r a n c e [ ]" (200).
J o s e p h u s w r o t e in R o m e in t h e l a t t e r h a l f of t h e first c e n t u r y C E .
H i s w r i t i n g s w e r e i n t e n d e d f o r a G r a e c o - R o m a n a u d i e n c e . It m a k e s
sense t h a t h e m i g h t h a v e a d a p t e d a s p e c t s of his w r i t i n g s to fit his
c u l t u r a l milieu. J o s e p h u s uses t h e t e r m to m e a n b o t h h u m a n
a n d divine m e s s e n g e r s . 6 H o w e v e r , in s o m e places w h e r e f r o m t h e

6
It seems clear that occurrences of in the B.J. and Vita refer to human
messengers. However, when we get to the Ant., we see being used in places
where we would expect the term to mean divine being from the Hebrew Scripture.
Two noticeable exceptions are 1:200 and 5:279 (Gen 19 and Judg 13), where the
term / occurs. It is interesting to note that in the famous passage
on the war (3:400), when Josephus recounts his proclamation to Vespasian that he
would become Caesar, Josephus says that he came to Vespasian ' .
Biblical texts w e m i g h t e x p e c t angels, J o s e p h u s c h o o s e s o t h e r t e r m s ,
s u c h as " y o u n g m e n , " to c o n v e y his u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e s e d i v i n e
b e i n g s to his a u d i e n c e .

(v) Philo

I n Ahr. 107 P h i l o says t h a t A b r a h a m ' s visitors in G e n 18 w e r e " t h r e e

t r a v e l e r s in t h e f o r m of m e n , w h o s e m o r e divine n a t u r e w a s n o t
a p p a r e n t to h i m [ A b r a h a m ] . " 7 H o w e v e r , P h i l o m a k e s c l e a r t h a t t h e
visitors w e r e i n d e e d angels, saying t h e y visited A b r a h a m b e c a u s e t h e y
w e r e c e r t a i n of his v i r t u e so t h a t " a n g e l s r e c e i v e d hospitality f r o m
m e n " (115).
P h i l o J u d a e u s w a s a J e w w h o lived in A l e x a n d r i a , E g y p t , a n d w a s
a close c o n t e m p o r a r y of b o t h J e s u s a n d P a u l (c. 30 B C E c . 5 0 C E ) .
M a n y of his w r i t i n g s a i m e d to s h o w t h e similarities b e t w e e n Jewish
beliefs a n d G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y . Philo o f t e n i n t e r p r e t e d Biblical i d e a s
allegorically. H i s a n g e l o l o g y w a s also a l l e g o r i z e d , m o s t l y equating
w i t h (divine) . 8 A s d i v i n e " w o r d s " o r " t h o u g h t s , " t h e y
c a r r i e d o u t specific tasks t h a t G o d h a d willed b u t h a d n o i n d e p e n -
d e n t p e r s o n a l i t y o r existence of t h e i r o w n .
E . G o o d e n o u g h c o n c l u d e s t h a t P h i l o ' s a n g e l o l o g y w a s o n e n o t of
a n g e l s w i t h specific n a m e s (e.g., M i c h a e l ) a n d f u n c t i o n s (e.g., p r o -
t e c t i o n of Israel), b u t i n s t e a d

his angels are only of God, and not of a sort remotely to

provoke or admit individual mythological elaboration. H e could not
possibly have made room for a literal Gabriel 01 Michael in his think-
ing, and allegorised away all resemblance of the C h e r u b i m to that
Palestinian tradition which seems to have been accepted a n d devel-
oped by the Pharisees. 9

Similarly, H . A. W o l f s o n says t h a t " O n t h e w h o l e , P h i l o c o n s i d e r s

t h e a n g e l s as m e r e l y a s p e c i a l k i n d of i m m a n e n t p o w e r s in the
w o r l d . " 1 0 P h i l o , it s e e m s , t h e n , m a i n l y allegorizes t h e a p p e a r a n c e of

7
Similarly, Philo, Abr. 107, "for he [Abraham] in the middle of the day behold-
ing as it were three men travelling (and he did not perceive that they were in real-
ity of a more diving nature), ran up and entreated them with great perseverance
not to pass by his tent."
8
E.g., Conf. 27 "The divine and holy thoughts, who are often called angels"
( ).
9
. Goodenough. By Light, Light The Mystic Gospel of Hellenistic Judaism (Amsterdam:
Philo Press, 1969) 79-80.
10
H. Wolfson, Philo: Foundations of Religious Philosophy in Judaism, Christianity, and
Islam (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1948) 372.
angels. T h u s , it is i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t in this case, w h e r e J o s e p h u s a n d
the L X X h a v e " a n g e l , " P h i l o calls t h e visitors " m e n , 5 ' as in t h e
H e b r e w , b u t t h e n m a k e s c l e a r t h a t t h e y w e r e angels.

(vi) The Targumim

T a r g u m O n q e l o s (Tg. Onq.) m a i n t a i n s t h e use of " m e n " in c h a p t e r

18 a n d t w o angels in c h a p t e r 19. T a r g u m Neofiti (Tg. Neo.) specifically
says t h a t t h r e e a n g e l s a p p e a r e d to A b r a h a m ( c h a p t e r 18), as d o e s
T a r g u m P s e u d o - J o n a t h a n (Tg. Ps.-J.). E v e n m o r e interestingly, in Tg.
Neo. w e a r e told t h a t t h r e e angels a r e s e n t b e c a u s e e a c h a n g e l c a n
only b e sent to e a r t h for o n e specific task. T h e t h r e e tasks assigned
to t h e s e a n g e l s w e r e : (1) a n n o u n c i n g t h e b i r t h of a child to A b r a h a m
a n d S a r a h , (2) s a v i n g L o t a n d his f a m i l y f r o m d e s t r u c t i o n in S o d o m ,
a n d (3) c a r r y i n g o u t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of S o d o m . Also i n t e r e s t i n g is
t h e f a c t t h a t in Tg. Ps.-J. t h e t w o a n g e l s w h o w e r e in S o d o m , a b o u t
w h o m w e h e a r n o t h i n g f u r t h e r in t h e H e b r e w Bible t r a d i t i o n s , r e a p -
p e a r in G e n 2 8 w i t h J a c o b ' s d r e a m of t h e l a d d e r . "
T h e T a r g u m i m a r e n o t easily d a t e d . Tg. Onq. is likely t h e oldest,
w i t h a d a t e f o r its final r e d a c t i o n a r o u n d t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e t h i r d
c e n t u r y C E . 1 2 T h e final r e d a c t i o n of Tg. Neo. likely d a t e s to d i e f o u r t h
c e n t u r y C E . 1 3 S u g g e s t e d d a t e s f o r Tg. Ps.-J. v a r y f r o m t h e t i m e of
E z r a d o w n to t h e C r u s a d e s ; it p r o b a b l y c a m e i n t o its final f o r m in
t h e s e v e n t h o r e i g h t h c e n t u r y C E . ' 4 T e x t s w i t h s u c h late d a t e s m i g h t
r e a s o n a b l y b e q u e s t i o n e d as s o u r c e s of late S e c o n d T e m p l e angel
belief. H o w e v e r , t h e d i s c o v e r y of A r a m a i c t r a n s l a t i o n s of Biblical
texts a t Q u m r a n m u c h like t h e T a r g u m i m suggests t h a t this t y p e of
t r a n s l a t i o n m a y d a t e t o a n early p e r i o d . 1 5 M o r e o v e r , b y t h e first c e n -
t u r y C E , A r a m a i c h a d b e c o m e t h e v e r n a c u l a r of the J e w s in Palestine
d i r o u g h to Babylon a n d beyond. 1 6 T h u s , b e a r i n g in m i n d die difficulties

11
See C. Rowland, "John 1:51, Jewish Apocalyptic and Targumic Tradition"
NTS 30 (1984) 498-507, esp. p. 503.
15
B. Grossfield, Tie Targum Onqelos to Genesis, p. 32. P. Alexander dates the Baby-
Ionian redaction to the fourth-fifth century CE, "Targum, Targumim" in ABD 6:321.
13
M. McNamara, Targum Neofiti 1: Genesis, p. 45. P. Alexander agrees (p. 323).
14
M. Maher, Targum Pseudo-Jonathan: Genesis, pp. 11-12. P. Alexander again con-
curs (p. 322). R. Ilayward, "The Date of Targum Pseudo-Jonathan: Some Comments"
JJS 40 (1989) 7-30, argues that the evidence for such a late date is not compelling
and should be reassessed.
15
Qumran targumim: fragments: 4QtgLev (4H56), 4QtgJ0b (4H57), and the
more substantial 11QtgJ0b(11H0). Also noteworthy is the Genesis Apocryphon
(1Q20), which is an expansion/interpretation of Genesis in Aramaic.
16
M. Meg 2:1 says concerning the recitation of the Scroll of Esther during the
w i t h r e s p e c t to d a t i n g , it is p r u d e n t to c o n s i d e r t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m
the T a r g u m i m as p e r h a p s c o n t a i n i n g t r a d i t i o n s t h a t g o b a c k to t h e
late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d .
T h e e v i d e n c e s e e m s to suggest t h a t n e a r t h e first c e n t u r y C E , m a n y
i n t e r p r e t e r s u n d e r s t o o d t h e t h r e e " m e n " w h o a p p e a r e d to A b r a h a m
as angels. T h a t t h e y a p p e a r e d as h u m a n s d o e s n o t s e e m to h a v e
m e a n t t h e y w e r e in a n y w a y t r a n s f o r m e d ; r a t h e r , t h e y remained
angels, t a k i n g o n a h u m a n f o r m to c a r r y o u t t h e i r specific tasks.

(b) Genesis 32

I n G e n 3 2 : 2 2 - 3 1 ( 2 3 - 3 2 ) J a c o b struggles with a " m a n " o n t h e b a n k s

of t h e J a b b o k f o r d . 1 T h e tale says:

[22] T h e same night he [Jacob] arose a n d took his two wives, his two
maids, and his eleven children, a n d crossed the ford of the J a b b o k .
[23] H e took them and he m a d e them cross over the wadi, and they
crossed with his belongings. [24] J a c o b remained alone, and a m a n
[ ]wrestled with him until the break of dawn. [25] A n d he realised
that he could not prevail against him, and so he touched his hip joint
and dislocated his hip (joint), while J a c o b wrestled with him. [26] A n d
he said, "Let me loose for the dawn is breaking." A n d he said. "I will
not let you go unless you bless me." [27] And he said to him. " W h a t
is your name?" and he said "Jacob." [28] And he said, " N o longer
shall your n a m e be called J a c o b , but instead, Israel, since you strove
with G o d [ ]and with m e n [ ]a n d you prevailed." [29] A n d
J a c o b requested, "Tell me, please, your n a m e , " a n d he said, " W h y do
you ask this, my name?" and he blessed him there. [30] And J a c o b
called the n a m e of the place Peniel since, "I have seen G o d []
face to face and my life has been spared." [31] And the sun rose upon
him as he crossed over Penu'el and he limped because of his hip.

T h e first t w o verses set t h e s c e n e f o r t h e u p c o m i n g e n c o u n t e r w i t h

the m y s t e r i o u s a d v e r s a r y . Interestingly the l a r g e r J a c o b n a r r a t i v e leads
us to e x p e c t a c o n f r o n t a t i o n b e t w e e n J a c o b a n d his b r o t h e r Esau.
J a c o b is fleeing f r o m E s a u , w h o is still a n g r y w i t h J a c o b f o r tricking
h i m o u t of his b i r t h r i g h t (25:31) a n d especially for stealing his bless-
i n g (27:45). J a c o b divides his p e o p l e i n t o t w o g r o u p s (32:7) a n d c a m p s

festival of Purim, "If he read it by heart, or if he read it in Aramaic or in any

other language, he has not fulfilled his obligation." See also m. Yad. 4:5. Also, in
the Talmud, b. Sabb 115a, there is a story that Garnliel I had a Targum of Job
immured during a building project.
17
The following translation is my own. It employs the verse numbers of English
translations. The corresponding verses in the Hebrew (BHS) are one number higher.
for t h e e v e n i n g (32:21). H e h a s directly r e q u e s t e d G o d ' s h e l p a g a i n s t
E s a u ( 3 2 : 9 - 1 2 ) . T h a t s a m e e v e n i n g , J a c o b m a k e s his i m m e d i a t e f a m -
ily f o r d t h e river (v. 2 2 2 3 ) , w h e r e h e is t h e n left a l o n e (v. 24). 1 8
A n u n k n o w n a d v e r s a r y r e f e r r e d to only as a " m a n " ( )t h e n sets
u p o n J a c o b . S o m e c o m m e n t a t o r s , led b y G u n k e l , h a v e n o t e d that
this story m a y reflect a v e r y a n c i e n t , folktale t r a d i t i o n of a river
d e m o n a t t e m p t i n g to p r e v e n t crossing of t h e river d u e to its d a n -
gers. 1 9 G u n k e l g o e s as f a r as to suggest t h a t this story originally h a d
little t o d o w i t h J a c o b . 2 0 T h i s e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e origin of this tale
is plausible, so it will n o t b e d e b a t e d h e r e . I t is sufficient t o n o t e
t h a t , if this e x p l a n a t i o n is c o r r e c t , t h e n the o r i g i n a l f o r m of t h e story
a l r e a d y i n c l u d e d a spiritual b e i n g as t h e o p p o n e n t , n o t G o d .
J a c o b a n d his a d v e r s a r y wrestle t o a s t a l e m a t e . T h e mysterious
o p p o n e n t t h e n realizes t h a t h e will n o t p r e v a i l o v e r J a c o b (v. 25),
so h e uses e i t h e r a special w r e s t l i n g t e c h n i q u e o r , as v o n R a d h a s
called it, " m a g i c a l p o w e r " to dislocate J a c o b ' s h i p j o i n t . 2 1 E v e n this
is n o t successful in f r e e i n g h i m f r o m J a c o b ' s h o l d , so h e i m p l o r e s
J a c o b to f r e e h i m " b e c a u s e t h e d a w n is b r e a k i n g " (v. 26). W i t h i n
t h e c o n t e x t of t h e story, n o r e a s o n is given for t h e c o n c e r n o v e r t h e
m o r n i n g ' s arrival. H o w e v e r , this o n c e a g a i n fits w i t h G u n k e l ' s sug-
gestion t h a t t h e story originally r e f e r r e d to a d e m o n a t t a c k , since
s u c h a c r e a t u r e w o u l d only b e a b l e to f u n c t i o n a t night. 2 2
J a c o b , n o w obviously holding the u p p e r h a n d , puts a condition
o n t h e release of his o p p o n e n t : h e r e q u i r e s a blessing. J a c o b is clearly
z e a l o u s to o b t a i n a blessing ( G e n . 27). Blessings a r e a n important
t h e m e in G e n e s i s ; t h e y c o m e p r i m a r i l y f r o m G o d ( G e n 12, 39) a n d
otherwise from venerable figures (e.g., t h e p a t r i a r c h s u p o n their
d e a t h b e d s , G e n 2 7 , 4 8 4 9 ) . W i t h w h o m did J a c o b s u p p o s e h e w a s
wrestling to m a k e s u c h a d e m a n d ? It d o e s n o t s e e m likely t h a t h e
t h o u g h t his o p p o n e n t w a s E s a u . T h i s q u e s t i o n m u s t r e m a i n unan-
s w e r e d , b u t to s o m e e x t e n t , given t h e c o n t e x t of blessings 111 G e n e s i s ,

18
There is some confusion as to whether Jacob did indeed cross the river himself,
v. 22, but regardless, in v. 24 it is made clear that Jacob is alone when he is met.
19
H. Gunkel, 77le Folktale in the Old Testament, trans. John W. Rogerson (Sheffield:
Almond Press, 1987) 83-87.
20
H. Gunkel, Folktale, p. 87.
21
G. von Rad, Genesis: A Commentary, trans. J . Marks (London: SCM, 1961) 315.
22
H. Gunkel, Folktale, p. 85. Tg. Neo. says that the morning is the time when
the angels praise God, and Sariel, Jacob's opponent, is the leader of the angels.
See also Tg. Ps.-J. and Gen. Rab. 78:1.
it s e e m s t h a t J a c o b s u p p o s e d his o p p o n e n t to b e s o m e o n e of g r e a t
p o w e r , w h o w a s a b l e to give h i m a n efficacious blessing, perhaps
even G o d .
J a c o b ' s a d v e r s a r y r e s p o n d s to this c o n d i t i o n of a blessing b y request-
ing J a c o b ' s n a m e (v. 27). T h i s suggests t h a t w h o e v e r w e s u p p o s e t h e
o p p o n e n t to b e , h e did n o t k n o w J a c o b , a l t h o u g h this w o u l d w e i g h
a g a i n s t a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e o p p o n e n t as G o d a n d fit b e t t e r w i t h
G u n k e l ' s h y p o t h e s i s of folktale origins. J a c o b d e c l a r e s his n a m e , t h e n
t h e o p p o n e n t says, " N o l o n g e r shall y o u r n a m e b e called J a c o b , b u t
i n s t e a d , Israel, since y o u strove 2 3 w i t h G o d ( ) a n d w i t h men
( );a n d y o u p r e v a i l e d " (v. 28). 24 H e r e w e a r e g i v e n o u r main
piece of e v i d e n c e f o r i d e n t i f y i n g t h e G e n e s i s a d v e r s a r y . Certainly,
t h a t J a c o b strove with m e n b a r k e n s b a c k first to his t i m e in R e b e c c a ' s
w o m b w h e n h e g r a b b e d o n t o E s a u ' s heel at t h e i r b i r t h (25:26), a n d
t h e n also to E s a u , L a b a n , a n d this m a n l i k e figure.
W h e n v. 2 8 says t h a t J a c o b " s t r o v e w i t h G o d , " it is m o s t likely
r e f e r r i n g t o t h e p r e s e n t w r e s t l i n g m a t c h , since n o w h e r e else d o e s
J a c o b h a v e s u c h a n i n t i m a t e , physical i n t e r a c t i o n with a divine being.
T h u s , t h e i m p l i c a t i o n is t h a t t h e J a b b o k w r e s t l i n g m a t c h is w h e n
J a c o b "strove" with G o d a n d prevailed. T h a t J a c o b prevailed over
his o p p o n e n t is n o t explicitly s t a t e d , b u t it c a n b e i n f e r r e d f r o m t h e
f a c t t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n of a blessing is m e t a n d J a c o b is n o l o n g e r
d e t a i n e d . T h e v i c t o r y c o m e s at a price, h o w e v e r , since J a c o b l i m p s
d u e to his i n j u r y . T h e i n j u r y is a p a l p a b l e a n d striking c o n s e q u e n c e .
J a c o b is physically w o u n d e d a f t e r w r e s t l i n g w i t h a divine o p p o n e n t .
T h i s is a v e r y i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e divine.
J a c o b t h e n r e s p o n d s by r e q u e s t i n g his o p p o n e n t ' s n a m e . His request
g o e s unfulfilled, w i t h t h e a d v e r s a r y saying, " W h y d o y o u ask m e this,
m y n a m e [ " ? ] A similar r e q u e s t is p u t to t h e A n g e l
of t h e L o r d in J u d g 13:17; M a n o a h asks, " W h a t is y o u r n a m e , so t h a t
w h e n y o u r w o r d s c o m e true, w e m a y h o n o u r you?" T o w h i c h the Angel
of t h e L o r d r e s p o n d s (v. 18) in t h e e x a c t s a m e w o r d s as t h e G e n e s i s
o p p o n e n t , " W h y d o y o u ask this, m y n a m e [ " ? ]
T h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d t h e n acids, " I t [his n a m e ] is i n c o m p r e h e n s -
ible" (v. 18).

23
Note that the exact meaning of the term is unknown. The common trans-
lation of "strive" is adopted for this discussion. See BDB, p. 975a.
24
The name change occurs again in Gen 35:10 and is mentioned numerous
times; see Gen 46:2; 2 Kgs 17:34; Ps 135:4; et al.
 O n c e J a c o b is blessed a n d his o p p o n e n t leaves, h e r e n a m e s t h e
p l a c e P e n i e l b e c a u s e h e h a s " s e e n G o d f a c e t o face a n d s u r v i v e d . "
S e e i n g G o d is l i f e - t h r e a t e n i n g in t h e H e b r e w Bible ( G e n 16:13; E x o d
2 4 : 1 1 , 33:20; J u d g 6 : 2 2 - 2 3 cf. Tripartite Tractate NHC I, 6 4 : 2 8 - 6 5 : 1 ) .
I n t h e J u d g 13 story, t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d r e t u r n s to M a n o a h a n d
his wife. M a n o a h says to his wife, " W e shall surely die, f o r w e h a v e
seen God" (13:22). T h i s is a v e r y i m p o r t a n t e q u a t i o n : M a n o a h and
his wife saw t h e Angel of the Lord (v. 17, 21), b u t e q u a l l y t h e y h a v e
seen God (v. 22). J a c o b s e e m s t o h a v e a c c o m p l i s h e d s o m e t h i n g v e r y
r a r e i n d e e d : h e h a s seen G o d (cf. E z e k 1:26; J o h n 1:18, 4:12). J a c o b ' s
p r o c l a m a t i o n , " I h a v e seen G o d f a c e to f a c e , a n d m y life w a s s a v e d , "
is i l l u m i n a t e d b y t h e e q u a t i o n m a d e in J u d g e s . J a c o b w r e s t l e d w i t h
G o d a n d s a w h i m f a c e to f a c e , b u t a g a i n , a l a t e r i n t e r p r e t e r c o u l d
see t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d t r a d i t i o n s t h a t e q u a t e it w i t h G o d and
u n d e r s t a n d J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t to b e a n A n g e l of t h e L o r d . 2 5
T h e p r o p h e t H o s e a is a w a r e of a similar t r a d i t i o n as the G e n e s i s
story in c h a p t e r 1 2 : 2 - 5 (3~6). 2 6 H o s e a is t h e o n l y p r e - E x i l i c p r o p h e t
to refer to a n a n g e l ( 2 7 . (

according to his ways, and requite him according to his deeds. [3]
In the w o m b he took his brother by the heel, and in his m a n h o o d
he strove [ ]with G o d [ 4 ] .[]H e strove with the angel
[ ] and prevailed [], he wept and sought his favor. He
met G o d at Bethel, and there G o d spoke with him[5] the Lord the
G o d of hosts, the Lord is his name.

T h e close linguistic a n d n a r r a t i v e ties b e t w e e n H o s 12 a n d G e n 32

strongly suggest t h e y a r e related. O n l y h e r e a n d in G e n 32 d o e s t h e
v e r b " s t r i v e " a p p e a r . Also, t h e v e r b " p r e v a i l " a p p e a r s in
b o t h texts. F u r t h e r m o r e , m e n t i o n of J a c o b ' s g r a b b i n g of E s a u ' s heel,
" s t r i v i n g " w i t h G o d , a n d m e e t i n g w i t h h i m a t B e t h e l all firmly locate
t h e origins of this p e r i c o p e in t h e J a c o b Cycle. C h a p t e r 12 of H o s e a
h a s b e e n t h e t o p i c of m u c h i n t e r t e x t u a l exegesis. 2 8 T h e importance

25
See Tg. Onq. and Tg. Ps.-J.
26
Translation mine. As with Genesis, the verse numbers follow English transla-
dons; the corresponding verse numbers in Hebrew (BHS) are one number higher.
27
But Isa 6:26 mentions the Seraphim, and Ezek 10 mentions the Cherubim.
28
See especially L. Esiinger, "Hosea 12:5a and Genesis 32:29: A Study in Inner
Biblical Exegesis" JSOT 18 (1980) 91-99; M. Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient
Israel (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988); M. Gertner, "The Masorah and the Levites:
An Essay in the History of a Concept" VT 10 (1960) 241-272 with "Appendix: An
Attempt at an Interpretation of Hosea 12," pp. 272-284.
of H o s 12:4 f o r this s t u d y lies in s h o w i n g t h a t f r o m a n e a r l y p e r i o d
a t r a d i t i o n existed in w h i c h J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t w a s u n d e r s t o o d as a n
angel.
M a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s believe t h a t the w o r d in v. 4 is a gloss. 29
S e v e r a l r e a s o n s a r e g e n e r a l l y p u t f o r w a r d . T h e t e x t itself still m a k e s
sense if o n e r e m o v e s a n d inserts ( as f o u n d in v. 1) o r e v e n
p e r h a p s ( v. 3) as possible originals. S o m e a n c i e n t r e a d e r s c o u l d
c e r t a i n l y c o n s t r u e a verse t h a t r e a d ' J a c o b s t r o v e w i t h G o d a n d h e
p r e v a i l e d " as p r o b l e m a t i c . I n light of t h e t r a d i t i o n s e x t a n t in t h e
H e b r e w S c r i p t u r e s (e.g., m a n , t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d , et al.), a c h a n g e
of t o w o u l d n o t b e difficult to i m a g i n e . A c h a n g e t o
w o u l d e l i m i n a t e a n y p r o b l e m a t i c r e a d i n g s t h a t m i g h t arise if
G o d w e r e p r e s e n t in v. 4. A d d i t i o n a l s u p p o r t for this suggestion is
p r o v i d e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t H o s e a n o w h e r e else m e n t i o n s and
that the Genesis passage contains the word for " G o d , " which
e l s e w h e r e in t h e H e b r e w Bible is u n d e r s t o o d as " g o d s " = a n g e l s o r
lesser d i v i n e beings.
N o n e of these c o m m e n t a t o r s s e e m s to suggest, h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e
c h a n g e to o c c u r s f o r a n y r e a s o n o t h e r t h a n t o say t h a t J a c o b
w r e s t l e d w i t h a lesser, divine b e i n g . T h a t is, n o n e posits a switch t o
t h a t h a d as its m o t i v a t i o n t h e i d e a of as h u m a n "mes-
s e n g e r . " 3 0 T h u s e v e n if t h e " a n g e l " m e n t i o n e d in H o s 12 is a l a t e r
gloss to t h e text, t h e r e d a c t o r s e e m s to h a v e h a d in m i n d a divine
b u t lesser b e i n g t h a n G o d w i t h w h o m J a c o b w r e s d e d a n d o v e r w h o m
J a c o b w a s a b l e t o prevail. M o r e o v e r , t h e L X X , w h i c h r e a d s ,
31
supports . T h a t t h e L X X u p h o l d s suggests t h a t if it w a s
a gloss, t h e n it h a p p e n e d fairly early in d i e t r a d i t i o n . H . G i n s b e r g
h a s a r g u e d t h a t a b e i n g k n o w n as " E l - b e t h - e l " e q u i v a l e n t to a n
a n g e l w a s w o r s h i p p e d in a cult t h a t evolved f r o m t h e P e n u e l story. 3 2
If h e is c o r r e c t , this s u p p o r t s t h e i d e a t h a t J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t was
u n d e r s t o o d as a n angel (or at least divine being) f r o m a n early p e r i o d .
A t first g l a n c e , t h e r e s e e m s n o r e a s o n to s u p p o s e t h a t H o s e a , writ-

29
See especially H. Wolff, Hosea, trans. G. Stanstell (Philadelphia: Fortress Press,
1974) 206-212 and F. Andersen and D. N. Freedman, Hosea (New York: Doubleday,
1980) 606-610.
30
The common translation of ;see BDB 521b.
31
Note that there are no extant fragments of IIos 12 among the Dead Sea
Scrolls, nor is it referred to specifically by Philo or Josephus.
32
H. L. Ginsberg, "Hosea's Ephraim, More Fool Than Knave: An Interpretation
of Hosea 12:1-14" JBL 80 (1961) 343-347.
i n g in t h e p r e - E x i l i c p e r i o d , c h a n g e d t h e G e n e s i s t r a d i t i o n o r k n e w
of a n a l t e r n a t e t r a d i t i o n t h a t h e l d J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t w a s a n a n g e l .
H o w e v e r , H o s 12, i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r stating t h a t J a c o b wrestled w i t h
t h e a n g e l / G o d a n d p r e v a i l e d , says t h a t J a c o b w e p t in s u p p l i c a t i o n
(). T h a t J a c o b w e p t is m a i n t a i n e d n o w h e r e else in t h e J a b b o k
t r a d i t i o n s , so it c e r t a i n l y a p p e a r s t h a t H o s e a e i t h e r (a) k n e w of a
t r a d i t i o n a b o u t J a c o b t h a t varies f r o m t h e o n e r e c o r d e d in G e n e s i s
o r (b) a l t e r e d t h e G e n e s i s story. I n e i t h e r case, this l e n d s c r e d e n c e
to t h e possibility t h a t w a s i n d e e d original. C e r t a i n l y , t h e G e n e s i s
p a s s a g e w a s v a g u e e n o u g h to allow r o o m f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a n d it
s e e m s t h a t r e g a r d l e s s of w h e n it o c c u r r e d , t h e a u t h o r / r e d a c t o r of
H o s 12 a l t e r e d t h e G e n e s i s t r a d i t i o n of J a c o b w r e s t l i n g w i t h G o d to
J a c o b wrestling with an angel.
I n Ant. b o o k 1, J o s e p h u s deals directly w i t h t h e G e n 32 story. H i s
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is q u i t e i l l u m i n a t i n g in t h a t h e c h o o s e s a n u m b e r of
t e r m s to d e s c r i b e J a c o b ' s m y s t e r i o u s o p p o n e n t . Ant. 1 : 3 3 1 - 3 3 4 states:

[331] These preparations going smoothly through the entire day, at night
he put his company in motion; when they crossed a ford called J a b a c -
chos, J a c o b being left behind, encountered a p h a n t o m []
the struggle had been begun by itwrestled and overcame the phantom
[], [332] which now had the faculty of speech and spoke
to him; It advised him that he should rejoice in his achievement a n d
that it was no minor adversary whom he mastered, but a divine angel
[ ] he h a d defeated, and that he should deem this a sign
of great blessings to come a n d that his people would never be for-
saken, nor that any mortal m a n would suipass him in strength. [333]
H e then called u p o n him to take the n a m e of Israel, which accord-
ing to the Hebrew tongue means "the opponent of an angel of G o d "
[ ]. This proclamation indeed lie gave at the
request of Jacob. For he, perceiving him to be an angel of G o d [
], 33 besought him to declare what destiny awaited him. T h e phan-
torn [], having spoken, vanished; [334] a n d J a c o b , delighted
with this, named the place Phanuel, which means, "the face of God." 3 4

J o s e p h u s ' s a c c o u n t of t h e J a b b o k struggle follows r o u g h l y t h e s a m e

n a r r a t i v e s e q u e n c e as the G e n e s i s story, b u t t h e r e a r e s o m e significant

33
Note Thackery translates this as "a messenger of God," which is appropriate
in the context of the opponent delivering the news of Jacob's destiny, but "angel"
carries with it the idea of "messenger" and also remains consistent with the previ-
ous uses of .
34
Greek text from Loeb editions Josephus, Ant. I-IV, trans. H. Thackeray (1961).
differences w i t h respect to t h e o p p o n e n t . J a c o b sends his f a m i l y across
t h e J a b b o k , is left a l o n e , a n d wrestles w i t h a n u n k n o w n opponent.
I t is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e t h e d i f f e r e n t t e r m s e m p l o y e d b y J o s e p h u s t o
n a m e J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t . J o s e p h u s is u n i q u e a m o n g e x t a n t s o u r c e s in
using " p h a n t a s m " to d e s c r i b e J a c o b ' s a d v e r s a r y , selecting it o n sev-
eral o c c a s i o n s t o d e n o t e h e a v e n l y beings. 3 5 J o s e p h u s m a y h a v e c h o -
sen this t e r m to m a i n t a i n t h e m y s t e r i o u s n a t u r e of t h e adversary.
T h a t J o s e p h u s takes p a i n s to say t h a t this s p e c t e r c o u l d t h e n s p e a k
s e e m s t o suggest t h a t , in his u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e tale, J a c o b w o u l d
n o t h a v e i m m e d i a t e l y r e c o g n i z e d his o p p o n e n t ' s a n g e l i c ( a n d t h u s
m e s s e n g e r ) status. P e r h a p s J o s e p h u s saw in this t h e m y t h i c a l r o o t s
suggested b y m o d e r n i n t e r p r e t e r s like G u n k e l , for w h o m t h e origi-
rial o p p o n e n t w a s a river d e m o n . 3 6 T h e o p p o n e n t t h e n tells J a c o b
t h a t h e h a s w o n a g r e a t v i c t o r y a n d suggests t h e n a m e c h a n g e f r o m
J a c o b to Israel ( J o s e p h u s m o v e s m e n t i o n of J a c o b ' s i n j u r y to t h e
e n d of his retelling). 3 , J a c o b , r e c o g n i z i n g his o p p o n e n t ' s t r u e n a t u r e ,
presses h i m f o r details of his o w n destiny ( J o s e p h u s d o e s n o t explic-
itly m e n t i o n r e c e i p t of a blessing). 3 8 Finally, J a c o b n a m e s t h e p l a c e
P l i a n u e l , t h e " f a c e of G o d . " 3 9
H o w e v e r , in this s a m e section, J o s e p h u s also calls J a c o b ' s a d v e r -
sary a " h e a v e n l y a n g e l " a n d a n " a n g e l of G o d , " w h i c h s e e m s t o
i n d i c a t e t h a t J o s e p h u s , like H o s 12, u n d e r s t o o d " m a n " to m e a n s o m e -
t h i n g o t h e r t h a n a h u m a n o r G o d . F o r J o s e p h u s , it s e e m s t h a t J a c o b ' s
o p p o n e n t w a s a n a n g e l of G o d , a divine b e i n g , b u t n o t G o d him-
self. J o s e p h u s ' s e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e m e a n i n g of t h e n a m e Israel s u p -
p o r t s this view, since h e says t h a t Israel m e a n s " t h e o p p o n e n t of a n

35
In Ant. 5.213, Josephus uses to describe the Angel of the Lord in
Judg 6:11-24 and in 3.62 to characterize the Angel of the Lord in the burning
bush. He uses the term mostly to refer to angels: Ant. 1.325, 331, 333 (Gen 32),
5.213, 277 (Judg 6 and 13), though also for "visions"; see also B.J. 3.353 and
5.381; Ant. 2.82 and 10.272 (Daniel's vision).
36
H. Gunkel, Folktale, pp. 83.87
37
This seems a more logical place to mention the injury, since, as the Genesis
account unfolds, the injury has nothing to do with Jacob's eventual yielding but
relates to the aetiology in Gen 32:33 of the Jews' prohibition against eating the
sinew of the hip.
38
Josephus recounts that the angel tells Jacob "no mortal man will surpass him
in strength." In this instance of the foretelling, Josephus seems to demonstrate depen-
dence on the LXX version of the story, which says Jacob will be "
" (. 29).
39
For a discussion of the significance of the name Phanuel, see G. Vermes, "The
Archangel Sariel," in Christianity, Judaism, and Other Graeco-Roman Cults, ed. J. Neusner
(Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1975) 3:159-166.
a n g e l of G o d " r a t h e r t h a n " o n e c o n t e n d i n g / s t r i v i n g w i t h G o d . " H i s
i n t e r p o l a t i o n clearly s h o w s t h a t t h e G e n e s i s p a s s a g e left o p e n the
identity of J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t a n d t h a t a t least o n e first-century Jewish
i n t e r p r e t e r t o o k this b e i n g t o b e a n a n g e l of G o d .
T h e t e x t k n o w n as t h e L a d d e r of J a c o b [Lad. Jac.) p r e s e n t s sev-
eral p r o b l e m s to t h e e x e g e t e d u e to its t r a n s m i s s i o n history. 4 0 Lad.
Jac. survives o n l y in t h e S l a v o n i c v e r s i o n a n d c o n t a i n s m a n y l a t e r
c o r r u p t i o n s , edits, a n d c h a n g e s t o t h e text. N e v e r t h e l e s s , it is i n t e r -
esting to c o n s i d e r s o m e of d i e u n i q u e a s p e c t s of this text. D a t e s f o r
Lad. Jac. h a v e b e e n suggested a r o u n d t h e first c e n t u r y C E , b u t t h e s e
a r e b y n o m e a n s certain. 4 1
T h e r e a r e seven c h a p t e r s in Lad. Jac. T h e first six a p p e a r t o b e
J e w i s h , w i t h t h e seventh seemingly a C h r i s t i a n e x p a n s i o n of t h e text. 4 2
T h e g e n e r a l s e q u e n c e of e v e n t s in Lad. Jac. follows t h a t of G e n
2 8 : 1 0 22, b u t t h e r e a r e m a n y e x p a n s i o n s , etc. U p o n e a c h of twelve
steps (a s y m b o l i c n u m b e r ) a r e said to be t w o faces. M u c h a k i n to
t h e l a t e r T a r g u m i c a n d r a b b i n i c m a t e r i a l , Lad. Jac. says t h a t at t h e
t o p is a n e x c e e d i n g l y a w e s o m e face. A b o v e t h a t f a c e is G o d . Lxid.
Jac. 4 : 1 5 says:

[1] And the angel [Sariel] said to me, " W h a t is your name?" [2] And
I said, "Jacob" [3] [He announced], "Your n a m e shall no longer be
called J a c o b , but your n a m e shall be similar to my name, Israel." [4]
And w h e n I was going from Phandana of Syria to meet Esau my
brother, he came to me a n d blessed m e and called me Israel. [5] A n d
he would not tell m e his n a m e until I adjured him.

A few i n d i c a t o r s in this s h o r t p a s s a g e relate it to t h e J a b b o k e v e n t ,

p r i m a r i l y the c h a n g e of J a c o b ' s n a m e to Israel. T h e n a m e Israel is
said t o b e "like" t h a t of his i n f o r m a n t , Sariel. 4 3 Sariel is also n a m e d
as t h e a n g e l a g a i n s t w h o m J a c o b wrestles in Tg. Neo. J a c o b ' s new
n a m e is "like" t h a t of o n e of t h e n a m e d a r c h a n g e l s ( 1 Q M 9:14-15,
Ork 1 E11. 20). T h i s s e e m s to i m p l y , a t least, t h a t J a c o b ' s n a t u r e is
to b e c h a n g e d to s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n simply h u m a n , since h e h a s
a n a m e like t h a t of a n a r c h a n g e l . F u r t h e r i n d i c a t o r s a r e the specific
m e n t i o n of t h e blessing a n d t h a t t h e n a m e of J a c o b ' s angelic visitor

40
Translation by H. Lunt, "The Ladder of Jacob" in OTP 2:408-409.
41
H. Lunt, Ladder, in OTP 2:401-411.
42
J. Charlesworth, "The Ladder of Jacob" in ABD (New York: Doubleday, 1991)
3:609.
43
Note that the names are similar in that (a) they are both theophoric, and (b)
and are transpositions of the same (unpointed) Hebrew consonants.
is n o t given until h e is p r e s s e d (cf. G e n 32:29). A n a d d i t i o n a l p o i n t
of c o n t a c t m a y b e u n d e r s t o o d f r o m t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l reference,
P h a n d a n a of Syria, w h i c h likely p o i n t s t o w a r d t h e J a b b o k event. 4 4
F r o m this s h o r t text, w e c a n see y e t a n o t h e r w a y in w h i c h the
J a b b o k tale w a s i n t e r p r e t e d . H e r e , as in Tg. JVeo., Sariel c o m e s t o
J a c o b , c h a n g e s his n a m e , a n d blesses h i m . N o struggle is explicitly
m e n t i o n e d , b u t c e r t a i n l y t h e r e is a visit f r o m a n a n g e l . J a c o b ' s n e w
n a m e , Israel, is said to b e like t h a t of t h e a r c h a n g e l , w h i c h suggests
t h a t f r o m this p o i n t f o r w a r d h e h a s a special r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e
divine via his n e w n a m e . T h i s is akin to w h a t w e h a v e j u s t seen
a b o v e in Philo. Israel is a p o w e r f u l n a m e , w h i c h b r i n g s w i t h it a
c h a n g e in n a t u r e .
T h e r e is o n e s e g m e n t f r o m a G r a e c o - R o m a n a u t h o r o n t h e G e n
32 p a s s a g e . D e m e t r i u s ' s writings, t h o u g h r e c o r d e d in t h e f o u r t h c e n -
t u r y G E w r i t i n g s of E u s e b i u s , likely d e r i v e f r o m t h e e n d of t h e t h i r d
c e n t u r y B C E . 4 5 T h i s f r a g m e n t is c o n t a i n e d in E u s e b i u s , Praeparatio
Evangelien 9.21.1-19:46

While he was on his way to C a n a a n , an angel of G o d [

] wrestled [] with him and struck the broad part of Jacob's
thigh; it became stiff and he limped on it. It is for this reason that
the tendon in the thigh of animals is not eaten. And the angel [
] said to him that from then on he would no longer be called
J a c o b but Israel.

It seems t h a t d i e t r a d i t i o n of J a c o b wrestling a n angel is q u i t e a n c i e n t ,

so t h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e E u s e b i u s o r a n i n t e r m e d i a t e h a n d
i n s e r t e d it. T h e r e f o r e , w e h a v e f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e of J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t
b e i n g i n t e r p r e t e d as a n angel. It w a s m a i n t a i n e d in t h e t r a d i t i o n by
E u s e b i u s as well.
Lastly, t h e r e is e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e C h r i s t i a n a p o l o g i s t J u s t i n M a r t y r
(c. 1 0 0 - 1 6 5 CE). I n his " d i a l o g u e " with a J e w i s h i n t e r l o c u t o r , T r y p h o ,
J u s t i n discusses a n u m b e r of p a s s a g e s f r o m t h e H e b r e w Scriptures
in o r d e r to d e m o n s t r a t e to T r y p h o t h a t J e s u s w a s p r o p h e s i e d in
those writings. T h e Dialogue w a s w r i t t e n a r o u n d 135 C E , so it is o n
the m a r g i n s of t h e t i m e f r a m e f o r this study, b u t J u s t i n b r i n g s a n

44
H. Lunt, in 0 7 7 2:409 n. 4b, says that Phandana of Syria represents Paddam-
Aram, a key geographical reference from Gen 33:18 (as in Apocalypse of Abraham
2:3), which is also the same location mentioned in the Prayer of Joseph.
45
C. Holladay, FragmentsfromHellenistic Jewish Authors, vol. 1: Historians (Chico,
CA: Scholars Press, 1983) 51-52.
46
See C. Holladay, Fragments, p. 67.
i n t e r e s t i n g p e r s p e c t i v e t o t h e q u e s t i o n of J e s u s ' s n a t u r e a n d these
passages. H e m e n t i o n s t h e G e n 32 a c c o u n t o n t w o occasions. 4 7 A t
125.5, h e writes: 4 8

T h e n a m e Israel, then, means a m a n who overcomes power (),

for Isra is a " m a n who overcomes" a n d El is "power." T h a t Christ
would do this w h e n He became m a n was thus foretold by the mys-
tery of J a c o b ' s wrestling with Him who appeared to him, in that He
ministered to the will of the Father, nevertheless, H e is God, because
H e is the first-born of all creatures. . . . By touching J a c o b ' s thigh and
making it n u m b , Christ showed that he, too, would grow n u m b [i.e.,
in physical a n d mental suffering], at His crucifixion. But his n a m e
from the beginning was Israela n a m e which H e conferred u p o n the
blessed J a c o b when he blessed him with his own name, proclaiming
thereby that all who come to the Father through H i m are part of
blessed Israel.

A t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e c h a p t e r J u s t i n tells T r y p h o t h a t h e will dis-

cuss " t h e p o w e r () of t h e n a m e I s r a e l " (125:1). J u s t i n states
t h a t " I s r a e l " is t h e n a m e given to t h e " f i r s t - b o r n of all c r e a t u r e s "
(cf. P h i l o , Conf. 146; C o l 1:15) 49 a n d a t t r i b u t e s t h e n a m e t o C h r i s t .
H e links J a c o b a n d J e s u s by e q u a t i n g J a c o b ' s n u m b thigh w i t h Christ's
s u f f e r i n g ( n u m b n e s s ) at the C r u c i f i x i o n .
W i t h i n t h e Dialogue J u s t i n i n t e r p r e t s a n u m b e r of t h e o p h a n i e s f r o m
t h e H e b r e w Bible as p r o o f t h a t J e s u s as t h e son of G o d existed
b e f o r e t h e i n c a r n a t i o n . 5 0 C h r i s t c o n f e r s t h e n a m e Israel, his o w n
n a m e , u p o n J a c o b w h e n h e blesses h i m at t h e J a b b o k . J u s t i n uses
this c o n n e c t i o n to s h o w t h a t C h r i s t m a n i f e s t e d himself in t h e a n c i e n t
p a s t a n d p r o v i d e d t h e m e a n s w h e r e b y J e w s c o u l d also c o m e to sal-
v a t i o n , since t h e y a r e actually m e m b e r s in "blessed I s r a e l , " w h i c h
in its essence m e a n s p a r t a k i n g in J e s u s t h r o u g h J a c o b .

47
Justin also mentions Gen 32 in his next chapter, 126, but there he simply reit-
erates the Biblical story.
48
Translation my own with special reference to Gieschen, p. 160; Greek text
from Migne, PG vol. 6.
49
See also NHC 11:105, which says, "And a first-bom called 'Israel,' i.e., 'the
man who sees god (cf. Philo, PJ),' also having another name, 'Jesus the Christ,'
who is like the Saviour." Translation from Hans-Gebhard Bethbe and Orval S.
Wintermute in The Nag Hammadi Library in English, ed. J. Robinson (San Francisco:
Harper, 1978) 166.
50
The burning bush (59:1), the visitors at Mamre (58:4-13), and the warrior
that appeared to Joshus (62:5). See O. Skarsaune, The Proof from Prophecy: A Study
in Justin Martyr's Proof Text Tradition: Text-Type, Provenance, Theological Profile (Leiden:
E . J . Brill, 1987).
 Finally, in t h e Dialogue with Trypho 5 8 : 3 J u s t i n says t h e f o l l o w i n g
about Jesus:

H e is called God, and H e is and shall be God. And when all had
agreed on these grounds, I continued: "Moreover, I consider it nec-
essary to repeat to you the words which narrate how H e who is both
Angel and G o d and Lord, a n d who appeared as a m a n to A b r a h a m ,
and who wrestled in h u m a n form with J a c o b , was seen by him when
he fled from his brother Esau."

J u s t i n d e s c r i b e s J e s u s as t h e o n e " w h o is b o t h a n g e l a n d G o d " a n d
locates h i m in t h e a n c i e n t p a s t in b o t h t h e G e n e s i s p a s s a g e s c o n -
s i d e r e d in this s u b s e c t i o n : as a visitor to A b r a h a m ( G e n 18:Iff.) a n d
the o n e w h o w r e s t l e d w i t h J a c o b ( G e n 32:24~32). 5 1 So, for Justin,
J e s u s is a divine b e i n g , a n a n g e l a n d G o d , b u t w h o a p p e a r e d as a
m a n in t h e a n c i e n t past. C l e a r l y , J u s t i n w o u l d n o t i n t e n d a n y t r a n s -
f o r m a t i o n of J e s u s s i m p l y b e c a u s e h e a p p e a r e d as a m a n .
T h u s , t h e t r a d i t i o n of J a c o b w r e s t l i n g w i t h a n u n k n o w n assailant
a t t h e J a b b o k is a t t e s t e d in a n u m b e r of sources. G e n 32 itself is a n
e n i g m a t i c tale t h a t d o e s n o t clearly d e f i n e t h e o p p o n e n t of J a c o b ,
t h o u g h by inference it seems t h a t J a c o b struggled widi G o d . S u b s e q u e n t
i n t e r p r e t e r s , p e r h a p s h a v i n g difficulties w i t h this i d e a , a l m o s t u n i -
versally u n d e r s t a n d t h e " m a n " at t h e J a b b o k f o r d to b e a n a n g e l .
T h e a u t h o r , o r p e r h a p s a l a t e r r e d a c t o r of H o s e a , likely b e g a n
this t r e n d of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a t a fairly early d a t e , as early as H o s e a
itself in t h e pre-Exilic p e r i o d . As w e saw, G e n e s i s itself c o n t a i n e d
t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h a n i n t e r p r e t e r c o u l d see t h e " m a n " as a n angel.
T r a d i t i o n s a b o u t t h e n a m e a n d t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d f r o m t h e rest
of t h e H e b r e w c a n o n o n l y s u p p o r t this h y p o t h e s i s .
T h i s e v i d e n c e all s e e m s t o suggest t h a t it is l e g i t i m a t e to look at
t h e G e n 32 p a s s a g e , as i n t e r p r e t e d in a n d a r o u n d t h e first c e n t u r y
C E , as a c a s e of a n g e l i c - h u m a n i n t e r a c t i o n . If w e a s s u m e this start-
ing point, then we can further consider the relationship between
a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s in t h e l i t e r a t u r e of t h e last c e n t u r i e s B C E and
first C E . T h e J a b b o k n a r r a t i v e s e e m s to h a v e b e e n a case in w h i c h
a n a n g e l , in t h e f o r m o r at least t h e a p p e a r a n c e of m a n , w r e s t l e d
w i t h a h u m a n b e i n g . T h i s is a v e r y i n t i m a t e c o n t a c t w i t h a divine

51
Also Dial. 59:1: "When I
further, to show you from the
Angel, and God, and Lord, and
and Isaac, appeared in a flame
had spoken these words, I continued: 'Permit me,
book of Exodus how this same One, who is both
man, and who appeared in human form to Abraham
of fire from the bush, and conversed with Moses.' "
b e i n g . I n f a c t , Tg. Neo. actually says t h a t J a c o b a n d the angel
" e m b r a c e d . " W h a t w a s t h e o u t c o m e of this struggle? J a c o b ' s name
w a s c h a n g e d , h e w a s blessed, a n d h e w a s i n j u r e d ! J a c o b ' s h i p i n j u r y
is m a i n t a i n e d in a l m o s t all t h e t r a d i t i o n s , p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e it is t h e
etiology of t h e p r o h i b i t i o n of e a t i n g of t h e t h i g h . Still, the w o u n d
s t a n d s as a striking i n d i c a t o r of t h e kind of i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t J a c o b
h a d w i t h t h e divine. It w a s so real t h a t h e w a s i n j u r e d a n d h a d a
l i m p ( t h o u g h t h e r e is n o suggestion t h a t t h e w o u n d w a s p e r m a n e n t ,
a n d t h e M i d r a s h suggests t h a t it w a s not).
It is easy to see w h y s o m e l a t e r t h o u g h t t h a t J a c o b , b y v i r t u e of
b e i n g involved in s u c h a n i n c r e d i b l e struggle, m i g h t h a v e u n d e r s t o o d
himself to b e a n a n g e l (see 3.6 below). H i s n a m e c h a n g e a n d his inti-
m a t e relationship with G o d o r angels elevate h i m a b o v e o t h e r h u m a n s .

2.2 The Book of Joshua

J o s h u a e n c o u n t e r s a " m a n " as h e a n d t h e Israelites a r e encamped

o u t s i d e of J e r i c h o . 5 2 J o s h 5 : 1 3 - 1 5 states:

[13] W h e n J o s h u a was by Jericho, he lifted up his eyes and looked,

and behold, a m a n [ ]stood before him with his drawn sword
in his hand; a n d J o s h u a went to him and said to him, "Are you for
us, or for our adversaries?" [14] And he said, "No; but as comman-
der of the army of the Lord [ ]I have now come." And
Joshua fell on his face to the earth, and worshiped, and said to him,
" W h a t does my lord bid his servant?" [15] And the commander of
the Lord's army said to J o s h u a , "Put off your shoes from your feet;
for the place where you stand is holy." And J o s h u a did so.

T h e e n d of the story a p p e a r s to b e missing, since i m m e d i a t e l y fol-

l o w i n g v. 15, in c h a p t e r 6, w e h a v e t h e a c c o u n t of t h e Israelites sur-
r o u n d i n g a n d c a p t u r i n g J e r i c h o . W i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t of t h e story,
J o s h u a d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o b e a b l e i m m e d i a t e l y to d e t e r m i n e that
t h e entity b e f o r e h i m is a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n a h u m a n b e i n g . He
asks t h e " m a n " f o r w h i c h side h e fights (v. 13). T h e " m a n " tells
J o s h u a h e is t h e c o m m a n d e r of t h e a r m y of t h e L o r d ( ) .

52
P. Miller, The Divine Warrior in Ancient Israel (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1973) 128-131. See also F. Abel, "L'apparition du chef de l'arme de Yahveh
Josu (Jos. V. 13-15)" in Miscellanea Biblica et Orientalia (Rome: Pontificio Istituto
Bibtico, 1951) 109-113; R. Nelson, Joshua: A Commentary (Louisville: Westminster
John Knox Press, 1997) 80-83.
T h e r e a r e a f e w f a c t o r s suggesting t h a t t h e " m a n " in this s c e n e m i g h t
h a v e b e e n s u b s e q u e n t l y u n d e r s t o o d as a n a n g e l .
T h e L X X uses t h e t e r m f o r t h e " c o m m a n d e r of
t h e a r m y of t h e L o r d . " I n t h e w r i t i n g s of t h e late S e c o n d Temple
p e r i o d a n d b e y o n d , this t e r m is o f t e n applied to the a r c h a n g e l M i c h a e l
(7*. Ab. I:4fE; Jos. Asen. 14:7; 2 En 2 2 : 6 [J] a n d 3 3 : 1 0 [A]; 3 Bar.
11:13:3; Gk. Apoc. Ezra 4 : 2 4 cf. D a n 8:11, 12:1 [ R a p h a e l in Gk. Apoc.
Ezra 1:4]). 53 M i c h a e l is said to s t a n d against " p r i n c e s " of o t h e r n a t i o n s
in D a n 10:13, 20. H e also h a s a m i l i t a r y role in 1 Q M , R e v 12:7.
T h e r e s e e m s g o o d r e a s o n to s u p p o s e , t h e n , t h a t b y t h e t i m e of t h e
L X X this b e i n g c o u l d h a v e b e e n u n d e r s t o o d as a n a n g e l , w h i c h h a d
at first a p p e a r e d to J o s h u a in the f o r m of a m a n .
T h e s c e n e e n d s w i t h J o s h u a b e i n g told h e is o n s a c r e d g r o u n d
(v. 15). T h i s is r e m i n i s c e n t of M o s e s ' s t h e o p h a n y / a n g e l o p h a n y 5 4 ( E x o d
3:5, cf. Acts 7:33), suggesting t h a t J o s h u a is in t h e p r e s e n c e of a
divine being, p e r h a p s even the angel of the L o r d (cf. E x o d 2 3 : 2 1 5 5 . ( 2 2
S u b s e q u e n t i n t e r p r e t e r s s u c h as P h i l o a n d J o s e p h u s a r e silent, p e r -
h a p s b e c a u s e of t h e i n c o m p l e t e n a t u r e of t h e narrative. 5 6 T h e T a r g u m
u n d e r s t a n d s t h e " m a n " to b e a n a n g e l (T. Joshua 5:13: " a n angel
sent f r o m before the Lord").
T h e p r e s e n c e of t h e divine c o m m a n d e r of t h e a r m y of t h e L o r d
i n a u g u r a t e s t h e h o l y w a r t h a t is to t a k e p l a c e ( J o s h 6 2 4 ) . T h a t this
" m a n " is a d i v i n e l e a d e r of G o d ' s a r m i e s s e e m s straightforward.
T h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m t o b e a n y i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e b e i n g is a n y t h i n g
o t h e r t h a n divine. T h e r e is e v i d e n c e t h a t d i e s a m e title u s e d f o r t h e
b e i n g in t h e L X X w a s l a t e r u n d e r s t o o d to a p p l y to angels, espe-
d a i l y t h e a r c h a n g e l M i c h a e l . T h e m o s t t h a t m i g h t b e said f r o m this
p a s s a g e is t h a t a divine b e i n g , t h e c o m m a n d e r of t h e a r m y of t h e
L o r d , c o u l d likely h a v e b e e n t h o u g h t of as a n a n g e l (at least b y t h e
a u t h o r of t h e L X X and subsequent interpreters [Tg. Neb.]) who
a p p e a r s as a m a n until h e reveals his t r u e i d e n t i t y t o J o s h u a .

53
See W. Lueken, Michael (Gttingen: Vanderhoeck and Ruprecht, 1898) 104,
157-166. It may well be the case that its use in the LXX of Joshua influenced its
use in other late Second Temple writings.
54
Exod 3:2 says that the Angel of the Lord ( ; )appeared
to Moses in the burning bush.
55
Cf. 1 Chr 21:16 for the Angel of the Lord with a militaristic role.
56
There is also no extant evidence from Qumran.
 2.3 The Book of Judges

T h r e e p a s s a g e s f r o m J u d g e s a r e of p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e . E a c h r e f e r s
to t h e " A n g e l of t h e L o r d . " O n e p a s s a g e t h a t h a s c a u s e d s o m e c o n -
fusion f o r m o d e r n i n t e r p r e t e r s is J u d g 2 : 1 - 2 , w h i c h states:

[1] Now the angel of the Lord [ ; ] went up

from Gilgal to Bochim. And he said, "I brought you up from Egypt,
and brought you into the land which I swore to give to your fathers.
I said, '1 will never break my covenant with you [2] and you shall
make no covenant with the inhabitants of this land; you shall break
down their altars.' But you have not obeyed my command. W h a t is
this you have done?"

I n t e r p r e t e r s a r e u n d e c i d e d as to w h e t h e r t h e " a n g e l " h e r e refers to

a h u m a n o r d i v i n e m e s s e n g e r . 5 ' T h e difficulty s e e m s t o s t e m f r o m
t h e fact t h a t t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d p r o c e e d s f r o m o n e p o i n t o n
e a r t h t o a n o t h e r . H e d o e s n o t simply a p p e a r , n o r d o e s h e d e s c e n d
f r o m h e a v e n . T h e m e s s e n g e r p e r f o r m s his task of delivering t h e w o r d s
of G o d ( w . l b 3 ) . T h e n J u d g 2:4 says, " W h e n t h e a n g e l of t h e L o r d
s p o k e t h e s e w o r d s to all the p e o p l e of Israel, t h e p e o p l e lifted u p
t h e i r voices a n d w e p t . " A decisive f a c t o r m i g h t b e v. 5, h o w e v e r ,
w h i c h states, " A n d t h e y called t h e n a m e of t h a t p l a c e B o c h i m ; a n d
t h e y sacrificed t h e r e to the L o r d . " R e n a m i n g , sacrificing, o r c o n s e -
c r a t i n g a l o c a t i o n a f t e r e n c o u n t e r i n g a divine b e i n g is n o t u n c o m -
m o n in t h e H e b r e w Bible (e.g., G e n 2 8 : 2 2 , 32:30; J u d g 6:24, 13:23).
M o r e o v e r , t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d is g e n e r a l l y a m e s s e n g e r f o r G o d ,
a n d s o m e t i m e s it is a m b i g u o u s w h e t h e r t h e h u m a n r e c i p i e n t is speak-
ing w i t h t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d o r G o d directly; f o r e x a m p l e , in
Exorl 3:2 t h e A n g e l of the L o r d a p p e a r s in t h e b u r n i n g b u s h , b u t
in t h e s u b s e q u e n t d i a l o g u e , it is c l e a r M o s e s is s p e a k i n g directly w i t h
t h e L o r d . 5 8 T h i s suggests t h a t it m a k e s m o s t sense to t a k e t h e A n g e l
of t h e L o r d in this c a s e as a divine m e s s e n g e r . T h i s b e i n g m a y h a v e
a p p e a r e d in h u m a n f o r m , b u t t h e story d o e s n o t i n c l u d e a n y detail.
W e d o n o t h e a r of this b e i n g a g a i n until J u d g 6:11.

57
R. Baling, Judges (New York: Doubleday, 1975) 61, where Yahweh's envoy is
an " a n g ^ c being"; C. Newsom, ABD 1:249 lists Judg 2:1 as an example of a pas-
sage where it "remains disputed whether the reference is to a heavenly being or a
human one," as does S. A. Meier, DDD, p. 48.
58
See S. Cook, "The Theophanies of Gideon and Manoah" JTS 28 (1927)
368-380; A. lohnson, The One a?1d the Many; also J. Ashton, Studying John (Oxford:
University Press, 1994) 71-89.
 I n J u d g 6 : 1 1 - 2 4 die Angel of d i e L o r d visits G i d e o n as t h e Israelites
h a v e b e e n t a k e n o v e r b y t h e M i d i a n i t e s . J u d g 6:11 says, " N o w t h e
a n g e l of t h e L o r d c a m e a n d sat u n d e r t h e o a k a t O p h r a h , w h i c h
b e l o n g e d to J o a s h t h e A b i e z r i t e , as his son G i d e o n w a s b e a t i n g o u t
w h e a t in t h e w i n e press, to h i d e it f r o m t h e M i d i a n i t e s . " J o s e p h u s ,
Ant 5 . 2 1 3 calls t h e visitor " a s p e c t e r [ ] in t h e f o r m of
a y o u n g m a n [ ]. 5 9 G i d e o n is told t h a t h e is to deliver
his p e o p l e o u t of t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n (6:14); so a g a i n t h e p r i m a r y p u r -
pose of t h e visitation s e e m s t o b e t h e b e a r i n g of news. G i d e o n is
u n c e r t a i n t h a t t h e p e r s o n s p e a k i n g to h i m is t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d ,
so h e asks h i m t o r e m a i n as h e p r e p a r e s a gift (v. 18). H e returns
w i t h a m e a l t h a t e c h o e s t h e s a m e level of hospitality t h a t A b r a h a m
s h o w e d his visitors ( G e n 18:1-8). T h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d tells G i d e o n
to p u t his f o o d o f f e r i n g o n a r o c k , w h i c h h e d o e s (v. 20). T h e a n g e l
t o u c h e s t h e o f f e r i n g w i t h his staff; t h e o f f e r i n g is c o n s u m e d by fire,
a n d a t t h e s a m e m o m e n t t h e a n g e l v a n i s h e s (v. 21). G i d e o n then
d i s c e r n s t h a t his visitor w a s i n d e e d t h e L o r d a n d f e a r s t h a t h e will
die, "Alas, L o r d G o d ! F o r n o w I h a v e seen t h e a n g e l of t h e L o r d
face to face. B u t t h e L o r d said to h i m , ' P e a c e b e t o y o u ; d o n o t
f e a r , y o u shall n o t d i e ' . " G i d e o n , like J a c o b in G e n 2 8 a n d 32, erects
a n a l t a r a t t h e site of his t h e o p h a n y .
I n J u d g 1 3 : 3 - 2 1 , t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d a p p e a r s to M a n o a h and
his wife, a n n o u n c i n g t h e b i r t h of his son, S a m s o n . 5 0 T h e a n g e l first
a p p e a r s o n l y to M a n o a h ' s wife. J u d g 13:6 says, " T h e n t h e w o m a n
c a m e a n d told h e r h u s b a n d , m a n of G o d c a m e to m e , a n d his
c o u n t e n a n c e w a s like the c o u n t e n a n c e of t h e a n g e l of G o d , v e r y ter-
rible; I d i d n o t ask h i m w h e n c e h e w a s , a n d h e did n o t tell m e his
n a m e ' . " 6 1 T h e a n g e l ' s a p p e a r a n c e b r i n g s f e a r . W h e n his wife tells
h i m of t h e visit, M a n o a h e n t r e a t s t h e L o r d to h a v e t h e " M a n of
G o d " visit a g a i n so t h a t M a n o a h himself m i g h t l e a r n w h a t h e is t o
d o w i t h his foretold son. T h e angel r e a p p e a r s , a g a i n only to M a n o a h ' s
wife, b u t this t i m e she r u n s t o tell M a n o a h , w h o l e a r n s t h a t w h a t
his wife h a s said is t r u e . H e t h e n asks t h e a n g e l t o r e m a i n w i t h h i m
so t h a t h e m i g h t f e e d h i m . O n c e a g a i n , the issue of hospitality c o m e s
i n t o play. T h e a n g e l says, " I f y o u d e t a i n m e , I will n o t e a t of y o u r
f o o d ; b u t if y o u m a k e r e a d y a b u r n t o f f e r i n g , t h e n o f f e r it t o t h e

59
The Targum on Judges maintains the "Angel of the Lord" as the visitor.
60
R. Boling, Judges, p. 219.
61
Cf. 1 Kgs 17:18, where Elijah is called "man of God."
L o r d " (v. 16a). W e also l e a r n t h a t " M a n o a h d i d n o t k n o w t h a t h e
w a s t h e a n g e l of t h e L o r d " (v. 16b).
J o s e p h u s , in Ant. 5 . 2 7 7 , says t h a t t h e visitor w a s " a s p e c t e r " (-
) t h a t " a p p e a r e d to h e r f r o m G o d [one ms. r e a d s " a n g e l of
G o d " ] in t h e likeness of a c o m e l y a n d tall y o u t h . " A f t e r this o p e n -
i n g verse, J o s e p h u s refers to t h e visitor as a n " a n g e l " (five times). 6 2
W h e n M a n o a h ' s wife tells h i m of t h e a n g e l , J o s e p h u s says t h a t she
extolled " t h e y o u n g m a n ' s c o m e l i n e s s a n d s t a t u r e in s u c h wise t h a t
h e in his j e a l o u s y w a s d r i v e n b y t h e s e praises to d i s t r a c t i o n a n d to
c o n c e i v e t h e suspicions t h a t s u c h p a s s i o n a r o u s e s " (279). 6 3
T h u s , i n t h e B o o k of J u d g e s t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d a p p e a r s o n
t h r e e occasions. T h e e v i d e n c e of J u d g 2 is s o m e w h a t a m b i g u o u s , in
t h a t t h e b e i n g is called t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d , b u t t h e r e is n o t h i n g
else n o t a b l e a b o u t t h e e v e n t . I n c h a p t e r s 6 a n d 13, t h e A n g e l of t h e
L o r d visits G i d e o n a n d M a n o a h respectively. T h e a n g e l is n o t i m m e -
diately r e c o g n i z e d b u t is t a k e n to b e a h u m a n visitor a n d o f f e r e d
gifts a n d hospitality. 5 4 O n c e the A n g e l of t h e L o r d ' s identity is k n o w n ,
h o w e v e r , t h e h u m a n seers f e a r f o r t h e i r lives, since t h e y h a v e seen
t h e d i v i n e . It s e e m s t h a t t h e a n g e l s a p p e a r e d as h u m a n beings.
J o s e p h u s says t h a t t h e visitor in e a c h of these t w o cases w a s a s p e c t e r
t h a t a p p e a r e d as a y o u n g m a n .

2.4 The Books of Zechciriah and. Ezekiel

T h e B o o k of Z e c h a r i a h , c o n t r a r y to t h e m a j o r i t y of the p r o p h e t i c
writings, c o n t a i n s a n u m b e r of r e f e r e n c e s t o angels. A n a n g e l w h o
e x p l a i n s t h e visions of t h e p r o p h e t is o f t e n p r e s e n t (1:9, 14; 2:1 7;
4 : 1 5 5 ; 5 : 5 - 1 0 ; 6 : 4 ) . I n c h a p t e r 3 t h e r e is a c o u r t
J o b 1 - 2 . J o s h u a , t h e h i g h priest, s t a n d s b e f o r e t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d ,
S a t a n , a n d G o d . O f p a r t i c u l a r interest is t h e " m a n " in t h e v i s i o n a r y
m a t e r i a l of Z e c h 1 : 8 - 1 1 w h o s e e m s to h a v e a n g e l i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :

[8] I saw in the night, and behold, a m a n [ ;] riding upon a

red horse! He was standing a m o n g the myrtle trees in the glen; and
behind him were red, sorrel, and white horses. [9] T h e n I said, " W h a t
are these, my lord?" T h e angel who talked with me said to me, "I

62
On Josephus's use of see footnote 35 above.
63
Perhaps this situation as described in Josephus is akin to Gen 6 and also 1
Cor 11:10.
64
This aspect of human-angel interaction is discussed in chapter 5.
 will show you what they are." [10] So the m a n who was standing
a m o n g the myrde trees answered, "These are they w h o m the Lord
has sent to patrol the earth." [11] A n d they answered the angel of
the Lord [ ; ] who was standing a m o n g the
myrde trees, " W e have patrolled the earth, a n d behold, all the earth
remains at rest."

T h i s e v i d e n c e c o m e s in a vision. T h e b e i n g o n t h e h o r s e is called
a m a n in v. 8 b u t s e e m s to b e called a n A n g e l of t h e L o r d in v. 11.
T h e r e is n o a p p a r e n t i n d i c a t i o n , h o w e v e r , t h a t simply b e c a u s e this
b e i n g is r e f e r r e d to as a " m a n , " h e is a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n a n angel.
Also in Z e c h 2:1 a n d 2:4, t h e vision of t h e " m a n " w i t h a m e a s u r i n g
r o d i n his h a n d m a y r e f e r to a n a n g e l , a l t h o u g h it is difficult to dis-
c e r n m u c h f r o m this e v i d e n c e .
T h e visions of t h e p r o p h e t Ezekiel w e r e v e r y influential for r a b b i n i c
a n d mystical s p e c u l a t i o n as well as early C h r i s t i a n i t y . 6 5 I n t e r e s t i n g l y ,
t h e r e w e r e p r o h i b i t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e s t u d y of E z e k 1 (m. H a g 2:1) b y
the r a b b i s , a n d it w a s to b e a v o i d e d as a s c r i p t u r a l r e a d i n g (m. M e g
4:10). E z e k 1 : 2 6 - 2 7 says:

[26] A n d above the firmament over their heads there was the likeness
of a throne, in appearance like sapphire; and seated above the likeness
of a throne was a likeness as it were of a h u m a n form. [27] And
upward from what had the appearance of his loins I saw as it were
gleaming bronze, like the appearance of fire enclosed round about;
and downward f r o m what had the appearance of his loins I saw as it
were the appearance of fire, and there was brightness round about him.

T h i s figure m a y b e G o d o r m a y b e a n o t h e r divine b e i n g . A m a n -
like figure a p p e a r s also in 8:2, " T h e n I b e h e l d , a n d , lo, a f o r m t h a t
h a d t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a m a n ; b e l o w w h a t a p p e a r e d to b e his loins
it w a s fire, a n d a b o v e his loins it w a s like t h e a p p e a r a n c e of b r i g h t -
ness, like g l e a m i n g b r o n z e . " T h i s s a m e b e i n g w o u l d also s e e m t o b e
the r e f e r e n t of 40:3: " W h e n h e b r o u g h t m e t h e r e , b e h o l d , t h e r e w a s
a m a n , w h o s e a p p e a r a n c e w a s like b r o n z e , w i t h a line of f l a x a n d
a m e a s u r i n g r e e d in his h a n d ; a n d h e w a s s t a n d i n g in t h e g a t e -
w a y . " 6 6 T h e identity of this figure is n o t c e r t a i n . It p r o b a b l y refers
to a n a n g e l in t h e sense t h a t angels a r e divine b e i n g s b u t less t h a n
G o d . T h i s b e i n g s e e m s t o h a v e a specific, h o n o r e d role, being

65
On this see C. Rowland, "The Influence of the First Chapter of Ezekiel on
Jewish and Early Christian Literature" (Ph.D. dissertation, Cambridge University, 1974).
66
W. Zimmerli, Ezekiel I & II (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979-1983) 2:348.
e n t h r o n e d in h e a v e n . T h i s m a n l i k e figure of Ezekiel, especially c h a p -
ter 1, likely s e r v e d as t h e basis f o r t h e " o n e like a son of m a n " seen
in vision in D a n 7:13, w h i c h in t u r n likely i n f l u e n c e d i d e a s in t h e
P a r a b l e s of E n o c h , 4 E z r a , as well as t h e N T . 6 7
T h e d a z z l i n g a p p e a r a n c e of t h e m a n l i k e figure is c e r t a i n l y r e m i -
niscent of a n g e l o p h a n i e s . O t h e r t h a n this, n o t h i n g identifies this b e i n g
w i t h a n a n g e l in t h e c o n t e x t of Ezekiel. E v e n if w e a c c e p t t h a t t h e
b e i n g is i n t e n d e d to b e a n a n g e l , it s e e m s unlikely t h a t t h e m a n l i k e
figure is i n t e n d e d to b e h u m a n .

2.5 The Book of Dcmiel

In t h e B o o k of D a n i e l , t h e o n l y b o o k in t h e H e b r e w Bible that
speaks of t h e a r c h a n g e l s M i c h a e l (10:13, 21; 12:1) a n d G a b r i e l (8:16;
9:21), several p a s s a g e s a r e r e l e v a n t to t h e discussion of a n g e l s p o r -
t r a y e d as h u m a n s .
T h e B o o k of D a n i e l c a n b e easily d i v i d e d i n t o t w o p a r t s : c h a p -
ters 1 - 6 , w i t h fictional tales of D a n i e l ' s life in t h e c o u r t of B a b y l o n ,
a n d c h a p t e r s 7 - 1 2 , w i t h a series of visions b y D a n i e l . T h e first p a r t
is told in t h e t h i r d p e r s o n , w h i l e t h e visions a r e in t h e first p e r s o n .
M o r e o v e r , a v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e of t h e b o o k t h a t is a t t e s t e d as
early as t h e Q u m r a n f r a g m e n t s is t h a t c h a p t e r s 2 : 4 b 7 : 2 8 a r e in
A r a m a i c , w h i l e t h e rest of t h e b o o k is in H e b r e w . T h e H e b r e w sec-
tions a r e g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d to b e later. T h e r e d a c t i o n of t h e text
is d a t e d fairly precisely to d i e time of t h e reign of A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s
( 1 6 7 - 1 6 3 BCE).68
M o s t of t h e r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l c o m e s f r o m t h e visions, b u t one
n a r r a t i v e f r o m t h e first p a r t is r e l e v a n t . I n t h e L X X of D a n i e l 3:92
(= D a n 3:25) K i n g N e b u c h a d n e z z a r h a s cast S h a d r a c h , Meshach,
a n d A b e d n e g o i n t o a fiery f u r n a c e f o r t h e i r r e f u s a l to w o r s h i p a
g o l d e n idol. A f t e r t h e y a r e cast i n t o t h e fire, t h e king's c o u n s e l o r
looks in, saying, " B u t I see f o u r m e n loose, w a l k i n g in t h e m i d s t of
t h e fire, a n d t h e y a r e n o t h u r t ; a n d t h e a p p e a r a n c e of t h e f o u r t h is
like a n a n g e l of G o d " (

67
C. Rowland, The Open Heaven. A Study of Apocalyptic in Judaism and Early Christianity
(New York: Crossroad, 1982) 95; A. Segal, Two Powers in Heaven (Leiden: E.J. Brill,
1977) 192.
68
This date is widely accepted; see HJPAJC 1111:247.
). 69 T h e H e b r e w text h a s t h e c o u n s e l o r say t h e b e i n g is "like a
son of G o d . " T h i s r e a d i n g is also f o u n d in T h e o d o t i o n . T h e same
i n c i d e n t is recalled in t h e Pr Azar 1:26, b u t in this case t h e b e i n g is
specifically called a n a n g e l : " B u t t h e a n g e l of t h e L o r d c a m e d o w n
i n t o t h e f u r n a c e t o b e w i t h A z a r i a h a n d his c o m p a n i o n s , a n d d r o v e
the fiery flame o u t of t h e f u r n a c e . "
I n this i n c i d e n t a n a n g e l h a s a p p a r e n t l y c o m e to p r o t e c t the t h r e e
m e n . W h e n t h e k i n g ' s c o u n s e l o r looks in, h e sees f o u r " m e n . " H i s
physical m a n i f e s t a t i o n as a m a n d o e s n o t suggest, h o w e v e r , t h a t h e
is a h u m a n b e i n g . F a r f r o m it; t h e e x p e c t a t i o n is t h a t t h e t h r e e m e n
w o u l d be c o n s u m e d b y t h e fire. S i n c e t h e y h a v e n o t b e e n c o n s u m e d ,
the p r e s e n c e of t h e f o u r t h m a n = a n g e l s e e m s d i e likely r e a s o n . Still,
it is also possible t h a t t h e t h r e e m e n m a y h a v e b e e n t h o u g h t t o h a v e
b e c o m e angelic for a b r i e f d u r a t i o n .
W i t h i n d i e v i s i o n a r y m a t e r i a l t h e r e a r e several p a s s a g e s of i n t e r -
est. First, D a n 8 : 1 5 states, " W h e n I, D a n i e l , h a d seen t h e vision, I
s o u g h t to u n d e r s t a n d it; a n d b e h o l d , t h e r e s t o o d b e f o r e m e o n e h a v -
ing t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a m a n [ ; ( T h :
)]." At 9:21 t h e r e is a clear description of G a b r i e l (the archangel)
as a m a n : " W h i l e I w a s s p e a k i n g in p r a y e r , t h e m a n G a b r i e l [ ,
/ ] , w h o m I h a d seen in t h e vision a t t h e first, c a m e t o
m e in swift flight a t t h e t i m e of t h e e v e n i n g sacrifice." T h e "first
vision" refers b a c k t o D a n 8:15, w h e r e h e is called " o n e h a v i n g t h e
a p p e a r a n c e of a m a n . " T h e n a m e G a b r i e l is itself a p l a y 011 w o r d s .
T h e H e b r e w m e a n s " m a n . " 7 0 T h u s , G a b r i e l is " m a n of G o d . "
T h e vision in D a n 1 0 : 5 6 m a y also r e f e r to t h e " m a n " G a b r i e l : ' 1

[5] I lifted up my eyes and looked, and behold, a m a n clothed in

linen, whose loins were girded with gold of Uphaz. [6] His body was
like beryl, his face like the appearance of lightning, his eyes like flaming
torches, his arms and legs like the gleam of burnished bronze, and the
sound of his words like the noise of a multitude.

T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n s e e m s to s h a r e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of l u m i n o u s a p p e a r -
a n c e ( a p p e a r a n c e like l i g h t n i n g , eyes like torches) w i t h o t h e r a n g e l o -

69
Theodotion reads . Here the Hebrew
is "sons of god" () , which is also rendered as angels in the LXX of Deut 32:8.
70
BOB, pp. 149-150.
71
Cf. Ezek 8:2, "Then I beheld, and, 10, a form that had the appearance of a
man; below what appeared to be his loins it was fire, and above his loins it was
like the appearance of brightness, like gleaming bronze."
p h a n i e s as discussed a b o v e . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , in 10:7 o t h e r s w h o d o n o t
see t h e vision a r e still f e a r f u l a n d flee, c o m m o n r e a c t i o n s to t h e m a n -
ifestation of angel. 7 2 T h e i m a g e of t h e " m a n " c l o t h e d in l i n e n will
r e c u r in o t h e r m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of angels. It is a l r e a d y s e e n in Lev
6:10; E z e k 9:2, 3, 11; 10:2, 6, 7; 44:17. T h i s i m a g e of b e i n g " c l o t h e d
in l i n e n " o c c u r s o n c e m o r e in D a n 12:6: " A n d I said t o t h e m a n
c l o t h e d in linen, w h o w a s a b o v e t h e w a t e r s of t h e s t r e a m , 'How
l o n g shall it b e till t h e e n d of t h e s e w o n d e r s ? ' "
C . R o w l a n d h a s a r g u e d f o r t h e i n f l u e n c e of D a n 10:6ff. o n s u b -
s e q u e n t l i t e r a t u r e : JA 14, Apoc. Abr., a n d R e v 1:13. 7 3 T h e i n f l u e n c e
of this p a s s a g e o n l a t e r w r i t i n g s suggests t h a t it m a y h a v e i n f l u e n c e d
L u k e ' s i d e a s a b o u t a n g e l i c a p p e a r a n c e s . P. C a r r e l l , unlike R o w l a n d ,
sees D a n 1 0 : 5 - 6 as a d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e " a n g e l " in E z e k 9:2, link-
ing it b y t h e p h r a s e " c l o t h e d in l i n e n . " Y e t E z e k 9:2 is n o t clearly
a n a n g e l ; C a r r e l l infers this f r o m the p h r a s e " c l o t h e d in l i n e n . "
T w o f u r t h e r p a s s a g e s also s e e m to r e f e r to G a b r i e l . D a n 10:16
r e a d s , " A n d b e h o l d , o n e in t h e likeness of the sons of m e n t o u c h e d
m y lips; t h e n I o p e n e d m y m o u t h a n d spoke. I said to h i m w h o stood
before me, m y l o r d , b y r e a s o n of t h e vision p a i n s h a v e come
u p o n me, a n d I retain n o strength'." D a n 10:18 h a s " A g a i n one
h a v i n g t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a m a n t o u c h e d m e a n d s t r e n g t h e n e d m e . "
G a b r i e l a p p e a r s in D a n i e l in t h e f o r m of a h u m a n b e i n g . H e c a r -
ries o u t t h e role c o m m o n to angels: delivery a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
divine i n f o r m a t i o n to h u m a n s .
M i c h a e l ' s physical a p p e a r a n c e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , is n o t described.
M i c h a e l is called t h e " p r i n c e " ( )in 10:21, 12:1. I n t h e L X X h e
is called a n a n g e l a t 10:21; 12:1. I n t h e T h e o d o t i o n r e c e n s i o n , h o w -
ever, in b o t h cases h e is r e f e r r e d to as " " 7 4 M i c h a e l ' s p r i n c e l y
role s e e m s t o b e as a d e f e n d e r of Israel a g a i n s t its opponents
h u m a n a n d p r e s u m a b l y s u p e r h u m a n . H e s e e m s to b e a c o u n t e r p a r t
to G a b r i e l (if G a b r i e l is t h e m a n l i k e figure of 10:18).
Lastly, it is i m p o r t a n t to c o n s i d e r t h e " o n e like a son of m a n " in
D a n 7:13. T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of this e n i g m a t i c p h r a s e h a s c a u s e d a n
e n o r m o u s a m o u n t of scholarly d e b a t e , particularly a m o n g N T scholars
i n t e r e s t e d in its r e l e v a n c e for t h e use of t h e title " s o n of m a n " in

72
Cf. Acts 9:7 and 22:9.
73
C. Rowland, "A Man Clothed in Linen Daniel 10:6ff. and Jewish Angelology"
JSJVT 24 (1985) 99-110.
74
Unfortunately, no relevant sections of Daniel have survived in the Qumran
material.
the N T . 7 5 T h e r e is n o n e e d to detail these a r g u m e n t s h e r e . I n s t e a d w e
focus o n t h e issue of t h e h u m a n - a n g e l r e l a t i o n s h i p . D a n 7:13 says:

I saw in the night visions, and behold, with the clouds of heaven there
came one like a son of m a n [ ; ], and he came
to the Ancient of Days and was presented before him.

T h e r e a r e p r i m a r i l y t w o c a m p s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . O n e sees t h e p h r a s e
as r e f e r r i n g t o a n i n d i v i d u a l b e i n g , w h e t h e r as a n e x a l t e d human
m e s s i a h o r as a n a n g e l i c figure (cf. 1 E n o c h 46:3; R e v 1 : 1 3 - 1 4 ; 4
E z r a 13:2f.). T h e o t h e r r e a d s t h e p h r a s e in light of D a n 7:18 a n d
27 a n d sees it as a collective t e r m f o r Israel.
T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a single i n d i v i d u a l d o m i n a t e d m a n y cen-
turies of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . O n l y m o r e r e c e n t l y h a s t h e collective i n t e r -
p r e t a t i o n b e e n suggested a n d c h a m p i o n e d . 7 6 J . C o l l i n s c o n c l u d e s :

In summary, the traditional interpretations of the "one like a h u m a n

being" in the first millennium overwhelmingly favor the understand-
ing of this figure as an individual, not as a collective symbol. T h e most
usual identification was the messiah, but in the earliest adaptations of
the vision (the Similitudes, 4 Ezra, the Gospels) the figure in question
had a distinctly supernatural character. 7 7

C . R o w l a n d h a s m a d e a s t r o n g case for s e e i n g t h e " o n e like a son

of m a n " as r e f e r r i n g to a s i n g u l a r b e i n g . H e writes, " I f the S o n of
Man figure h a d m e r e l y b e e n a s y m b o l of the Saints of t h e Most
H i g h , w e m i g h t h a v e e x p e c t e d to find t h e s a m e kind of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
b e t w e e n t h e S o n of M a n a n d t h e saints w h i c h w e find in r e s p e c t t o
t h e b e a s t s a n d kings in v. 18, b u t this is lacking." 7 8 T h e son of m a n
h a s also b e e n identified as t h e h i g h priest. 7 9
U l t i m a t e l y , t h e r e is g o o d r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e t h a t t h e " o n e like a
son of m a n " is i n t e n d e d to refer to a n angel, e v e n die angel Michael. 8 0

75
D. Burkett, The Son of Man Debate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1999) is an excellent, up-to-date survey of the entire issue. For a concise look at
the evidence for the son of man as an angel, see A. Yarbro Cons, Cosmology and
Eschatology in Jewish Christian Apocalypticism (Leiden: E. j . Brill, 1996) 172-185.
76
J. Collins, Daniel (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993) 304-310, discusses the
"one like a son of man" in Dan 7 in detail in an excursus.
77
J . Comns, Daniel, p. 308.
78
C. Rowland, The Open Heaoen, p. 180. This is also the position of J. Collins,
Daniel, pp. 308-310.
79
See C. Fletcher-Louis, "The High Priest as Divine Mediator in the Hebrew
Bible: Dan 7:13 as a Test Case" SBLSP (1997) 161-193.
80
Cf. also 1 En. 46:1, where the "the son of man" is said to have "a face like
that of a human being, while his countenance was full of grace like that of one
among the holy angels."
F o r t h e p u r p o s e s of this investigation it is n o t w o r t h w h i l e t o p e n e t r a t e
m u c h f u r t h e r , since (a) t h e r e f e r e n t r e m a i n s d e b a t e d , a n d (b) if it is
a c c e p t e d , it c e r t a i n l y s e e m s to i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e m a n l i k e figure is
s o m e t h i n g m u c h m o r e t h a n h u m a n b u t a p p e a r s only in h u m a n f o r m .
T h e B o o k of D a n i e l reflects i n c r e a s e d s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t t h e role
of a n g e l s in t h e w o r l d , a n d in p a r t i c u l a r t h e a r c h a n g e l s M i c h a e l a n d
G a b r i e l . T h e b e i n g t h a t h e l p s t h e t h r e e m e n in D a n 3 appears
h u m a n b u t possesses s u p e r h u m a n p o w e r to save t h e m e n f r o m t h e
fire. G a b r i e l is d e s c r i b e d v e r y m u c h in a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c t e r m s . H e
still c a r r i e s o u t t h e f u n c t i o n of a n a n g e l , h o w e v e r . M i c h a e l is called
a " p r i n c e , " b u t h e s e e m s to h a v e s u p e r h u m a n status a n d m a y b e
e q u a l to t h e " o n e like a son of m a n . "

2.6 The Book of Tobit

T h e B o o k of T o b i t a p p e a r s in t h e L X X b u t n o t t h e H e b r e w Bible
a n d t h e r e f o r e is f o u n d t o d a y in t h e A p o c r y p h a . I t s e e m s p r o b a b l e
t h a t T o b i t w a s w r i t t e n in t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y B C E , so it is r o u g h l y
c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h t h e B o o k of D a n i e l . 8 1 S o m e A r a m a i c f r a g m e n t s
of T o b i t a r e p r e s e r v e d at Q u m r a n ( 4 Q 1 9 6 4,199Q200is in H e b r e w ) ,
h e l p i n g to verify its a n t i q u i t y . 8 2 T o b i t is s o m e t h i n g of a n historical
fiction w i t h a d i d a c t i c f u n c t i o n . T h e story is set in t h e Assyrian c a p -
ital, N i n e v e h , in t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y B C E . T o b i a s is sent o u t b y his
f a t h e r , T o b i t , w h o despite m a n y g o o d d e e d s h a s g o n e blind. T o b i a s
is t o j o u r n e y to M e d i a to collect m o n e y t h a t T o b i t is o w e d , w h i c h
h e will t h e n use to live, since h e c a n n o l o n g e r e a r n a living d u e
to his b l i n d n e s s .
I n c h a p t e r 5 T o b i a s s e n d s his son to find a travel c o m p a n i o n f o r
his j o u r n e y t o M e d i a . T o b i a s m e e t s w i t h t h e a n g e l R a p h a e l , h o w -
e v e r , w h o a p p e a r s as a m a n :

[3] T h e n Tobit gave him the receipt, a n d said to him, "Find a m a n to

go with you a n d I will pay him wages as long as I live; and go a n d
get the money." [4] So he went to look for a man; and he found Raphael,
who was an angel, [5] but Tobias did not know it. Tobias said to
him, " C a n you go with me to Rages in Media? Are you acquainted
with that region?" [6] T h e angel replied, "I will go with you; I am
familiar with the way, and I have stayed with our brother Gabael."

81
HJPAJC Uli :224.
82
These scrolls are very fragmentary, however, and do not provide any relevant
evidence for the discussion of angels in this section.
T h e Sinaiticus version of T o b i t 5 : 5 calls R a p h a e l a " y o u n g man"
(). T o b i a s clearly d o e s n o t d i s c e r n R a p h a e l ' s t r u e identity,
so w i t h i n t h e n a r r a t i v e , w e m u s t a s s u m e h e a p p e a r s as a human
being. T o b i a s b r i n g s R a p h a e l to his f a t h e r , w h o e n q u i r e s of R a p h a e l :

[10] " M y brother, to what tribe and family do you belong? Tell m e . "
[11] But he answered, "Are you looking for a tribe and a family 01
for a m a n whom you will pay to go with your son?" And Tobit said
to him, "I should like to know, my brother, your people and your
n a m e . " [12] H e replied, "I am Azarias the son of the great Ananias,
one of your relatives."

R a p h a e l c o n t i n u e s to h i d e his real identity. T o b i a s w o u l d n o t be

a b l e to see h i m , b u t h e d o e s n o t r e v e a l his i d e n t i t y until c h a p t e r 12.
I n T o b 12:15 t h e a r c h a n g e l p r o c l a i m s , " I a m R a p h a e l , o n e of t h e
seven h o l y angels w h o p r e s e n t t h e p r a y e r s of t h e saints a n d enter
i n t o t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e glory of t h e H o l y O n e . " A t this r e v e l a t i o n ,
those seeing h i m a r e a f r a i d (12:16), b u t R a p h a e l c a l m s t h e m . R a p h a e l
t h e n says h e m u s t a s c e n d b a c k to t h e h e a v e n s (12:20).
T h i s is o n e of t h e m o s t s u s t a i n e d a n d i n t r i g u i n g tales of a n a n g e l ' s
activity o n e a r t h . R a p h a e l k e e p s his i d e n t i t y secret until his task is
c o m p l e t e . T h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t h e is a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n a n
a n g e l the e n t i r e t i m e . H e is o n e of t h e s e v e n a r c h a n g e l s w h o a r e in
G o d ' s p r e s e n c e . A l t h o u g h R a p h a e l is a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c , h e d o e s n o t
s e e m t o u n d e r g o a n y p e r m a n e n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of b e i n g b u t simply
a n a l t e r a t i o n of his physical f o r m , w h i c h allows h i m t o c a r r y o u t his
f u n c t i o n as travel c o m p a n i o n a n d p r o t e c t o r .

2.7 The Gospels

Angels a p p e a r to h u m a n s o n t h r e e o c c a s i o n s in t h e L u k a n i n f a n c y
n a r r a t i v e : t o Z e c h a r i a h ( 1 : 1 1 - 2 4 ) , to M a r y ( 1 : 2 6 - 3 8 ) , a n d t o t h e
8 3
shepherds ( 2 : 9 . ( 2 1,15I n d i e first o c c u r r e n c e a n A n g e l of t h e L o r d
( ) a p p e a r s t o Z e c h a r i a h to a n n o u n c e t h e b i r t h of a
son, J o h n t h e Baptist, to his wife, E l i z a b e t h . Z e c h a r i a h a t first is
a f r a i d (v. 12), b u t t h e a n g e l tells h i m n o t to f e a r (v. 13). Z e c h a r i a h

ss
In the Matthean infancy narrative the angel of the Lord is said to appear to
Joseph (1:20; 2:13, 19) "in a dream" telling hirn God's plan in order to protect the
life of Jesus.
is d o u b t f u l , since h e a n d his wife a r e old (v. 18). 84 As a t o k e n of t h e
t r u t h of the s t a t e m e n t , t h e a n g e l identifies himself as n o n e o t h e r t h a n
G a b r i e l (v. 19). O n c e this is r e v e a l e d to Z e c h a r i a h . h e is m a d e m u t e
until t h e b i r t h of his son (v. 20). 8 5
T h e angel G a b r i e l is t h e n sent to M a r y (v. 26) to a n n o u n c e t o
h e r t h e m i r a c u l o u s b i r t h of J e s u s ( w . 3 1 - 3 3 ) . B e c a u s e she is u n w e d
(v. 34), M a r y is d u b i o u s , b u t t h e angel tells h e r t h a t t h e h o l y spirit
will e n t e r h e r , a n d she will c o n c e i v e . T h e a n g e l t h e n n o t e s that
M a r y ' s c o u s i n , E l i z a b e t h , t h o u g h of a d v a n c e d age, w a s a b l e to c o n -
ceive, " F o r w i t h G o d n o t h i n g will b e i m p o s s i b l e " (v. 37). I n t h e t h i r d
m e n t i o n of a n g e l s in t h e L u k a n i n f a n c y n a r r a t i v e , t h e A n g e l of t h e
L o r d a p p e a r s to s h e p h e r d s in t h e fields of t h e r e g i o n (2:9). T h e s h e p -
h e r d s a r e a f r a i d at first, b u t t h e a n g e l tells t h e m n o t to f e a r , t h e n
a n n o u n c e s t h e b i r t h of J e s u s ( w . 1 0 - 1 1 ) . O n c e h e d o e s so, t h e h e a v -
ens a r e filled w i t h a n g e l s w h o sing p r a i s e ( w . 13-14). 8 6
T h e s e t h r e e o c c u r r e n c e s a r e a m b i g u o u s as t o t h e o u t w a r d a p p e a r -
a n c e of t h e a n g e l . T h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n of t h e a n g e l is to deliver
a message. W e are n o t told in w h a t physical f o r m t h e angel a p p e a r e d ,
a l t h o u g h t h e r e a c t i o n of f e a r b y t h e seers suggests t h a t t h e divine
n a t u r e of t h e a n g e l w a s a p p a r e n t .
All f o u r c a n o n i c a l gospels c o n t a i n t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t t h e e m p t y t o m b
of J e s u s . E a c h of t h e s e t r a d i t i o n s m e n t i o n s b e i n g s w h o a r e either
explicitly called o r s e e m to b e angels. T h e s e b e i n g s a n n o u n c e p e r -
h a p s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t m e s s a g e of t h e N T , n a m e l y t h a t J e s u s h a s
risen f r o m t h e d e a d . All f o u r a c c o u n t s h a v e w o m e n c o m i n g to t h e
t o m b to a n o i n t J e s u s . T h e f o u r c a n o n i c a l g o s p e l s d a t e f r o m the
87
p e r i o d 70 to 110 C E .
First, M a r k 16:5 states, " A n d e n t e r i n g t h e t o m b , t h e y [the t h r e e
w o m e n ] saw a young m a n [ ] sitting o n t h e r i g h t side,

84
The announcement to Elizabeth is patterned on the announcement to Manoah
and his wife in Judg 13.
85
Interpreters have noted some strong similarities between the appearance of
Gabriel to Zechariah and the appearance of Gabriel in Dan 9:2021, such as its
occurrence at a time of prayer, fear of the angel, and the muteness of the vision-
ary after the vision. For a good summary of the secondary evidence, see R. Brown,
The Birth of the Messiah (New York: Doubleday, 1993) 270-271.
86
The angelic liturgy is a well-attested motif in Second Temple Judaism, e.g.,
SSS; Jub. 2, 6, 15, 30-31; Apoc. Ab. 17; T. Levi 3; et al.
87
R. Brown, An Introduction to the New Testament (New York: Doubleday, 1997)
163-164; 216-217; 273-274; and 373-376.
d r e s s e d in a w h i t e r o b e [ ] ; a n d t h e y w e r e amazed."
T h i s y o u n g m a n tells t h e m ,

[6] " D o not be amazed; you seek Jesus of Nazareth, who was crucified.
H e has risen, he is not here; see the place where they laid him. [7]
But go, tell his disciples and Peter that he is going before you to
Galilee; there you will see him, as he told you."

O n t h e s u r f a c e t h e r e is little in this p a s s a g e itself to suggest t h a t

M a r k i n t e n d e d t h e b e i n g a t the t o m b to b e a n a n g e l . M a r k uses t h e
t e r m six t i m e s (1:2, 13; 8:38; 12:25; 13:27; 13:32), so h e
c o u l d h a v e e m p l o y e d it h e r e b u t h a s c h o s e n n o t t o d o so. The
w o m e n ' s a m a z e m e n t , although p e r h a p s associated with the presence
of t h e y o u t h f u l m a n , s e e m s to b e p r e d i c a t e d o n J e s u s ' s a b s e n c e . It
is possible t h a t t h e w h i t e r o b e is a signal of a n g e l i c status, since this
is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a n g e l o p h a n i e s (cf. D a n 10:5 6; A c t s 1:10; R e v
1:14; 6:11); h o w e v e r , it is n o t c l e a r t h a t t h e w o m e n t a k e a n y n o t i c e
of t h e b e i n g ' s a p p e a r a n c e , o n l y of the a b s e n c e of J e s u s ' s b o d y .
Still, t h e m e s s a g e d e l i v e r e d b y t h e y o u n g m a n is a n important
o n e t h a t s e e m s to b e u n k n o w n t o a n y o t h e r h u m a n b e i n g s in M a r k ' s
n a r r a t i v e . M o r e o v e r , t h e r e is n o o t h e r p e r s o n w i t h i n t h e n a r r a t i v e
w h o w o u l d b e this " y o u n g m a n , " since in t h e o n l y o t h e r o c c u r r e n c e
of t h e t e r m , a t 1 4 : 5 1 5 2 , a y o u n g m a n w h o follows J e s u s
w e a r i n g o n l y a l i n e n c l o t h is seized b u t flees n a k e d .
C . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s suggests t h a t " y o u t h f u l n e s s w a s also a s s u m e d of
angels, to t h e p o i n t t h a t a r e f e r e n c e t o ' y o u t h ' c o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d
a e u p h e m i s m for a n a n g e l . " 8 8 T h e r e is c e r t a i n l y significant diversity
in t h e s o u r c e s t h a t d e m o n s t r a t e angels b e i n g p o r t r a y e d as y o u t h f u l
m e n . B e y o n d t h e e m p t y t o m b n a r r a t i v e s , w e see it also in J o s e p h u s ,
T o b i t , a n d t h e S h e p h e r d of H e r m a s (see below). B u t , e v e n if this
t e r m w a s a e u p h e m i s m , it is n o t c l e a r t h a t a r e f e r e n c e t o a y o u t h -
ful h u m a n m a l e t h a t w a s i n t e n d e d to b e u n d e r s t o o d as a n angel
w o u l d m e a n a n y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels.
It s e e m s , h o w e v e r , t h a t this figure in M a r k is i n t e n d e d to b e a n
angel. H e c a r r i e s o u t t h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n of a n a n g e l b y deliver-
i n g a divine m e s s a g e . H e also h a s o n e a s p e c t of t h e i m a g e r y asso-
c i a t e d w i t h a n angel. W h y h e is d e s c r i b e d as a is n o t
entirely clear. P e r h a p s b y this p e r i o d t h e r e w a s a g r o w i n g t r a d i t i o n

88
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, 131 n. 135. Also M. Mach, Entwicklungstadien,
p. 307 . 81.
in w h i c h a n g e l s a p p e a r e d as y o u t h f u l m a l e s , o r in t h e c o n t e x t of t h e
n a r r a t i v e M a r k t h o u g h t t h a t this w o u l d b e a less a l a r m i n g f o r m f o r
the messenger.
M a t t h e w ' s v e r s i o n of t h e e m p t y t o m b n a r r a t i v e is significantly
d i f f e r e n t f r o m M a r k ' s . M a t t 2 8 : 2 7 states:

[2] And behold, there was a great earthquake; for an angel of the
Lord [ ] descended from heaven and came and rolled
back the stone, and sat upon it. [3] His appearance was like lightning,
and his raiment white as snow. [4] A n d for fear of him the guards
trembled and became like dead men. [5] But the angel said to the
women, " D o not be afraid; for I know that you seek Jesus who was
crucified. [6] He is not here; for he has risen, as he said. C o m e , see
the place where he lay. [7] T h e n go quickly and tell his disciples that
he has risen from the dead, a n d behold, he is going before you to
Galilee; there you will see him. Lo, I have told you."

T h e M a t t h e a n version of t h e e m p t y t o m b story is q u i t e dramatic.

A g a i n , w o m e n a p p r o a c h t h e t o m b , b u t as t h e y d o , t h e r e is a n e a r t h -
q u a k e , a n d t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d c o m e s to m o v e t h e s t o n e t h a t
blocks t h e e n t r a n c e to t h e t o m b . T h e c o m m a n d s of t h e y o u n g m a n
in M a r k a n d of t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d in M a t t h e w a r e strikingly
similar. A s s u m i n g f o r t h e m o m e n t M a r k a n p r i o r i t y , w e c a n see h o w
M a t t h e w has redacted the M a r k a n narrative.89 T h e resemblance
b e t w e e n t h e c o m m a n d to see t h e p l a c e w h e r e J e s u s ' s b o d y h a d lain
a n d to g o o u t a n d tell t h e disciples t h a t J e s u s h a d risen suggests a
literary r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e t w o versions. If such a suggestion
is justified, t h e n M a t t h e w h a s significantly c h a n g e d t h e s c e n e , m a k -
i n g t h e m e s s e n g e r clearly a n angel, w i t h t h e i m a g e r y typically asso-
ciated with a n a n g e l o p h a n y . T h i s could m e a n that M a t t h e w u n d e r s t o o d
M a r k ' s " y o u t h " as a n a n g e l b u t saw it as insufficiently d e s c r i b e d a n d
so b o l s t e r e d its a p p e a r a n c e t o m a k e its status o b v i o u s .
T h e G o s p e l of L u k e 2 4 : 4 - 5 says, " W h i l e t h e y [the w o m e n ] w e r e
p e r p l e x e d a b o u t this, b e h o l d , t w o m e n [ ] s t o o d b y t h e m
in d a z z l i n g a p p a r e l [ ]; 9 0 a n d as t h e y w e r e fright-
e n e d a n d b o w e d t h e i r faces to t h e g r o u n d , d i e m e n said to t h e m ,

89
R. Brown, An Introduction, p. 114, says that Markan priority is "the most com-
mon thesis employed to explain the relationship of Matt and Luke to Mark" by
NT scholars. Still, it does not explain all the complexities of their relationship, nor
is it the only thesis; e.g., the Greisbach hypothesis argues for the priority of Matthew,
with Mark and Luke making changes and omissions to this source.
90
Cf. the appearance of Jesus in the Transfiguration narratives in Mark 9:2-10,
Matt 17:1-9, and Luke 9:28-36.
' W h y d o y o u seek t h e living a m o n g t h e d e a d ? ' " H e r e t h e r e a r e t w o
b e i n g s a t t h e t o m b . T h e y a r e r e f e r r e d to n o t as y o u n g m e n b u t sim-
ply as m e n . T h e y d o h a v e d a z z l i n g c l o t h i n g , a n d t h e y a n n o u n c e t o
t h e w o m e n t h a t J e s u s is n o t in t h e t o m b b u t h a s g o n e b e f o r e his
disciples t o G a l i l e e . Similarly in Acts 1 : 1 0 - 1 1 , L u k e n a r r a t e s ,

[10] A n d while they were gazing into heaven as he went, behold, two
men [ ] stood by them in white robes [ ],
[11] and said, " M e n of Galilee, why do you stand looking into heaven?
This Jesus, who was taken up from you into heaven, will come in the
same way as you saw him go into heaven."

O n c e a g a i n t w o m e n in striking a p p a r e l tell t h e disciples of G o d ' s

p l a n . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s e e m s to b e t h a t t h e y a r e s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n
human.
J o h n 20:12 r e c o r d s t h a t M a r y M a g d a l e n e " s a w t w o angels in w h i t e
[ ] , sitting w h e r e t h e b o d y of J e s u s h a d lain,
o n e a t t h e h e a d a n d o n e a t t h e f e e t . " T h e s e a n g e l s ask M a r y " W h y
a r e y o u w e e p i n g ? " S h e replies, " B e c a u s e t h e y h a v e t a k e n a w a y m y
L o r d , a n d I d o n o t k n o w w h e r e t h e y h a v e laid h i m . " T h e angels
h a v e n o m o r e p a r t in t h e story, since J e s u s t h e n a p p e a r s t o M a r y
in v. 14.
T h e G o s p e l of P e t e r (Gos. Pet.) is k n o w n in a f r a g m e n t d i s c o v e r e d
in 1886 1887 a t A k h m m . A r e f e r e n c e f r o m E u s e b i u s , HE (6.12),
tells us t h a t " S e r a p i o n , b i s h o p of A n t i o c h [c. 190], f o u n d a c h u r c h
in R h o s s u s using a n u n o r t h o d o x b o o k k n o w n as t h e G o s p e l of P e t e r . "
Also in 3.3.2 of t h e HE. E u s e b i u s says, " t h e G o s p e l of P e t e r is n a m e d
a m o n g the writings n o t h a n d e d d o w n a m o n g the catholic scriptures."
T h e G o s p e l of P e t e r , t h e n , likely d a t e s t o s o m e t i m e in t h e m i d - l a t e
s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E . 9 1 Gos. Pet. 3 5 3 7 also i n c l u d e s a n a r r a t i v e a b o u t
the empty tomb:

[35] N o w in the night in which the Lord's day dawned, when the sol-
diers were keeping guard, two by two in each watch, there was a loud
voice in heaven [36] a n d they saw the heavens open and two m e n [
] come down from there in a great brightness a n d draw near
the sepulchre. [37] T h a t stone which had been laid against the entrance
to the sepulchre started of itself to roll and move sideways, a n d the
sepulchre was opened and both young men [ ] entered. 9 2

91
J. Elliott, The Apociyphal New Testament (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999) 150.
92
Greek text from M. Mara, vangile de Pierre: introduction, text critique, traduction,
commentaire et index (Paris: Les Editions du Cerf, 1973) 56.
" M e n " f r o m h e a v e n a p p e a r i n g with a g r e a t brightness seems to sug-
gest t h a t these beings a r e angels, b u t , as in o t h e r cases, these angels
are referred to as " y o u n g m e n . " It is very possible t h a t the a u t h o r
of Gos. Pet. k n e w of a n d d r e w u p o n the (canonical) gospel traditions
in c r e a t i n g this narrative.
It is i m p o r t a n t n o t to synthesize the individual gospel narratives
i n t o o n e c o h e r e n t picture. A brief s u m m a r y of the beings p r e s e n t at
the e m p t y t o m b follows:

M a r k : o n e y o u n g m a n () in a white r o b e ( )
M a t t h e w : a n Angel of the L o r d ( )
L u k e : t w o m e n ( ) i n d a z z l i n g a p p a r e l (
)
J o h n : two angels in white ( )
Gos. Pet.: two m e n f r o m h e a v e n , called y o u n g m e n ()

T h u s , the gospels p r e s e n t a n interesting picture. It seems t h a t the

a n n o u n c e m e n t to the w o m e n at the t o m b w a s p r o f o u n d e n o u g h to
h a v e b e e n given b y divine messengers. T h e description of the b e i n g
in e a c h of t h e f o u r gospels is different, however. M a t t h e w is the
m o s t explicit, saying it is the Angel of the L o r d w h o arrives with
typical i m a g e r y of angels. J o h n says t h e r e a r e t w o angels in white.
T h e a p p e a r a n c e of angels in white seems to h a v e r e c u r r e d m o r e in
the very late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , s t e m m i n g f r o m t h e visions in
Ezekiel a n d Daniel. M a r k calls the being a " y o u n g m a n . " R e f e r r i n g
to angels as " y o u n g m e n " seems to h a v e b e c o m e c o m m o n p l a c e b y
the late S e c o n d T e m p l e period. Luke calls the beings two " m e n , "
b u t they also a p p e a r with " d a z z l i n g a p p a r e l , " suggesting they are
s o m e t h i n g special. T h e Gos. Pet. seems to h a v e synthesized the c a n o n -
ical gospels, calling t h e m " t w o m e n " f r o m h e a v e n , w h o are t h e n
revealed to b e "angels." N o n e of the texts offers a n y indication t h a t
these beings are n o t angels, w h a t e v e r their a p p e a r a n c e . T h e y h a v e
specific knowledge of J e s u s ' s w h e r e a b o u t s a n d s o m e t i m e s a p p e a r with
i m a g e r y c o m m o n l y associated with angels, even if their physical f o r m
is t h a t of h u m a n beings.

2.8 The Acts of the Apostles

O n e passage f r o m the Book of Acts deserves attention in this c h a p -

ter. T h e Acts of the Apostles is a history of t h e early C h r i s t i a n
c h u r c h . It w a s likely w r i t t e n by t h e evangelist L u k e a n d , if so, d a t e s
to a r o u n d t h e e n d of t h e first c e n t u r y C E . Acts 12 r e c o r d s P e t e r ' s
a r r e s t b y H e r o d a n d his s u b s e q u e n t e s c a p e w i t h t h e h e l p of a n A n g e l
of t h e L o r d ( ). 9 3 O n c e f r e e d , P e t e r h e a d s to w h e r e t h e
o t h e r s h a v e g a t h e r e d (Acts 12:12). W h e n t h e h o u s e s e r v a n t a n s w e r s ,
she r u n s to tell t h e o t h e r s t h a t P e t e r h a s r e t u r n e d . T h e y respond
i n c r e d u l o u s l y , " Y o u a r e m a d . " B u t she insists t h a t it is so. T h e y say,
" I t is his a n g e l [ ] ! " B u t P e t e r c o n t i n u e s k n o c k -
ing; a n d w h e n t h e y o p e n , t h e y see h i m a n d a r e a m a z e d . 9 4 A m a z e m e n t
is a c o m m o n r e a c t i o n to m i r a c u l o u s p h e n o m e n a (cf. M a r 5:42; L u k
8:56; 2 4 : 2 2 ; Acts 10:45). P e t e r h a s p r e v i o u s l y b e e n h e l p e d b y t h e
A n g e l of t h e L o r d in A c t s 5:19.
T h e g u a r d i a n a n g e l m o t i f h a s l o n g b e e n r e c o g n i z e d t o lie b e h i n d
Acts 12:15. 9 5 T h e r e a r e n u m e r o u s p a s s a g e s d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e i d e a
in J u d a i s m . I n G e n 4 8 : 1 6 J a c o b says, as p a r t of his blessing o v e r
J o s e p h , " t h e a n g e l w h o h a s r e d e e m e d m e f r o m all evil." Ps 9 1 : 1 1
says, " H e will give his a n g e l s c h a r g e of y o u t o g u a r d y o u in all y o u r
w a y s . " Also r e l a t e d a r e E x o d 2 3 : 2 0 21, w h e n the A n g e l of t h e L o r d
p r o t e c t s the Israelites d u r i n g t h e i r d e s e r t w a n d e r i n g , a n d D e u t 3 2 : 8
(LXX): " W h e n the M o s t H i g h gave to the nations their inheritance,
w h e n h e s e p a r a t e d t h e s o n s of m e n , h e fixed t h e b o u n d s of t h e p e o -
pies a c c o r d i n g to t h e n u m b e r of t h e sons of G o d [ ]." 9 6
T h e s e p a s s a g e s c e r t a i n l y d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t angels f u n c t i o n e d as p r o -
t e c t o r s in t h e J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e p r i o r to t h e N T p e r i o d .
O t h e r l i t e r a t u r e also evinces t h e g u a r d i a n a n g e l motif. T o b 5 : 2 1
states, " F o r a g o o d angel will g o w i t h h i m ; his j o u r n e y will b e success-
ful, a n d h e will c o m e back safe a n d s o u n d . " In T. Jac. 1:10, " T h e angels
w o u l d visit h i m a n d g u a r d h i m a n d s t r e n g t h e n h i m in all t h i n g s . "
Also in t h e LAB 59:4, " a n d b e c a u s e h e h a s d e l i v e r e d m e to his angels
a n d to his g u a r d i a n s t h a t t h e y s h o u l d g u a r d m e " (cf. 11:12; 15:5).

93
Note that the Greek here does not contain the article, but the LXX rendering
of the Angel of the Lord in Gen 16, 22, 24; Exod 3; Judg 6; 2 Kgs 1, 19; Ps 34,
35; Isa 37 do not either. The Balaam story in Num 22, Judg 13, and Zech do employ
the article. Thus it seems possible to render Acts 12:7 as "the Angel of the Lord."
94
The D texts add "perhaps" ().
95
See J . Moulton, "It Is His Angel" JTS 3 (1902) 514-527; K. Lake and
H. Cadbury, The Beginnings of Christianity: Part I The Acts of the Apostles, vol. 4: English
Translation and Commentais (London: MacMillan and Co., 1933) 138-139; E. Haenchen,
The Acts of the Apostles (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1971) 385.
96
The same idea is seen in Dan 10:13 (and 11:5) in the "princes" of the nations,
as well as Michael as the "prince" of Israel.
 E l s e w h e r e in t h e N T , M a t t 18:10, " S e e t h a t y o u d o n o t despise
o n e of t h e s e little ones; f o r I tell y o u t h a t in h e a v e n t h e i r angels
always b e h o l d t h e f a c e of m y F a t h e r w h o is in h e a v e n , " is c i t e d in
s u p p o r t of this idea. 9 ' T h i s text, t h o u g h i n f o r m a t i v e a b o u t t h e o v e r -
all belief in angels as intercessors, is n o t of c e r t a i n v a l u e f o r t h e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Acts 12:15.
C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a in his Excerpta ex Theodoto 10, 6 - 1 1 , dis-
cusses M a t t 18:10:

T h e y [the first-created] "always behold the face of the Father" and

the face of the Father is the Son, through w h o m the Father is known.
Yet that which sees and is seen cannot be formless or incorporeal. But
they see not with an eye of sense, but with the eye of the mind, such
as the Father provided. When, therefore, the Lord said, "Despise not
one of these little ones. Truly, I say to you, their angels always behold
the face of the Father," as is the pattern, so will be the elect, when
they have received the perfect advance. But "blessed are the pure in
heart, for they shall see G o d " (Matt 5:8). And how could their face
be a shapeless being?

C l e m e n t s e e m s t o suggest t h a t t h e elect will also find t h e i r p l a c e in

h e a v e n a t t h e t h r o n e w h e n t h e y a r e t a k e n u p . T h i s s e e m s to d e m o n -
strate a close c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e e a r t h l y elect a n d their h e a v e n l y
counterparts a n d p e r h a p s even a transformation f r o m one into the
other.
T h e w i d e s p r e a d n a t u r e of this belief m a k e s it v e r y likely t h a t L u k e
h a s p i c k e d u p o n t h e m o t i f h e r e in Acts 12. C e r t a i n l y , t h a t t h e a n g e l
c o m e s a n d frees P e t e r f r o m p r i s o n fits w i t h t h e i d e a of a p r o t e c t o r
a n g e l (Acts 12:79). W h a t is a little less c l e a r is w h y t h e o t h e r a p o s -
ties, in h i d i n g , m i g h t say t h a t P e t e r ' s a n g e l h a s c o m e (Acts 12:15).
L. J o h n s o n n o t e s t h a t J e s u s ' s p o s t - r e s u r r e c t i o n a p p e a r a n c e in L u k e
24:37 is w o r t h y of c o m p a r i s o n h e r e . 9 8 T h i s p a s s a g e says, " B u t t h e y
w e r e startled a n d f r i g h t e n e d , a n d s u p p o s e d t h a t t h e y s a w a spirit
()," p e r h a p s suggesting t h a t w e a r e to s u p p o s e t h e o t h e r a p o s -
ties t h o u g h t P e t e r h a d b e e n killed. 9 9 Still, t h e p a s s a g e is p e c u l i a r in

97
C. Rowland, "Apocalyptic, the Poor, and the Gospel of Matthew" JTS 45
(1994) 511.
98
L. Johnson, The Acts of the Apostles (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1992) 213.
99
J. Munck, The Acts of the Apostles (Garden City: Doubleday, 1967) 114, says this
passage is "probably an instance of the not uncommon betief that the moment a
man dies his guardian angel appears." He does not cite any instances of this phe-
nomenon, however.
t h e sense t h a t t h e apostles h a d e x p e c t e d a n a n g e l . T h e y a r e told
t h a t P e t e r is at t h e d o o r , a n d t h e y dismiss t h e i n f o r m a t i o n , s a y i n g
it is his angel.
S o , t r a d i t i o n a l l y A c t s 12:15 is t a k e n to r e p r e s e n t t h e guardian
a n g e l m o t i f , a n d this s e e m s to lie b e h i n d t h e p a s s a g e . It s e e m s also,
h o w e v e r , t h a t f o r a t least o n e a u t h o r , L u k e , t h e A n g e l - o f - t h e - L o r d
t r a d i t i o n s w e r e still f u n c t i o n a l . P a r t i c u l a r l y striking a r e t h e parallels
b e t w e e n Acts 12 a n d t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d in E x o d u s as p r o t e c -
t o r , b o t h in f r e e i n g t h e Israelites a n d P e t e r a n d in killing t h o s e w h o
o p p r e s s e d t h e m , P h a r a o h ' s son a n d Herod.
T h e m e a n i n g of "it is his a n g e l " in Acts 12:15 is n o t entirely clear.
M o s t c o m m e n t a t o r s suggest t h a t it r e f e r s to a g u a r d i a n a n g e l . It
c o u l d p e r h a p s also r e f e r t o s o m e u n d e r s t a n d i n g (within t h e n a r r a -
tive) t h a t P e t e r h a s r e t u r n e d t o t h e o t h e r disciples in a n afterlife exis-
t e n c e as a n angel (cf. Acts 23:89). T h e G r e e k ( )
h e r e suggests, h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e r e is a distinction b e t w e e n P e t e r a n d
this angel; t h a t is, it is his a n g e l , n o t h e is a n a n g e l .

2.9 The Apocalypse of John

T h e r e a r e 6 4 o c c u r r e n c e s of t h e t e r m in t h e A p o c a l y p s e of
J o h n . T h e vast m a j o r i t y of t h e s e s e e m clearly to r e f e r to h e a v e n l y
b e i n g s w h o c a r r y o u t G o d ' s p l a n (e.g., 5:2; 7 : 1 2 , 8 1 0 ) or are part
of t h e h e a v e n l y r e t i n u e (e.g., 5:11; 7:11; 8:2; 15:6). 100 T h r e e p a s s a g e s
a r e of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t w i t h r e g a r d to t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between
h u m a n s a n d angels: 1:20 ( a n d also m o r e loosely t h e e i g h t r e f e r e n c e s
to t h e s a m e " a n g e l s " of t h e i n d i v i d u a l c h u r c h e s t h a t follow in c h a p -
ters 2 - 3 ) a n d 19:10, w h i c h is p a r a l l e l e d in 22:9.
R e v 1:20 c o n t a i n s the e n i g m a t i c s t a t e m e n t , " A s f o r t h e m y s t e r y
of t h e seven stars w h i c h y o u s a w in m y right h a n d , a n d t h e seven
g o l d e n l a m p s t a n d s , the seven stars are the angels of t h e seven c h u r c h e s
[01 ] a n d the seven l a m p -
s t a n d s a r e t h e seven c h u r c h e s . " T h i s p a s s a g e , p e r h a p s b e t t e r t h a n
a n y o t h e r , highlights t h e p o t e n t i a l difficulty in u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e rela-
t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. S c h o l a r s d e b a t e w h a t is m e a n t

100
It is also important to note that only nine of those (and eight refer to the angels
of the churches, discussed below) appear in the visions of John (chapters 4-22).
by t h e " a n g e l s of t h e s e v e n c h u r c h e s . ' " 0 1 T h e " a n g e l s " c a n b e u n d e r -
s t o o d as h u m a n (messengers) o r d i v i n e beings. D i f f e r e n t e x p l a n a t i o n s
h a v e b e e n o f f e r e d t o e x p l a i n w h a t is m e a n t in e i t h e r case. If h u m a n
m e s s e n g e r s a r e t h e r e f e r e n t , it w o u l d b e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t J o h n
is told to w r i t e t o t h e " m e s s e n g e r s " of t h e c h u r c h e s , b u t t h e alle-
gorical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w i t h i n t h e verse (i.e., t h e seven stars a r e angels
a n d t h e seven l a m p s t a n d s a r e t h e seven c h u r c h e s ) suggests t h a t t h e
angels a r e n o t simply h u m a n m e s s e n g e r s . It is possible t h a t some
type of h y b r i d a n g e l - h u m a n ( p e r h a p s s o m e k i n d of a c k n o w l e d g e d
c h u r c h leader) is i n t e n d e d , b u t a g a i n t h e issue of t h e allegorical inter-
p r e t a t i o n arises. As f o r a n a n g e l i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , it h a s b e e n sug-
gested t h a t t h e a n g e l s a r e g u a r d i a n angels o r h e a v e n l y d o u b l e s . It
is also possible t h a t t h e t e r m is o n l y a literary device o r l i t e r a r y
fiction. U l t i m a t e l y , t h e i n t e n d e d m e a n i n g of " a n g e l s of t h e seven
c h u r c h e s " will likely r e m a i n a m b i g u o u s , b u t it is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e
it h e r e since it is a t least possible t h a t t h e i n t e n t is s o m e k i n d of
a n g e l - h u m a n b e i n g w h o c a n m e d i a t e for the seven c h u r c h e s in
h e a v e n . M o r e o v e r , this p h r a s e highlights t h e p o t e n t i a l difficulty t h a t
c a n arise in i n t e r p r e t i n g a p a s s a g e in w h i c h t h e a u t h o r m a y h a v e
b e e n a w a r e of a n d h a v e p l a y e d u p o n t h e r a n g e of m e a n i n g i n h e r -
e n t in t h e t e r m .
T h e o t h e r t w o r e l a t e d p a s s a g e s of interest in s t u d y i n g t h e rela-
t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s in t h e A p o c a l y p s e a r e 19:10
a n d 2 2 : 8 9 . I n R e v 19:9 a n a n g e l c o m m a n d s J o h n to w r i t e d o w n
t h e w o r d s h e h e a r s . I n v. 10, J o h n writes, " T h e n I fell d o w n a t his
feet to w o r s h i p h i m [the a n g e l ] , b u t h e said to m e , ' Y o u m u s t n o t
d o that! I a m a fellow s e r v a n t with y o u a n d y o u r b r e t h r e n w h o h o l d
t h e t e s t i m o n y of J e s u s . W o r s h i p G o d . ' F o r t h e t e s t i m o n y of J e s u s is
t h e spirit of p r o p h e c y . " Similarly, in 2 2 : 8 - 9 , the a u t h o r writes:

101
See discussions in: C. Hemer, The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia in Their
Local Setting (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1986) 3234 ;L. Stuckenbruck, Angel
Veneration and Christology: A Study in Early Judaism and in the Christology of the Apocalypse
ofJohn (Tubingen: J . C. B. Mhr, 1995) 234-238; D. Aune, Revelation, 3 vols. (Dallas:
Word Books, 1997-1998) 1:106-112; G. Beale, The Book of Revelation: A Commentary
on the Greek Text (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999) 216-219; M. Barker, The
Revelation of Jesus Christ (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000) 102-110. Due to the inher-
ent ambiguity, most commentators list the options and avoid drawing any specific
conclusions.
 [8] I J o h n a m he who heard and saw these things. And when I heard
and saw them, I fell down to worship at the feet of the angel who
showed them to me; [9] but he said to me, "You must not do that!
I am a fellow servant with you and your brethren the prophets, and
with those who keep the words of this book. Worship G o d . "

T h e s e t w o a c c o u n t s a r e q u i t e similar. I n t e r e s t i n g l y , in b o t h cases
J o h n falls at t h e feet of t h e a n g e l ; t h e a n g e l tells h i m , " D o n o t d o
t h a t , " b e c a u s e h e himself is simply " a fellow s e r v a n t w i t h y o u " ; a n d
the a n g e l tells J o h n to " W o r s h i p G o d . " O n l y 19:10, h o w e v e r , says
t h a t J o h n fell t o w o r s h i p (). 1 0 2 A t a g e n e r a l level, t h e p r o -
h i b i t i o n s e e m s to s t a n d as a w a r n i n g t o C h r i s t i a n s a g a i n s t a n g e l w o r -
ship a n d p e r h a p s i d o l a t r y in a n y f o r m . 1 0 3 S o m e h a v e suggested t h a t
J o h n m a y b e c o n f u s i n g t h e b e i n g b e f o r e h i m in 19:9 a n d 22:89
104
w i t h t h e divine b e i n g h e h a s s e e n in 1:13 a n d 10:11.
U l t i m a t e l y , t h e r e f u s a l of w o r s h i p suggests t h a t in t h e divine o r d e r
h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s a r e o n e q u a l footing. 1 0 5 T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of this
a r e u n c l e a r . Prime facie it d o e s n o t s e e m t o suggest t h a t t h e distinc-
t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o t y p e s of b e i n g s is necessarily b l u r r e d b y this
s h a r e d status; h o w e v e r , t h e a n g e l d o e s say t h a t h e is a "fellow ser-
v a n t , " so p e r h a p s , in t h e e s c h a t o n a n d n e w age t h a t J o h n sees in
visions, angels a n d h u m a n s a r e n o t as distinct b u t i n s t e a d a r e all
e q u a l followers of G o d (cf. Mart. Ascen. Isa. 8 - 9 ) .

2.10 Joseph and Aseneth

Joseph and Aseneth (JA), w h i c h b e l o n g s to t h e g e n r e of G r e e k love

stories, e l a b o r a t e s u p o n t h e n a r r a t i v e in G e n 4 1 : 3 7 - 4 5 , 5 0 - 5 2 , a n d
4 6 : 2 0 , in w h i c h t h e p a t r i a r c h J o s e p h m a r r i e s t h e d a u g h t e r of a n
E g y p t i a n priest, A s e n e t h . It is likely to h a v e b e e n c o m p o s e d in G r e e k ,

102
R. Bauckharn has collected texts from the period that show the motif of the
angelic denial of worship was extant. He sees the same motif in Tob 12:16-22,
Apoc. Zeph. 6:11-15, JA 15:11-12, Apoc. Paul, Apoc. Gosp. Matt 3:3, Lad. Jac. 3:3-5,
3 En. 16:1-5, and Cairo Genizah Hekhalot A/2 13-18. See R. Bauckharn, "The Wor-
ship ofJesus in Apocalyptic Christianity" NTS 37 (1980-1981) 322-341, reprinted in
R. Bauckharn, The Climax of Prophecy (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1993) 118-149.
105
G. Beale, The Book of Revelation, p. 946. D. Aune, Revelation, p. 1036. The ques-
tion of whether or not there was a cult of angel worship in Judaism at this period
is debated. A good review of scholarship on this appears in L. Stuckenbruck, Angel
Veneration, pp. 111-119.
104
G. Beale, The Book of Revelation, pp. 946, 1128.
105
L. Stuckenbruck, Angel Veneration, p. 252.
t h o u g h it m a y derive f r o m earlier o r a l t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t J o s e p h . T h e r e
are two m a i n recensions: the longer a n d the shorter form.106 M o s t
s c h o l a r s believe t h e l o n g e r f o r m to be closer t o t h e original, b u t this
is d e b a t e d . T h e r e r e m a i n s a n e e d for a critical e d i t i o n of t h e text
t h a t i n c l u d e s all t h e m a j o r m a n u s c r i p t s . 1 0 7
S c h o l a r s a r e d i v i d e d o n t h e d a t e a n d p r o v e n a n c e of JA. P. Battifol,
o n e of t h e first s c h o l a r s to t r a n s l a t e t h e G r e e k text, suggested t h a t
it w a s a C h r i s t i a n text a n d s h o u l d b e d a t e d q u i t e late, b e t w e e n t h e
f o u r t h a n d sixth c e n t u r y C E . 1 0 8 T h i s d a t i n g h a s b e e n r e j e c t e d b y vir-
tually all scholars, h o w e v e r , o n t h e basis of t h e " J e w i s h " c h a r a c t e r
of t h e t e x t (e.g., its e l a b o r a t i o n u p o n a H e b r e w Bible story) a n d its
S e p t u a g i n t a l i s m s . F o r s o m e t i m e t h e r e w a s a g r o w i n g scholarly c o n -
sensus t h a t settled u p o n a n E g y p t i a n p r o v e n a n c e a n d a late first-
c e n t u r y B C E to a first-century C E date. 1 0 9
R e c e n t l y , G . B o h a k h a s b e c o m e m o r e specific a n d l o c a t e d the
a u t h o r of JA in E g y p t a t t h e O n i a s T e m p l e . 1 1 0 H e sees t h e a u t h o r
as h a v i n g a g o o d k n o w l e d g e of G r e e k , s o m e familiarity w i t h E g y p t i a n
(Heliopolitan) theology, a n d a deeply eschatological outlook. T h e s e
f a c t o r s suggest a d a t e of 160 145 B C E to B o h a k .
A d i s s e n t i n g voice c o m e s f r o m R . K r a e m e r , w h o m a k e s a case
for seeing " A s e n e t h " as n o earlier t h a n a b o u t t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y CE. 1 1 1
H e r a r g u m e n t s f o r seeing t h e a n g e l o p h a n y as a d j u r a t i o n m a g i c akin
to m a g i c a l m a t e r i a l s of t h e s e c o n d a n d t h i r d c e n t u r i e s C E a r e i n t e r -
esting b u t n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y p e r s u a s i v e as a basis for a late d a t i n g .
It s e e m s p r o b a b l e t h a t JA was written during or a r o u n d the first
c e n t u r y C E . E v e n if t h e a c t u a l d a t e is s o m e w h a t later, it is still p o s -
sible t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n s t h e r e i n m a y d e r i v e f r o m a n e a r l i e r p e r i o d .
T h e p r o v e n a n c e is likely to b e E g y p t i a n . Its g e n r e , t h e love story,

106
There are 16 Greek mss. and a number of versions in other languages; for
a list see C. Burchard, OTP 2:178-179.
107
HJPAJC mi:546-552.
108
P. Battifol, Le livre de la prire d'Aseneth in Studia Patristica (Paris, 1889-1890).
109
C. Burchard, Untersuchungen zu Joseph und Aseneth: berlieferung-Ortsbestimmung
(Tbingen: JCB Mohr, 1965) and OTP 2:177-201; M. Philonenko, Joseph et Asneth:
introduction, texte critique, traduction et notes (Leiden: E. J . Brill, 1968); R. Chesnutt,
'1Joseph and Aseneth" in ABD 3:969-971 and a good summary of the arguments
in Chesnutt's recent work, From Death to Life: Conversion in Joseph and Aseneth (Sheffield:
Sheffield Academic Press, 1995) 80-85.
110
G. Bohak, Joseph and Aseneth and the Jewish Temple in Heliopolis (Atlanta, GA:
Scholars Press, 1996) 83-87.
111
R. Kraemer, When Aseneth Met Joseph (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998)
225-244.
is likely t o c o n t a i n t h e m e s of b e a u t y a n d v i r t u e a n d b e of a n epic
character.
I n c h a p t e r s 1 4 - 1 7 of JA " a m a n f r o m h e a v e n " a p p e a r s to A s e n e t h .
T h e " m a n " is said to b e v e r y similar to J o s e p h in his g a r b , b u t his
face a n d e x t r e m i t i e s a r e brilliant.

[4] And a m a n came to her from heaven and stood by Aseneth's head.
And he called her and said, "Aseneth, A s e n e t h . , 5 ] ] A n d she said,
" W h o is it that calls me, because the door of my chamber is closed,
and the tower is high, and how then did he come into my chamber?"
[6] And the man called her a second time and said, "Aseneth, Aseneth."
[7] A n d she said, "Behold, (here) I (am) Lord. W h o are you, tell me?"
[8] And the m a n said, "I am the chief of the house of the Lord and
c o m m a n d e r of the whole host of the Most High. Rise and stand 011
your feet and I will tell you what I have to say." [9] And Aseneth
raised her head and saw, and behold, (there was) a m a n in every
respect similar to Joseph, by the robe and the crown and the royal
staff, except that his face was like lightning, and Iiis eyes were like
sunshine, and the hairs of his head like a flame of fire of a burning
torch, a n d hands and feet like iron shining forth from a fire, a n d sparks
shot forth from his hands and feet. [10] And Aseneth saw (it) a n d fell
on her face at his feet on the ground (14:4-10). 112

M o s t i n t e r p r e t e r s u n d e r s t a n d this b e i n g as a n a n g e l , e v e n though
the text d o e s n o t c o n t a i n the t e r m . " 3 T h e r e a r e g o o d r e a -
sons for this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h e b e i n g c o m e s originally as a "star' 5
(14:1). W i t h i n t h e p a s s a g e h e is c a l l e d " a m a n f r o m h e a v e n " (v. 4),
w h o i d e n t i f i e s h i m s e l f as t h e " c o m m a n d e r of t h e w h o l e h o s t of
h e a v e n " (v. 7). T h i s title w a s seen in J o s h 5 . 1 3 1 5 a n d l a t e r a t t r i b -
u t e d t o p r i m a r y a n g e l s such as M i c h a e l . T h e i m a g e r y of his bril-
liant face a n d fiery h a n d s a n d feet (v. 9) is c o m m o n to a n g e l o p h a n i e s .
M o r e o v e r , A s e n e d i r e s p o n d s b y falling on die g r o u n d . T h i s is u n d o u b t -
edly a case in w h i c h a n a n g e l is r e f e r r e d to as a m a n . W h a t is m o r e
i n t e r e s t i n g is t h a t t h e a n g e l a p p e a r s in t h e f o r m of a p a r t i c u l a r p e r -
son, t h e p a t r i a r c h J o s e p h . A d d i t i o n a l l y , w h e n in c h a p t e r 16 t h e b e i n g
r e a c h e s o u t his h a n d to A s e n e t h , she is a f r a i d to t a k e it b e c a u s e
" s p a r k s shot f o r t h f r o m his h a n d as f r o m b u b b l i n g m e l t e d i r o n . "
G . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s a r g u e d t h a t J o s e p h in this scene a n d also
A s e n e t h in c h a p t e r 18 a r e a n g e l o m o r p h i c . 1 1 4 I n t h e sense t h a t c e r -
tain i m a g e r y a p p l i e d to e a c h of t h e m is o f t e n a p p l i e d t o angels, this

112
Translation G. Burchard, OTP 2:224-225.
113
See especially G. Bohak, Joseph and Aseneth, pp. 2-3; C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-
Acts, p. 165, et al.
114
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 165-169.
s e e m s c o r r e c t . I n t h e c a s e of A s e n e t h , F l e t c h e r - L o u i s sees t h e b e a u t y
a s c r i b e d to h e r in c h a p t e r 18 a n d h e r f a t h e r ' s r e a c t i o n of f e a r a n d
falling to t h e g r o u n d (18:11) as signs of h e r a n g e l i c c h a r a c t e r , as
well as h e r b e i n g a b l e to p a r t a k e of h e a v e n l y f o o d (16:14). 1 1 3 T h e s e
d e s c r i p t i o n s s e e m to s h o w t h a t t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n A s e n e t h under-
goes p r e p a r e s her for m a r r i a g e to h e r future h u s b a n d , w h o has
a n g e l o m o r p h i c qualities. U l t i m a t e l y , h o w e v e r , A s e n e t h is said to c o n -
ceive a n d b e a r h u m a n childrenManasseh and Ephraim (21:9),
which would seem to reinforce her h u m a n nature. T h e "parallelism"
( F l e t c h e r - L o u i s ' s t e r m ) b e t w e e n t h e p o r t r a y a l of t h e a n g e l in c h a p -
t e r 14 a n d J o s e p h g e n e r a l l y is said to s h o w J o s e p h ' s " a n g e l i c c h a r -
a c t e r . " 1 1 6 T h e parallels i n c l u d e b o t h t h e a n g e l a n d J o s e p h coming
f r o m the East a n d being seen by Aseneth t h r o u g h h e r window. In
14:9, t h e a n g e l is said to b e " a m a n in e v e r y r e s p e c t similar to
J o s e p h . " F l e t c h e r - L o u i s sees the c o m m e n t in 6:6 t h a t J o s e p h h a s " a
g r e a t light in h i m " as giving f o u n d a t i o n for t h e parallel b e t w e e n h i m
a n d t h e fiery c r e a t u r e of c h a p t e r 14, b u t this s e e m s to press t h e evi-
d e n c e q u i t e f a r . U l t i m a t e l y , t h e r e m a y b e a parallel b e t w e e n J o s e p h
a n d his angelic c o u n t e r p a r t . B u t a r e t h e y t h e s a m e b e i n g ? It s e e m s
unlikely, given t h a t t h e t w o a r e m e n t i o n e d s e p a r a t e l y . A l t h o u g h t h e r e
is n o d o u b t t h a t t h e d e p i c t i o n s of b o t h J o s e p h a n d A s e n e t h in JA
a r e a n g e l o m o r p h i c , it s e e m s t h e t w o a r e h u m a n b e i n g s .

2.11 The Shepherd of Hermas

T h e S h e p h e r d of H e r m a s w a s p r o b a b l y w r i t t e n in c e n t r a l Italy o r
R o m e itself. Its d a t i n g is u n c e r t a i n , b u t m o s t s c h o l a r s a c c e p t a d a t e
s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n t h e e n d of t h e first c e n t u r y G E a n d t h e first
half of t h e s e c o n d century. 1 1 7 T h i s m e a n s it is likely to b e r o u g h l y
c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h b o t h t h e gospels a n d J o s e p h u s . H e r m a s is split
i n t o t h r e e sections: Visions, Mandates, and Similitudes.
In the Visions a n " a n c i e n t w o m a n " is a c c o m p a n i e d by "young
m e n . " I t is l a t e r d i s c l o s e d t h a t t h e s e " y o u n g m e n " a r e actually
"angels.""8 Originally, there are four young m e n , "So, w h e n she
h a d finished r e a d i n g , a n d rose f r o m t h e c h a i r , t h e r e c a m e f o u r y o u n g

115
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 166-167.
116
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 166.
117
C. Osiek, Shepherd of Hermas (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1999) 18-20.
118
Greek text from K. Lake, The Apostolic Fathers II (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1992).
men [], a n d took u p the chair a n d went away toward the
E a s t " (Vis. 1.4.1), b u t in Vis. 3 t h e r e a r e six.
Vis. 3 . 1 . 6 says, " A n d she [the a n c i e n t lady] c a m e w i t h six y o u n g
m e n [ ] , w h o m I [ H e r m a s ] h a d seen o n t h e f o r m e r o c c a -
sion, a n d s t o o d b y m e , a n d listened t o m e p r a y i n g a n d c o n f e s s i n g
m y sins t o t h e L o r d . " T h e s e y o u n g m e n a p p e a r a g a i n in 3.1.7 a n d
8. I n 3 . 1 . 8 t h e y a r e told to " G o a n d b u i l d , " w h i c h t h e y d o in 3.2.5:

Now the tower was being built four-square by six young men []
who h a d come with her; but tens of thousands of other men []
were bringing stones, some from the deep sea, and some from the
land, a n d were giving them to the six young men [], and
these kept taking them and building.

Slightly later, H e r m a s e n q u i r e s as to t h e i d e n t i t y of these m a i n b u i l d -

ers (Vis. 3.4.1):

I answered and said to her: "Lady, great a n d wonderful is this thing.

But, Lady, who are the six young men [] who are building?"
"These are the holy angels of G o d [ ], who
were first created, to w h o m the Lord delivered all his creation to make
it increase, and to build it up, and to rule the whole creation."

T h e six y o u n g m e n a r e last m e n t i o n e d in Vis. 3 . 1 0 . 1 , w h e n they

c o m e to c a r r y a w a y t h e a n c i e n t lady.
I n h e r recent c o m m e n t a r y , C . Osiek suggests t h a t die six y o u n g m e n
(= angels) m a y r e p r e s e n t , a l o n g w i t h t h e a n g e l M i c h a e l ( w h o a p p e a r s
in t h e Sim. 8 . 3 . 3 a n d 9.6.1), t h e s e v e n p r i m a r y a r c h a n g e l s (cf. 1 En.
9 0 : 2 1 , T. Levi 8.1). 1 1 9 T h i s is c e r t a i n l y possible, since t h e a r c h a n g e l s
a r e s e e n in g r o u p s of seven ( T o b 12:15; 2 En. 19:1), b u t also in
g r o u p s of f o u r , in t h e l i t e r a t u r e of t h e period. 1 2 0
T h e r e is o n e o t h e r e x a m p l e of a n a n g e l b e i n g r e f e r r e d to as a
" y o u t h . " I n Sim. 6 . 1 . 5 , H e r m a s is s h o w n a vision of a s h e p h e r d :

And after he spoke these things with me, he said to me: "Let us go
into the country, and I will show you the shepherds of the sheep."
"Let us go, sir," said I. And we came into a plain, and he showed
me a young shepherd [ ], clothed with a suit of gar-
ments of yellow color.

119
C. Osiek, Shepherd, p. 69.
120
Groupings of four appear in 1QM 9.14-16; 1 En. 9:1, 40:9, 54:6, 71:8; Apoc.
Mos. 40:2.
T h e i d e n t i t y of t h e s h e p h e r d is t h e n r e v e a l e d in 6.2.1:

And he said to me: " D o you see this shepherd?" "Yes, sir," said I, "I
see him." "This," said he, "is the angel of luxury and deceit [
]. , H e wears out the souls of the servants of God,
and perverts them from the truth, deceiving them with evil desires in
which they perish.

It s e e m s t h a t this s h e p h e r d is t h e antithesis of H e r m a s himself. O s i e k

calls t h e s h e p h e r d " a d e m o n i c figure."121 It m a y b e t h a t s o m e c o r -
r e s p o n d e n c e to t h e figure of S a t a n is i n t e n d e d . W h a t e v e r t h e case,
this is a n o t h e r text t h a t s e e m s t o r e f e r t o a n a n g e l a p p e a r i n g in a
h u m a n f o r m , in this case as a s h e p h e r d .
T h i s interesting material shows t h a t at least for the a u t h o r of H e r m a s ,
angels c o u l d be a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c , a n d in p a r t i c u l a r , as w e saw in
J o s e p h u s a n d t h e E m p t y T o m b n a r r a t i v e s , " y o u n g m e n " ().
All of t h e e v i d e n c e f o r a n g e l s as y o u t h s s e e m s to h a v e a first- to
early second-century C E p r o v e n a n c e (Tobit, N T , Josephus, Hermas).
T h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m to b e a n y p a r t i c u l a r c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n this
c o n c e p t of a n g e l s a n d t h e o l d e r t r a d i t i o n s of angels b e i n g r e g a r d e d
as " m e n " f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible.

2.12 The Apocalypse of Abraham

T h e A p o c a l y p s e of A b r a h a m (Apoc. Abr.), e x t a n t o n l y in Slavonic

t r a n s l a t i o n , c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o t w o m a i n p a r t s . T h e first, c h a p t e r s
1 S, r e c o u n t s A b r a h a m ' s c o n v e r s i o n f r o m i d o l a t r y t o m o n o t h e i s m .
T h e remaining chapters (931 )are an apocalypse based u p o n Gen
15. T h e a p o c a l y p s e is n o t easily d a t e d f r o m i n t e r n a l e v i d e n c e . T h e r e
is a n a p p a r e n t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e T e m p l e in c h a p -
t e r 27. It s e e m s to h a v e b e e n q u o t e d in t h e Pseudo-Clementine
Recognitions 1.32 (c. s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E ) . M o s t s c h o l a r s a c c e p t a d a t e
s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n t h e s e c o n d h a l f of t h e first c e n t u r y a n d t h e sec-
o n d century CE.122
T h e a n g e l Iaoel (10:3), w h o helps A b r a h a m , is d e s c r i b e d as a n t h r o -
p o m o r p h i c . Apoc. Abr. 10.4 states, " T h e a n g e l h e sent to m e in t h e
likeness of a m a n c a m e , a n d h e took m e b y m y right h a n d and

121
C. Osiek, Shepherd, p. 188.
122
R. Rubinkiewicz, "The Apocalypse of Abraham" in OTP 1:683; HJPAJC
III.i:290.
s t o o d m e o n m y f e e t . " H e h a s t h e "likeness of a m a n " a n d is a b l e
to t a k e t h e h a n d of A b r a h a m . H o w e v e r , w h e n A b r a h a m looks u p o n
his h e l p e r , h e sees s o m e t h i n g d i f f e r e n t :

[11:1] And I stood up and saw him who h a d taken my right h a n d

and set m e on my feet. [2] T h e appearance of his body was like sap-
phire, and the aspect of his face was like chrysolite, and the hair of
his head like snow. [3] And a kidaris (was) on his head, its look like
that of a rainbow, and the clothing of his garments (was) purple; and
a golden staff was in his right hand.

T h e c o m p o n e n t s of this a n g e l o p h a n y a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e in the
a n g e l o p h a n i e s c o n s i d e r e d a b o v e i n p a r t i c u l a r , his w h i t e h a i r and
brilliant (jewel-like) b o d y . O n e d i f f e r e n c e is t h a t his g a r m e n t s a r e a
royal p u r p l e r a t h e r t h a n w h i t e .
As n o t e d a b o v e , C . R o w l a n d h a s a r g u e d o n t h e basis of t h e strik-
ingly similar i m a g e r y f o u n d in JA, Apoc. Abr., and Rev that they
reflect d e p e n d e n c e o n a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of D a n 10:6 t h a t w a s linked
with D a n 7:13 as f o u n d in the L X X . 1 2 3 It s e e m s likely t h a t t h e i m a g e s
of t h e m a n l i k e figure in t h e p r o p h e t s E z e k i e l a n d D a n i e l were
influential in s u b s e q u e n t v i s i o n a r y a n d a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e .
T h e a p p e a r a n c e of I a o e l as "in the likeness of a m a n " d o e s n o t
i n d i c a t e a n y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h h u m a n beings. F a r f r o m it; I a o e l is
in t h e h e a v e n s a n d c a r r i e s o u t t h e role of g u i d e a n d i n t e r p r e t e r o f t e n
associated w i t h angels.

Conclusions

I n this c h a p t e r e v i d e n c e f o r t h e p o r t r a y a l of a n g e l s ( a n d o t h e r divine
beings) a p p e a r i n g as h u m a n b e i n g s h a s b e e n investigated t o d e t e r -
m i n e w h e t h e r it suggests a n y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . T h r e e p o i n t s w e r e n o t e d
at t h e outset. (1) T h e s e m a n t i c r a n g e of t h e t e r m s for a n g e l can
c o v e r b o t h h u m a n a n d divine m e s s e n g e r s . S u c h a s e m a n t i c r a n g e ,
h o w e v e r , d o e s n o t necessarily i m p l y a n y b l u r r i n g of t h e distinction
b e t w e e n t h e t w o types, since c o n t e x t d i c t a t e s t h e m e a n i n g of t h e
t e r m . (2) T h e m a j o r i t y of texts t h a t speak a b o u t angels d o n o t i n c l u d e
a n y physical d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e m . (3) S o m e c o m m o n characteristics

123
C. Rowland, "A Man Clothed in Linen," pp. 99-110; see also The Open
Heaven, p. 101.
of a n g e l o p h a n i e s (luminous a p p e a r a n c e , fear in the seer) c a n b e used
to help identify w h a t m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d angelic.
Angels d o s o m e t i m e s a p p e a r in the f o r m of h u m a n s ( G e n 1 8 - 1 9 ,
32, J o s h , P r o p h e t s T o b ) . I n the c o n t e x t of the n a r r a t i v e they are
often indistinguishable f r o m h u m a n beings, at least until they reveal
their true identity. F u r t h e r , in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , t h e r e
seemed to be a d e v e l o p m e n t t o w a r d representing angels as y o u t h f u l
h u m a n males (the Gospels, Herrn.).
T h e evidence indicates t h a t , even w h e n described a n t h r o p o m o r -
phically, angels r e m a i n e d distinct f r o m h u m a n s . W e t h e r e f o r e ask:
W h a t is the significance of the evidence w h e r e there are a n t h r o p o -
m o r p h i c descriptions of angels? T h e earliest evidence f r o m the H e b r e w
Bible suggests t h a t t h e r e m a y n o t h a v e b e e n a n y d e v e l o p m e n t in the
c o n c e p t of angels t h a t m a d e it p r o b l e m a t i c to refer to w h a t f r o m
the c o n t e x t was clearly a divine being as a " m a n . " As speculation
a b o u t angels a n d the heavenly r e a l m increased in the late S e c o n d
T e m p l e period, m o r e of a distinction was m a d e ; older texts such as
Genesis w e r e reinterpreted a n d angels inserted w h e r e there m a y h a v e
b e e n a n y a m b i g u i t y or w h e r e angels w e r e the m o r e logical choice
of t e r m s given the t r e n d s of t h a t time.
I n visionary literature it seems t h a t divine beings a n d angels could
c o n t i n u e to be referred to as m e n , b u t most often with a circumlo-
cution such as " o n e like a son of m a n . " T h i s suggests a distinction
was being m a i n t a i n e d , even if the physical f o r m of the b e i n g was
h u m a n l i k e . It is n o t difficult to see w h y a h u m a n f o r m w o u l d be
c h o s e n for a divine being: the a u t h o r s themselves w e r e obviously
h u m a n , a n d G o d c r e a t e d m a n in his o w n i m a g e ( G e n 1:26).
It is interesting t h a t angels c a m e to b e r e f e r r e d to as " y o u t h f u l
m e n . " H o w this idea developed is n o t entirely clear, b u t by the first
c e n t u r y G E , it seems to have b e e n firmly in place, such t h a t it m i g h t
h a v e even served as a e u p h e m i s m for angels. Even in the cases w h e r e
angels are called " y o u n g m e n , " h o w e v e r , t h e r e does n o t seem to be
a n y reason to suppose t h a t this designation e x t e n d s b e y o n d their
physical f o r m to their essential n a t u r e .
T h u s , the evidence analyzed in this c h a p t e r indicates that, although
t h e r e is significant evidence for angels a p p e a r i n g in h u m a n f o r m , a
distinction was m a i n t a i n e d b e t w e e n h u m a n a n d angels. T h e next
step in this investigation is to look at cases in w h i c h h u m a n beings
seem to take o n the a p p e a r a n c e of angels, w h i c h is the p u r p o s e of
c h a p t e r 3.
 CHAPTER THREE

"YOU L O O K POSITIVELY ANGELIC":

H U M A N BEINGS AS A N G E L S

I n t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r t h e e v i d e n c e for angels a p p e a r i n g as h u m a n
b e i n g s w a s e x a m i n e d . T h e e v i d e n c e f o r h u m a n b e i n g s a p p e a r i n g as
angels will b e c o n s i d e r e d in this c h a p t e r . T h e e v i d e n c e is m a i n l y
c o n c e n t r a t e d o n specific i n d i v i d u a l s f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible, who
w e r e k n o w n f o r t h e i r r i g h t e o u s n e s s (e.g., N o a h , Moses) o r h a d an
1
e n i g m a t i c b a c k g r o u n d (e.g., E n o c h , M e l c h i z e d e k ) . Some important
individuals f r o m early C h r i s t i a n i t y also m a y h a v e a t t a i n e d s u c h a
status (e.g., J e s u s , S t e p h e n , a n d Paul). T h e e v i d e n c e in this c h a p t e r
is o r g a n i z e d b y c o n s i d e r i n g t h e texts r e l a t i n g t o e a c h i n d i v i d u a l . T h e
final s u b s e c t i o n c o n s i d e r s texts t h a t speak a b o u t t h e possibility t h a t
h u m a n s w h o w e r e r i g h t e o u s in t h e i r lifetime m a y receive a n angelic
life in h e a v e n .

3.1 Adam

A c c o r d i n g to G e n e s i s , A d a m w a s t h e first h u m a n being created.

L a t e r s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t his d i v i n e n a t u r e s e e m s to s t e m f r o m G e n
1 : 2 6 - 2 7 , w h i c h states, " T h e n G o d said, ' L e t us m a k e m a n in o u r
i m a g e , a f t e r o u r l i k e n e s s . ' . . . S o G o d c r e a t e d m a n in his o w n i m a g e ,
in t h e i m a g e of G o d h e c r e a t e d h i m ; m a l e a n d f e m a l e h e c r e a t e d
t h e m . " 2 T h e c r e a t i o n story itself, a l o n g w i t h t h e story in t h e G a r d e n
( G e n 2 3 ) , i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e w a s a close r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e

1
As is seen in analyses by: J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as
Angels" in Ideal Figures in Ancient Judaism (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1980) 135-151;
L. Hurtado, One God, One Lord, 2nd ed. (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1998) 51-70;
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts: Angels, Christology and Soteriology (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck,
1997) 145-183; C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology: Antecedents and Early Evidence
(Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1997) 152-183.
2
Gen Rab 8:3-6 discusses the first-person plural "we" in the creation statement
and how God took counsel with the ministering angels in the creation (cf. also Gen
11:7). There is a good survey of the Jewish interpretations of Gen 1:26 i n j . Jervell,
Imago Dei: Gen l,26f. im Sptjudentum, in der Gnosis und in den paulischen Briefen (Gttingen:
Vanderhoeck and'Ruprecht, 1960) 15-51 and 71-121.
first h u m a n s a n d t h e divine. Interestingly, t h e c a u s e of A d a m ' s e x p u l -
sion f r o m t h e G a r d e n is t h a t h e h a s " b e c o m e like o n e of us, k n o w i n g
g o o d a n d evil" ( G e n 3:22a). M o r e o v e r , if A d a m w e r e to t a k e f r o m
t h e T r e e of Life, t h e n h e w o u l d "live f o r e v e r " ( G e n 3:22b). T h u s ,
it s e e m s t h a t A d a m h a d a kind of divine n a t u r e at t h e c r e a t i o n . N o
m o r e distinction is m a d e , o t h e r t h a n t h a t A d a m is "like u s . "
1 E n o c h (or E t h i o p i e E n o c h ) 6 9 c o m e s f r o m a section of 1 E n o c h
k n o w n as t h e S i m i l i t u d e s (or P a r a b l e s ) of E n o c h ( c h a p s . 37-71).
1 E n o c h is a c o m p o s i t e w o r k m a d e u p of several sections: T h e B o o k
of W a t c h e r s (chaps. 136 ;)t h e Similitudes; t h e A s t r o n o m i c a l Book
(chaps. 8 3 - 9 0 ) ; t h e B o o k of A d m o n i t i o n s (chaps. 9 1 - 1 0 5 ) ; a n d t h e
B i r t h A c c o u n t of N o a h (chaps. 1 0 6 - 1 0 7 ) . T h e d a t e of t h e S i m i l i t u d e s
h a s b e e n t h e s u b j e c t of s o m e d e b a t e , since it is also t h e section w h e r e
the " s o n of m a n " s a y i n g is f o u n d (see a b o v e 2.5). A r a m a i c f r a g m e n t s
f r o m Q u m r a n s h o w t h a t all sections of 1 E n o c h w e r e to b e f o u n d
t h e r e e x c e p t the Similitudes. 3 T h i s , a l o n g w i t h t h e affinity of s o m e
A r a m a i c f r a g m e n t s of a Q u m r a n B o o k of G i a n t s to t h e M a n i c h e a n
B o o k of G i a n t s , led t h e p u b l i s h e r of t h e A r a m a i c f r a g m e n t s , J . Milik,
to suggest t h a t t h e Similitudes d i d n o t exist in p r e - C h r i s t i a n times
b u t w e r e in f a c t a late C h r i s t i a n a d d i t i o n t o 1 E n o c h (c. 2 7 0 C E ) . 4
T h e s c h o l a r l y c o n s e n s u s t o d a y , h o w e v e r , largely rejects M i l i k ' s asser-
t i o n a n d m a i n t a i n s a d a t e in t h e first half of t h e first c e n t u r y C E . 5
T h e S i m i l i t u d e s a r e f o c u s e d u p o n e v e n t s in t h e h e a v e n l y w o r l d .
T h e y c u l m i n a t e in t h e a s c e n s i o n of E n o c h to h e a v e n ( c h a p . 71).
1 En. 6 9 n a m e s t h e angels w h o s i n n e d b y disclosing secret k n o w l e d g e
to h u m a n s (v. 1). V e r s e 11 suggests t h a t h u m a n b e i n g s originally
s h a r e d a similar n a t u r e w i t h angels:

[11] For m e n were created exacdy like angels, to the intent that they
should continue pure and righteous, and death, which destroys every-
thing, could not have taken hold of them, but through this their knowl-
edge they are perishing, and through this power it is consuming me. 6

5
J. Milik in collaboration with M. Black, The Books of Enoch: Aramaic Fragments of
Qumrn Cave 4 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976); G. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch (Philadelphia:
Fortress Press, 2001).
4
J. Milik, The Books of Enoch, pp. 89.96
5
See especially M. Knibb, "The Date of the Parables of Enoch" NTS 25 (1979)
358-359; C. Mearns, "Dating the Similitudes of Enoch" NTS 25 (1979) 369; HJPAJC
Hli:257-259.
6
Translation R. H. Charles, The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1913) 2:234.
A l t h o u g h A d a m is n o t explicitly m e n t i o n e d in this text, t h e c o n t e x t
is of t h e c r e a t i o n of h u m a n k i n d , w h i c h m u s t u l t i m a t e l y h a r k e n b a c k
to A d a m in G e n e s i s . A c c o r d i n g to t h e text, h u m a n s w e r e c r e a t e d to
be "like" angels. T h e simile c o m e s in h u m a n s p e r m a n e n t l y "main-
t a i n i n g p u r e a n d r i g h t e o u s lives." T h i s suggests t h a t t h e original
h u m a n state w a s to b e p u r e a n d r i g h t e o u s (cf. W i s 2:23). Human
b e i n g s s e e m i n g l y fell f r o m this state t h r o u g h t h e sin of A d a m ( G e n
2:17, 3:17f.; cf. R o m 5:12), suggestsing t h a t A d a m ' s p r e l a p s a r i a n state
c o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d as angelic. 7
A n o t h e r text f r o m die E n o c h i c writings is m o r e explicit a b o u t A d a m ' s
angelic status. 2 E n o c h (Slavonic E n o c h ) e x p a n d s u p o n t h e life of
E n o c h ( G e n 5 : 2 1 - 3 2 ) . T w o r e c e n s i o n s exist: t h e s h o r t e r [A] a n d t h e
l o n g e r [ J ] , w h i c h a r e d a t e d differently. T h e m a n u s c r i p t e v i d e n c e is
q u i t e late ( f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y ) , a n d d a t e s h a v e b e e n o f f e r e d f r o m t h e
first c e n t u r y G E t h r o u g h to t h e M i d d l e Ages. F. A n d e r s e n , in his
translation for the OTP, favors a n early d a t e for t h e s h o r t e r r e c e n s i o n ,
while the l o n g e r is likely to c o m e f r o m a l a t e r d a t e . 8 T h i s e v i d e n c e
s h o u l d b e used with c a u t i o n in discussing late S e c o n d T e m p l e beliefs. 9
It s e e m s likely t h a t 2 E n o c h is d e p e n d e n t o n E t h i o p i e E n o c h . T h e
g e n r e is a p o c a l y p t i c . C h a p t e r 3 0 c o n t a i n s a d e t a i l e d e x p o s i t i o n of
t h e c r e a t i o n n a r r a t i v e . V e r s e 11 [J] m a k e s fairly explicit t h a t A d a m
w a s c r e a t e d angelic:

[11] And on the earth I assigned him to be a second angel, honored

and great and glorious. And I assigned him to be a king, to reign [on]
the earth, [and] to have my wisdom. And there was nothing compa-
table to him on the earth, even among my creatures that exist.

T h e r e is n o c l e a r r e f e r e n t f o r a "first" a n g e l . S e v e r a l texts h a v e b e e n
o f f e r e d in s u p p o r t of s e e i n g A d a m as t h e p r i m a r y b e i n g of c r e a t i o n
a n d e v e n h a v i n g a n e x a l t e d status: Sir 4 9 : 1 6 , W i s 10:1, a n d Philo,
Ques Gen 2:56.' N o n e of t h e s e s u p p o r t s a n a n g e l i c r e a d i n g , h o w e v e r .

7
This is clear in the rabbinic texts; see J . Jervell, Imago Dei, pp. 15-51. See also
C. Rowland, "The Influence of the First Chapter of Ezekiel on Jewish and Early
Christian Literature" (Ph.D. dissertation, Cambridge University, 1974).
8
F. Andersen, "2 (Slavonic Apocalypse of) Enoch" in OTP 1:91-213; J. Charles-
worth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as Angels," p. 137, simply assumes a first-
century CE date.
9
HJPAJC Illii: 748-749.
10
J. Fossum, The Name of God and the Angel of the Lord: Samaritan and Jewish Concepts
of Intermediation and the Origin of Gnosticism (Tubingen: JCB Mhr, 1985) 273; C. Fletcher-
Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 142; C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 154.
So t h e m e a n i n g of t h e title " s e c o n d a n g e l " is n o t self-evident. A d a m ' s
status o n e a r t h is clearly e x a l t e d a b o v e all t h e e a r t h l y beings. H e is
to b e a k i n g a n d to h a v e w i s d o m (cf. 2 S a m 14:17). G . G i e s c h e n
suggests t h a t t h e p a s s a g e m a y b e a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Ps 8, p r e -
s u m a b l y verse 5, w h i c h states, " Y e t t h o u h a s t m a d e h i m a little less
t h a n G o d , a n d dost c r o w n h i m with glory a n d h o n o r . " T h u s , G i e s c h e n
sees t h e " s e c o n d a n g e l " as m e a n i n g o n e of G o d ' s p r i n c i p a l angels. 1 1
I n c h a p t e r 31, A d a m is p l a c e d in t h e G a r d e n a n d a l l o w e d to look
u p o n t h e a n g e l s in h e a v e n , " A n d I [ G o d ] c r e a t e d for h i m [Adam]
a n o p e n h e a v e n , so t h a t h e m i g h t look u p o n t h e a n g e l s " (v. 2). T h a t
A d a m c a n look u p o n angels in t h e o p e n h e a v e n suggests h e h a s b e e n
g i v e n a s u p e r i o r - s e e r status. S i n c e h e h a s b e e n called a n " a n g e l , " his
ability to see angels m a y b e r e l a t e d to this status. I n c h a p t e r 3 2 : 1 - 2 ,
A d a m t r a n s g r e s s e s a n d is expelled t o t h e e a r t h t o live a m o r t a l life.
T h e Testament of Abraham (T. Abr.) exists in t w o f o r m s , t h e l o n g e r
R e c e n s i o n A ( G r e e k m s . s u p p o r t e d by a R o m a n i a n version) a n d t h e
shorter Recension (Greek ms. supported by Slavonic a n d other
12
versions). D a t e s h a v e b e e n o f f e r e d f r o m as early as t h i r d c e n t u r y
B C E t o t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y C E . . P. S a n d e r s suggests a r a n g e f o r
t h e d a t i n g b e t w e e n t h e first a n d s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E , b u t t h e d a t i n g
is n o t clear. 1 3
I n T. Abr. 11:4, t h e p a t r i a r c h is t a k e n i n t o h e a v e n a f t e r his d e a t h
a n d sees a " m a n o n a g o l d e n t h r o n e " w h o is d e s c r i b e d as " t e r r i f y -
i n g . " W h e n A b r a h a m asks his angelic g u i d e a b o u t t h e i d e n d t y of
this f i g u r e , h e is told, " T h i s is t h e first-formed A d a m w h o is in s u c h
g l o r y " (11:9). A g a i n , in c h a p t e r 12, a " w o n d r o u s m a n " sits u p o n a
t h r o n e . W h e n A b r a h a m asks t h e i d e n t i t y of t h e m a n , t h e a n g e l tells
h i m , " S o y o u see, all-pious A b r a h a m , t h e f r i g h t f u l m a n w h o is s e a t e d
o n t h e t h r o n e ? T h i s is t h e son of A d a m , the first-formed, w h o is
called A b e l , w h o m C a i n t h e w i c k e d killed" (13:2). 14
T h e L a t i n Life of Adam and Eve (Vita) e x p a n d s u p o n t h e story of
A d a m a n d Eve a f t e r t h e i r e x p u l s i o n f r o m t h e G a r d e n . It c o m e s in

11
C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, 153; cf. J . Fossum, The Name of God,
p. 273. Such an interpretation is not impossible in light of the description of Jacob
as Israel and archangel in Pr. Jos. 7.
12
E. P. Sanders, "Testament of Abraham" in OTP 1:871-902.
15
E. P. Sanders, "Testament of Abraham" in OTP 1:874-875 and HJPAJC
IIIii:764, both note the difficulty of dating the text but see a mid-second-century
date as probable.
14
On the Testament of Abraham, see P. Munoa, Four Powers in Heaven: The Inter-
pretaticm of Daniel 7 in the Testament ofAbraham (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999).
G r e e k a n d L a t i n versions. M . J o h n s o n suggests t h a t t h e text derives
f r o m t h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n 100 B C E a n d 2 0 0 C E , w i t h t h e p r o b a b i l -
ity of a late first-century C E date. 1 5 I n c h a p t e r 13, t h e devil e x p l a i n s
w h y h e a n d his c o m p a n i o n s w e r e expelled f r o m h e a v e n .

[1] T h e devil replied, " W h a t are you telling me? It is because of you
that I have been thrown out of there. [2] W h e n you were created, I
was cast out from the presence of G o d a n d was sent out from the fel-
lowship of the angels. [3] W h e n G o d blew into you the breath of life
and your countenance and likeness were m a d e in the image of God,
Michael brought you and m a d e (us) worship you in the sight of God,
and the Lord G o d said, 'Behold Adam! I have m a d e you in our image
and likeness.' "

Fletcher-Louis a n d Gieschen have both strongly asserted that the

v e n e r a t i o n of A d a m in this text d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e v e n e r a t i o n of a n
a n g e l o m o r p h i c being. 1 6 It is n o t c l e a r f r o m t h e text, h o w e v e r , t h a t
A d a m h a s a n a n g e l o m o r p h i c status. As F l e t c h e r - L o u i s himself p o i n t s
o u t , " T h i s is a m o s t r e m a r k a b l e s t a t e m e n t of t h e p r o p r i e t y of w o r -
s h i p p i n g A d a m as t h e i m a g e a n d visible likeness of G o d . " 1 7 The
18
issue, t h e n , is A d a m ' s i s o m o r p h i c image. A d a m is t o b e w o r s h i p p e d
b e c a u s e h e is c r e a t e d in t h e i m a g e of G o d , n o t s i m p l y b e c a u s e h e
is angelic. It is significant t h a t in 13:3 G o d says, " B e h o l d , A d a m ! I
h a v e m a d e y o u in o u r i m a g e a n d likeness." P r e s u m a b l y , t h e first-
p e r s o n p l u r a l refers t o G o d a n d t h e a n g e l i c host. N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e
inclusive a d j e c t i v e m a y simply b e m a i n t a i n i n g t h e p h r a s e o l o g y of
G e n 1 : 2 6 - 2 7 . A d a m ' s c o u n t e n a n c e a n d likeness a r e in t h e i m a g e of
G o d (13: 3); m o r e o v e r , t h e r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e call to w o r s h i p is A d a m ' s
divine i m a g e . I n 14:2, M i c h a e l calls o u t to t h e devil a n d his c o m -
p a n i o n s , " W o r s h i p t h e i m a g e of G o d , Y a h w e h . " I n 16:1 the devil
a n d his lot a r e cast o u t f r o m a m o n g t h e o t h e r angels for t h e i r refusal
to w o r s h i p A d a m , b u t t h e i r refusal is n o t b a s e d o n A d a m ' s b e i n g
c r e a t e d in t h e i m a g e of G o d b u t r a t h e r o n his b e i n g c r e a t e d a f t e r
t h e m in t h e c r e a t i o n (14:3). T h e p o t e n t i a l l a t e d a t e a n d lack of
specific a n g e l l a n g u a g e in t h e Vita suggest c a u t i o n in u s i n g it as evi-
d e n c e f o r A d a m ' s a n g e l i c status.

15
M. Johnson, "Life of Adam and Eve" in OTP 2:252.
16
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 142; C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, 154.
17
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 14-2.
18
The Testament of Adam 3:2 and 4 (largely dismissed by Fletcher-Louis and
Gieschen due to its late date (c. second to fifth century CE), says that Adam will
have his wish fulfilled and be made a "god" after his death.
 O v e r a l l , t h e r e is e v i d e n c e for t h e angelic n a t u r e of A d a m in lit-
e r a t u r e f r o m this p e r i o d . Interestingly, h o w e v e r , J . L e v i s o n c o n c l u d e d
his s u r v e y of several texts (Wis, Sir, J u b , J o s e p h u s , P h i l o , 4 E z r a ,
a n d 2 Bar.) o n A d a m in early J u d a i s m b y stating, " T h e r e is r e m a r k -
a b l y little s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t t h e o r i g i n a l n a t u r e of A d a m in the
9
a u t h o r s of early J u d a i s m w h i c h w e e x a m i n e d . ' " This seems correct
for the evidence that he e x a m i n e d , b u t o t h e r evidence, such as
1 E n o c h , suggests t h a t t h e r e w a s a line of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t u n d e r -
s t o o d t h e first h u m a n s to h a v e h a d a n a n g e l i c n a t u r e , w h i c h w a s
s u b s e q u e n t l y lost in t h e Fall. I n 2 E n o c h A d a m is explicitly called
" a s e c o n d a n g e l , " e v e n if this title is s o m e w h a t difficult to u n d e r -
s t a n d . It m a y i d e n t i f y A d a m as a p r i n c i p a l a n g e l . It c e r t a i n l y locates
h i m o n e a r t h w i t h t h e p o w e r to look i n t o t h e h e a v e n s a n d see t h e
angels, b u t this status is s u b s e q u e n t l y lost. T h e e v i d e n c e of t h e Vita
h i n t s a t divine status f o r A d a m t h a t is n o t clearly d e f i n e d , b u t t h e
r a t i o n a l e for w o r s h i p of A d a m s e e m s b a s e d o n his b e i n g in t h e i m a g e
of G o d , w h i c h d o e s n o t necessarily relate to his h a v i n g a n a n g e l o -
morphic nature.

3.2 Seth(el)

T h e f r a g m e n t a r y text n a m e d t h e Apocalypse of Sethel is p r e s e r v e d in

the C o l o g n e M a n i C o d e x . 2 0 T h e m a n u s c r i p t a p p e a r s to b e f r o m t h e
fifth c e n t u r y C E , c o p i e d f r o m a S y r i a c original. 2 1 C h a r l e s w o r t h d e a l t
w i t h this p a s s a g e in his 1980 article, n o t i n g t h a t "this p a r t i c u l a r a p o c -
alypse a p p a r e n t l y p r e d a t e s M a n i ( 2 1 5 2 7 5 C E ) a n d in n o w a y s e e m s
to reflect p e c u l i a r M a n i c h e a n ideas; it s e e m s v e r y J e w i s h a n d c o n -
tains n o d i s c e r n i b l e C h r i s t i a n e l e m e n t s . " 2 2 T h i s a s s e s s m e n t is by n o
m e a n s definitive, b u t it suggests t h e r e is g o o d r e a s o n to believe t h a t
the i d e a s c o n t a i n e d t h e r e i n a r e r o u g h l y c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h those
b e i n g e x a m i n e d in this study. A n g e l s a p p e a r in a n u m b e r of places
t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o d e x . 2 3 M o s t of t h e s e o c c u r r e n c e s m e n t i o n angels

19
J. Levinson, Portraits of Adam in Early Judaism (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic
Press, 1988) 152. See also J. Fossum, The Name of God and the Angel of the Lord, pp.
266-291.
20
R. Cameron and A. Dewey, The Cologne Mani Codex (Missoula, MT: Scholars
Press, 1979) esp. 38-41.
21
R. Cameron and A. Dewey, The Cologne Mani Codex, p. 2.
22
J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as Angels," p. 139.
25
2.10; 3.3; 12.12; 48:19; 49.4, 16; 50.4; 51:5-6; 52.4; 54.3; 56:12; 58.3, 22;
59.4; 60.10.
in a typical m i n i s t e r i n g role. I n c h a p t e r s 5 0 a n d 5 1 , h o w e v e r , w e
find t h e i n t e r e s t i n g m e n t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a n g e l s a n d
h u m a n s r e g a r d i n g Seth(el), t h e s o n of A d a m (cf. G e n 4:25).
T h e g e n r e of t h e c o d e x is a p o c a l y p t i c , w i t h v a r i o u s visionary m a t e -
rial a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s r e c o u n t e d . 2 4 C h a p t e r 5 0 . 1 states, " A n d h e
b e c a m e m i g h t i e r t h a n all t h e p o w e r s a n d the a n g e l s of c r e a t i o n . "
T h e r e f e r e n t , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , is n o t c l e a r , b u t it s e e m s to b e A d a m ,
w h o h a s b e e n t h e s u b j e c t of t h e p r e c e d i n g discussion. I n 5 1 . 1 S e t h e l ,
t h e son of A d a m , is said to h a v e " b e c o m e like o n e of t h e g r e a t e s t
a n g e l s " ( ). W i t h this t r a n s f o r m a -
tion c o m e s a m o v e m e n t f r o m a w o r l d l y e x i s t e n c e t o a n o t h e r w o r l d l y
one: " W h e n t h a t a n g e l p l a c e d his h a n d on m y right hand, he
w r e n c h e d m e f r o m the world f r o m which I was b o r n a n d carried
m e off to a n o t h e r p l a c e e x c e e d i n g l y g r e a t " ( 5 1 . 6 - 1 5 ) . T h e f r a g m e n -
t a r y n a t u r e of the text p r e c l u d e s us f r o m d r a w i n g a n y firm c o n c l u -
sions a b o u t it, b u t if t h e text itself- - o r a t t h e m i n i m u m t h e t r a d i t i o n s
t h e r e i n d a t e s to o u r p e r i o d , t h e n w e h a v e a p i e c e of e v i d e n c e
r e g a r d i n g a h u m a n t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o a n angel a l o n g s i d e a t r a n s -
portation to a new world. T h i s transformation might profitably be
seen in a t r a j e c t o r y w i t h H e b r e w Bible t r a d i t i o n s like t h e t a k i n g of
E n o c h o r Elijah i n t o h e a v e n w i t h o u t a n a p p a r e n t physical d e a t h .

3.3 Enoch

I n t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , a s i g n i f i c a n t a m o u n t of l i t e r a t u r e
d e v e l o p e d a r o u n d t h e figure of E n o c h , w h o is briefly m e n t i o n e d in
G e n e s i s ( 5 : 1 8 2 5 . ( 2 4 M u c h of t h e l i t e r a t u r e a b o u t E n o c h s t e m s f r o m
the enigmatic phrase, " E n o c h walked with G o d ; a n d he was not,
for G o d t o o k h i m " ( G e n 5:24; cf. Sir 4 4 : 1 6 , 1 Q 2 0 Col. 2, w . 2 0 - 2 1 ) .
T h i s c o u l d h a v e b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d as E n o c h n o t h a v i n g a physical
d e a t h b u t b e i n g t a k e n i n t o h e a v e n m u c h like E l i j a h (2 K g s 2:11). 2 6

24
M. Himmelfarb, "Revelation and Rapture: The Transformation of the Visionary
in the Ascent Apocalypses" in Mysteries and Revelations: Apocalyptic Studies since the
Uppsala Colloquim, ed. J. Coffins and J. Charlesworth, JSPS 9 (Sheffield: Sheffield
Academic Press, 1991) 79-90.
25
There are no extant fragments of Gen 5:24 from Qumran.
26
Interestingly, however, Gen. Rab. 25.1, and the Tg. Onq. and Tg. Neo. on Gen
5:24 stress that Enoch died. This may be in reaction to those who sought to ele-
vate the status of Enoch. T. Ps.-J says that Enoch was called Metatron (cf. Jub.
10:17; 1 En. 12:3-5, 3 En). See C. Rowland, "Enoch" in DDD, pp. 576-581.
J o s e p h u s , Ant. 1.86 says t h a t t h e y did n o t r e c o r d his d e a t h (cf. Philo,
Mut. 34, Ahr. 17, Pram. 16, QG 1:85-86).
T h e r e s e e m s to b e a line of t r a d i t i o n t h a t u n d e r s t o o d E n o c h as
a n a n g e l o r a n g e l i c b e i n g . T h e e q u a t i o n b e c o m e s m o r e explicit in
later documents. T o begin with the clearest example, 3 E n o c h a
H e k h a l o t t e x t t h a t d a t e s to a m u c h l a t e r p e r i o d ( f i f t h - s i x t h c e n t u r y
C E ) R a b b i I s h m a e l , w h i l e j o u r n e y i n g to t h e h e a v e n s , is told t h a t
the angel M e t a t r o n with w h o m h e speaks is E n o c h (4:3). 27 C . Fletcher-
L o u i s lists a n u m b e r of a n g e l i c qualities a t t r i b u t e d to E n o c h in 3
E n o c h (e.g., g i g a n t i c size, brilliance, etc.) in a n a t t e m p t to s t r e n g t h e n
t h e c o n n e c t i o n . 2 8 O v e r a l l , this p i e c e of e v i d e n c e c a n n o t a d d much
to o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of late S e c o n d T e m p l e h u m a n - a n g e l relation-
ships d u e t o its late d a t e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , it is w o r t h w h i l e to m e n t i o n
since it s e e m s t o s h o w t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n of E n o c h ' s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
i n t o a n a n g e l c o n t i n u e d to d e v e l o p f r o m t r a d i t i o n s t h a t d o d e r i v e
f r o m this p e r i o d .
E n o c h ' s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o a n a n g e l is also d e s c r i b e d in 2 En.
22:6-10:

[6b] T h e Lord said, "Let Enoch come up and stand in front of my

face forever!" [7] And the glorious ones did obeisance and said, "Let
him come up!" [8] T h e Lord said to Michael, " T a k e Enoch, and
extract (him) from the earthly clothing. And anoint him with delight-
ful oil, and put (him) into the clothes of glory." . . . [10] And I gazed
at all of myself, and I had become like one of the glorious ones, and
there was no observable difference. 29

T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n u n d e r g o n e b y E n o c h is striking. I n particular,
his " e a r t h l y c l o t h i n g " a n d b e i n g p l a c e d in " c l o t h e s of g l o r y " suggest
a permanent transformation.
E n o c h ' s a s c e n t to h e a v e n is first m e n t i o n e d in 1 En 12:1:2

the children of the people knew by what he was hidden and where
he was. [2] And his dwelling place as well as his activities were with
the Watchers and holy ones; and (so were) his days. 30

27
On the dating of 3 En., see P. Alexander, "The Historical Setting of the
Hebrew Book of Enoch" JJS 28 (1977) 156-167.
28
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 156.
29
Translation F. Andenen, OTP 1:138-139.
30
Translation E. Isaac, OTP 1:19.
T h i s description of E n o c h as living with the angels seems to h a v e
its basis in G e n 5:24. It m a k e s clear t h a t he dwells a m o n g divine
beings. In Jub. 4 : 2 1 2 3 , w h i c h m a y have used 1 E n o c h , we r e a d t h a t
after E n o c h sired M e t h u s a l e h , " h e was t h e r e f o r e with angels of G o d
six jubilees of y e a r s " (294 years). T h e n h e b o r e witness against the
W a t c h e r s a n d was ultimately "taken f r o m a m o n g the children of m e n . "
I n a s e p a r a t e section of 1 En. 3 6 - 7 1 (the Similitudes), we r e a d ,
"I [Enoch] fell o n m y face, m y w h o l e b o d y mollified a n d m y spirit
t r a n s f o r m e d " (71:11). I n the s u b s e q u e n t verses, E n o c h is seemingly
identified with the " o n e like a son of m a n " ( 7 1 : 1 4 - 1 7 ) , w h o is a
divine being. It is n o t explicitly clear t h a t h e is a n angel, b u t such
a n identification c a n b e justified.
P e r h a p s m o r e t h a n a n y o t h e r individual, t h e r e seems to h a v e b e e n
a n o n g o i n g line of t h o u g h t t h a t identified E n o c h with a n angel. T h i s
identification b e c o m e s m u c h m o r e explicit in later texts; for instance,
in 3 E n o c h , E n o c h is the angel M e t a t r o n , w h e r e a s in 1 E n o c h the
identification with an angel is m o r e of a c i r c u m l o c u t i o n : E n o c h =
" o n e like a son of m a n " = a n angel, so E n o c h = angel.

3.4 Noah

T h e p a t r i a r c h N o a h (Gen 5 : 2 9 9 : 2 8 ) w a s k n o w n for his righteous-

ness a n d was said to h a v e "walked with G o d " ( G e n 6:9). N o a h a n d
his family w e r e the only h u m a n beings to escape the destruction of
the flood t h a t was b r o u g h t a b o u t by h u m a n k i n d ' s wickedness ( G e n
6:5-8). T h e e n d i n g to 1 E n o c h c o n t a i n s a n interesting tradition c o n -
c e r n i n g the birth of the p a t r i a r c h , N o a h . As m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , all
sections of 1 E n o c h , save the Similitudes, are attested in f r a g m e n -
tan f o r m in the Q u m r a n A r a m a i c fragments; thus we can be confident
in d a t i n g this m a t e r i a l within the b o u n d s of this study. 1 En. 1 0 6 : 1 6
says of the n e w b o r n N o a h :

[1] And after some days my son, Methuselah, took a wife for his son
Lamech, and she became pregnant by him and bore him a son. [2]
And his body was white as snow and red as a rose; the hair of his
head as white as wool and his demdema beautiful; and as for his eyes,
when he opened them the whole house glowed like the sun - -(rather)
the whole house glowed even more exceedingly. [3] And when he
arose from the hands of the midwife, he opened his mouth and spoke
to the Lord with righteousness. [4] And his father, Lamech, was afraid
of him and fled and went to Methuselah his father, [5] and said to
 him, "I have begotten a strange son: H e is not like an (ordinary)
h u m a n being, but he looks like the children of the angels of heaven
to me; his form is different, and he is not like us. His eyes are like
the rays of the sun, and his face glorious. [6] It does not seem to me
that he is of me, but of angels; and I fear that a wondrous phenom-
enon may take place upon the earth in his days." 31

N o a h is twice d e s c r i b e d as h a v i n g a n a p p e a r a n c e like a n "angel"

( w . 5 a n d 6). A n u m b e r of o t h e r f a c t o r s suggest t h a t h e is s u p e r -
human. His eyes " g l o w like t h e s u n , " a n d his f a c e is " g l o r i o u s . "
S o m e s c h o l a r s h a v e b e e n q u i c k to dismiss this p a s s a g e as p r o v i d i n g
n o e v i d e n c e f o r N o a h ' s a n g e l o m o r p h i c n a t u r e , since it o n l y c o n t a i n s
i m a g e r y a n d n o c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n t h a t N o a h w a s angelic. 3 2 M o r e o v e r ,
despite N o a h ' s a p p e a r a n c e , h e is n o t t h e p r o d u c t of h u m a n - a n g e l
i n t e r c o u r s e (v. I). 33 H o w e v e r , it is significant t h a t t h e i m a g e r y h e r e
is t w i c e i n t e r p r e t e d as b e i n g a n g e l i c in t h e text of t h e p a s s a g e itself
( w . 5 a n d 6). T h u s , it c a n b e said t h a t in this case, at his birth N o a h
w a s angelamorphic in t h a t h e a p p e a r s as a n a n g e l . H o w e v e r , it is n o t
c l e a r to w h a t e x t e n t this i m a g e r y is m e a n t t o b e t a k e n literally o r
to w h a t e x t e n t N o a h w a s a n g e l o m o r p h i c t h r o u g h o u t his e n t i r e life.
Interestingly, the tradition a b o u t N o a h ' s w o n d r o u s n a t u r e at birth
also s e e m s t o b e r e f l e c t e d in t h e Gen. Apoc. ( 1 Q 2 0 ) col. 2 f r o m
Q u m r a n , w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r twist.

[1] Behold, I thought then within my heart that conception was (due)
to the Watchers [ ]a n d the Holy O n e s . . . and to the Giants
[]
[2] a n d my heart was troubled within m e because of this child.
[3] T h e n I, Lamech, approached Bathenosh [my] wife in haste and
said to her,
[4] [. . . ] by the Most High, the Great Lord, the King of all the uni-
verse and Ruler of
[5] [ . . .]the Sons of Heaven [], until you tell me all things
truthfully . . .
[6] You will and without lies let me know whether this

51
Translation E. Issac, OTP 1:86. See also the fragment in J. Milik, The Books
of Enoch (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976) 206-207.
32
D. Hannah, Review of C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology in JTS 51(2000)
235-236.
83
G. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 2001) 543, writes, "For
the characters in the story, Noah's appearance is prima facie evidence of super-
natural conception. His father was apparently an angel, at a time when angels were
fathering children from human mothers. But, as the reader knows from the begin-
ning, and Lamech and Methusaleh will discover, the appearance is deceiving."
 [7] by the King of the all the universe that you are speaking to me
frankly a n d without lies
[8] T h e n Batenosh, my bride, spoke to me very harshly, she wept
[9] saying. " O h my brother, my Lord, remember my pleasure!
[10] [. ..] the time of love, the gasping of my breath in my breast. I
[. . . ] will tell you everything accurately
[11] [ . . . ] a n d then within m e my heart was very upset
[12] W h e n Batenosh, my wife, realized that my countenance h a d
altered
[13] t h e n she supressed her anger, speaking to m e a n d saying to me,
" O my lord
[14] my pleasure. I swear to you by the Holy Great One, the K i n g
of [the heavens] . . .
[15] that this seed is yours and that [this] conception is from you.
This fruit was planted by you . . .
[16] a n d by n o s t r a n g e r or W a t c h e r [ ]or S o n of H e a v e n
[ ] . . .
[17] [Why] is your countenance thus changed a n d dismayed, a n d why
is your spirit thus distressed . . .
[18] I speak to you truthfully."

In this text, L a m e c h , t h e f a t h e r of N o a h , r e c o g n i z e s t h a t s o m e t h i n g
is d i f f e r e n t a b o u t his son. H e is t r o u b l e d b e c a u s e h e believes t h a t
his wife h a s b e c o m e i m p r e g n a t e d b y t h e W a t c h e r s . 3 4 T h o u g h Noah
is n o t explicitly called a n a n g e l in this text, L a m e c h is c o n c e r n e d
t h a t h e w a s sired by a W a t c h e r o r S o n of H e a v e n . 3 5 T h i s p a s s a g e
m a y l e n d s o m e s u p p o r t to t h e belief t h a t a t r a d i t i o n existed c o n -
c e r n i n g N o a h h a v i n g a n a n g e l i c n a t u r e a t his b i r t h . C i t i n g n o t o n l y
1 Q a p G e n a n d 1 En 106, b u t also a p p e a l i n g to e v i d e n c e f r o m P s e u d o -
E u p o l e m u s a n d r e l a t i n g it all to e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e Gilgamesh n a r r a -
tive, J . R e e v e s h a s asserted t h a t "it is c l e a r f r o m several e x t r a b i b l i c a l
s o u r c e s t h a t t h e r e existed a t r a d i t i o n w h i c h alleged t h e F l o o d - h e r o
w a s a ' G i a n t ' . " 3 6 R . H u g g i n s h a s r e s p o n d e d to Reeves. 3 7 Huggins
c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e c a s e f o r N o a h ' s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n as a n a n g e l a t b i r t h
h a s m o r e t o d o w i t h his special role in t h e F l o o d n a r r a t i v e a n d his
r i g h t e o u s n e s s t h a n his b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d a g i a n t . T h u s , t h e Gen. Apoc.

34
Texts concerning the Watchers are examined in chapter 6.
35
4Q534 also makes reference to the Watchers, and it seems from some details
of a physical description (e.g., red hair) that it may be the same type of discussion
about Noah's bloodne as in the Gen. Apoc., but the text is too fragmentary to draw
any information.
36
J. Reeves, "Utnapishtirn in the Book of Giants?" JBL 112 (1993) 110.
37
R. Huggins, "Critical Notes: Noah and the Giants: A Response to John C.
Reeves" JBL 114 (1995) 103-110.
a n d 1 E n o c h c a n n o t b e s h o w n to d e m o n s t r a t e a n y belief in N o a h ' s
b e i n g of a n g e l i c origin. T h i s c o n c l u s i o n g o e s a g a i n s t t h e exegesis of
Fletcher-Louis, h o w e v e r . 3 8 By c o n n e c t i n g N o a h ' s a n g e l o m o r p h i c / t h e o -
m o r p h i c characteristics with a priestly motif, F l e t c h e r - L o u i s sees N o a h
as a s t r o n g e x a m p l e of a n a n g e l o m o r p h i c h u m a n . 3 9 W i t h o u t s u c h a
c o n n e c t i o n , h o w e v e r , t h e e v i d e n c e f o r N o a h ' s status is m o r e a m b i g u -
ous. A t r a d i t i o n seems to h a v e existed t h a t N o a h was n o t a b l y different
a t b i r t h . T h e i m a g e r y in t h e stories suggests t h a t N o a h ' s a p p e a r a n c e
w a s a n g e l o m o r p h i c , b u t it is n o t c l e a r h o w this c a r r i e d t h r o u g h his
life o r w h e t h e r it w a s simply m e a n t to d e n o t e his b e i n g a p a r t i c u -
larly righteous human.

3.5 Melchizedek

Melchizedek, another enigmatic figure f r o m the H e b r e w Scriptures,

a p p e a r s in G e n 14:18 as a priest-king to w h o m A b r a h a m pays h o m a g e
a n d gives tithe. I n Ps 110:4 his n a m e o c c u r s as t h e a r c h e t y p e f o r
a n e t e r n a l p r i e s t h o o d ( ) . T h e Epistle to t h e
H e b r e w s clearly s h o w s i n t e r e s t in his (eternal) priestly n a t u r e via
Ps 1 1 0 : 4 ( H e b 5 7 ) . So, a g a i n , w e h a v e a n e n i g m a t i c individual
f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible a b o u t w h o s e status it s e e m s t h e r e w a s s o m e
speculation.
T h e m a i n text t h a t p e r h a p s d e m o n s t r a t e s M e l c h i z e d e k ' s angelic
nature comes f r o m Q u m r a n (11Q14).40 T h e thirteen fragments date
to a r o u n d t h e first c e n t u r y B C E . 4 1 M e l c h i z e d e k fills t h e role of t h e
final j u d g e a k i n to t h e c o u r t s c e n e of Ps 8 2 , w h i c h is q u o t e d in
11Q14. T h e genre has been debated, but most scholars seem to
42
t h i n k it is a t y p e of p e s h e r o n Lev. It states:

38
C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory of Adam: Liturgical Anthropology in the Dead Sea
Scrolls (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2002) 33-55.
39
C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, p. 53.
40
See Y. Yadin, "A Note on Melchizedek and Qumran" LEJ 15 (1965) 152-154;
j . Fitzmyer, "Further Light on Melchizedek from Qumran Cave 11 " JBL 86 (1967)
25-41; M. Delcor, "Melchizedek from Genesis to the Qumran Texts and the Epistle
to the Hebrews" JSJ 2 (1971) 115-135; M. De Jonge and A. S. Van der Woude.
" 11 QMelchizedek and the New Testament" NTS 12 (1972) 301-326. F. L. Horton,
The Melchizedek Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976); P. Kobelski,
Melchizedek and Melchirea (Washington, DC: Catholic Biblical Association, 1981);
J. Davila, "Michael, Melchizedek, and Holy War" SBLSP (1998) 259-272. See also
DDD 1047-1053.
41
HJPAJC 1111:449.
42
HJPAJC IIIi:449; A. Aschim, "The Genre of llQMelch" in Qumran between the
Old Testament and the New Testaments (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998) 17-31.
 [7] A n d the day of atonement is the end of the tenth jubilee [8] in
which atonement will be m a d e for all the sons of G o d and for the
men of the lot of Melchizedek. And on the heights he will declare in
their favor according to their lots; [9] for it is the time of the "year
of grace" for Melchizedek, to exalt in the trial of the holy ones of
G o d through the rule of judgment, as it is written [10] about him in
the songs of David, who said, "Elohim will stand up in the assembly
of G o d [], in the midst of the elohim he judges" [cf. Ps 82:1]. A n d
about him he said: "Above it return [11] to the heights, G o d (el) will
judge the p e o p l e s . . . . [13] And Melchizedek will carry out the vengeance
of God's [ ]judgments [on this day, and they shall be freed from
the hands] of Belial and from the hands of all the sp[irits of his lot]
[14] T o his aid (shall come) all the gods of [justice]

A l t h o u g h this p a s s a g e is o f t e n c i t e d as d e m o n s t r a t i n g M e l c h i z e d e k ' s
angelic n a t u r e , t h e t e r m f o r a n g e l ( ) d o e s n o t a p p e a r . Elohim
( ) is s o m e t i m e s u s e d f o r G o d (sg.) a n d o t h e r t i m e s f o r divine
b e i n g s (pl.). M e l c h i z e d e k s e e m s to s h a r e t h e status of e l o h i m . He
acts b o t h as j u d g e a n d as e x e c u t o r of p u n i s h m e n t (cf. JVHC I X , 1).
A n angelic identification for M e l c h i z e d e k h a s also b e e n suggested by
t h e likelihood t h a t w i t h i n t h e Q r i m r a n l i t e r a t u r e , M e l c h i z e d e k = t h e
P r i n c e of Lights ( 1 Q S 3:20; C D 5:18; 1 Q M 13:10) = the angel M i c h a e l
( 1 Q M 1 7 : 6 7 ) b y v i r t u e of t h e i r c a r r y i n g o u t t h e s a m e f u n c t i o n . 4 3
N e i t h e r of t h e s e p o i n t s explicitly calls M e l c h i z e d e k a n a n g e l , h o w -
ever. N o r , e x c e p t b y i n f e r e n c e f r o m t h e role of M e l c h i z e d e k as escha-
tological j u d g e , is h e a n g e l o m o r p h i c . H e c e r t a i n l y , h o w e v e r , s e e m s
to h a v e a n e x a l t e d status.
O n t h e strength of s o m e i m a g e r y in 2 En. 6 9 7 3 , C . G i e s c h e n n o t e s
t h a t M e l c h i z e d e k c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d as a n g e l o m o r p h i c . 4 4 Interestingly,
in 2 E n o c h M e l c h i z e d e k ' s m o t h e r , S o p a n i m , is said to h a v e c o n c e i v e d
w i t h o u t h a v i n g r e l a t i o n s w i t h h e r h u s b a n d , N i r (71:2). H i s m o t h e r
is e x t r e m e l y old a n d dies in c h i l d b i r t h , so M e l c h i z e d e k delivers h i m -
self (71:17) as a d e v e l o p e d child, a g e d t h r e e (71:18). As h e is b o r n ,
" t h e b a d g e of p r i e s t h o o d w a s o n his chest, a n d it w a s g l o r i o u s in
a p p e a r a n c e " (71:19). T h i s s e e m s a n a l o g o u s to t h e n e w b o r n a n g e l o -
m o r p h i c i m a g e of N o a h (see a b o v e 3.4). N o e q u a t i o n is m a d e in 2
E n o c h b e t w e e n his l u m i n o u s a p p e a r a n c e a n d a n a n g e l o m o r p h i c status.
T h e r e f o r e , t h e w e i g h t of this e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t s e e m to suggest
t h a t M e l c h i z e d e k w a s u n d e r s t o o d specifically as a n angel. T h e a u t h o r

43
HJPAJC 1111:450; J. Davila, "Melchizedek, Michael, and War in Heaven" in
SBLSP (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1996) 259-272.
44
C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christologr, pp. 172-173.
of t h e Epistle to t h e H e b r e w s w a s c e r t a i n l y i n t e r e s t e d in his b e i n g
p a r t of a n e t e r n a l o r d e r of priests (Ps 110). T h e Q u m r a n f r a g m e n t s
suggest a n e l e v a t e d status f o r h i m . H e m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d a n g e l i c if
w e e q u a t e t h e roles of M i c h a e l a n d M e l c h i z e d e k , b u t this m e a n s
s y n t h e s i z i n g t h e Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e . T h e i m a g e r y f r o m 2 E n o c h sug-
gests t h a t there w a s wider speculation a b o u t the origins of Melchizedek.
A g a i n , this interest m a y s t e m f r o m his b e i n g p a r t of a n e t e r n a l o r d e r
of priests. U l t i m a t e l y , t h e e v i d e n c e a b o u t M e l c h i z e d e k is u n c l e a r . It
d o e s n o t explicitly r e f e r to h i m as a n a n g e l , b u t h e d o e s s e e m t o
e n j o y a special status t h a t suggests h e m i g h t h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d
in s o m e w a y angelic.

3.6 Jacob/Israel

T h r o u g h o u t t h e G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e , J a c o b e n j o y s a special r e l a t i o n -
ship w i t h t h e h e a v e n l y w o r l d . G o d s p e a k s to h i m directly t h r o u g h -
o u t his life (especially in c h a p s . 28, 31, a n d 35). I n G e n 28, J a c o b
h a s a d r e a m vision of a p l a c e w h e r e h e a v e n a n d e a r t h m e e t and
the m e a n s b y w h i c h a n g e l s a s c e n d t o h e a v e n a n d d e s c e n d t o e a r t h .
J a c o b a g a i n sees a n g e l s in G e n 3 2 : 1 2 . T h e r e is s t r o n g e v i d e n c e t h a t
J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t w a s widely u n d e r s t o o d as a n a n g e l ( G e n 32) in t h e
late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d . 4 5 W h a t is e x a m i n e d h e r e is t h e e v i d e n c e
t h a t J a c o b himself w a s c o n s i d e r e d a n a n g e l .
I n his Confusion of Tongues 146, P h i l o writes:

But if there be any as yet unworthy to be called a Son of God, let

him press to take his place under God's First-born, his W o r d the eldest
of the angels, an archangel. H e possesses m a n y names; for he is called,
the Beginning, and the N a m e of God, and Logos, and the M a n after
his image, a n d "he that sees," that is Israel.

I n this brief passage, Philo discusses t h e a t t r i b u t e s of t h e divine Logos.

T h e L o g o s is said to b e G o d ' s w o r d a n d t h e l e a d e r of t h e angels. A
n u m b e r of n a m e s a r e also given to t h e L o g o s : t h e N a m e (cf. E x o d u s
23:20f.), the L o g o s (cf. J o h n l:lf.), the " m a n " after his i m a g e (cf. Ezekiel
1:26), a n d i m p o r t a n t l y for o u r discussion, " h e t h a t sees" = " I s r a e l . "
T h e e x a c t m e a n i n g of t h e n a m e Israel is u n c e r t a i n , t h o u g h " h e t h a t

45
See section 2.1(b) above.
sees" s e e m s to resolve t h e H e b r e w i n t o t h r e e p a r t s , as 46.
P h i l o says e l s e w h e r e t h a t Israel m e a n s " h e t h a t sees (God)." 4 7
I n t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t of a discussion r e g a r d i n g m a t u r i t y a n d t h e
significance of t h e n u m b e r seventy in Aligration 2 0 0 - 2 0 1 , P h i l o m a k e s
a p a s s i n g r e f e r e n c e t o J a c o b a n d his n a m e . 4 8 H e says t h a t J a c o b is
t h e n a m e of o n e wrestling (). T h e G r e e k w o r d h e r e is t h e
s a m e r o o t as t h e L X X w o r d f o r J a c o b wrestling w i t h t h e m a n in
G e n 3 2 : 2 5 (). P h i l o also m e n t i o n s t h a t J a c o b ' s n a m e refers to
o n e " c o v e r e d w i t h d u s t " (). 4 9 A t h i r d u n d e r s t a n d i n g is of
o n e " g r a b b i n g at t h e h e e l " (). 5 0 T h e s e u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of
J a c o b ' s n a m e a r e d e e p l y r o o t e d in t h e G e n 32 struggle. P h i l o t h e n
says t h a t w h e n J a c o b w a s " d e e m e d c a p a b l e of seeing G o d , " his n a m e
w a s c h a n g e d to Israel ( G e n 32:29). 5 1 It is c l e a r t h a t for P h i l o , J a c o b ' s
n a m e w a s c h a n g e d b e c a u s e h e w a s d e e m e d c a p a b l e of s e e i n g G o d
t h r o u g h his struggle a t t h e J a b b o k f o r d . T h e L o g o s possesses t h e
n a m e Israel, w h i c h P h i l o says m e a n s " h e t h a t sees." A d m i t t e d l y t h e
c o n n e c t i o n of these t w o p a s s a g e s is s o m e w h a t artificial, b u t if t h e r e
is a c o n n e c t i o n via t h e n a m e Israel, t h e n P h i l o m a y h a v e under-
s t o o d t h e r e to b e a n e q u a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e L o g o s , a n a r c h a n g e l also
n a m e d Israel, a n d t h e p o s t - P e n i e l J a c o b , w h o s e n a m e w a s c h a n g e d
to Israel. If this is a c o r r e c t r e a d i n g , t h e n w e c o u l d understand
J a c o b ' s n a m e c h a n g e as a t r a n s f o r m a t i v e event, w h i c h actually b r o u g h t
a b o u t a n o n t o l o g i c a l c h a n g e . H o w e v e r , P h i l o himself d o e s n o t m a k e
this m o v e , so it m u s t r e m a i n a t best s p e c u l a t i o n .
J . Z . S m i t h h a s n o t e d t h a t P h i l o a n d t h e Prayer of Joseph (.Pr. Jos.)

46
From G. Vermes, "The Archangel Sariel" in Christianity, Judaism, and Other
Graeco-Roman Cults, ed. J. Neusner (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1975) 3:164-165 n. 25.
47
J. Smith notes that Philo uses this phrase 49 times. See OTP 2:701 n. 20 for
the list.
48
Greek text taken from F. Colson, Philo IV (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1958); translation is mine.
49
This suggests Philo may be aware that the Hebrew root for wrestle ( )is
related to "dust"; BDB, 7b. Note that Colson translates as "preparing
for the arena," which is correct but does not capture the nuance from the Hebrew.
50
Colson translates this as "tripping up his adversary," which is also appropri-
ate for Jacob as a trickster but may again miss a nuance of which Philo may have
been well aware, i.e., Jacob's grabbing Esau's heel at their birth in Gen 25:26. For
Philo's other applications of to Jacob, see Leg. i. 161, ii.89, iii.15, 93;
Sacrif. 42.135; SOmn. i. 171; Mutat. 81; Her. 252.
51
Jacob's name change is recorded a second time in Gen 35, but it is unlikely
that Philo is referring to this passage, since no rationale for the change is provided
there. Only in Gen 32 is it stated that Jacob "strove with God and prevailed."
a r e a m o n g t h e only a n c i e n t sources to r e f e r to Israel as " o n e seeing
G o d . " 5 2 S m i t h h a s m a d e a s t r o n g case for first- o r s e c o n d - c e n t u r y
G E J e w i s h p r o v e n a n c e of t h e d o c u m e n t b a s e d o n discussion of t h e
titles a t t r i b u t e d to J a c o b . C e r t a i n l y Pr. Jos. is n o t l a t e r t h a n O r i g e n ' s
c o m m e n t a r y c. 2 3 0 C E , in w h i c h it a p p e a r s . If t h e d a t i n g is c o r -
rect, this is p e r h a p s o n e of t h e clearest pieces of e v i d e n c e t h a t a
h u m a n h a d a t t a i n e d a n g e l i c status. T h e " p r a y e r " states:

[ 1] I, J a c o b , who am speaking to you, a m also Israel, an angel of G o d

and a ruling spirit. [2] A b r a h a m and Isaac were created before any
work. [3] But, I, J a c o b , who men call J a c o b but whose n a m e is Israel
am he who G o d called Israel which means, a m a n seeing God, because
I am the firstborn of eveiy living thing to w h o m G o d gives life. [4]
A n d when I was coming up from Syrian Mesopotamia, Uriel, the angel
of God, came forth a n d said that "I | Jacob-Israel] h a d descended to
earth and I had tabernacled a m o n g m e n and that I had been called
by the n a m e of J a c o b . " [5] H e envied m e and fought m e a n d wres-
tied with m e saying that his name a n d the name that is before every
angel was to be above mine. [6] I told him his n a m e and what rank
he held a m o n g the sons of God. [7] "Are you not Uriel, eighth after
me? and I, Israel, the archangel of the power of the Lord a n d the
chief captain a m o n g the sons of God?" [8] .Am I not Israel, the first
minister before the face of God? [9] And I called upon my G o d by
the inextinguishable Name. 5 3

Jacob/Israel states t h a t w h e n h e was c o m i n g u p f r o m Syrian-

54
M e s o p o t a m i a , the angel Uriel met him. Notably, the geographical
r e f e r e n c e s e e m s to suggest t h e J a b b o k event. 5 5 Uriel, 5 6 t h e s p e a k e r
claims, e n v i e d J a c o b a n d wrestled w i t h h i m . J a c o b sets t h e r e c o r d
s t r a i g h t a n d tells U r i e l (an a r c h a n g e l ) his r a n k in t h e celestial h i e r -
archy: eighth after J a c o b = Israel, himself an angel. T h e short
" p r a y e r " of J a c o b m a k e s g r a n d claims. N o t only is t h e s p e a k e r a l r e a d y
t h e p a t r i a r c h J a c o b , b u t h e is Israel, a n a n g e l of G o d (cf. P h i l o , Conf.
146). T h e s p e a k e r c l a i m s t h a t his o w n f o r e f a t h e r s , A b r a h a m and
Isaac, w e r e c r e a t e d b e f o r e all w o r k s b u t t h a t h e himself is the firstborn

52
J . Z. Smith, "The Prayer of Joseph" in Religions in Antiquity: Essays in Memory
of Erwin Randall Goodenough, ed. Jacob Neusner (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1968) 253-294;
reprint in J . Z. Smith, Map Is Not Territory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1978), 24-66; and 07"? 2:699-714.
53
Translation J. Z. Smith in OTP 2:713.
54
Cf. Tg. Neo., on Gen 32, where the opponent is the angel Sariel.
55
Syrian Mesopotamia is the common LXX rendering of Paddan-Aram; J. Smith,
OTP 2:713 n. h.
56
Uriel, an archangel, appears in Grk 1 En. 20:2; 4 Ezra 4:1, 10:28; Bar. 4:7,
et al.
of all living t h i n g s (Philo, Conf. 146; C o l 1:15; J u s t i n M a r t y r , Dial.
125.5; Nag Hammadi Codex NHC II, 105). S m i t h h a s exhaustively n o t e d
t h e n u m e r o u s parallels b e t w e e n t h e titles of J a c o b in Pr. Jos. and
t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e L o g o s in P h i l o ' s Conf.57
O n e title in p a r t i c u l a r , " a m a n s e e i n g G o d , " is interesting, since
it offers p e r h a p s t h e c l e a r e s t c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n G e n 32 a n d
Pr. Jos. O n e result of t h e wrestling m a t c h in G e n 32 is t h e n a m i n g
of t h e p l a c e w h e r e t h e e v e n t o c c u r r e d . J a c o b calls t h e p l a c e P e n i e l
( literally " t h e f a c e of G o d " ) , b e c a u s e " I [ J a c o b ] h a v e s e e n G o d
face t o face, a n d yet m y life is p r e s e r v e d " (v. 30). T h e r e is d a n g e r
i n v o l v e d in s e e i n g G o d (e.g., J u d g 6 : 2 2 1 3 : 2 2;23).It is possible, as
in P h i l o , t h a t " t h e m a n seeing G o d " u n d e r s t a n d i n g of Israel is b a s e d
o n a p a r t i c u l a r r e a d i n g of t h e H e b r e w , b u t it is c e r t a i n l y m u c h m o r e
plausible t o see it as a d e v e l o p m e n t o u t of t h e G e n 32 story. J a c o b ,
o n c e h e possesses t h e n a m e Israel, a p p e a r s to b e u n d e r s t o o d as o n e
w h o saw G o d . W i t h i n Pr. Jos., h o w e v e r , J a c o b / I s r a e l clearly w r e s -
ties w i t h U r i e l , so it s e e m s c o u n t e r i n t u i t i v e to suggest t h a t this s t r u g -
gle w a s t h e origin of his n a m e c h a n g e t o o n e h a v i n g " s e e n God."
In this case, J a c o b / I s r a e l is m u c h g r e a t e r t h a n a h u m a n w h o wrestled
w i t h a n a n g e l a n d received a n e w n a m e h e is a n a n g e l , w h o f o r
a t i m e w a s i n c a r n a t e in t h e p a t r i a r c h J a c o b . As n o t e d a b o v e , J a c o b
h a s a special r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d a n d angels ( G e n 28, 32, 35). 5 8
J a c o b lasdy c l a i m s to b e " t h e first m i n i s t e r b e f o r e t h e f a c e of
G o d . " T h i s is similar to w h a t w e find in Tg. Onq. a n d Tg. Neo.,
w h e r e t h e angels a r e said to b e " b e f o r e t h e f a c e of G o d . " T h i s o n c e
a g a i n suggests t h a t J a c o b / I s r a e l h a s s e e n G o d , since h e ministers
b e f o r e his c o u n t e n a n c e .
Pr. Jos. takes i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e J a b b o k e v e n t t o a n o t h e r level.
N o t o n l y is t h e o p p o n e n t of J a c o b a n a m e d a n g e l , U r i e l , b u t J a c o b
himself is a n a n g e l , Israel, w h o r a n k s a b o v e all o t h e r angels. I n its
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t as a n a n g e l , Pr. Jos. s e e m s to
accord with the trends that were circulating during the same period
(cf. J o s e p h u s , Ant. 1:33If.; Lad. Jac. 4 : 1 - 4 ; T a r g u m i m ) . I n its explicit
c l a i m s f o r J a c o b ' s o w n a n g e l i c status, it s t a n d s as n e a r l y unique
a m o n g the extant evidence.

57
J. Smith, Prayer, pp. 260-272.
58
The tradition of Jacob as the one seeing God is illuminated by considering
the midrash on Genesis, which says that Jacob's face is engraved upon the throne
of God (Gen. Rab. 68:12, 78:3, and 82:2). So, like Ezekiel, Jacob was/is present in
the divine throne rooma special relationship with the Godhead.
 Lastly, t h e r e is e v i d e n c e t o c o n s i d e r f r o m Joseph and Aseneth.59 JA
2 2 : 7 - 8 states:

[7] And Aseneth saw him [Jacob] and was amazed at his beauty,
because J a c o b was exceedingly beautiful to look at, and his old age
(was) like the youth of a handsome (young) man, and his head was
all white as snow, a n d the hairs of his head were all exceedingly close
and thick like (those) of an Ethiopian, and his b e a r d (was) white reach-
ing down to his breast, a n d his eyes (were) flashing and darting (flashes
of) lightning, a n d his sinews and his shoulders and his arms were like
(those) of an angel, and his thighs and his calves and his feet like
(those) of a giant. And J a c o b was like a m a n who h a d wrestled with
God. [8] And Aseneth saw him and was amazed, a n d prostrated her-
self before him face down to the ground. 6 0

T h r e e f e a t u r e s of this passage a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t e w o r t h y w i t h r e g a r d
to a n g e l i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g s . T h e first is t h e m e n t i o n of J a c o b ' s p h y s -
ical f e a t u r e s : b e a u t y (cf. JA 15:9), y o u t h ( M a r k 16:5; 4 Ezra 2:43f.;
2 Mac. 3:26f.), w h i t e h a i r a n d flashing eyes (cf. D a n 10:6, M a t t 28:3,
L k 9:29), a n g e l i c u p p e r b o d y , a n d g i g a n t i c l o w e r b o d y (cf. G e n 6).
All of t h e s e f e a t u r e s a r e e l s e w h e r e a t t r i b u t e d to d i v i n e beings. 6 1 T h i s
suggests t h a t J a c o b possesses a s u p e r h u m a n n a t u r e akin to t h a t of
a n angel.
T h e s e c o n d f e a t u r e is t h e m e n t i o n t h a t J a c o b w a s "like a man
w h o h a d w r e s t l e d w i t h G o d . " T h e origins of s u c h a s t a t e m e n t a r e
G e n 32 a n d H o s 12, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e author(s) of understood
t h e J a b b o k assailant t o b e G o d . T h e d e s c r i p t i o n of J a c o b , "like a
m a n w h o w r e s t l e d w i t h G o d , " follows directly a f t e r t h e m e n t i o n of
his n u m e r o u s p h y s i c a l f e a t u r e s . O n e c a n i n f e r t h a t p e r h a p s such
physical a t t r i b u t e s a r e a c o n s e q u e n c e of J a c o b ' s w r e s t l i n g w i t h G o d .
O n e a d d i t i o n a l n o t e is t h e r e a c t i o n of A s e n e t h u p o n s e e i n g J a c o b .
S h e w a s a m a z e d a n d fell to t h e g r o u n d b e f o r e h i m . As n o t e d a b o v e ,
a m a z e m e n t / f e a r a n d p r o s t r a t i o n a r e c o m m o n r e a c t i o n s to angelic o r
d i v i n e visitations, r e i n f o r c i n g t h e i d e a of a n angelic n a t u r e f o r J a c o b
in JA.
All of this e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t s a c o h e r e n t p i c t u r e : J a c o b , w h o w r e s -
tied w i t h G o d , h a s a u n i q u e c o m b i n a t i o n of h u m a n , superhuman,

59
There is good reason to date this text in the late Second Temple period,
although there are scholars who see it as much later (e.g., Kraemer). See the fuller
discussion above in 2.10.
60
Translation C. Burchard, OTP 2:238.
61
Cf. also Dan 7, Ezek 1.
and angelic features. W h e n Aseneth saw him, she understood him
to b e s o m e sort of divine b e i n g . I n this c a s e w e h a v e a text t h a t
i n t e r p r e t s t h e G e n e s i s e v e n t as J a c o b w r e s t l i n g w i t h G o d ; t h e o u t -
c o m e is a t r a n s m o g r i f i e d J a c o b w h o possesses h u m a n a n d angelic
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T h i s is n o t f a r f r o m t h e type of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w e see
in Pr. Jos.

3.7 Moses

A r g u a b l y t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t individual in the H e b r e w Bible is Moses.

F r o m b i r t h h e is p r o t e c t e d b y G o d ( E x o d 1). H e is c h o s e n b y G o d to
lead the people of Israel out of b o n d a g e in Egypt (Exod 3). T h r o u g h o u t
his life, M o s e s e n j o y s a close r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d , p a r t i c u l a r l y at
Sinai a n d t h e giving of t h e L a w ( E x o d 1 8 2 0 ) . T h e r e w a s a g r e a t
d e a l of discussion a b o u t M o s e s as p r o p h e t a n d his close association
w i t h t h e L a w in s u b s e q u e n t a n c i e n t literature. W . M e e k s says, " M o s e s
w a s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t figure in all Hellenistic J e w i s h a p o l o g e t i c . " 6 2
S o m e a n c i e n t w r i t i n g s b o r d e r o n t h e d i v i n i z a d o n of M o s e s . T h e i r
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s g e n e r a l l y d e r i v e f r o m E x o d 3 4 : 2 9 - 3 0 , w h i c h says,

[29] W h e n Moses came down from M o u n t Sinai, with the two tables
of the testimony in his h a n d as he came down from the mountain,
Moses did not know that the skin of his face shone because he h a d
been talking with God. [30] A n d when Aaron and all the people of
Israel saw Moses, behold, the skin of his face shone, and they were
afraid to come near him.

M o s e s is actually t r a n s f o r m e d b y s e e i n g G o d . B e c a u s e of t h e t r a n s -
f o r m a t i o n the Israelites w e r e a f r a i d t o b e n e a r h i m , so t h a t M o s e s
h a d to p u t a veil o n his f a c e to s p e a k w i t h t h e m (34:33, 35). A bril-
liant a p p e a r a n c e is o n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o m e t i m e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n
angel. T h e f e a r of the Israelites m a y also s t e m f r o m t h e f e a r associated
w i t h s e e i n g a divine b e i n g (e.g., J u d g 6 a n d 13). It is n o t c l e a r in t h e
c o n t e x t t h a t M o s e s is m e a n t to b e u n d e r s t o o d as a n angel in a n y w a y .
I n t h e B o o k of S i r a c h 4 4 - 4 5 , t h e r e is a list of v e n e r a b l e figures
f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible (e.g., E n o c h , N o a h , A b r a h a m , etc.) w h o a r e
p r a i s e d . Sir 4 5 : 2 says G o d m a d e M o s e s " e q u a l in glory to t h e h o l y

62
W. Meeks, "The Divine Agent and His Counterfeit in Philo and the Fourth
Gospel" in Aspects of Religious Propaganda in Judaism and Early Christianity, ed. E. Schssler-
Fiorenza (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1976) 45, 43-67.
o n e s [], a n d m a d e h i m g r e a t in d i e f e a r s of his e n e m i e s . " S o m e
h a v e n o t e d t h a t t h e t e r m " h o l y o n e s " h e r e c a n b e t a k e n to m e a n
angels. 6 3 M o s e s clearly e n j o y s a n e x a l t e d status, a n d this m a y b e a k i n
to t h a t of t h e angels, b u t a n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n is n o t explicitly m a d e .
T h e text k n o w n as Ezekiel the Exagogue o r Ezekiel the Tragedian r e c o u n t s
t h e story of t h e E x o d u s f r o m E g y p t in t h e f o r m of a G r e e k d r a m a .
G i v e n t h a t it is cited in A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r (first c e n t u r y C E ) , it
likely d a t e s f r o m s o m e t i m e in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E . 6 4 O n e sec-
tion d e s c r i b e s a vision of M o s e s e n t h r o n e d in h e a v e n . I n verses
6 8 8 2 , M o s e s says t h a t h e h a d a t h e o p h a n y a n d w a s t h e n invited
to sit u p o n t h e t h r o n e in h e a v e n :

[68] O n Sinai's peak I saw what seemed a throne [69] so great in

size it touched the clouds of heaven. [70] U p o n it sat a m a n of noble
mien, [71] becrowned, and with a scepter in one hand [72] while with
the other he did beckon me. [73] I made approach and stood before
the throne. [74] H e h a n d e d o'er the scepter a n d he bade [75] me
mount the throne, and gave to me the crown; [76] then he himself
withdrew from off the throne. [77] I gazed u p o n the whole earth
round about; [78] things under it, and high above the skies. [79] T h e n
at my feet a multitude of stars fell down, and I their n u m b e r reck-
oned up. [81] T h e y passed by me like armed ranks of men. [82] T h e n
I in terror wakened from the dream. 6 5

C e r t a i n l y , t h e e n t h r o n e m e n t of M o s e s is significant a n d speaks to his

e x a l t e d status in this text. O n c e o n t h e t h r o n e , h e is p a s s e d by t h e
stars ( p e r h a p s angels). U l t i m a t e l y , t h e m a t e r i a l is visionary, a n d M o s e s
awakens.
P h i l o discusses M o s e s as h a v i n g a divine n a t u r e o n several o c c a -
sions (Sacrifices 8 1 0 ; Flight 5; Dreams 1:142; QE. 2.29, 40; Virtues
66
7 2 - 7 9 ) , as well as d e v o t i n g a n e n t i r e treatise t o h i m (Moses). Only
the texts r e l e v a n t to a n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of M o s e s w i t h a n a n g e l a r e
examined here.
I n QG 4:8 M o s e s is a c t u a l l y r e f e r r e d t o as " t h e chief p r o p h e t a n d
chief m e s s e n g e r [ ] , w h o d e s i r e d to
see t h e O n e . " G i v e n t h e p a r a l l e l i s m w i t h t h e chief p r o p h e t , it d o e s

6s
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 175, notes that the Geniza text contains ,
strengthening such a reading; see also C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, 163;
L. Hurtado, One God, One Lord, 2nd ed. (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1998) 56-57.
64
OTP 2:803-804; HJPAJC IIIi:563.566
65
Translation R. G. Robertson, OTP 2:803-804.
66
Josephus is much more reserved in his descriptions of Moses. Perhaps the most
"angelic" description would be caffing Moses a in Ant. 3:180.
n o t s e e m t h a t P h i l o i n t e n d s to e q u a t e M o s e s w i t h t h e archangels
M i c h a e l a n d R a p h a e l et al, b u t such a n identification c a n n o t b e entirely
m i e d o u t given P h i l o ' s proclivity t o elevate t h e status of M o s e s .
I n Virtues 7 2 7 9 , P h i l o r e c o u n t s t h a t b e f o r e his d e a t h M o s e s w e n t
to h e a v e n t o w o r s h i p G o d , n o t unlike the angels. P h i l o says t h a t
M o s e s b e g a n a h y m n ( D e u t 32:1 43 )of final t h a n k s g i v i n g f o r his
life. F o r t h a t h y m n , M o s e s g a t h e r e d a divine a s s e m b l y (
). T h e a n g e l s of t h e d i v i n e service ( )
w a t c h o v e r it (74). M o s e s is said to b e a m o n g t h e etiiereal c h o r i s -
t e r s ( ) i n 75. O n c e t h e s o n g is c o m p l e t e (76), M o s e s
is said to b e g i n p a s s i n g o v e r f r o m his m o r t a l e x i s t e n c e to i m m o r -
tality ( ). H e is n o t called a n angel
specifically in this text, b u t h e is c e r t a i n l y m u c h like t h e m in his
p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a liturgy o v e r w h i c h angels p r e s i d e . H i s t r a n s f o r -
m a t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r w a r d suggests t h a t h e w a s a t t h e border
b e t w e e n t w o f o r m s of life d u r i n g t h e s o n g itself.
Lastly, in Moses 158 a n d Sacrifices 9, Philo calls M o s e s a g o d (). 67
T h e r e is significant s e c o n d a r y l i t e r a t u r e o n P h i l o ' s a t t i t u d e toward
t h e d e i f y i n g of Moses. 6 8 T h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n will n o t engage
w i t h t h e s e in a n y specific detail, since P h i l o o f t e n allegorizes angels
as i m m a n e n t p o w e r s . H i s discussion of M o s e s is m o r e c o n c r e t e , a c t u -
ally u s i n g t h e t e r m . S e e m i n g l y , if P h i l o u n d e r s t o o d M o s e s as a
kind of a n g e l , (a) h e c o u l d h a v e s p o k e n of h i m as s u c h explicitly,
a n d (b) it w o u l d a p p e a r to u n d e r m i n e his m o r e e x a l t e d status as o n e
like a g o d , e n j o y i n g a special r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h h i m .
T h e Testament of Moses (also called t h e Assumption of Moses) exists in
a L a t i n m a n u s c r i p t b u t w a s likely originally w r i t t e n in G r e e k . D a t e s
f o r t h e Testament of Moses v a r y g r e a t l y f r o m t h e M a c c a b e a n period

67
Some have also noted that Philo's catong Moses one who "stands" by God
indicates his angelic status (see especially QE 2:29, 40), since the posture of stand-
ing comes to be related to angels in rabbinic literature. On this see J. Fossum, The
Name of God, pp. 56-58, 120-129; G. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, pp. 166-167;
and C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 174-175. While intriguing, the arguments are
not outlined here, since Philo makes no such equation, and, as the evidence sug-
gests, did not make much of a case for the angelization of Moses but instead for
his deification.
68
For fuller treatments of Moses in Philo, see E. Goodenough, By Light, Light:
The Mystic Gospel of Hellenistic Judaism (Amsterdam: Philo Press, 1969) 199-234;
W. Meeks, The Prophet-King (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1967) 100-130; and C. Holladay, Thaos
Aner in Hellenistic Judaism (Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1977) 103-198; J. Fossum,
The Name of God, pp. 112-143.
t h r o u g h to t h e first h a l f of t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E . 6 9 A t 11:17, t h e r e
is a r e f e r e n c e t o M o s e s as a " g r e a t m e s s e n g e r 5 ' :

If the enemies have, up till now, but a single time, acted impiously
against their Lord, there is (now) no advocate for them who will bear
messages to the Lord on their behalf in the way that Moses was the
great messenger [magnus nu?1tius].

E a r l i e r in t h e w o r k , M o s e s is called t h e " m e d i a t o r of t h e c o v e n a n t "

(Latin: arbiter). M o s t i n t e r p r e t e r s e q u a t e this w i t h t h e r e f e r e n c e in
11:17 t o a g r e a t m e s s e n g e r ( L a t i n : mmtius).70 T r o m p argues that the
t e r m nuntius is a r e n d e r i n g of t h e G r e e k . 7 1 W h i l e this m a y
b e t r u e , it is i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t t h e t e r m angehis w a s n o t c h o s e n r a t h e r
t h a n mmtius.72 It s e e m s c l e a r t h a t M o s e s is a m e d i a t o r b r i n g i n g t h e
L a w of G o d to h u m a n s . I n t h a t c a p a c i t y h e fulfills t h e role o f t e n
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h angels. It is n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r t h e i n t e n t i o n is t o
e q u a t e h i m w i t h angels, h o w e v e r .
Lastly, C . Fletcher-Louis h a s recently m a d e a case for seeing 4 Q 3 7 4
in t h e light of a n g e l o m o r p h i c traditions. 7 3 T h e i m p o r t a n t lines f r o m
f r a g . 2ii a r e 68. w h i c h state:

[6] [And] he made him as god [ ]over the mighty ones []

and a cause of reeling to Pharaoh [. . .]
[7] . . . they melted a n d their hearts trembled and their inward parts
dissolved. H e had compassion u p o n [. . .]
[8] A n d when he caused his face to shine upon them for healing, they
strengthened [their] hearts again, and knowledge [. . .]74

T h i s p a s s a g e s e e m s to r e c o u n t t h e e v e n t s a t S i n a i ( E x o d 34). T h e
text is t o o f r a g m e n t a r y to b e c e r t a i n of t h e c o n t e x t . T h e t e r m
in line six c a n b e u s e d to r e f e r to angels. It s e e m s t h a t v. 6 refers
to G o d m a k i n g M o s e s like a g o d o v e r t h e " m i g h t y o n e s . " I n v. 8
the r e f e r e n c e s e e m s to b e t o t h e face of M o s e s a f t e r c o m i n g d o w n

69
J. Priest, "The Testament of Moses" in 0 7 7 1:919-934; HJPAJC IIIi:278.287
70
J. Tromp, Assumption of Moses (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1993) 230-231; C. Fletcher-
Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 181; L. Hurtado, One God, p. 57.
71
J. Tromp, Assumption of Moses, p. 257.
72
Yet the choice of mmtius is more comprehensible if it was translated by Christians.
73
C. Fletcher-Louis, "4Q374: A Discourse on the Sinai Tradition: The Deification
of Moses and Early Christology" DSD 3 (1996) 236-252. He reiterates many of the
same points in C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 136-149. See also the prelimi-
nary publication by C. Newsom, "4Q374: A Discourse on the Exodus/Conquest
Tradition" in The Dead Sea Scrolls: Forty Years of Research, ed. D. Dimant and
U. Rappaport (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1992)"40-52.
74
Text from DJD XIX, p. 102.
f r o m t h e m o u n t a i n . It is possible t h a t the r e f e r e n t s in w . 6 a n d 8
are not the same figure.
Fletcher-Louis says that, " t h e t h e o p h a n i c effect w h i c h M o s e s ' deified
identity h a s o n his fellow Israelites . . . m a k e s g o o d sense in t h e c o n -
text of k n o w n D S S t r a d i t i o n s in w h i c h a h u m a n b e i n g e x p e r i e n c e s
a n g e l o m o r p h i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ( / d e i f i c a t i o n ) . ' " 5 T h i s m a y b e possi-
ble, b u t it is n o t at all c l e a r t h a t M o s e s ' s status is a n g e l o m o r p h i c ,
o t h e r t h a n in his l u m i n o u s a p p e a r a n c e , w h i c h m o r e t h a n likely c o m e s
f r o m E x o d u s a n d n o t necessarily a n y i n d e p e n d e n t t r a d i t i o n about
Moses's angelic nature.
I n s u m , t w o facts s e e m to h o l d w i t h r e g a r d to M o s e s : M o s e s m e d i -
a t e d b e t w e e n t h e p e o p l e of Israel a n d G o d , a n d M o s e s h a d a spe-
cial r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d b y v i r t u e of his role as m e d i a t o r . Does
his h a v i n g t h e s e t w o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s m e a n t h a t M o s e s w a s c o n c e i v e d
of as a n a n g e l ? T h e S e c o n d T e m p l e e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t s e e m to b e a r
o u t this i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . If a n y t h i n g , t h e e v i d e n c e a p p e a r s to stress
M o s e s ' s t h e o m o r p h i c (divine) c h a r a c t e r a f t e r t h e e v e n t s at Sinai. T h e
q u e s t i o n t h e n b e c o m e s : D o e s t h e d i v i n i z a t i o n of M o s e s in w o r k s such
as P h i l o o r his e n t h r o n e m e n t in Ezek. Trag, m e a n t h a t M o s e s w a s
u n d e r s t o o d as a n angel? O n l y t h e As. Moses s e e m s to b e explicit in
u s i n g t h e t e r m nuntius f o r M o s e s , b u t e v e n t h e r e angelus c o u l d h a v e
b e e n u s e d r a t h e r t h a n nuntius. T h e p r o b l e m in m o d e m interpreta-
tion s e e m s to b e t h a t e i t h e r all types of h e a v e n l y b e i n g s a r e seen as
a n g e l s o r e a c h t y p e is c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e . T h u s , M o s e s g o e s t o
h e a v e n , m e d i a t e s b e t w e e n G o d a n d h u m a n s , a n d is t h e r e f o r e like
a n angel. O r , a l t h o u g h M o s e s g o e s to h e a v e n , h e is n o t explicitly
called a n a n g e l , n o r d o e s h e s e e m to b e a n a n g e l ; if a n y t h i n g , h e
is a b o v e t h a t status. T h i s m a y b e a p r o b l e m of c a t e g o r i z a t i o n .

3.8 David

D a v i d , a m a j o r figure in the H e b r e w Scriptures, is a s h e p h e r d called to

b e a w a r r i o r a n d s e c o n d k i n g of Israel. M a n y of t h e P s a l m s a r e also
a t t r i b u t e d to h i m . I n l a t e r J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n literature, the r e s t o r a -
t i o n of a D a v i d i c m o n a r c h y b e c o m e s p a r t of m e s s i a n i c e x p e c t a t i o n s . 7 6

75
C. Fletcher-Louis, "4Q374," p. 252.
76
It has also been suggested by some that Isa 9:6 (MT = 9:5 LXX), "For to
us a child is born, to us a son is given; and the government will be upon his shoul-
der, and his name will be called 'Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting
 O n t h r e e o c c a s i o n s in t h e H e b r e w Bible, D a v i d is c o m p a r e d t o
a n angel. 7 7 1 S a m 2 9 : 9 states, " A n d A c h i s h m a d e a n s w e r to D a v i d ,
'1 k n o w t h a t y o u a r e as b l a m e l e s s in m y sight as a n a n g e l of G o d
( ; ) n e v e r t h e l e s s the c o m m a n d e r s of t h e Philistines h a v e
said, H e shall n o t g o u p w i t h us to t h e b a t t l e . ' " T h i s p a s s a g e s e e m s
o n l y to b e m a k i n g a c o m p a r i s o n , u s i n g the . D a v i d is like a n a n g e l
in his blamelessness, b u t it is i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t t h e L X X t r a n s l a t e s only
"I k n o w t h a t y o u a r e g o o d / b l a m e l e s s in m y eyes (
)." I n 2 S a m 14:17, it is said of D a v i d :

[17] And your handmaid thought, " T h e word of my lord the king will
set me at rest; for my lord the king is like the angel of God ()
to discern good and evil. T h e Lord your G o d be with you!". . . [20]
"In order to change the course of affairs your servant J o a b did this.
But m y lord has wisdom like the wisdom of the angel of G o d to know
all things that are on the earth."

A g a i n in this c a s e , a c o m p a r i s o n is m a d e . D a v i d is like a n a n g e l in
t h a t h e h a s t h e c a p a c i t y to d i s c e r n g o o d a n d evil. T h e L X X main-
tains this c o m p a r i s o n : -
. T h i r d l y , in 2 S a m 19:27, " H e h a s s l a n d e r e d y o u r s e r v a n t t o
m y l o r d t h e king. B u t m y lord t h e king is like t h e a n g e l of G o d
[ ; ] do therefore w h a t seems good to you." T h i s
c o m p a r i s o n is similar to t h e p r e v i o u s in t h a t D a v i d ' s likeness to a n
a n g e l s e e m s to lie in his ability to d i s c e r n t h e right c o u r s e of a c t i o n .
O n c e a g a i n t h e L X X h a s a literal t r a n s l a t i o n : 6 6
. E a c h of these p a s s a g e s is a c o m p a r i s o n , d e m o n -
s t r a t i n g t h a t early in t h e t r a d i t i o n s u c h c o m p a r i s o n s w e r e m e a n i n g -
ful a n d c o u l d p o t e n t i a l l y o p e n t h e d o o r f o r l a t e r i n t e r p r e t e r s to see
a m o r e i n t i m a t e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n D a v i d a n d t h e divine r e a l m .
T h e Biblical Antiquities of P s e u d o - P h i l o (also r e f e r r e d to as t h e
L. A. B. f r o m its L a t i n title: Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum) gives a n i m a g -
!native retelling of Biblical history f r o m G e n e s i s t h r o u g h to t h e t i m e

Father, Prince of Peace,' " where the LXX translates as

, should be seen as an instance where a Davidic messiah is considered
angelic. See, e.g., C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 176. It is not clear, how-
ever, that in the LXX version it is meant to imply anything more than "messenger."
For a more detailed analysis of this passage relating to the concept of messiah, see
W. Horbury, Jewish Messianism and the Cult of Christ (London: SCM Press, 1998) 89.92
77
With these three, cf. Add Esth 15:13-15, " saw you, my lord, tike an angel
of God, and my heart was shaken with fear at your glory. For you are wonderful,
my lord, and your countenance is full of grace.' But as she was speaking, she fell
fainting."
of D a v i d a n d S o l o m o n . T h e L a t i n m a n u s c r i p t s s e e m to c o m e f r o m
G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n s of t h e o r i g i n a l H e b r e w , 7 8 likely f r o m t h e first c e n -
t u r y C E . ' 9 It gives p e r h a p s t h e c l e a r e s t i n d i c a t i o n t h a t D a v i d a p p e a r s
like a n a n g e l . A f t e r m o r t a l l y w o u n d i n g G o l i a t h , D a v i d s t a n d s o v e r
h i m a n d tells h i m t o look u p o n h i m ( 6 1 : 8 - 9 ) :

[8] And David said to him, "Before you die, open your eyes and see
your slayer, the one that killed you." And the Philistine looked a n d
saw an angel and said, "Not you alone have killed me, but also the one
who is present with you, he whose appearance is not like the appear-
ance of a m a n . " [9] And then David cut off his head. Now the angel
of the Lord had changed David's appearance, a n d no one recognised
him. And Saul saw David and asked him who he was, and there was
no one who recognised him.

I n this t e x t D a v i d ' s a p p e a r a n c e is c h a n g e d , so it is possible to s p e a k

of h i m as 2a1g0m0rphic. It is u n c l e a r w h e t h e r h e h a s u n d e r g o n e a n y
p e r m a n e n t c h a n g e . T h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d c h a n g e d D a v i d ' s a p p e a r -
a n c e a n d w a s p r e s e n t to h e l p h i m in t h e d e f e a t of G o l i a t h , b u t it
does n o t seem that D a v i d was an angel.
T h u s , t h e e v i d e n c e s h o w s t h a t D a v i d w a s c o m p a r e d to angels d u e
to c e r t a i n a t t r i b u t e s (blamelessness, d i s c e r n m e n t ) . H e a p p e a r s in a n
a n g e l o m o r p h i c f o r m in t h e L. A. B. D a v i d w a s largely c o n n e c t e d
w i t h t h e e x p e c t a t i o n f o r a m e s s i a h in l a t e r l i t e r a t u r e . H i s roles as
king a n d m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s e e m to b e i m p o r t a n t , b u t it is n o t c l e a r
t h a t w e c a n s p e a k of t h e office of k i n g as o n e t h a t w a s readily u n d e r -
s t o o d as a n g e l o m o r p h i c . 8 0

3.9 The Prophets

T h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n of angels w h e n o n eartii is to a c t as m e s s e n g e r s
for G o d . T h e p r o p h e t s c a n be u n d e r s t o o d to fulfill m u c h the s a m e
f u n c t i o n . Prime fade, t h e n , it s e e m s t h a t t h e p r o p h e t s m i g h t r e p r e s e n t

78
D. Harrington, "Pseudo-Philo" in OTP 2:298-299.
79
D. Harrington, "Pseudo-Philo" in OTP 2:299; F. Murphy, Pseudo-Philo: Rewriting
the Bible (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993) 6; HJPAJC 1111:329.
80
There may be some echo of this in Zech 12:7-9, "And the Lord will give vie-
tory to the tents of Judah first, that the glory of the house of David and the glory
of the inhabitants of Jerusalem may not be exalted over that of Judah. On that
day the Lord will put a shield about the inhabitants of Jerusalem so that the fee-
blest among them on that day shall be tike David, and the house of David shall
be like God, like the angel of the Lord, at their head. And on that day I will seek
to destroy all the nations that come against Jerusalem."
the h u m a n g r o u p m o s t likely to a p p e a r similar in f u n c t i o n to angels. 8 1
A p a s s a g e in 2 C h r 3 6 is illustrative:

[15] T h e Lord, the G o d of their fathers, sent persistently to them by

his messengers, because he had compassion on his people and on his
dwelling place; [16] but they kept mocking the messengers of G o d
[ ] , despising his words, and scoffing at his prophets
[], till the wrath of the Lord rose against his people, till there
was no remedy.

T h i s p a s s a g e a p p e a r s n e a r t h e e n d of t h e B o o k of C h r o n i c l e s . T h e
c h r o n i c l e r o f t e n speaks of t h e p r o p h e t s as g o i n g u n h e e d e d (2 C h r
1 2 : 5 - 8 ; 1 5 : 1 - 8 ; 1 9 : 1 - 3 ; 2 1 : 1 2 - 1 5 , et al). T h e s e verses e x p l a i n w h y
J u d a h fell to t h e B a b y l o n i a n s , s e e m i n g to set m e s s e n g e r s (angels) of
G o d a n d p r o p h e t s in a p p o s i t i o n . T h e L X X maintains the terms
a n g e l s / m e s s e n g e r s ( ) a n d p r o p h e t s (
). T h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m to b e a n y i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e p r o p h e t s
a r e u n d e r s t o o d as a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n h u m a n s , a l t h o u g h t h e y f u n c -
tion like angels in t h a t t h e y a r e m e s s e n g e r s of G o d . 8 2
A n e v e n m o r e explicit c o n n e c t i o n w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r p r o p h e t m a y
be i n t e n d e d in H a g 1:12-13:

[12] T h e n Zerubbabel the son of Shealtiel, and Joshua the son of

Jehozadak, the high priest, with all the remnant of the people, obeyed
the voice of the Lord their God, and the words of Haggai the pro-
phet I], as the Lord their G o d h a d sent him; and the people
feared before the Lord. [13] T h e n Haggai, the messenger of the Lord
[ ] , spoke to the people with the Lord's message,
"I am with you," says the Lord.

I n t h e p e r s o n of H a g g a i , the offices of p r o p h e t a n d angel/messen-

g e r of G o d a r e u n i t e d . H a g g a i clearly delivers a divine m e s s a g e . H e
is n o t said to a p p e a r in a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n h u m a n f o r m . H e s e e m s
to b e a n effective p r o p h e t / m e s s e n g e r , b u t t h e r e is n o t m u c h r e a s o n
to s u p p o s e , a p a r t f r o m t h e use of t h e t e c h n i c a l t e r m f o r a n g e l , t h a t
H a g g a i should be u n d e r s t o o d as a n y t h i n g o t h e r tiian a h u m a n p r o p h e t .
P e r h a p s t h e clearest e x p r e s s i o n of t h e i d e a t h a t a p r o p h e t c o u l d
a c t as G o d ' s m e s s e n g e r c o m e s in M a l a c h i . First, t h e n a m e M a l a c h i

81
This is the argument of J. Biihner, Der Gersandte und sn Weg im 4 Evangelium
(Tbingen: J . C. B. Mohr, 1977) 341-373. For criticism of his approach, see
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 129-137.
82
Cf. Isa 44:26 "who confirms the word of his servant, and performs the coun-
sel of his messengers [ ;]; who says ofJerusalem, 'She shall be inhabited,'
and of the cities of Judah, 'They shall be built, and I will raise up their ruins.' "
itself in H e b r e w m e a n s " m y m e s s e n g e r . " M a i 1:1 states, " T h e o r a -
cle of t h e w o r d of t h e L o r d to Israel b y M a l a c h i . " T h e L X X ren-
d e r s this as,
. T h e n a m e M a l a c h i is n o t r e n d e r e d in
G r e e k b u t is i n s t e a d called .
A t least o n e i n t e r p r e t e r discusses the a p p a r e n t c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n
M a l a c h i a n d a n g e l i c n a t u r e b e c a u s e of his n a m e ( m e a n i n g angel),
his a p p e a r a n c e (beauty), a n d his b e h a v i o r (delivering divine messages). 8 3
The lives of the Prophets (c. first c e n t u r y C E ) 16:1~3 says a b o u t M a l a c h i :

[1] This m a n was born in Sopha after the return, and while still a
very young m a n he led a virtuous life. [2] And since the whole peo-
pie honored him as holy and gentle, it called him Malachi, which
means, "angel"; for he was indeed beautiful to behold. [3] Moreover,
whatever he himself said in prophecy, on the same day an angel of
G o d appeared a n d repeated (it).

H o w e v e r , t h e final s e n t e n c e d o e s suggest t h a t t h e r e is g o o d r e a s o n
to s u p p o s e t h a t M a l a c h i w a s n o t c o n s i d e r e d in a n y w a y a n a n g e l .
H i s n a m e m e a n s a n g e l , a n d h e h a d a b e a u t i f u l c o u n t e n a n c e a trait
s o m e t i m e s associated w i t h a n g e l s b u t , a c c o r d i n g to this s o u r c e , w h a t
M a l a c h i said w a s t h e n c o n f i r m e d b y a n a n g e l . T h e a m b i g u i t y in t h e
" m e s s e n g e r " role of the p r o p h e t M a l a c h i w a s t a k e n u p in t h e NT
in t h e p e r s o n of J o h n t h e Baptist.

3.10 John the Baptist

E a c h of t h e s y n o p t i c gospels r e c o r d s a t r a d i t i o n of J o h n t h e B a p t i s t
in w h i c h J e s u s is said to q u o t e t h e p r o p h e t M a i 3:1 w i t h r e g a r d to
J o h n . M a t t h e w a n d L u k e likely took t h e t r a d i t i o n f r o m M a r k , b u t
t h e y e x p a n d u p o n it. 84 M a t t h e w actually says t h a t J o h n is t h e p r o p h e t
Elijah r e t u r n e d .
M a i 3:1 states, " B e h o l d , I s e n d m y m e s s e n g e r to p r e p a r e t h e w a y
b e f o r e m e , a n d t h e L o r d w h o m y o u seek will s u d d e n l y c o m e to his
t e m p l e ; t h e m e s s e n g e r of t h e c o v e n a n t in w h o m y o u delight, b e h o l d ,
h e is c o m i n g , says t h e L o r d of h o s t s . " T h e n M a i 4:5 states, " B e h o l d ,
I will s e n d y o u E l i j a h t h e p r o p h e t b e f o r e t h e g r e a t a n d t e r r i b l e d a y

83
Cf. also 2 Esd 1:40, "and Malachi, who is called the messenger of the Lord"
(qui et angelus Domini vocatus est).
84
This study accepts with the majority of scholars Markan priority; see note 89
in section 2.7 above.
of t h e L o r d c o m e s . " G i e s c h e n h a s suggested t h a t r e a d i n g t h e s e t w o
passages t o g e t h e r w i t h 4:5, w h i c h specifies Elijah as t h e m e s s e n g e r
( ; ) f o r e t o l d in 3:1, allows us to u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e early
Christians and other interpreters would have understood Elijah's
r e t u r n to b e a n g e l o m o r p h i c . 8 5
Interestingly, M a r k c o n n e c t s M a i 3:1 a n d Isa 40:3, a t t r i b u t i n g b o t h
to t h e p r o p h e t I s a i a h in a p r o n o u n c e m e n t a b o u t t h e role of J o h n
the Baptist:

[2a] As it is written [] in Isaiah the prophet [' ],

[2b] "Behold, I send my messenger [ ] before thy face,
who shall prepare thy way; [Mai 3:1]
[3] the voice of one ctying in the wilderness: Prepare the way of the
Lord, make his paths straight" [Isa 40:3]
[4] J o h n the Baptist appeared in the wilderness, preaching a baptism
of repentance for the forgiveness of sins.

I n s u b s e q u e n t verses, w e a r e told t h a t J o h n b a p t i z e d all t h o s e w h o

w e n t o u t to h i m in t h e R i v e r J o r d a n (v. 5). A physical d e s c r i p t i o n
of J o h n is given (v. 6). H e is clotiied in c a m e l ' s h a i r w i t h a l e a t h e r
girdle, a n d h e eats locusts a n d h o n e y . J o h n a n n o u n c e s t h a t h e is
u n f i t to s t o o p a n d u n t i e t h e s a n d a l s of t h e o n e w h o is to come
(v. 7). J o h n t h e n b a p t i z e s J e s u s (v. 9). T h e h e a v e n s o p e n , a n d a voice
a n n o u n c e s t h a t J e s u s is a " b e l o v e d s o n " w h o pleases the F a t h e r (v. 11).
J e s u s is t h e n d r i v e n i n t o t h e d e s e r t (v. 13), a n d J o h n is a r r e s t e d
(v. 14). N o m o r e is m a d e of J o h n ' s role in M a r k until c h a p t e r 6,
w h e n , a f t e r J o h n is b e h e a d e d , s o m e p e o p l e t h i n k t h a t J e s u s is J o h n
the B a p t i s t r e t u r n e d f r o m t h e d e a d (6:14). T h e s e p a s s a g e s s u p p l y lit-
tie e v i d e n c e t h a t J o h n w a s in a n y w a y u n d e r s t o o d as a n a n g e l . I n
fact his physical description seems to g o against a n y such identification,
since t h e r e is n o t h i n g m i r a c u l o u s a b o u t his a p p e a r a n c e a n d h e eats
h u m a n f o o d . M a t t h e w c o n n e c t s J o h n t h e B a p t i s t w i t h E l i j a h via M a i
3:1, so it is i m p o r t a n t t o c o n s i d e r this e v i d e n c e .
M a t t 11:7 14 e x p a n d s t h e story r e g a r d i n g J o h n t h e Baptist. 8 6

[7] As they went away, Jesus began to speak to the crowds concern-
ing J o h n : " W h a t did you go out into the wilderness to behold? A reed

85
C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, pp. 167-168. See also C.Joynes, "The Return
of Elijah: An Exploration of the Character and Context of the Relationship between
Elijah, John the Baptist and Jesus in the Gospels" (Oxford: D.Phil, thesis, 1998).
86
The parallel passage in Luke 7:24-35 is very similar to Matthew but does not
equate John the Baptist with Elijah.
 shaken by the wind? [8] Why then did you go out? To see a man
clothed in soft raiment? Behold, those who wear soft raiment are in
kings' houses. [9] Why then did you go out? T o see a prophet? Yes,
I tell you, and more than a prophet. [10] This is he of whom it is
written, 'Behold, I send my messenger ( ) before thy face,
who shall prepare thy way before thee.' [11] Truly, I say to you,
among those born of women there has risen no one greater than J o h n
the Baptist; yet he who is least in the kingdom of heaven is greater
than he. [12] From the days of J o h n the Baptist until now the king-
dom of heaven has suffered violence, and men of violence take it by
force. [13] For all the prophets and the law prophesied until J o h n ;
[14] and if you are willing to accept it, he is Elijah who is to come."

M a t t h e w seems to c o n n e c t M a i 3:1 a n d M a i 4:5 in the person of

J o h n . M a i 4:5 states, " B e h o l d , I will send you Elijah the p r o p h e t
before the g r e a t a n d terrible d a y of the L o r d c o m e s . " T h e p r o p h e t
Elijah was taken u p into h e a v e n by a mystical c h a r i o t a n d did n o t
die (2 K g s 2:11). M a l a c h i seems to reflect a n e x p e c t a t i o n of his
r e t u r n . M a t t h e w sees the fulfillment of this p r o p h e c y in the p e r s o n
of J o h n , w h o is k n o w n as G o d ' s m e s s e n g e r (cf. M a t t 1 7 : 1 0 - 1 3 ; M a r k
6 : 1 4 - 1 6 ; cf. Sir 4 8 : 9 1 0 ) . H e r e again t h e r e is n o i n d e p e n d e n t evi-
d e n c e t h a t J o h n was u n d e r s t o o d as a n angel, unless we accept t h a t
t h e r e was some implicit u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the figure in M a i 3:1 or
the r e t u r n i n g Elijah as angelic. T o the extent t h a t M a t t h e w identifies
J o h n with Elijah, we c a n p e r h a p s u n d e r s t a n d J o h n to be a messen-
ger of G o d , but the stress o n his b e i n g " b o m of a w o m a n " (v. 11)
a n d his s u b s e q u e n t d e a t h (14:10) seem to suggest his h u m a n i t y .
O n e later i n t e r p r e t e r does speak a b o u t J o h n the Baptist as an
angel, h o w e v e r . O r i g e n in his Commentary on the Gospel of John q u o t e s
f r o m the so-called Prayer of Joseph (2.32) to show h o w J o h n the Baptist
m a y b e t h o u g h t of as a n angel. H e q u o t e s M a r k 1:2 (
) a n d t h e n says of J o h n
the Baptist, " W e call a t t e n t i o n to h i m b e i n g o n e of the holy angels
in service sent d o w n as a f o r e r u n n e r of o u r s a v i o u r " (

). T h i s is a s t r o n g identification of J o h n the
Baptist as a n a n g e l n o t only b e c a u s e h e is called a n angel b u t also
b e c a u s e h e is said to be in service ( ), w h i c h m a y indi-
cate o n e of the angels actually in the presence of G o d or partici-
p a t i n g in the heavenly liturgy.
It is certainly possible, given the a m b i g u i t y in the text of M a i 3:1,
t h a t s o m e early C h r i s t i a n s w e r e t h i n k i n g a b o u t J o h n the Baptist as
a n a n g e l i n s o m u c h as h e c a r r i e d o u t a f u n c t i o n c o m m o n l y a t t r i b u t e d
to a n g e l s t h a t is, delivery of a divine m e s s a g e . M o r e o v e r , t h e t e r m
is a c t u a l l y a p p l i e d to h i m . A t least o n e l a t e r interpreter
u n d e r s t o o d J o h n to b e a n angel. T h i s r e p r e s e n t s a s o m e w h a t u n i q u e
p i e c e of e v i d e n c e ; it is u n c e r t a i n , a n d a r g u a b l y unlikely, whether
s u c h a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of J o h n w a s w i d e s p r e a d a m o n g early Christians.

3.11 Jesus

A s n o t e d in c h a p t e r 1, t h e r e h a s b e e n a g r e a t d e a l of r e c e n t schol-
a r s h i p o n J e s u s a n d a n g e l o m o r p h i c C h r i s t o l o g y . W h a t is c l e a r , h o w -
e v e r , f r o m t h e s e studies is t h a t n o w h e r e in t h e N T is J e s u s s p o k e n
of as a n a n g e l , t h o u g h t h e r e a r e s o m e p a s s a g e s t h a t suggest this w a s
a n issue for early C h r i s t i a n s (Col 2:18, H e b 1 - 2 ) . J . D u n n summed
u p this p o i n t in 1980:

So far as we can tell then no NT imiter thought of Christ as an angel, whether

as a pre-existent divine being who h a d appeared in Israel's history as
the angel of the Lord, 01 as an angel or spirit become m a n or as a
m a n who by exaltation after death h a d become an angel. 87

C l e a r l y , t h e r e c e n t s p a t e of w o r k o n a n g e l o m o r p h i c C h r i s t o l o g y sug-
gests t h a t n o t all s c h o l a r s a r e c o n v i n c e d . 8 8 T h e y h a v e , h o w e v e r , h a d
to look at a n t e c e d e n t s , l a t e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s , a n d especially a n g e l o -
m o r p h i c d e s c r i p t i o n s of C h r i s t to d e v e l o p t h e i r a r g u m e n t s . B e c a u s e
the p r e s e n t s t u d y focuses o n d i e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s and
angels, m y a i m h e r e is q u i t e m o d e s t relative to t h e vast l i t e r a t u r e
o n a n g e l C h r i s t o l o g y . T h i s section c o n s i d e r s o n l y e v i d e n c e in w h i c h
J e s u s s e e m s to b e likened t o a n a n g e l in his e a r t h l y ( h u m a n ) lifetime.
O n e c a s e in w h i c h J e s u s m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d a n g e l o m o r p h i c is in
t h e T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n n a r r a t i v e s , 8 9 w h i c h a r e f o u n d in t h e synoptic
gospels ( M a t t 1 7 : 1 - 9 ; M a r k 9 : 2 - 1 0 ; L u k e 9 : 2 8 3 6 ) b u t a b s e n t f r o m
t h e f o u r t h gospel. 9 0 T h e T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n h a s o f t e n b e e n u n d e r s t o o d

87
J . Dunn, Christology in the Making: An Inquiry into the Origins of the Doctrine of the
Incarnation (London: SCM, 1980) 158; italics are his.
88
C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 3, uses this quote as the starting point
of his investigation.
89
On the Transfiguration, see B. Chilton, "Transfiguration" in ABD 6:640-642;
Str-B. 1:752-758. A useful and relatively up-to-date survey of scholarship on the
Transfiguration can be found in A. D. A. Moses, Matthew's Transfiguration Stoiy and
Jewish Christian Controversy (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996) 20-49.
90
There is a reference to the Transfiguration scene in 2 Pet 1:16-18. The ref-
to fit w i t h t h e a s c e n t of t h e M o s e s m o t i f f r o m E x o d 24:16. 9 1 A d d i -
tionally, it h a s b e e n c o n s i d e r e d a m i s p l a c e d r e s u r r e c t i o n account,92
while o t h e r s h a v e r e l a t e d it t o h e a v e n l y a s c e n t a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
motifs. 9 3 C . R o w l a n d h a s suggested, " I t w o u l d . . . b e a m i s t a k e t o
e x c l u d e the possibility t h a t w e h a v e in this story [the T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n ]
a r e f l e c t i o n of a n e x p e r i e n c e w h e n c e r t a i n disciples, a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y
P e t e r , m a y h a v e believed t h a t t h e y h a d seen J e s u s in t h e f o r m of
a n angelic e n v o y . " 9 4
T h e r e a r e i n d e e d s o m e a s p e c t s of t h e T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n t h a t s u p p o r t
a n a n g e l o m o r p h i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . I n M a r k , J e s u s is t r a n s f i g u r e d (-
). 9 5 I n M a t t h e w J e s u s is t r a n s f i g u r e d (), a n d his
face shines "like die sun." In Luke his face w a s " c h a n g e d ()." T h i s
l a n g u a g e is fairly explicit t h a t J e s u s h a s u n d e r g o n e a c h a n g e . H i s p h y s -
ical a p p e a r a n c e is a l t e r e d , a n d e i t h e r his f a c e o r his g a r m e n t s , or
b o t h , b e c o m e brilliant. T h i s is c e r t a i n l y a n a s p e c t of a n g e l o p h a n i e s . 9 6

erence seems to be used to legitimate the letter itself by claiming to be Peter, who
was present during the event. It states, "For when he received honor and glory
from God the Father and the voice was borne to him by the Majestic Glory, 'This
is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased,' we heard this voice borne from
heaven, for we were with him on the holy mountain." There is also a version of
the Transfiguration in the Apocalypse of Peter 15-17.
91
On this see for, example, W. D. Davies and D. Allison, A Critical and Exegetical
Commentary on the Gospel according to Saint Matthew, 3 vols. (Edinburgh: T&T Clark,
1988-1997) 2:684-709; A. D. A. Moses, Matthew's Transfiguration Story and Jewish
Christian Controversy, pp. 50-84. Interestingly, in Exodus 34:29-35 the result of Moses's
seeing God is a glowing face that caused fear in those who saw him.
92
On this position, held by scholars like J . Wellhausen and R. Bultmann, see
R. Stein, "Is the Transfiguration (Mark 9:2-8) a Misplaced Resurrection Account?"
JBL 95 (1976) 79-96.
93
J. Fossum, "Ascensio, Metamorphosis: The 'Transfiguration' of Jesus in the
Synoptic Gospels" in The Image of the Invisible God (Gttingen: Vandenhoeck and
Ruprecht, 1995) 71-94. M. Smith, Clement of Alexandria and a Secret Gospel of Mark
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975) 237-244.
94
C. Rowland, The Open Heaven, p. 368. Bracketed material my own for clarification.
See also M. Sabbe, "La rdaction du rcit de la transfiguration" in La venue du
Messie: Messianisme a eschatologie (Bruges: Descle de Brouwer, 1962) 65-100; C. Fletcher-
Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 3951. This is also the line of argument taken by P. Nogueira,
"Heavenly Journey Elements in the Transfiguration Narrative: Apocalypticism and
the Beginning of Christology," paper delivered to the Oxford Millenium Conference
(April 2000).
95
For a definition of the term, see J. Behm, "" in TDNT 4:755-759.
The same verb appears on two occasions in Paul's letters (Rom 12:2,
2 Cor 3:18). In 2 Cor 3:18 (cf. also 1 Cor 15:51), Paul writes, "And we all, with
unveiled face, beholding the glory of the Lord, are being changed []
into his fikeness from one degree of glory to another; for this comes from the Lord
who is the Spirit." This seems to suggest an ongoing change of the believer into
some type of divine being.
96
As noted in the introduction to part one above.
 T w o f u r t h e r p o i n t s s u p p o r t a divine i d e n t i f i c a t i o n f o r J e s u s . M o s e s
a n d E j i j a h a p p e a r t o J e s u s a n d talk w i t h h i m . T h e s e t w o v e n e r a b l e
figures of t h e p a s t a r e k n o w n n o t to h a v e d i e d b u t to h a v e been
t a k e n to h e a v e n (Moses: D e u t 34:5; E l i j a h : 2 K g s 2:11). T h a t J e s u s
is seen h e r e w i t h t h e m suggests his e x a l t e d status. Lastly, a voice
f r o m t h e c l o u d s p r o c l a i m s t h a t J e s u s "is m y S o n , listen to h i m . " 9 7
It is n o t entirely c l e a r t h a t J e s u s b e c a m e a n a n g e l , since t h e t e r m
itself d o e s n o t a p p e a r , n o r is it c l e a r t h a t t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t h a t h e
u n d e r w e n t was p e r m a n e n t . Nevertheless, the evidence here indicates
t h a t at least f o r t h e T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n , J e s u s w a s a n g e l o m o r p h i c .
M o r e i n t e r e s t i n g is t h e G o s p e l of T h o m a s , L o g i o n 13. Greek
f r a g m e n t s of T h o m a s w e r e d i s c o v e r e d m o r e t h a n a h u n d r e d y e a r s
a g o in O x y r h y n c h u s , Egypt. 9 8 I n 1945 a c o m p l e t e C o p t i c m a n u s c r i p t
of t h e g o s p e l w a s d i s c o v e r e d a m o n g t h e finds a t N a g Hammadi.99
T h o m a s ' s impact on N T studies h a s b e e n a m o n g t h e m o s t pro-
n o u n c e d of all t h e C o p t i c w r i t i n g s u n c o v e r e d t h e r e , since s c h o l a r s
i m m e d i a t e l y b e g a n to d r a w c o m p a r i s o n s b e t w e e n it a n d t h e h y p o -
thetical sayings s o u r c e n a m e d Q . M o r e r e c e n t w o r k h a s b e g u n t o
look at T h o m a s as its o w n gospel, w i t h a distinct c o m m u n i t y b e h i n d
it just like t h e c a n o n i c a l gospels. 1 0 0 T h e d a t e of T h o m a s h a s b e e n
d e b a t e d ; t h e suggestions r a n g e f r o m s o m e t i m e b e t w e e n t h e m i d - f i r s t
to m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E . 1 0 1 T h e r a n g e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e i d e a s in
T h o m a s a r e r o u g h l y c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h t h o s e of this study.
L o g i o n 13 is r e m i n i s c e n t of t h e confession of P e t e r in t h e gospels. 1 0 2
Significantly, in t h e synoptics, this c o n f e s s i o n i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d e s
the T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n a c c o u n t . 1 0 3 J e s u s asks t h e disciples for o p i n i o n s
a b o u t his identity. I n t h e G o s p e l of T h o m a s , it is T h o m a s whose
a n s w e r is c o r r e c t , h o w e v e r , n o t P e t e r ' s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , P e t e r ' s r e s p o n s e
is telling for o u r p u r p o s e s :

97
This seems to create a link with Jesus's baptism (Mark 1:11, Matt 3:17, Luke
3:22). In particular Matthew's phrasing in 3:17 and 17:5 is identical.
98
P. Oxy. 1:654, 655.
99
NHC II, 2.
100
See A. DeConick, Seek to See Him (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1997).
101
R. Valantasis, The Gospel of Thomas (London and New York: Routledge, 1997)
12-21.
102
Cf. Matt 16:13-20, Mark 8:27-30, Luke 9:18-21, John 6:67-71.
103
Thomas contains no Transfiguration account, but Fletcher-Louis (Luke-Acts,
p. 47) suggests Thomas may have been aware of their relative location in the
Synoptics.
 [Logion 13] Jesus said to his disciples: Make a comparison to me a n d
tell me who I a m like. Simon Peter said to him: You are like a right-
eous angel [ ]. Matthew said to him: You are like a wise
m a n of understanding, T h o m a s said to him: Master, my mouth will
not at all be capable of saying w h o m you are like. Jesus said, "I am
not your master, because you have drunk, you have become intoxi-
cated from the bubbling spring that I have measured out." A n d he
took him, he withdrew, he spoke three words to him. W h e n T h o m a s
came back to his companions, they asked him, " W h a t did Jesus say
to you?" T h o m a s said to them, "If I tell you one of the sayings that
he spoke to me, you will pick up stones and throw them at me; a fire
will come from the rocks and b u r n you up."

T h e c o n t e x t of t h e p a s s a g e suggests t h a t similes o f f e r e d b y S i m o n
Peter and Matthew are meaningful and reverent but not altogether
satisfactory. T h o m a s ' s r e s p o n s e s e e m s t o elicit s o m e t h i n g of a r e b u k e
t e m p e r e d b y a r e c o g n i t i o n of d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g f r o m J e s u s , since
h e t h e n takes T h o m a s aside a n d gives h i m t h r e e w o r d s t h a t a p p a r -
ently p e r m i t m o r e insight i n t o J e s u s ' s t r u e identity. W h e n Thomas
r e t u r n s t o t h e o t h e r disciples, t h e y ask h i m w h a t J e s u s h a s told h i m .
T h o m a s says t h a t if h e w e r e to tell t h e m , t h e y w o u l d w a n t t o s t o n e
h i m b u t t h a t t h e stones w o u l d c o n s u m e t h e m .
A n u m b e r of s c h o l a r s h a v e suggested t h a t t h e t h r e e w o r d s are
likely to h a v e b e e n ( E x o d 3:14). 1 0 4 T h u s , J e s u s h a s
compared h i m s e l f w i t h t h e divine. If T h o m a s w e r e to s h a r e this
i n f o r m a t i o n , s p e a k i n g t h e i n e f f a b l e n a m e , t h e o t h e r disciples w o u l d
b e c o m p e l l e d to s t o n e him. 1 0 5 R . V a l a n t a s i s says t h a t t h e c o m p a r -
isons of J e s u s w i t h a n a n g e l a n d w i t h a p h i l o s o p h e r " l o c a t e J e s u s
w i t h i n t h e s p e c t r u m of u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of divine figures as angelic o r
t r a n s c e n d e n t l y philosophical. T h e s e t w o u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of J e s u s o p e r -
ate w i t h i n t h e s p e c t r u m of c o m m o n l y u n d e r s t o o d religious figures." 1 0 6
U l t i m a t e l y , t h e l i k e n i n g of J e s u s to a n a n g e l i n this logion is j u s t
t h a t , a c o m p a r i s o n . J e s u s asks, " M a k e a c o m p a r i s o n a n d tell me
w h a t I a m like." T h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t a n y e q u a t i o n is b e i n g
m a d e . I n fact, e v e n if o n e w e r e i m p l i e d , t h e c o n t e x t suggests it w o u l d
n o t b e a satisfactory u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h e r e f o r e , it d o e s n o t s e e m t h a t
h e r e w e c a n c o n f i d e n t l y s p e a k of J e s u s as a n angel.

10+
See A. DeConick, Seek to See Him, p. 113 n. 40; J . Fossum, The Name of God,
p. 98 n. 59.
105
Stoning was the punishment for blasphemy (Lev 24:16, John 10:30f., m. Sahn
7:4-5).
106
R. Valantasis, Gospel of Thomas, p. 75.
 Lastly, t h e r e is a n interesting a c c o u n t of J e s u s b e i n g literally c l o t h e d
as L i t h a r g o e l in t h e a p o c r y p h a l w o r k The Acts of Peter and the Twelve
Apostles 9 ( s e c o n d - t h i r d c e n t u r y GE): 1 0 7

He said to Peter, "Peter!" And Peter was frightened, for how did he
know that his n a m e was Peter? Peter responded to the Savior, " H o w
do you know me, for you called my name?" Lithargoel answered, "I
want to ask you who gave the name Peter to you?" H e said to him,
"It was Jesus Christ, the son of the living God. H e gave this n a m e to
m e . " H e answered and said, "It is I! Recognize me, Peter." H e loos-
ened the garment, which clothed himthe one into which he had
changed himself because of usrevealing to us in truth that it was
he. \Ve prostrated ourselves on the ground and worshipped him. W e
comprised eleven disciples. He stretched forth his h a n d and caused us
to stand. W e spoke with him humbly. O u r heads were bowed down
in unworthiness as we said, " W h a t you wish we will do. But give us
power to do what you wish at all times." 108

T h e r e a c t i o n of P e t e r a n d t h e apostles t o t h e r e v e l a t i o n of J e s u s is
o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e e p i p h a n i e s . L i t h a r g o e l is a n e n i g m a t i c c h a r -
a c t e r w h o c h a n g e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e story b u t a p p e a r s to b e s o m e sort
of divine b e i n g , q u i t e possibly angelic. It is difficult to k n o w w h a t
to m a k e of this t r a d i t i o n . It is s o m e w h a t late b u t suggests t h a t , e v e n
if a n g e l christologies w e r e quickly d i s c o u n t e d b y t h e e a r l y c h u r c h ,
t h e y w e r e n o t c o m p l e t e l y g o n e f r o m c o n s i d e r a t i o n , especially p e r -
h a p s in G n o s t i c circles. T h i s s o u r c e clearly w o u l d fit i n t o a n " a n g e l o -
m o r p h i c " p o r t r a y a l of J e s u s in t h a t h e a p p e a r s as a n a n g e l . T h a t h e
is c l o t h e d as a n a n g e l a n d t h e n r e m o v e s t h a t guise suggests n o t a
p e r m a n e n t b u t a t e m p o r a r y c h a n g e of physical a p p e a r a n c e .

3.12 Stephen

Acts 6 r e c o r d s t h a t S t e p h e n , c h o s e n t o b e o n e of t h e seven minis-

ters to t h e c o m m u n i t y in J e r u s a l e m , p e r f o r m e d g r e a t signs (Acts 6:8).
S o m e in t h e c o m m u n i t y b e c a m e j e a l o u s of h i m a n d b e g a n t o c o n -
spire a g a i n s t h i m (Acts 6:11). H e is seized a n d b r o u g h t b e f o r e t h e

107
A. Molinari, The Acts of Peter and the Twelve: Allegory, Ascent, and Ministry in the
Wake of the Decirn Persecution (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 2000) 201-204, suggests that
the final redaction of the text dates to the Decian persecution (249-251 CE) and
that the genre is largely allegorical, with a mix of realism and surrealism (pp. 53-92).
108 Translation from J. Robinson, ed., The JVag Hammadi Libraiy in English (New
York: Harper Collins, 1988) 292-293.
c o u n c i l ( 6 : 1 2 - 1 3 ) . J u s t p r i o r t o S t e p h e n ' s d e f e n s e s p e e c h (Acts 7)
c o m e s t h e s o m e w h a t e n i g m a t i c s t a t e m e n t , " A n d g a z i n g at h i m , all
w h o sat in t h e c o u n c i l saw t h a t his face w a s like t h e f a c e of a n a n g e l
[ ] " (Acts 6:15). 1 0 9 I t s e e m s p r o b a b l e t h a t L u k e
does n o t simply m e a n a h u m a n " m e s s e n g e r " f o r in this
i n s t a n c e , since t h e t e r m w o u l d t h e n c o n v e y n o special significance.
Nevertheless, h e uses t h e qualifier () in speaking a b o u t the a p p e a r -
a n c e of S t e p h e n ' s face; t h a t is, his face w a s like a n a n g e l ' s face.
T o u n d e r s t a n d w h a t s u c h a s t a t e m e n t m e a n t to L u k e a n d his a u d i -
e n c e , it is n e c e s s a r y to c o n s i d e r w h a t a n t e c e d e n t s a n d s o u r c e s L u k e
m a y h a v e b e e n calling u p o n in this r e f e r e n c e . M u n c k suggests, " I n
t h e m i d s t of all these falsehoods, S t e p h e n ' s face s h o n e like a n angel." 1 1 0
T h i s is n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h a t L u k e m i g h t
h a v e m e a n t b y this c o m m e n t .
I n the H e b r e w Bible, M o s e s h a s a n e p i p h a n y , a n d his c o u n t e -
n a n c e is a l t e r e d ( E x o d 3 4 : 2 9 - 3 5 ) . T h i s scene m a y also h a v e i n f o r m e d
L u k e ' s writing:

[29] W h e n Moses came down from M o u n t Sinai, with the two tables
of the testimony in his h a n d as he came down from the mountain,
Moses did not know that the skin of his face shone because he had
been talking with God. [30] A n d when A a r o n and all the people of
Israel saw Moses, behold, the skin of his face shone, and they were
afraid to come near him. [31] But Moses called to them; and Aaron
and all the leaders of the congregation returned to him, and Moses
talked with them. [32] And afterward all the people of Israel came
near, and he gave them in c o m m a n d m e n t all that the Lord had spoken
with him in M o u n t Sinai. [33] And w h e n Moses had finished speaking
with them, he put a veil 011 his face; [34] but whenever Moses went
in before the Lord to speak with him, he took the veil off, until he
came out; a n d when he came out, and told the people of Israel what
he was commanded, [35] the people of Israel saw the face of Moses,
that the skin of Moses' face shone; and Moses would put the veil upon
his face again, until he went in to speak with him.

109
The D text adds "standing in their midst ( )." This sug-
gests that an angel was present with Stephen at that moment or that Stephen him-
self was transformed into an angel, since this phrase locates the angelomoiphic
being in the onlookers' physical space rather than simply leaving it as an appear-
ance or apparition.
110
J. Munck, 77le Acts of the Apostles (Garden City: Doubleday, 1967) 59. Similarly,
E. Haenchen, The Acts of the Apostles (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1971) 272,
says, "This transfiguration signifies for Luke that Stephen is filled with the Holy
Spirit, and thereby enabled to make the speech which now follows."
T h e i d e a of M o s e s ' s f a c e b e i n g c h a n g e d a t S i n a i s e e m s to have
i n f l u e n c e d L u k e ' s i m a g e of S t e p h e n in s o m e w a y . O . G l o m b i t z a h a s
suggested t h a t t h e giving of t h e L a w b y a n g e l s in Acts 7:53 (cf. D e u t
33:2, G a l 3:19, A c t s 7:38. H e b 2:2) is parallel to t h e t e a c h i n g (giv-
i n g of t h e law) b y t h e angel-like S t e p h e n in 6:15. 1 1 1 R e l a t e d t o this
p a s s a g e is a n i n t e r e s t i n g parallel f r o m Q u m r a n , 4 Q 3 7 4 . 1 1 2 T h i s f r a g -
m e n t s e e m s to talk a b o u t M o s e s a t Sinai, s a y i n g t h a t h e [ M o s e s ] w a s
m a d e " a s G o d [ " ] a n d t h a t G o d " c a u s e d his face t o shine." 1 1 3
S o m e scholars have suggested that Stephen's angelic a p p e a r a n c e
is c o n n e c t e d w i t h his s u b s e q u e n t m a r t y r d o m . 1 1 4 I n t h e early C h r i s t i a n
Martyrdom of Polycarp, w e d o find t h e belief t h a t t h e m a r t y r s a r e t r a n s -
f o r m e d i n t o a n g e l o m o r p h i c b e i n g s i m m e d i a t e l y p r i o r to t h e i r d e a t h .
T h e Martyrdom, of Polycarp 2:3 states, " b u t it [the r e w a r d of right-
eousness] w a s s h o w n by t h e L o r d to t h e m w h o w e r e n o l o n g e r m e n ,
b u t a l r e a d y a n g e l s " (cf. Hennas Vis 2:2:7 a n d Sim 9:25:2).
A f t e r c o m p l e t i n g his d e f e n s e s p e e c h in A c t s 7:55, S t e p h e n is filled
with t h e h o l y spirit a n d h a s a vision: " [ H e ] g a z e d i n t o h e a v e n a n d
saw t h e glory of G o d , a n d J e s u s s t a n d i n g at t h e right h a n d of G o d ;
a n d h e said, ' B e h o l d , I see t h e h e a v e n s o p e n e d , a n d t h e S o n of m a n
s t a n d i n g a t t h e r i g h t h a n d of G o d . " ' S o t o o , in t h e Martyrdom 12:1,
P o l y c a r p is "filled w i t h c o u r a g e a n d j o y , a n d his c o u n t e n a n c e w i t h
g r a c e [ / ] so t h a t it n o t only d i d
n o t fall w i t h t r o u b l e at t h e t h i n g s said to h i m , b u t t h a t t h e Pro-
C o n s u l w a s a s t o u n d e d . " T h e c h a n g e in S t e p h e n ' s c o u n t e n a n c e s e e m s
to b e e c h o e d in P o l y c a r p .
C . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s n o t e d s o m e of the difficulties w i t h t h e m a r -
t y r d o m i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . 1 1 5 H e rightly p o i n t s o u t t h a t this t y p e of i n t e r -
p r e t a t i o n h a s b e e n u s e d to d o w n p l a y t h e significance of t h e passage.
Besides t h e fact t h a t b e t w e e n S t e p h e n ' s c h a n g e in c o u n t e n a n c e a n d
his m a r t y r d o m a r e s o m e 5 3 i n t e r v e n i n g verses, F l e t c h e r - L o u i s also
n o t e s t h a t t h e r e a r e n o J e w i s h , p r e - C h r i s t i a n e x a m p l e s of r i g h t e o u s
martyrs b e c o m i n g angelic before their death.

111
O. Glombitza, "Zur Charakterisierung des Stephanus in Act 6 und 7"
53 (1962) 238-244.
112
C. Newsom, "4Q374: A Discourse on the Exodus/Conquest Tradition." Also
in DJD XIX; C. Fletcher-Louis, "4Q374: A Discourse on the Sinai Tradition," pp.
236-252.
113
Cf. also Dan 12:3 and Rev 1:16.
114
See H. Conzlemann, Acts of the Apostles (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987) 48;
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 96-98.
115
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 97.
 U l t i m a t e l y , A c t s 6 : 1 5 s e e m s t o b u i l d u p o n a relatively w i d e s p r e a d
J e w i s h (and early C h r i s t i a n ) u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e physical a p p e a r a n c e
of angels. T h a t S t e p h e n h a d " a f a c e like a n a n g e l " suggests t h a t his
c o u n t e n a n c e w a s in some way illuminated a n d temporarily t r a n s f o r m e d .
T h i s m a y b e r e l a t e d t o t h e i d e a in t h e Martyrdom of Polycarp that
m a r t y r s received a n g e l i c s t a t u s j u s t p r i o r to t h e i r d e a t h ; however,
S t e p h e n ' s angelic status m a y also h a v e b e e n linked to t h e giving of
T o r a h / r e v e l a t i o n . T h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m to b e a n y s t r o n g i n d i c a t i o n
t h a t h e u n d e r w e n t a n y k i n d of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o a n a n g e l .

3.13 Paul

P a u l uses t h e t e r m t e n t i m e s in his epistles. 1 1 6 I n G a l 4, h e

m a k e s a n i n t e r e s t i n g r e f e r e n c e to angels. I n t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t of t h e
discussion P a u l is s t a t i n g his u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e p u r p o s e of t h e
L a w ( c h a p t e r 3) a n d e x h o r t i n g t h e G a l a t i a n s as heirs to t h e p r o m i s e
to A b r a h a m to follow C h r i s t (4:111). A t verse 12, h e switches t o
r e m i n d t h e G a l a t i a n s of t h e i r t r e a t m e n t of h i m d u r i n g his visit to
t h e m . I n G a l 4:14, P a u l says, " a n d t h o u g h m y c o n d i t i o n w a s a trial
to y o u , y o u did n o t s c o r n o r despise m e , b u t [ ] r e c e i v e d m e
as a n a n g e l of G o d [ ], as C h r i s t J e s u s . " 1 1 ' W h i l e t h e
m e a n i n g of 4 : 1 4 is u n c l e a r , t h e t r a n s l a t i o n is n o t o f t e n d i s p u t e d . T h e
s e e m s to h a v e a s t r o n g a d v e r s a t i v e affect. T h e G a l a t i a n s d i d
n o t reject P a u l b u t i n s t e a d received h i m as a n a n g e l of G o d , as
C h r i s t J e s u s . T h e clauses s e e m t o s t a n d in a p p o s i t i o n , so a n g e l
of G o d a n d C h r i s t J e s u s a r e b o t h t h e c o m p a r a t i v e w a y s in w h i c h
P a u l w a s received.
M a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s see t h e r e f e r e n c e t o " a n g e l " h e r e as m e a n i n g
" m e s s e n g e r / e n v o y " in t h e sense of c o m m i s s i o n i n g . 1 1 8 T h e parallel

116
Taking with the majority of scholars seven letters to be authentically Pauline
(Rom, 1 and 2 Cor, Gal, Phil. 1 Thess and Phmn). On this see R. Brown, An Intro-
Auction to the Mew Testament (New York: Doubleday, 1997) 406, 585-589. The ten
occurrences of the term are: Rom 8:38; 1 Cor 4:9, 6:3, 11:10, 13:1; 2 Cor
11:14, 12:7; Gal 1:8, 3:19, 4:14 and also in 1 Thess 4:16 .
117
A noteworthy parallel from a fourth-century CE text is Acts of Paul and Thecla
3, "At times he [Paul] looked like a man [], and at times he had the face
of an angel [ ]." This is likely based on Acts 6:15 and may
be more loosely based on Gal 4:14, since the Acts themselves use 2 Cor 12:3 as
a starting point. On the appearance of Paul, see A. Malherbe, "A Physical Description
of Paul" HTR 79 (1986) 170-175.
118
E.g. J. Dunn, Galatians: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (New
York: Doubleday, 1997) 235.
clause " a s C h r i s t J e s u s " is t h e n u n d e r s t o o d as o n e of c o m m i s s i o n i n g
t h a t is, t h e m e s s e n g e r c a n a c t w i t h t h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e o n e who
sent h i m . I n s o m e sense P a u l ' s s t a t e m e n t parallels t h e w o r d s of J e s u s
in M a t t 10:40, " H e w h o receives [] y o u receives []
m e , a n d h e w h o receives [] m e receives [] him
w h o sent m e " (cf. J o h n 13:20; M a r k 9:37; n e g a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n L u k e
10:16). T h e G a l a t i a n s received P a u l a n d , in so d o i n g , received C h r i s t
a n d P a u l ' s g o s p e l m e s s a g e ( a n d implicitly G o d ) . T h i s w o u l d then
reflect P a u l ' s o w n belief t h a t h e w a s s e n t / c o m m i s s i o n e d b y t h e risen
J e s u s h i m s e l f (Gal 1:12). 119 C e r t a i n l y , s o m e a s p e c t of this i d e a of
c o m m i s s i o n i n g is m e a n t b y P a u l ' s use of h e r e , since t h e t e r m
itself c o n v e y s this idea. 1 2 0 H o w e v e r , P a u l o f t e n uses t h e t e r m " a p o s -
tie" to m e a n " m e s s e n g e r " (e.g., Phil 2:25), so w e m a y b e r i g h t in
t h i n k i n g t h a t , w h e n h e uses " a n g e l , " h e m a y m e a n s o m e t h i n g m o r e .
A. G o d d a r d a n d S. C u m m i n s offer a n i n t r i g u i n g insight. They
briefly survey s o m e l i t e r a t u r e s u g g e s t i n g t h a t in J e w i s h w r i t i n g s of
the t i m e , t h e r e w a s a n " i n t e r p l a y b e t w e e n afflicted saints a n d t h e i r
angelic c o u n t e r p a r t s . ' " 2 1 M o r e o v e r , they note t h a t in the early Christian
l i t e r a t u r e m a r t y r s a r e s o m e t i m e s identified w i t h angels at t h e m o m e n t
of t h e i r d e a t h (Acts 6:15, Mart. Pol. 2:3). T h i s r e a d i n g , w h i c h t h e y
a d m i t c a n o n l y be t e n t a t i v e l y p l a c e d a l o n g a t r a j e c t o r y of d i s p a r a t e
e v i d e n c e , fits well e n o u g h w i t h t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ; b u t it w o u l d b e
difficult to s u b s t a n t i a t e a n y significant c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n G a l 4 : 1 4
a n d t h e l i t e r a t u r e t h e y cite, since P a u l d o e s n o t s e e m t o suggest (even
in t h e c o n t e x t of suffering) t h a t h e is n e a r to his o w n d e a t h ( m a r -
t y r d o m ) a t least in G a l a t i a n s . 1 2 2 N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e i n t r i g u i n g a s p e c t
of t h e i r suggestion m a y b e t h a t , if P a u l p r e a c h e d a C h r i s t - p a t t e r n e d

119
Paul may be hinting at this idea also in Gal 1:16 when he says that he has
Christ "in him [ ]." He might be suggesting that he has some sort of divine
being/power within him (cf. Gal 2:20).
150
A. Goddard and S. Cummins, "111 or Ill-treated? Conflict and Persecution as
the Context of Pad's Original Ministry in Galatia (Galatians 4:12-20)" JSNT 52 (1993)
93-136. They note that the LXX use of is relevant here, such that
the Galatians "gladly recognized Paul's divine commission and authority" (p. 108).
121
A. Goddard and S. Cummins, "111 or Ill-treated?" p. 108.
122
A number of recent works have argued that suffering was an integral part of
Paul's mission. See S. Hafemann, "The Role of Suffering in the Mission of Paul"
in The Mission of the Early Church to Jews and Gentiles, ed. Jostein Adna and Hans
Kvalbein (Tbingen: J. C. B. Mhr, 2000); T. Savage, Power through Weakness: Paul's
Understanding of the Christian Ministry in 2 Corinthians (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1996); E. Baasland, "Persecution: A Neglected Feature in the Letter to the
Galatians" ST 38 (1984) 135-150.
g o s p e l (i.e., o n e of self-giving), w h i c h h e e m b o d i e d in weakness
t h r o u g h p e r s e c u t i o n (4:14 a n d especially 2 C o r 1 1 : 2 3 - 3 3 ) , t h e n w e
c a n p e r h a p s see P a u l ' s t e a c h i n g as t h e n a s c e n t seed of t h e ideal of
m a r t y r d o m as the u l t i m a t e self-giving in a Christlike p a t t e r n . 1 2 3
R e c e n t l y , C . G i e s c h e n h a s strongly asserted t h a t P a u l is p r e s e n t -
ing a n a n g e l o m o r p h i c self-understanding. 1 2 4 G i e s c h e n begins his analy-
sis b y n o t i n g t h a t m o s t m o d e r n i n t e r p r e t e r s take t h e p h r a s e " a s a n
angel of G o d , as C h r i s t J e s u s " to b e h y p o t h e t i c a l ; t h a t is to say, t h e
G a l a t i a n s r e c e i v e d P a u l as if h e w e r e a n a n g e l o r e v e n J e s u s C h r i s t .
G i e s c h e n b r e a k s d o w n his exegesis b y a s k i n g t w o f u n d a m e n t a l q u e s -
tions: (1) w h a t d o e s P a u l m e a n b y t h e p h r a s e , a n d
(2) w h a t is m e a n t b y t h e p a r a l l e l clauses? T o t h e first, G i e s c h e n
a r g u e s t h a t P a u l m e a n t " a n g e l " in t h e t e c h n i c a l sense, " a s a spirit
w h o m e d i a t e s b e t w e e n die heavenly a n d die earthly realms." R e g a r d i n g
t h e clauses, G i e s c h e n d r a w s o n e x a m p l e s f r o m P a u l (1 C o r 3:1
a n d 2 C o r 2:17) as well as f r o m P h m 17 a n d D i d a c h e 1 1 : 3 - 4 to
d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e clauses s t a n d in a p p o s i t i o n to e a c h o t h e r : G o d ' s
a n g e l is C h r i s t J e s u s . G i e s c h e n t h u s c o n c l u d e s t h a t P a u l in s o m e sense
m e a n s t h a t h e is a n angelic b e i n g b e c a u s e h e h a s b e e n u n i t e d t h r o u g h
his a p o c a l y p s e w i t h a specific a n g e l of G o d , n a m e l y J e s u s C h r i s t .
O n e m a y w a n t to q u e s t i o n G i e s c h e n ' s a s s e r t i o n t h a t P a u l ' s reve-
lation (apocalypse) of t h e risen C h r i s t m e a n t t h a t h e h a d in s o m e
w a y b e c o m e a n g e l o m o r p h i c . T h e c o m m o n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of P a u l ' s
a c c o u n t of a mystical a s c e n t in 2 C o r 1 2 : 2 - 5 is t h a t Paul is n o t v e r y
a f f i r m i n g of its value. 1 2 5 N e v e r t h e l e s s , s o m e of t h e s t r o n g e s t s u p p o r t
f o r this c o m e s f r o m P a u l h i m s e l f . I n t h e s a m e p e r i c o p e , 2 Cor
12:110, a f t e r t h e m e n t i o n of t h e m a n w h o f o u r t e e n y e a r s e a r l i e r
h a d a mystical a s c e n t , P a u l says, " O n b e h a l f of this m a n I will b o a s t ,
b u t o n m y o w n b e h a l f I will n o t b o a s t , except of my weaknesses [
] . " H e t h e n discusses t h e " t h o r n in t h e flesh [
] , " t h e " a n g e l of S a t a n " w h o k e p t h i m f r o m b e i n g t o o e l a t e d
p r e s u m a b l y in his r e v e l a t i o n . I n verse 9 h e r e p e a t s , " I will all t h e

128
Paul may have thought of himself as actually embodying Christ. On this see
C. Joynes, The Return of Elijah, pp. 202-216.
124
C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, 315-325. M. Barker also says that Paul
equated Jesus with an angel, citing Gal 4:14; The Great Angel (London: SPCK. 1992)
223.
125
R. Price, "Punished in Paradise" JSNT 7 (1980) 33-40, suggests that Paul's
thorn in the flesh is an angel of Satan who has come with him from his mystical
ascent to keep him from being too prideful. See also P. Gooder, "Only the Third
Heaven? 2 Corinthians 12:1-10 and Heavenly Ascent" (Oxford: D.Phil, thesis, 1998).
m o r e gladly b o a s t of m y w e a k n e s s e s , t h a t t h e p o w e r of C h r i s t m a y
rest u p o n m e . "
I n s u p p o r t of this view, G i e s c h e n n o t e s t h e w o r k of C . M o r r a y -
J o n e s , w h o h a s t r a c e d the i d e a t h a t t h e mystic is actually t r a n s f o r m e d
d u r i n g his vision. 1 2 6 H e also cites 2 En 22:8, in w h i c h E n o c h a s c e n d s
to h e a v e n a n d is said to be c h a n g e d to t h e f o r m of t h e g l o r i o u s
o n e s of h e a v e n . If i n d e e d P a u l identified w i t h this t r a d i t i o n , t h e n his
s t a t e m e n t m a k e s a g r e a t deal m o r e sense. T h e G a l a t i a n s received
h i m as a n a n g e l of G o d , as C h r i s t J e s u s , b e c a u s e P a u l himself, via
his p e r s o n a l a p o c a l y p s e of t h e risen J e s u s , h a d b e e n t r a n s f o r m e d .
G i e s c h e n h a s b e e n c h a l l e n g e d o n this exegesis, a n d it d o e s p e r -
h a p s press t h e e v i d e n c e t o o far. 1 2 7 T h e r e f o r e , a n a l t e r n a t i v e u n d e r -
s t a n d i n g of P a u l ' s m e a n i n g is r e q u i r e d . M a n y i n t e r p r e t e r s believe
t h a t P a u l is u s i n g h y p e r b o l e to m a k e his p o i n t a b o u t t h e G a l a t i a n s '
original r e c e p t i o n of h i m a n d his m e s s a g e ; h o w e v e r , if seen in light
of t r a d i t i o n s s u c h as G e n 18, P a u l ' s m e a n i n g m a y be susceptible of
a better interpretation.
It is relatively c e r t a i n t h a t P a u l h a s in m i n d t h e A b r a h a m cycle
( G e n 16~21) in his a r g u m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g t h o s e w h o a r e h e i r s to t h e
p r o m i s e , since A b r a h a m a p p e a r s b y n a m e seven t i m e s in G a l 3.
H o w e v e r , t h e i d e a t h a t P a u l m i g h t h a v e h a d in m i n d t h e G e n 18
visitation of a n g e l s ( a n d G o d ) to A b r a h a m h a s n o t b e e n explored.
If P a u l d i d h a v e s u c h i d e a s in t h e b a c k of his m i n d , it m i g h t m e a n
that h e intends to c o m p l i m e n t the Galatians on having received h i m
in a w a y b e f i t t i n g t h e r e c e p t i o n of a divine g u e s t . T h i s is m o r e t h a n
p u r e l y a m e t a p h o r , since P a u l w o u l d h a v e in m i n d t h e possibility
t h a t divine b e i n g s really d o visit h u m a n beings.
It is i m p o r t a n t to recall t h a t G e n 18 is t h e o c c a s i o n w h e n God
a n d t h e angels b r o u g h t t h e n e w s t h a t S a r a h w a s t o b e a r A b r a h a m
a t r u e h e i r (unlike I s h m a e l in G e n 17, b o r n of t h e slave Hagar).
A b r a h a m r e c e i v e d his guests w i t h p r o p e r hospitality. It w a s then
r e v e a l e d to h i m t h a t h e w o u l d finally h a v e t h e son p r o m i s e d him.
T h e p r o m i s e w a s c o n t i n u i n g life t h r o u g h his p r o g e n y . I n R o m 4:17,
P a u l n o t e s t h a t this p r o m i s e gave life f r o m d e a t h . P a u l h i n t s a t this
v e r y s a m e u n d e r s t a n d i n g in G a l 4 : 2 9 w h e n h e says, " B u t as a t t h a t

126
C. MorrayJones, "Transformational Mysticism in the Apocalyptic-Merkabah
Tradition" JJS 43 (1992) 1-31.
127
For some strong reactions to his exegesis of this passage, see reviews by
D. Hannah, JTS 51 (2000) and J . Davila, JSJ 30 (1999) 345-346.
t i m e h e w h o w a s b o r n a c c o r d i n g to t h e flesh p e r s e c u t e d h i m w h o
w a s b o r n a c c o r d i n g to t h e Spirit, so it is n o w . " T h e o n e b o r n
is I s a a c , since h e w a s b o r n to p a r e n t s w h o w e r e b e y o n d t h e
age w h e n t h e y c o u l d n o r m a l l y p r o d u c e c h i l d r e n .
T h i s a r g u m e n t is s t r e n g t h e n e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t A b r a h a m appears
a g a i n j u s t a f t e r o u r p a s s a g e in the allegory of S a r a h a n d H a g a r (Gal
4 : 2 1 - 3 1 ) . 1 2 8 P a u l e m p l o y s this allegory to s h o w h o w t h o s e w h o a r e
h e i r s of t h e p r o m i s e of life to A b r a h a m via S a r a h a r e , like I s a a c ,
c h i l d r e n of p r o m i s e . P a u l ' s l a n g u a g e of slavery is c o n t i n u e d also, in
t h a t H a g a r is a slave a n d h e r o f f s p r i n g r e p r e s e n t t h o s e w h o a r e in
t h e w o r l d a n d e n s l a v e d to t h e e l e m e n t a l p o w e r s .
W h e t h e r t h e G a l a t i a n s w o u l d h a v e b e e n a b l e to h e a r this allusion
to G e n 18 a n d A b r a h a m ' s r e c e p t i o n of t h e angels d e p e n d s 011 h o w
o n e u n d e r s t a n d s t h a t c o m m u n i t y ' s m a k e u p . N e v e r t h e l e s s , it s e e m s
likely t h a t P a u l w o u l d h a v e h a d this p a s s a g e in m i n d as h e w r o t e
G a l a t i a n s a n d c o n s t r u c t e d his a r g u m e n t of t h e G a l a t i a n s (Gentiles)
as h e i r s to t h e p r o m i s e given t o A b r a h a m , a p r o m i s e t h a t w a s ulti-
m a t e l y fulfilled in t h e n a r r a t i v e of G e n 18.
P a u l m a y b e d r a w i n g u p o n a n u m b e r of H e b r e w Bible t r a d i t i o n s
in w h i c h h u m a n s played host to angels w h e n h e says that the G a l a t i a n s
received h i m c o r r e c t l y t h a t is, s h o w e d h i m hospitality as if h e w e r e
a n a n g e l o r e v e n J e s u s himself. N o t only, t h e n , did t h e y receive P a u l
correctly in t h a t w a y , b u t P a u l also m e n t i o n s t h a t despite his infirmity
(4:14) t h e y did n o t t u r n h i m a w a y . T h e i n f i r m i t y c r e a t e s a s i t u a t i o n
w h e r e b y t h e G a l a t i a n s m i g h t h a v e r e j e c t e d P a u l w i t h o u t necessarily
b r e a c h i n g hospitality; i n s t e a d t h e y r e c e i v e d h i m graciously.

3.14 Taxo

Like o t h e r writings in t h e g e n r e , t h e T e s t a m e n t of M o s e s p u r p o r t s
to b e t h e final w o r d s of M o s e s to his successor J o s h u a . 1 2 9 I n the
T e s t a m e n t of M o s e s 10:2 w e r e a d , " T h e n will be filled t h e h a n d s
of t h e m e s s e n g e r (Latin: nuntius), w h o is in the highest place a p p o i n t e d .
Y e a , h e will at o n c e a v e n g e t h e m of t h e i r e n e m i e s . " T h e i d e n t i t y of
this m e s s e n g e r h a s b e e n d e b a t e d b y scholars. T h r o u g h a c o m p a r i -
son of t h e role p l a y e d b y e a c h , this mmtius w a s first i d e n t i f i e d as t h e

128
L. Martyn, Galatians (New York: Doubleday, 1997) 431.
129
For arguments on dating see section 3.7 above.
a r c h a n g e l M i c h a e l . 1 3 0 T . M a n s o n p o i n t e d o u t t h a t nuntius, w h e n u s e d
in t h e V u l g a t e , refers t o h u m a n m e s s e n g e r s , w h i c h o f f e r e d Elijah
(citing t h e role of E l i j a h in M a i 3 : I f . a n d Sir 48:10) as a possible
c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e nuntius.m H i s suggestion h a s n o t b e e n t a k e n u p b y
others, however. D. Carlson explored the relationship between T a x o
i n c h a p t e r 9 a n d t h e nuntius in c h a p t e r 10 f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of
v e n g e a n c e in a p o c a l y p t i c literature. 1 3 2 T h e s t r e n g t h of his analysis
w a s to see t h e close c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the s u f f e r i n g of T a x o a n d
his sons in c h a p t e r 9 a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t call f o r v e n g e a n c e in 10:2.
H i s analysis led h i m to see t h e m e s s e n g e r in 10:2 as a "priestly"
h e a v e n l y figure. 1 3 3
R e c e n t l y , J . T r o m p h a s a r g u e d t h a t t h e nuntius s h o u l d b e e q u a t e d
w i t h T a x o f r o m c h a p t e r 9. 1 3 4 T r o m p stresses t h a t t h e nuntius is a
h u m a n b e i n g , T a x o . H e states t h a t w h e n w e see T a x o as t h e figure in
10:2, " d i e disturbing a p p e a r a n c e of a superfluous angel is discarded.'" 3 5
T h i s s i t u a t i o n is a g o o d e x a m p l e of t h e a m b i g u i t y t h a t s e e m s t o
exist in t h e d e f i n i t i o n of " a n g e l s " in this p e r i o d . T h a t s c h o l a r s c a n
see e i t h e r - o r suggests t h a t p e r h a p s t h e best w a y to i n t e r p r e t t h e text
is to leave o p e n die possibility that the a u t h o r i n t e n d e d s o m e ambiguity.
T h e difficulties t h a t arise in t r y i n g t o d e c i d e b e t w e e n h u m a n or
angelic m e s s e n g e r a r e alleviated w h e n w e r e c o g n i z e t h e possibility of
a fluid u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels.
If this is t h e c a s e , t h e n in the T e s t a m e n t of M o s e s this nuntius
a p p e a r s to b e a figure w h o will a v e n g e t h e s u f f e r i n g of T a x o and
his sons. S u c h a s c e n a r i o w o u l d b e in k e e p i n g w i t h t h e evidence

130
This language is reminiscent of the role of Melchizedek in 11H3. Some have
argued for the equation of Michael and Melchizedek in the writings from the Dead
Sea, e.g., F. Garcia Martinez, "The Eschatological Figure of 4Q246" in Qumran and
Apocalyptic, ed. F. Garcia Martinez (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1992) 162-179; J. Davila,
"Michael, Melchizedek, and Holy War," pp. 259272 ;HJPAJC IIIi:450.
131
T. Manson, "Miscellanea Apocalyptica" JTS 46 (1945) 41-45.
132
D. Carlson, "Vengeance and Angelic Mediation in Testament of Moses 9 and
10 "JBL 101 (1982) 85-95. He sees the theme of vengeance playing out in other
apocalypses such as 1 En. 9-10, 47, 91-104, Rev 8:3-5 and also in Tob 12:12-15.
133
His insight may be given added support by J. Tromp, who notes (p. 209 n. 29)
that in Flecataeus (in Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica, XL, 3, 5), the Jews, "call
this man the high priest, and believe that he acts as a messenger () to them
in God's commandments" (see 3.15).
134
J. Tromp, "Taxo, The Messenger of the Lord" JSJ 21 (1990) 200-209. See
also J. Tromp, The Assumption of Moses: A Critical Edition with Commentary (Leiden:
E. J. Brill, 1993) 228-231.
135
J. Tromp, "Taxo," p. 209.
f r o m this section t h a t r i g h t e o u s individuals s e e m e d to h a v e a p a r -
ticular access t o t h e angelic. T h e r e is n o t a s t r o n g c a s e h e r e f o r see-
ing T a x o as e i t h e r a n g e l o m o r p h i c o r as a n a n g e l .

3.15 77le High Priest in Hecateus of Abdera

H e c a t e u s of A b d e r a , a n o n - J e w w r i t i n g in t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y B C E ,
is r e c o r d e d b y D i o d o r u s Siculus, Bibliotheca Historien X L , 3, 5 (first
c e n t u r y B C E ) . D i o d o r u s is r e c o r d e d in P h o t i u s ( n i n t h c e n t u r y C E ) ,
so it is difficult t o k n o w for c e r t a i n h o w m u c h t h e text h a s b e e n
c h a n g e d o v e r t i m e a n d to w h a t a u d i e n c e it h a d originally ( a n d later)
b e e n d i r e c t e d . V e r s e s 5 - 6 says of t h e h i g h priest:

[5] These same m e n he appointed to be judges in all major disputes,

and entrusted to them the guardianship of the laws and customs. For
this reason the J e w s never have a king, and the authority over the peo-
pie is regularly vested in whichever priest is regarded as superior to
his colleagues in wisdom and virtue. T h e y call this man the high priest,
and believe that he acts [] as a messenger [] to them
of God's commandments. [6] It is he, we are told, who in their assem-
blies a n d other gatherings announces what is ordained, a n d the J e w s
are so docile in such matters that straightaway they fall to the ground
and do reverence to the high priest w h e n he expounds the com-
m a n d m e n t s to them. 136

Falling to the g r o u n d is o f t e n p a r t of a n a n g e l o p h a n y , b u t it is a l m o s t
exclusively t h e case t h a t this o c c u r s o n c e t h e i d e n t i t y of t h e a n g e l
h a s b e e n r e v e a l e d to t h e seer. T h e r e is s o m e h i n t in t h e Hebrew
Bible t h a t t h e priestly role is o n e of m e d i a t i o n t h a t m a y b e c o n s i d -
e r e d s o m e t h i n g like a n angel. M a i 2:7 says, " F o r t h e lips of a priest
[ ]s h o u l d g u a r d k n o w l e d g e , a n d m e n s h o u l d seek i n s t r u c t i o n f r o m
his m o u t h , f o r h e is t h e m e s s e n g e r [ ] of t h e L o r d of h o s t s . "
F l e t c h e r - L o u i s stresses t h e w o r s h i p of t h e h i g h p r i e s t as r e p r e s e n t a -
tive of a n e x a l t e d n a t u r e a n d t h e d o n n i n g of t h e priestly g a r b as
integral to t h a t role. 1 3 7 H e writes, " F a l l i n g to t h e g r o u n d in rever-

136
M. Stem, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism (Jerusalem: Israel Academy
of Sciences and Humanities, 1974-1984) 1:26-35.
137
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 120-129. He develops more fully the idea of
the importance of the high priest's garbs as transformative to an angelic status in
C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 222-251. The exegesis is pertinent to the Qiimran
group but is not as relevant to a discussion of the high priest more generally, so
it is simply noted here.
e n c e / w o r s h i p is obviously a p o s t u r e typical of t h e o p h a n i e s a n d a n g e l o -
p h a n i e s , a n d this a c t i o n d e m a n d s a n o n t o l o g i c a l r a t h e r t h a n a p u r e l y
f u n c t i o n a l sense to t h e priest's i d e n t i t y as . ' " 3 8 F l e t c h e r - L o u i s
h a s also s e e n t h e h i g h priest in t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of D a n 7:13. 1 3 9
H o w e v e r , L. S t u c k e n b r u c k , in his s t u d y o n a n g e l v e n e r a t i o n in this
p e r i o d , c o n c l u d e s t h a t " r e a c t i o n s to t h e p r e s e n c e of a n a n g e l or
h u m a n s u p e r i o r [are] f r e q u e n t l y n o t d e e m e d a n a c t w h i c h r u n s at
all c o u n t e r to t h e w o r s h i p of o n e G o d . " 1 4 0 T h i s suggests t h a t d u e
r e v e r e n c e c o u l d b e given to t h e h i g h priest w i t h o u t d e m a n d i n g a n
o n t o l o g i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of his identity as m e s s e n g e r (), since
h e n e e d n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d as divine in o r d e r to b e treated reverentially.
T h e p r o b l e m in u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e p a s s a g e f r o m H e c a t e u s lies in
k n o w i n g in w h a t sense t h e t e r m is u s e d . Is it s i m p l y m e a n t
to r e f e r t o t h e h i g h p r i e s t as h u m a n m e s s e n g e r of divine will o r
s o m e t h i n g m o r e ? R e v e r e n c e for t h e h i g h priest suggests t h a t it m i g h t
b e s o m e t h i n g m o r e , b u t it is n o t c l e a r t h a t H e c a t e u s h a s p a r t i c u l a r l y
reliable i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e p r a c t i c e in t h e J e r u s a l e m cult.
141
F. W a t s o n n o t i c e d this p a s s a g e s o m e t i m e ago. Interestingly, he
concluded,

But while words cannot, certainly, be pressed as evidence of Jewish

attitudes 01 practices of the late fourth century B.C., it is at least inter-
esting and perhaps significant that he [Hecateus] gives no hint of a
doctrine of angels [as present at the giving of the law], and knows of
no intermediary between G o d and the Jewish nation other than the
m a n to w h o m has fallen the sacred office of High Priest. 142

T h u s , it is difficult to c o m e to a n y firm c o n c l u s i o n s r e g a r d i n g this

p a s s a g e , c o n s i d e r i n g o u r c u r r e n t u n c e r t a i n t i e s a b o u t its d a t e a n d c o n -
text. T h e n o n - J e w i s h a u t h o r H e c a t a e u s m a y h a v e u s e d t h e term
t o r e l a t e t h e i d e a of t h e h i g h priest's role as i n t e r m e d i a r y
a n d i n t e r p r e t e r of divine o r d i n a n c e . T h a t t h e J e w s a r e said to fall
to t h e g r o u n d a n d w o r s h i p t h e h i g h priest m a y r e p r e s e n t s o m e t h i n g
of a m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e h i g h priest's role. T h e use of t h e t e r m

138
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 121.
139
C. Fletcher-Louis, "The High Priest as Divine Mediator in the Hebrew Bible:
Dan 7:13 as a Test Case" SBLSP (1997) 161-193.
140
L. Stuckenbruck, Angel Veneration and Christology: A Study in Early Judaism and in
the Christology of the Apocalypse of John (Tbingen: J. C. B. Mhr, 1995) 83.
141
F. Watson, "The Messenger of God in Hecataeus of Abdera" HTR 48 (1955)
255-257.
142
F. Watson, "The Messenger," p. 257; words in brackets are mine.
 p r o b a b l y d i d n o t c o n j u r e a n y i d e a s of t h e h u m a n h i g h priest
as a divine b e i n g o n e a r t h , b u t it c a n n o t b e c e r t a i n t h a t it d i d n o t
for s o m e h e a r e r s .
Lastly, b e f o r e m o v i n g o n it is n e c e s s a r y to discuss briefly t h e sug-
gestion by F l e t c h e r - L o u i s of t h e p r i e s t h o o d (in g e n e r a l ) b e i n g u n d e r -
s t o o d as a n g e l o m o r p h i c . 1 4 3 T o m a k e his case, h e suggests t h a t t h e
p r o p h e t i c role, w i t h its m o r e suggestive s t a t u s b e t w e e n G o d and
h u m a n i t y , was absorbed into the priesthood. T h e n , with the T e m p l e
as focus f o r J e w i s h w o r s h i p a n d a p l a c e w h e r e t h e e a r t h l y a n d h e a v -
enly coalesce, t h e p r i e s t h o o d c a n b e seen as a g r o u p t h a t e n j o y e d
a n " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " (quasi-divine) status. U l t i m a t e l y , e v e n t h o u g h it
is plausible t h a t t h e p r i e s t h o o d c o u l d h a v e b e e n c o n c e i v e d of in s u c h
a w a y , w e d o n o t see m u c h , if a n y , e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e priesthood
a c t u a l l y w a s so c o n c e i v e d . O n this p o i n t , I r e m a i n unconvinced,
t h o u g h F l e t c h e r - L o u i s is c o n t i n u i n g w o r k in this vein.

3.16 The Daughters of Job

I n t h e T e s t a m e n t of J o b t h e d a u g h t e r s of J o b a r e d e s c r i b e d as u n d e r -
g o i n g a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . Like o t h e r w r i t i n g s in the t e s t a m e n t g e n r e ,
t h e w o r k p u r p o r t s t o r e c o r d t h e w o r d s of J o b n e a r t h e e n d of his
life. T h e d a t i n g of t h e w o r k is n o t c e r t a i n , b u t m o s t suggest a d a t e
a r o u n d the t u r n of t h e era. 1 4 4 T h e d a u g h t e r s of J o b receive g a r m e n t s
f r o m t h e i r f a t h e r t h a t s e e m to b r i n g a b o u t a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w i t h a n
angelomorphic character:

[48:1] Thus, when the one called Hermera arose, she wrapped around
her own string just as her father had said. [2] And she took on another
heartno longer minded toward earthly thingsbut she spoke ecsta-
tically in the angelic dialect [ ], sending up a hymn
to G o d in accord with the hymnic style of the angels [
]. And as she spoke ecstatically, she allowed, " T h e Spirit"
[ ] to be inscribed on her garment.
[49:1] T h e Kasia b o u n d hers on and had her heart changed so that
she no longer regarded worldly things. [2] And her m o u t h took on
the dialect of the archons [ ] and she praised G o d for the
creation of the heights. [3] So, if anyone wishes to know " T h e Creation
of the Heavens," he will be able to find it in " T h e H y m n s of Kasia."

145
C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 5687 and 222-251; Luke-Acts, pp. 118-129.
144
R. Spittler, "Testament of j o b " in OTP 1:833-834.
 [50:1] T h e n the other one also, n a m e d Amaltheia's H o r n , b o u n d
on her cord. And her mouth spoke ecstatically in the dialect of those
on high, [2] since her heart also was changed, keeping aloof from
worldly things. For she spoke in the dialect of the cherubim, glorify-
ing the Master of virtues by exhibiting their splendor. [3] And finally
whoever wishes to grasp a trace of " T h e Paternal Splendor" will find
it written down in " T h e Prayers of Amaltheia's Horn." 1 4 5

T h i s text c e r t a i n l y s e e m s t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e d a u g h t e r s of J o b w e r e
t r a n s f o r m e d . O n e of t h e i m p o r t a n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s w a s t h e i r i n t e r -
n a l " c h a n g e of h e a r t . " T h e y n o l o n g e r w e r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h i n g s
of this life b u t f o c u s e d m o r e o n t h e w o r s h i p of G o d . T h e i r w o r s h i p
t o o k t h e f o r m of s p e a k i n g (ecstatically) in t h e m e l o d i c f o r m of t h e
angels (cf. L u k e 2 : 1 3 1;14C o r 13:1). 146 V a n d e r H o r s t says, h o w -
e v e r , t h a t h e sees t h e w o m e n as u n d e r g o i n g " a r a d i c a l a n d lasting
c h a n g e ; in fact t h e y b e c o m e virtually h e a v e n l y b e i n g s . ' " 4 7 It is n o t
c l e a r t h a t t h e i r c h a n g e w a s p e r m a n e n t o r w h e t h e r it w a s r e l a t e d t o
t h e i r p u t t i n g o n of g a r m e n t s .
W h a t is p a r t i c u l a r l y f a s c i n a t i n g a b o u t this p a s s a g e is t h a t it is t h e
daughters of J o b w h o b e c o m e a n g e l o m o r p h i c . I n n o o t h e r e x t a n t text
a r e w o m e n said to b e c o m e like angels. M o r e o v e r , as s e e n in c h a p -
t e r 2, angels w e r e o f t e n r e p r e s e n t e d as y o u n g m e n . Like all t h e texts
in this p e r i o d , t h e d o m i n a n t culture, w h e t h e r it w a s J e w i s h o r G r a e c o -
R o m a n , was patriarchal. T h i s certainly would flavor a n y portrayals.
T h a t m a n y angelic b e i n g s in t h e H e b r e w Bible w e r e first r e f e r r e d
to as " m e n " w a s also likely a c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r in s u c h a bias.
N e v e r t h e l e s s , it is n o t entirely c l e a r w h y s u c h a g e n d e r b i a s s h o u l d
necessarily exist in t h e discussion of angels. It likely s t e m s f r o m a
belief t h a t w o m e n w e r e ritually i m p u r e (Lev 12:18 a n d 15:25-30,
cf. also m. K e l i m 1:8) a n d t h u s e x c l u d e d f r o m h o l y places s u c h as
the i n n e r p a r t s of t h e J e a t s a l e m t e m p l e ; s u c h a belief m a y h a v e b e e n
e x t e n d e d b y a n a l o g y to t h e h e a v e n s . H o w e v e r , t h e issue of g e n d e r
is n o t c o m p l e t e l y o u t s i d e t h e discussion r e l a t i n g to angels. 1 4 8

145
Translation from OTP 1:865-866. Greek text taken from S. Brock, Testamentum
Iobi (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1967) 56-57.
146
On glossolalia see W. Mills, ed., Speaking in Tongues: A Guide to Research on
Glossolalia (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1986).
147
P. W. van der Horst, "Images of Women in the Testament of Job" in Studies
on the Testament of Job, ed. M. Knibb and P. W. van der Horst (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1989) 104.
148
In 4.6 the issue of the veiling of the Corinthian women is considered, and in
chapter 6 the issue of human women mating with angels is examined. There remains
much work to be done, however, on issues of gender in relation to angel beliefs,
especially, angels' common portrayal as young men and the idea of angelic celibacy.
 3.17 On Being like Angels in Heaven

Lastly, t h e r e is e v i d e n c e t h a t s o m e g r o u p s believed h u m a n s w o u l d
b e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o angels in t h e afterlife.
S o m e afterlife t r a d i t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t in the H e b r e w Bible. M o s t
r e f e r e n c e s a r e to a s h a d o w y e x i s t e n c e in S h e o l (Ps 6:6, 88:46,
115:17; Eccl 9 : 4 - 1 0 ; Isa 3 8 : 1 8 - 1 9 ) . T h e r e is n o r e f e r e n c e to this
e x i s t e n c e b e i n g angelic. T h e c l e a r e s t r e f e r e n c e to a n afterlife in t h e
H e b r e w S c r i p t u r e s is D a n 12:23, 149 w h i c h states,

[2] A n d m a n y of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake,
some to everlasting life, and some to shame a n d everlasting contempt.
[3] A n d those w h o are wise shall shine like the brightness of the
firmament; a n d those who turn m a n y to righteousness, like the stars
for ever and ever.

T h e p a s s a g e s e e m s to s p e a k of a r e s u r r e c t i o n in w h i c h t h e d e a d will
b e j u d g e d . T h o s e f o u n d wise will s h i n e in t h e h e a v e n s , a n d t h o s e
w h o t u r n p e o p l e t o r i g h t e o u s n e s s will b e like stars. As a l r e a d y n o t e d ,
light is s o m e t i m e s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of angelic a p p e a r a n c e . M o r e i m p o r -
tantly, a n g e l s a r e s o m e t i m e s e q u a t e d w i t h stars in a n c i e n t J e w i s h
texts ( J o b 38:7 [LXX]; 1 En. 104:2 1 5 0 .(6 T h i s e q u a t i o n is m a d e
explicit in t h e l a t e r w o r k 2 Bar. (early s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E ) , w h e r e
t h e s e e r asks, " I n w h a t s h a p e will t h e living live in y o u r day?"
(49:2). 151 I n r e s p o n s e , h e is t o l d , " F o r t h e y will live in the h e i g h t s of
t h a t w o r l d a n d t h e y will b e like t h e a n g e l s a n d b e e q u a l t o t h e stars.
A n d t h e y will b e c h a n g e d i n t o a n y s h a p e w h i c h t h e y w i s h e d , f r o m
b e a u t y to loveliness, a n d f r o m light to t h e s p l e n d o u r of g l o r y " (51:10).
T h i s p a s s a g e s e e m s to b e t h e clearest i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e afterlife f o r
h u m a n s c o m e s in t h e f o r m of angels, w h i c h a r e e q u a l to stars. It
s e e m s o n e possible s t r a n d of afterlife t r a d i t i o n s f o r e s a w h u m a n s t r a n s -
f o r m i n g i n t o h e a v e n l y l u m i n a r i e s o r stars. T h i s c o n n e c t i o n is at best
i n d i r e c t a n d is n o t s e e n in t h e e v i d e n c e . T h a t h u m a n afterlife w a s
t h o u g h t to b e specifically a n g e l i c is c l e a r e r in s o m e o t h e r e v i d e n c e .

149
Other allusions are found in Ezek 37; Hos 6:2; and Isa 24-27; cf. 2 Macc
7:14 and 4Q521 fragment 2. See the comprehensive coverage of this topic in
G. W. Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in Intertestamental Judaism
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972). For a useful summary of the
evidence, see J. J. Collins, Daniel (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987) 394-398.
150
See especially M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien, pp. 170-173. F. Lelli, "Stars" in
DDD, pp. 1530-1540.
151
A. F . J . Klijn, "2 Baruch" in OTP 1:615-652.
 P h i l o ' s Sacr. 5 d e s c r i b e s d i e p o s t m o r t e m existence of A b r a h a m as
angelic:

For also, w h e n A b r a h a m left mortal life, "he was added to the peo-
pie of G o d " [Gen 25:8], having gained immortality [] and
having become equal to the angels [ ], for angels
are the host of God, incorporeal [] and blessed souls.

T h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t for this p a s s a g e is a discussion of the v i r t u e of

A b e l o v e r C a i n . P h i l o says, " t h e a d d i t i o n of o n e t h i n g is a t a k i n g
a w a y of s o m e o t h e r " (Sacr. 1). T h e a d d i t i o n of A b e l m e a n t t h e t a k i n g
a w a y of C a i n , so w h e n die v i r t u o u s A b r a h a m died, h e w a s " g a t h e r e d /
a d d e d to his p e o p l e " ( L X X G e n 25:8: ).
I n w . 5 - 6 P h i l o says t h a t b o t h J a c o b a n d I s a a c also left t h e i r c o r -
p o r e a l b o d i e s to a t t a i n a n e w state (cf. 4 M a c c 7:19, 16:25). All
t h r e e , as r i g h t e o u s m e n f o c u s e d u p o n G o d , a t t a i n e d a h i g h e r n a t u r e ,
" i m p e r i s h a b l e a n d p e r f e c t " ( , Sacr. 7).
P h i l o d e s c r i b e s a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f r o m a c o r p o r e a l to a n i n c o r p o -
real state. T h e i n c o r p o r e a l state is e q u a l t o t h a t of angels, w h i c h a r e
akin to t h e t h o u g h t s (, Conf. 27) of G o d . T h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
c o m e s a t t h e e n d of A b r a h a m ' s m o r t a l existence a n d d o e s n o t a p p e a r
to h a v e b e e n in a n y w a y p a r t of his e a r t h l y existence. H e r e , as in
t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s c o n s i d e r e d p r e v i o u s l y , t h e person(s) t r a n s f o r m e d
into the angelic state w e r e h u m a n s of special c h a r a c t e r in their earthly
life. Also, P h i l o m a k e s n o o t h e r m e n t i o n of h u m a n s b e i n g trans-
f o r m e d i n t o angels. It s e e m s h e r e , t h e n , t h a t P h i l o i n t e n d s to s h o w
t h a t A b r a h a m as a r i g h t e o u s m a n t o o k his r i g h t f u l p l a c e a m o n g the
p r o p e r divine t h o u g h t s of G o d i n t h e afterlife. T h u s in P h i l o ' s i n t e r -
pretation, A b r a h a m (and presumably Isaac a n d J a c o b ) were trans-
f o r m e d i n t o angels in t h e afterlife.
1 En. 39, p a r t of t h e Similitudes of E n o c h , d e s c r i b e s a vision b y
E n o c h in w h i c h h e sees t h e h e a v e n s . I n c h a p t e r 3 8 the f a t e of sin-
n e r s is f o r e t o l d t h e y will b e d e s t r o y e d . I n 3 9 : 4 5 E n o c h sees " t h e
dwelling places of t h e h o l y o n e s a n d t h e i r resting p l a c e s too. So,
t h e r e m y eyes s a w t h e i r d w e l l i n g p l a c e s with t h e h o l y a n g e l s a n d
t h e i r resting places w i t h t h e h o l y o n e s . " It s e e m s c l e a r t h a t , f o r t h e
a u t h o r of t h e Similitudes, the r i g h t e o u s will be in h e a v e n a n d s h a r e
in a life like t h e angels. H o w e v e r , t h e d a t i n g of this text is a n issue. 152

152
Most scholars accept a date sometime in the first century CE. See the dis-
cussion above in section 3.1.
If t h e text d a t e s to s o m e t i m e a r o u n d t h e first c e n t u r y C E , as m a n y
s c h o l a r s s u p p o s e , t h e n t h e i d e a of r i g h t e o u s h u m a n s b e c o m i n g angels
in h e a v e n s e e m s to be e v i n c e d in a t least o n e text.
T h e Synoptic Gospels contain a tradition wherein the Sadducees
c h a l l e n g e J e s u s o n t h e n a t u r e of t h e afterlife ( M a r k 1 2 : 1 8 - 2 7 , M a t t
2 2 : 2 3 - 3 3 , a n d Luke 20:27-40). T h e M a r k a n a n d L u k a n versions are
of p a r t i c u l a r interest. 1 5 3 T h e g e n e r a l setting h a s t h e S a d d u c c e e s pose
a h y p o t h e t i c a l q u e s t i o n r e g a r d i n g m a r r i a g e in t h e afterlife. T h e i r line
of q u e s t i o n i n g is m e a n t to expose the a b s u r d i t y of belief in resurrection
itself, since t h e S a d d u c e e s t h e m s e l v e s d o n o t believe in r e s u r r e c t i o n
( M a t t 2 2 : 2 3 , M a r k 12:18, L u k e 2 0 : 2 7 , Acts 4 : 1 - 2 ; 2 3 : 8 9 , J o s e p h u s
BJ 2 . 1 6 5 , Ant 18:16). T h e y ask w h o s e wife a w o m a n w o u l d b e in
t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n if, in k e e p i n g w i t h T o r a h , a series of seven b r o t h -
ers h a d all w e d t h e s a m e w o m a n b u t d i e d w i t h o u t m a l e issue ( w .
19 1 5 4 .(23 J e s u s ' s t w o f o l d r e s p o n s e to t h e i r q u e s t i o n e x p o s e s b o t h t h e
S a d d u c e a n m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e n a t u r e of r e s u r r e c t i o n life (v. 25)
a n d also t h e i r inability to see p r o o f of t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n in S c r i p t u r e
( w . 2 6 - 2 7 ) . J e s u s says t h a t in t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n n o o n e will m a r r y ,
b u t all will be "like angels in h e a v e n " ( ).
T h i s p e r i c o p e is f o u n d b e t w e e n o t h e r p a s s a g e s f o c u s e d o n c o r r e c t
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : t h e q u e s t i o n o n p a y i n g t a x e s to C a e s a r (12:13-17)
a n d t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e scribes as to w h i c h c o m m a n d m e n t is t h e
g r e a t e s t ( 1 2 : 2 8 - 3 4 ) . T h e s e p e r i c o p e s s e e m g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r in o r d e r
to d e m o n s t r a t e t h e s u p e r i o r i t y of J e s u s ' s s c r i p t u r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o
t h a t of all o t h e r J e w i s h g r o u p s .
The t h r u s t of J e s u s ' s p r o n o u n c e m e n t seems to p o i n t to the
S a d d u c e a n f a i l u r e to u n d e r s t a n d t h a t h u m a n institutions, s u c h as
m a r r i a g e , will n o t exist in t h e afterlife; t h e r e f o r e t h e i r q u e s t i o n is
m o o t . H u m a n s will b e like a n g e l s ( ) in t h a t t h e y will h a v e
n o n e e d of t h e institution of m a r r i a g e . T h i s d o e s n o t necessarily sug-
gest a n e q u a t i o n of h u m a n s w i t h a n g e l s b u t i n s t e a d a similarity, in
t h a t n e i t h e r h a s a n y n e e d of m a r r i a g e . T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is o p e n
for d e b a t e , h o w e v e r . L u k e s e e m s to h a v e seen t h e a m b i g u i t y of t h e
M a r k a n f o r m a n d m a d e s o m e significant a l t e r a t i o n s .

153
The Matthean version does not vary from the Markan in any ways significant
to the discussion of angelic afteriife.
154
The Sadducean argument is based on the marriage prescription of Deut
25:5-10 (cf. also Gen 38:8, Ruth 4:1-10). The question of marital relations upon
the death of one brother is also seen in m. Yebam. 3:9.
 I n 2 0 : 3 5 t h e L u k a n J e s u s states, " B u t t h o s e w h o w e r e a c c o u n t e d
w o r t h y to a t t a i n t h a t age a n d to t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n f r o m t h e d e a d n e i -
t h e r m a r r y n o r a r e given in m a r r i a g e , for t h e y c a n n o t die a n y m o r e ,
for t h e y a r e e q u a l to t h e angels [the hapax legomenon, ] a n d
a r e s o n s of G o d [ ], b e i n g sons of t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n [
]."
L u k e ' s t e r m is q u i t e s i m i l a r t o P h i l o ' s '
a n d m a y reflect t h e s a m e kind of i d e a of e q u a l i t y w i t h angels,
r a t h e r t h a n m e r e similarity t o a n g e l s as in M a r k a n d M a t t . This
t e r m s e e m s to m a k e a s t r o n g e r s t a t e m e n t f o r t h e e q u a l i t y of angels
w i t h h u m a n s . Still, t h e q u e s t i o n m a y be raised as to w h e t h e r this is
e q u a l i t y of n a t u r e o r m e r e l y of status. A g a i n , it is n o t entirely clear.
L u k e also says t h a t " t h e y c a n n o t d i e " ( ) , j u s t as
P h i l o says t h a t angels a r e i m m o r t a l ().
T h e c o n t e x t , t h e n , s e e m s to i n d i c a t e t h a t J e s u s speaks of t h e a f t e r -
life as angelic. A few s c h o l a r s h a v e seen in t h e L u k a n f o r m of this
p e r i c o p e t h e p r e c u r s o r f o r l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s of C h r i s t i a n s renounc-
i n g m a r r i a g e as a m e a n s to a this-life a n g e l i c n a t u r e , a n '
. 155 T . K a r l s e n - S e i m a r g u e s t h a t t h e r e a r e g o o d r e a s o n s to see
the L u k a n version as c h a n g i n g t h e M a r k a n original t o s u p p o r t t h e
c u r r e n t c o m m u n i t y ' s r e j e c t i o n of m a r r i a g e as a m e a n s t o a n a n g e l i c
existence. 1 5 6 E v e n if w e a c c e p t t h a t L u k e i n t e n d s for his a u d i e n c e t o
u n d e r s t a n d t h e t e a c h i n g of J e s u s as a n o u t l i n e f o r living t h e resur-
r e c t i o n life, it still r e p r e s e n t s h u m a n a c t i o n m i m i c k i n g t h e life of
angels. It d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t h u m a n s w e r e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o angels
in t h e i r e a r t h l y lives.
L u k e r e c o r d s a n o t h e r t r a d i t i o n r e g a r d i n g a n g e l s a n d t h e afterlife in
Acts 2 3 : 6 8 . 1 5 7 P a u l h a s b e e n a r r e s t e d in J e r u s a l e m f o r c a u s i n g upris-
ings (22:22). H e is b r o u g h t b e f o r e a c o u n c i l of t h e J e w s (23:1). As
P a u l offers his d e f e n s e , h e m o v e s t h e discussion to t h e t o p i c of res-

155
See S. Frank, . Begnffanalytische und Begriffgeschichteliche Untersuchung
zum 1engelgleichen leben' in frhen Mnchtum (Munster, 1964); R. Lane Fox, Pagans and
Christians (London: Penguin, 1986) 336-374, esp. p. 363.
156
T. Karisen Seim, The Double Message: Patterns of Gender in Luke-Acts (Edinburgh:
T&T Clark, 1994). See also C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 86-88, and D. Aune,
"Luke 20:3436A Gnosticized Logion of Jesus?" in GeschichteTraditionReflexion
(Tbingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 1996) 187-202, who sees the Jesus teaching passage as
being (1) stripped from its original narrative, (2) reformulated in an encratite bap-
tismal context, and (3) inserted into the Gospel of Luke.
157
Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 59, notes that is the same
in Luke 20:39 and Acts 23:9, loosely linking these passages.
u r r e c t i o n in o r d e r to d i v e r t a t t e n t i o n f r o m himself a n d c a u s e factional
d e b a t e , since t h e P h a r i s e e s a n d S a d d u c e e s a r e split 011 t h e issue:

[6] But when Paul perceived that one part were Sadducees a n d the
other Pharisees, he cried out in the council, "Brethren, I am a Pharisee,
a son of Pharisees; with respect to the hope and the resurrection of
the dead I a m on trial." [7] And w h e n he had said this, a dissension
arose between the Pharisees and the Sadducees; and the assembly was
divided. [8] For the Sadducees say that there is no resurrection [-
], n o r angel [], nor spirit []; but the Pharisees
acknowledge them all [ ].

T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of verse 8 h i n g e s u p o n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e
t e r m . Its u s u a l m e a n i n g is " b o t h , " t h o u g h s o m e h a v e
t a k e n it to m e a n "all." It c o u l d m e a n t h e S a d d u c e e s d e n i e d " b o t h "
t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n a n d t h e existence of angels. R e c e n t l y , D . D a u b e h a s
asserted t h a t t h e passage is b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d as t h e S a d d u c e e s ' denial
of r e s u r r e c t i o n a n d of " t h e s p a n b e t w e e n d e a t h a n d resurrection,
w h i c h , in w i d e s p r e a d belief, a g o o d p e r s o n s p e n d s in t h e r e a l m o r
m o d e of a n g e l o r spirit.'" 5 8 It is n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r this w a s p a r t of
" w i d e s p r e a d " belief, b u t t h e e v i d e n c e in this s u b s e c t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h a t
it w a s in t h e m i n d s of s o m e J e w s in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d .
As G . N i c k e l s b u r g c o n c l u d e s , " T h e e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t in t h e
i n t e r t e s t a m e n t a l p e r i o d t h e r e w a s n o single J e w i s h o r t h o d o x y o n t h e
time, m o d e , a n d place of resurrection, i m m o r t a l i t y , a n d eternal life.'" 5 9
B. V i v i a n o h a s t a k e n t h e discussion a s t e p f u r t h e r , a r g u i n g t h a t t h e
p a s s a g e is best u n d e r s t o o d as discussing t h e d e n i a l of t h e r e s u r r e c -
tion. 1 6 0 T h e refers to " b o t h " a n g e l a n d spirit as m o d e s
of r e s u r r e c t i o n . T h u s , t h e n o u n s a n d s t a n d in a p p o -
sition to , s u c h t h a t S a d d u c e e s d e n y t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n in
" t h e f o r m of a n a n g e l " o r in t h e " f o r m of a spirit." V i v i a n o ' s i n t e r -
p r e t a t i o n s e e m s to p r e s e n t the m o s t likely r e a d i n g of t h e p a s s a g e .
T h e r e is s o m e c o r r o b o r a t i n g evidence for t h e claim t h a t the S a d d u c e e s
d e n i e d the r e s u r r e c t i o n . T h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e w h a t s o e v e r t h a t a n y
J e w i s h g r o u p a n d in p a r t i c u l a r o n e t h a t likely t o o k t h e P e n t a t e u c h ,
w h i c h c o n t a i n s t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t angels, as s a c r e d d e n i e d t h e exis-
t e n c e of angels. T h e fluidity in afterlife beliefs s e e n 111 t h e e v i d e n c e

158
David Daube, "On Acts 23: Sadducees and Angels" JBL 109 (1990) 493-497.
159
G. Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life, p. 180.
160
B. Viviano, "Sadducees, Angels, and Resurrection (Acts 23:8-9)" JBL 111
(1992) 496-498.
f r o m t h e p e r i o d s h o w s t h e r e w a s r o o m f o r d e b a t e o v e r t h e m o d e of
afterlife existence. It s e e m s p l a u s i b l e t h a t refers t o t h e
t e r m s " a n g e l " a n d "spirit," in w h i c h case Acts 2 3 serves as a n o t h e r
piece of e v i d e n c e t h a t s o m e J e w s believed t h e afterlife m o d e of exis-
t e n c e w a s angelic.
I n R e v 6 : 9 - 1 1 , J o h n sees a vision of t h e souls () w h o h a v e
died u n d e r a n altar. T h e souls a r e e a c h given a w h i t e r o b e (cf. Mart.
Asc. Isa. 9 : 2 4 - 2 6 ) a n d told to rest a while l o n g e r until t h e n u m b e r
of t h e i r b r o t h e r s is fulfilled. It is n o t c l e a r t h a t t h e vision is of angels,
b u t D . A u n e says, "It is theologically significant t h a t h e r e d i e d e a d
a r e in s o m e w a y p r e s e n t in h e a v e n , " since, as h e a d d s , " f r o m t h e
p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e O T it is n o t possible for m o r t a l s t o g o to h e a v e n
a f t e r t h e i r d e a t h . " 1 6 1 T h e facts t h a t t h e b e i n g s a r e u n d e r t h e a l t a r
in h e a v e n a n d also a r e given w h i t e r o b e s b o t h s e e m to p o i n t t o w a r d
a special status, w h i c h m a y p e r h a p s b e u n d e r s t o o d as angelic.
I n t h e Martyrdom, and Ascension of Isaiah t h e p r o p h e t I s a i a h h a s a
visionary ascent d i r o u g h the seven heavens. 1 6 2 D u r i n g his ascent Isaiah
is said to b e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n angel. As it n o w exists in E t h i o p i e
mss., Mart. Ascen. Isa. consists of t w o m a i n p a r t s : t h e story of I s a i a h ' s
m a r t y r d o m ( c h a p t e r s 15 )a n d a v i s i o n / a s c e n t ( c h a p t e r s 6 1 1 ) . T h e
Ascension c i r c u l a t e d o n its o w n a n d is e x t a n t in L a t i n a n d Slavonic
copies. 1 6 3 T h i s s u p p o r t s t h e c o m m o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h e t w o p a r t s
of Mart. Ascen. Isa. s e e m to h a v e b e e n originally s e p a r a t e writings. 1 6 4
T h e r e is a g r o w i n g scholarly c o n s e n s u s t h a t Mart. Ascen. Isa. in its
c o m p l e t e f o r m d a t e s to t h e early s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E . 1 6 5 J u s t i n M a r t y r

161
D. Aune, Revelation, 3 vols. (Dallas: Word Books, 1997-1998) 1:403.
162
Cf. the vision to Isa 6:1-13. On the seven heavens, see A. Yarbro Collins, "The
Seven Heavens in Jewish and Christian Apocalypses" in Death, Ecstasy and Other-
Worldly Journeys, ed. J . Coffins and M. Fishbane (Albany: SUNY Press, 1995) 59-93.
163
M. Knibb, "Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah" in OTP 2:145-146.
164
HJPAJC 1111:337; M. Knibb, "Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah" in OTP
2:147-150; R. Hall, "Isaiah's Ascent to See the Beloved: An Ancient Jewish Source
for the Ascension of Isaiah" JBL 113 (1994) 463-484; J. Knight, The Ascension of Isaiah
(Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995) 28-32; and j . Knight, Disciples of the
Beloved One: The Christology, Social Setting and Theological Context of the Ascension of Isaiah
(Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996) 3339. V. Burch, "The Literary Unity of
the Ascensio Isaiae" JTS 20 (1919) 17-23, asserts its unity and Christian composition,
but this fails to acknowledge the Jewish character of the story of Isaiah's martyrdom.
165
HJPAJC IIIi:337-338; M. Knibb, "Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah" in
OTP 2:149-150; R. Hall, "The Ascension of Isaiah: Community Situation, Date, and
Place in Early Christianity" JBL 109 (1990) 300-306; J . Knight, The Ascension of
Isaiah, pp. 2123. On the basis of the ms. evidence alone R. H. Charles suggested
a date in the third to second century CE or even earlier; The Ascension of Isaiah
(London: Adam and Charles Black, 1900) xlv.
a n d T e r t u l l i a n b o t h m a k e r e f e r e n c e to Isaiah's m a r t y r d o m , specifically
his b e i n g s a w e d in half {Mart. Ascen. Isa. 5:11). 1 6 6 T h e r e a r e also indi-
c a t i o n s t h a t 3 : 1 3 - 4 : 2 2 m a y r e f e r t o t h e e m p e r o r N e r o (d. 6 8 C E ) .
T h e s e p o i n t s aside, it is n o t entirely c l e a r w h e n the Ascension itself
w a s c o m p o s e d . Affinities of t h e Ascension w i t h w o r k s like t h e Acts of
Peter (c. 1 5 0 - 2 2 0 C E ) a n d t h e Protoevangelium of James (c. 150 C E )
suggest t h a t it w a s c o m p o s e d in t h e early s e c o n d c e n t u r y CE. 1 5 7 It
is i m p o r t a n t to b e a w a r e t h a t a n early s e c o n d - c e n t u r y d a t e , t h o u g h
w i d e l y a c c e p t e d , is n o t c e r t a i n .
T h e a c c o u n t of I s a i a h ' s m a r t y r d o m s e e m s t o b e a J e w i s h work
a n d is o n l y loosely c o n n e c t e d to t h e a s c e n t m a t e r i a l . T h e Ascension
is a C h r i s t i a n w o r k t h a t c u l m i n a t e s in I s a i a h seeing C h r i s t d e s c e n d
to e a r t h (disguised as a n angel) a n d o n c e a g a i n a s c e n d t o h e a v e n . 1 6 8
In chapters 6 1 1 . w e l e a r n t h e c o n t e n t of t h e vision I s a i a h h a d w h e n
h e w a s p r o p h e s y i n g b e f o r e K i n g H e z e k i a h . As I s a i a h a s c e n d s , h e is
t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n a n g e l . In t h e t h i r d h e a v e n h e states, " f o r t h e
glory of m y f a c e w a s b e i n g t r a n s f o r m e d as I w e n t u p f r o m h e a v e n
to h e a v e n " (7:25). M o r e explicitly in 8 : 1 5 I s a i a h is told by his a n g e l i c
g u i d e t h a t , w h e n h e dies a n d a s c e n d s a n d p u t s o n his h e a v e n l y r o b e ,
t h e n h e "will b e e q u a l to t h e angels w h o (are) in t h e seventh h e a v e n . "
M o r e o v e r , I s a i a h is a b l e t o praise G o d a l o n g s i d e t h e angels, " A n d
(strength) w a s given t o m e , a n d I also s a n g praises w i t h t h e m , a n d
t h a t a n g e l also, a n d o u r p r a i s e w a s like t h e i r s " ( 8 : 1 6 1 7 ) .
I n 11:35, w e a r e told t h a t I s a i a h r e t u r n s to n o r m a l a f t e r his vision
until h e dies, w h e n h e r e t u r n s to h e a v e n a n d takes o n a n a n g e l i c
f o r m . It s e e m s t h a t I s a i a h , w h e n h e dies, will b e a b l e to b e c o m e
o n e of t h e d e n i z e n s of t h e s e v e n t h h e a v e n (8:15, 9:39) a n d w o r s h i p
G o d as o n e of t h e r i g h t e o u s d e a d (e.g., A b e l a n d Enoch). 1 6 9

166
Dial. Trypho 120:5; De Patientia 14 respectively.
167
M. Knibb, "Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah" in OTP 2:149-150.
168
M. Himmelfarb says, "One might argue that Christ's disguise is the opposite
side of Isaiah's transformation: while a human being needs to become more like
the dwellers in the highest heavens to ascend, Christ needs to become more like
the dwellers in the lower heavens to descend." Ascent to Heaven (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1993) 57-58.
169
M. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven, pp. 56-57, argues that the righteous dead
actually enjoy a higher status than the angels in the seventh heaven, but this is not
entirely clear. She bases this on the fact that the righteous worship before the angels
(9:33-34), and the righteous are said to "gaze intently upon the Glory" of God,
unlike the angels who can only look upon the glory (9:37-38). There is some
difference in the status, but how much higher the righteous dead are exalted is
nominal since both groups are in the seventh heaven worshipping God. Cf.
J . Bhner, Der Gesandte, pp. 355-356.
 T h u s , in h e a v e n Isaiah is a c c o m m o d a t e d by b e i n g t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o
a n angel. 1 7 0 T h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is n o t p e r m a n e n t , h o w e v e r . I n s t e a d ,
it is a p r e v i e w of w h a t will befall h i m , as o n e of Israel's righteous,
w h o c a n t a k e u p his r o b e , b e t r a n s f o r m e d , a n d t a k e his p l a c e in t h e
s e v e n t h h e a v e n . It d o e s n o t s e e m to b e a privilege t h a t all will e n j o y ,
however.
T w o p a s s a g e s f r o m the H e r m e t i c L i t e r a t u r e (c. 1 0 0 - 1 5 0 C E ) m a y
also e v i n c e t h e i d e a of a n angelic afterlife. Vis. 2:2:7 states t h a t t h o s e
" w h o work righteousness must r e m a i n steadfast a n d be not double-
m i n d e d , " so t h a t t h e i r " p a s s i n g m a y b e w i t h t h e H o l y Angels"
( ). Similarly, H e r r n . Sim. 9:25:2
says of " a p o s t l e s a n d t e a c h e r s , " " T h e p a s s i n g of s u c h is w i t h t h e
angels" ( ). C . Osiek notes drat a l t h o u g h
t h e s e p a s s a g e s a r e o f t e n c o m p a r e d w i t h 1 En. 104:4; 2 Bar. 51:5;
171
a n d Mart. Pol. 2:3, the sense is m o r e akin to M a t t 22:30. In both
cases, t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to b e like angels in t h e afterlife s e e m s restricted
to a specific g r o u p , t h o s e w h o a r e v i r t u o u s in life. I t d o e s n o t s e e m
available to e v e r y o n e .
Lastly, t h e Mart. Pol. (c. 175 C E ) 2:3 states of t h e C h r i s t i a n s as
t h e y w e r e m a r t y r e d , " b u t it [ ' g o o d t h i n g s w h i c h a r e p r e s e r v e d f o r
diose w h o e n d u r e ' ] w a s s h o w n by t h e L o r d to t h e m [the m a r t y r s ] w h o
w e r e n o l o n g e r m e n , b u t a l r e a d y a n g e l s " ('' '
). T h i s p a s s a g e s e e m s t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e t r a n s f o r -
m a t i o n to a n angelic n a t u r e a l r e a d y begins o n e a r t h f o r t h e m a r t y r . 1 7 2
T h u s , n o specific t r a d i t i o n s of h u m a n s t r a n s f o r m i n g i n t o a n g e l s in
the afterlife s e e m to b e e v i d e n t p r i o r to t h e first c e n t u r y C E . E a r l y
t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t t h e afterlife m a y h a v e u n d e r s t o o d h u m a n p a s s i n g as
l e a d i n g to a c o m m u n i o n w i t h t h e divine as stars (= angels) in t h e
h e a v e n s . I n t h e case of P h i l o , A b r a h a m s e e m s t o h a v e undergone
a n afterlife t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o a n a n g e l , b u t f o r Philo, angels w e r e
akin to divine t h o u g h t s , a n d it w a s in t h e sense of A b r a h a m as a
r i g h t e o u s a n d v i r t u o u s m a n t h a t h e w a s a d d e d to t h e divine. I n t h e
gospels, t h e t r a d i t i o n s e e m s to h a v e m e a n t t h a t h u m a n s b e c a m e like

170
In some visionary writings, the seer is accommodated in heaven by becom-
ing an angel (Apoc. Zeph-> 2 En. 22, 3 En), but in some cases, no such transfor-
mation occurs (Rev, Apoc. Paul). On this see M. Himmelfarb, "The Experience of
the Visionary and Genre in the Ascension of Isaiah 6-11 and the Apocalypse of
Paul" Semeia 36 (1986) 97-111.
171
C. Osiek, The Shepherd of Hermas (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1999) 55 n. 12.
172
See the discussion on Stephen above (3:12), and cf. 4 Macc. 16:25.
or e q u a l to angels in h e a v e n a n d t h e r e f o r e h a d n o n e e d of t h e
h u m a n institution of m a r r i a g e (and copulation). T h e gospel tradition
was a p p a r e n t l y e x p a n d e d in the b u r g e o n i n g C h r i s t i a n tradition (mar-
tyrs, encratites), w h i c h s e e m e d to indicate the possibility of mimick-
ing the angelic m o d e of existence on e a r t h .

Conclusions

T h i s c h a p t e r e x a m i n e d the evidence for angels a p p e a r i n g as h u m a n

beings. Eight r e n o w n e d individuals f r o m the H e b r e w Bible, f o u r f r o m
the N T , as well as others, w e r e considered. T h e evidence for A d a m ,
the p r i m o r d i a l m a n , was interesting b u t n o t conclusive. T h e r e m a y
h a v e b e e n strands of tradition t h a t t h o u g h t of A d a m a n d Eve as
h a v i n g h a d a n angelic status b e f o r e the Fall. T h e evidence p e r t a i n -
ing to Sethel w a s f r o m only o n e text b u t did seem to suggest t h a t
he was u n d e r s t o o d to h a v e b e c o m e like a n angel in the afterlife.
T h e E n o c h i c literature a p p a r e n t l y b e c a m e m o r e explicit over time
about Enoch's angelic transformation a n d even equation with a
n a m e d angel, M e t a t r o n (in 3 En.)seemingly an e x t r a p o l a t i o n u p o n
the G e n 5:24 saying t h a t E n o c h was t a k e n to h e a v e n b u t did n o t
die. I n two texts, N o a h was described as having a n g e l o m o r p h i c fea-
tures at his birth, b u t it was n o t clear t h a t h e was ever c o n s i d e r e d
a n angel. T h e r e was evidence t h a t M e l c h i z e d e k w a s a n i m p o r t a n t
figure in speculations a b o u t the h e a v e n s in S e c o n d T e m p l e writings.
H e was certainly t h o u g h t of as a divine figure ( )a n d m a y h a v e
b e e n t h o u g h t of as a n angel.
I n the case of J a c o b , s o m e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s u n d e r s t o o d his n a m e
c h a n g e to Israel as d e n o t i n g a c h a n g e in his n a t u r e to a n angel. It is
m a d e explicit t h a t h e is t h o u g h t of as a n angel in Pr. Jos. T h i s e q u a -
tion is significant, but it c a n n o t b e pressed too far either. T h e evidence
for M o s e s was s o m e w h a t difficult to assess. Certainly, a u t h o r s like
Philo deified Moses, even calling h i m , b u t there is little e x t a n t
evidence t h a t h e was t h o u g h t to be a n angel. A few texts c o m p a r e d
D a v i d to a n angel, yet only Pseudo-Philo gave any h i n t t h a t D a v i d
m i g h t h a v e b e e n t h o u g h t of as angelic; even t h e r e the evidence sug-
gested t h a t his a p p e a r a n c e was c h a n g e d b u t n o t his n a t u r e .
S o m e evidence f r o m the p r o p h e t s s e e m e d a m b i g u o u s . Certainly,
the role of the p r o p h e t as a m o u t h p i e c e f o r G o d suggests t h a t their
f u n c t i o n a n d the f u n c t i o n of angels could be u n d e r s t o o d at some
level as similar. 1 7 3 P e r h a p s t h e m o s t a m b i g u o u s e v i d e n c e w a s t h a t
f r o m Malachi. T h a t the term "angel" m a y have been taken to m e a n
b o t h h u m a n a n d divine m e s s e n g e r c a n b e seen in its use r e l a t e d t o
J o h n t h e B a p t i s t in t h e N T . C l e a r l y , O r i g e n d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t o n e
a u t h o r t h o u g h t of J o h n t h e B a p t i s t as a n a n g e l .
T h e r e w a s v e r y little e v i d e n c e f o r J e s u s a c t u a l l y b e i n g r e f e r r e d t o
as a n angel. T h e T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n t a l k e d a b o u t J e s u s in a n g e l o m o r -
p h i c t e r m s , h o w e v e r . T h e G o s p e l of T h o m a s s h o w e d t h a t J e s u s c o u l d
b e c o m p a r e d to a n a n g e l b u t t h a t s u c h a c o m p a r i s o n w a s C h r i s t o -
logically insufficient. T h e e v i d e n c e f o r t h e o t h e r N T figures, Stephen
a n d P a u l , d i d n o t d e m o n s t r a t e t h e y w e r e c o n s i d e r e d angels.
T. Moses c o n t a i n e d a t e x t t h a t s o m e h a v e t h o u g h t m i g h t have
m e a n t t h e figure T a x o w a s c o n s i d e r e d a n a n g e l , b u t this identification
w a s unlikely. T h e i n t e r e s t i n g case of t h e d a u g h t e r s of J o b in T. Job
saw t h e m u n d e r g o i n g a n a n g e l o m o r p h i c c h a n g e (speaking like angels)
w h e n d o n n i n g girdles f r o m t h e i r f a t h e r . It w a s n o t c l e a r t h e c h a n g e
w a s p e r m a n e n t , h o w e v e r . T h i s text w a s u n i q u e in t h a t w o m e n , r a t h e r
than men, were angelomorphic.
T h e f r a g m e n t f r o m H e c a t e u s c o n c e r n i n g t h e a n g e l i c n a t u r e of t h e
h i g h priest w a s interesting, b u t t h e c o n t e x t is n o t clear. S i n c e it c a m e
to us t h r o u g h v a r i o u s a u t h o r s , t h e r e is n o w a y to b e c e r t a i n that
t h e original a u t h o r w a s a t all c l e a r a b o u t t h e realities r e l a t i n g to t h e
h i g h priest.
Lastly, t h e e v i d e n c e r e l a t i n g t o w h a t h a p p e n s to h u m a n s in h e a v e n
was considered. It w a s n o t clear that there was a n y late S e c o n d T e m p l e
t r a d i t i o n t h a t u n d e r s t o o d h u m a n s as b e c o m i n g a n g e l s in h e a v e n .
J . C h a r l e s w o r t h identified t h e m o t i f of s o m e r i g h t e o u s i n d i v i d u a l s
b e i n g p o r t r a y e d as angels. 1 7 4 H i s insight s e e m s c o r r e c t n a m e l y , t h a t
t h e m o t i f is m a i n l y , if n o t exclusively, a p p l i e d to r i g h t e o u s h u m a n s ;
m o r e o v e r it is a p p l i e d to specific i n d i v i d u a l s a n d n o t l a r g e r b o d i e s
of righteous, a t least n o t in die late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d early C h r i s t i a n
p e r i o d . O t h e r s , h o w e v e r , h a v e seen t h e i d e a e x t e n d i n g b e y o n d select
i n d i v i d u a l s to c o r p o r a t e h u m a n i t y . 1 7 5 F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s argued
against M . M a c h ' s (and others') assertion t h a t representations of h u m a n s
t a k i n g o n a n g e l i c existences in this life relate t o a n interest in e s c h a -

173
But Isa 6:1-13 seems to show a strong distinction between the seraphim
(= angels ?) and the prophet as a "man of unclean lips."
174
J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as an Angel," pp. 135-151.
175
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 109-215, and C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic
Christology, pp. 152-186.
tological p o s t m o r t e m e x i s t e n c e s a y i n g , " I t is j u s t as likely t h a t t h e
eschatological, p o s t - m o r t e m angelic life of t h e righteous is a n extension
of a belief in, o r s u b l i m a t e d h o p e for, a this-life a n g e l o m o r p h i c i d e n -
tity.'" 7 6 It m a y b e j u s t as likely, b u t it is n o t c l e a r a n y e v i d e n c e f r o m
t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d t r u l y s u p p o r t s s u c h a n assertion.
The e v i d e n c e a n a l y z e d in this c h a p t e r i n d i c a t e s t h a t , although
d i e r e are texts in w h i c h h u m a n beings a r e described in a n g e l o m o r p h i c
t e r m s , a distinction a p p e a r s to b e m a i n t a i n e d b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d
angels. T h e n e x t step in this investigation is t o look a t cases in w h i c h
close i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels m i g h t suggest s o m e
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . T h i s is t h e goal of p a r t t w o of this investigation.

176
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 213.
 PART T W O

INTERACTION
 PART TWO

INTERACTION

Introduction

T h e second p a r t of diis investigation e x a m i n e s d1e relationship b e t w e e n

h u m a n s a n d angels b y l o o k i n g at p o r t r a y a l s of close o r i n t i m a t e inter-
a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o g r o u p s of b e i n g s o n e a r t h . Specifically, t h e
e v i d e n c e of h u m a n - a n g e l c o m m u n i t i e s ( c h a p t e r 4), t h e possibility of
h u m a n s p r o v i d i n g hospitality a n d e a t i n g w i t h angels ( c h a p t e r 5), a n d
h y b r i d o f f s p r i n g f r o m h u m a n - a n g e l r e l a t i o n s ( c h a p t e r 6) a r e c o n s i d -
ered. F o r t h e following discussion " I n t e r a c t i o n " will b e t a k e n to m e a n
" r e c i p r o c a l a c t i o n o r i n f l u e n c e . ' " T h e p a r t i c u l a r n u a n c e of this c h o i c e
of t e r m is t h a t t h e activity c a n p o t e n t i a l l y h a v e a m u t u a l aspect; it
is n o t simply a n g e l s a f f e c t i n g h u m a n s .
As w a s t h e c a s e w i t h t h e a p p e a r a n c e of angels in p a r t o n e , it is
h e l p f u l b e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g to survey b r o a d l y t h e v a r i e t y of w a y s in
w h i c h angels i n t e r a c t w i t h h u m a n s in t h e w r i t i n g s f r o m this p e r i o d
to p r o v i d e t h e c o n t e x t f o r t h e m a t e r i a l to b e e x a m i n e d in p a r t two.
T h i s survey is n o t i n t e n d e d t o b e a n e x h a u s t i v e list of a n g e l f u n c -
tions b u t i n s t e a d to situate this p a r t i c u l a r e v i d e n c e a m o n g t h e vari-
ety of a n g e l f u n c t i o n s e v i n c e d in t h e l i t e r a t u r e f r o m this p e r i o d . 2
A n g e l s , as t h e y a r e m o s t c o m m o n l y u n d e r s t o o d , a r e d e n i z e n s of
t h e h e a v e n s . 3 By definition, t h e n , t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h h u m a n beings
is limited. T h e y a r e m e m b e r s of t h e h e a v e n l y c o u r t w o r s h i p p i n g G o d

1
The Concise Oxford Dictionary, 9th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998) 709.
2
M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien des judischen Engelglaubens in vorrabinischer Zeit (Tbingen:
Mohr Siebeck, 1992) 60-63, provides an exhaustive list of the functions of angels
in the Hebrew Bible. In chapter 3, he delineates the additional functions of angels
in the extra-Biblical literature, pp. 114-278.
3
Davidson, Maxwell J., Angels at Qumran: A Comparative Study of 1 Enoch 1-36,
72-108 and the Sectarian WritingsfromQumran, JSPS 11 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic
Press, 1992) p. 291; M. Mach, "Angels" in The Encyclopaedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls,
ed. Lawrence Schiffman and James VanderKam (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2000) 1:24; D. Hannah, Michael and Christ: Michael Traditions and Angel Christology in
Early Christianity, WUNT 2:109 (Tbingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1999) 17; P. Garreil, Jesus
and the Angels: Angelology and Christology in the Apocalypse ofJohn (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1997) 14.
a n d c a r r y i n g o u t t h e d i v i n e liturgy ( l Q S b 4 : 2 4 4;26Q_405f r a g . 20;
Luke 2:1314 ;H e b 1:6; R e v 4:8; Jub. 3 0 : 1 8 , 3 1 : 1 4 ; T. Le,vi 3:8;
1 En. 6 1 : 1 0 4 . ( 1 2 T h e i d e a t h a t angels " s t a n d " b e f o r e G o d is well
a t t e s t e d in J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e f r o m t h e p e r i o d a n d a f t e r w a r d s . 5 T e x t s
s u c h as t h e SSS a n d N T p a s s a g e s like 1 C o r 11:10 a n d C o l 2 : 1 8
suggest t h a t c o m m u n i t i e s s o u g h t to be p a r t of t h e o n g o i n g h e a v e n l y
liturgy of angels.
I n h e a v e n l y a s c e n t l i t e r a t u r e , angels o f t e n a c t as g u i d e s f o r h u m a n s
w h o h a v e c o m e i n t o t h e h e a v e n s ( D a n 7 - 1 2 ; 1 En. 1 7 - 3 6 ; Ap. Abr.
1 0 - 1 8 ; 4 Ezra 3 - 1 4 ) . Interestingly, h u m a n s o n s u c h a s c e n t s s o m e -
t i m e s p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e a n g e l i c liturgy (3 En. 1:12; Apoc. Ab. 17, Mart.
Ascen. Isa. 7:37; 9:31).
A m o n g t h e o t h e r roles angels t a k e o n are: g u a r d i a n s a n d h e l p e r s
( G e n 24:7, 4 8 : 1 6 ; E x o d 14:19, 2 3 : 2 0 - 2 3 , et al.; Ps 34:7; Isa 63:9;
D a n 3:28, 6:22; T o b 5:21; A c t s 5:19, 1 2 : 7 - 1 1 ; 2 M a c c 11:6; T. Jac.
1:10; L.A.B. 5 9 : 4 ; H e r r n . Mand. 6.2.2), a n d c a r r y i n g o u t God's
v e n g e a n c e ( N u m 22; 2 S a m 2 4 : 1 6 - 1 7 ; 1 C h r 2 1 : 1 2 - 3 0 ; 1 Q S 4:12;
Acts 12:23; R e v 16; Sir 4 8 : 2 1 ; 1 M a c c 7:41; Sus 1:55, 59).
As f u n c t i o n a r i e s of G o d , angels a r e s o m e t i m e s sent to c a r r y o u t
specific tasks o n e a r t h . It is m a i n l y in this c a p a c i t y t h a t t h e y i n t e r -
a c t w i t h h u m a n s . As t h e i r n a m e implies, t h e i r p r i m a r y task w a s t o
a c t as messengers (e.g., G e n 16:7, 2 2 : 1 1 , 15; J u d g 6 a n d 13; Z e c h
1:9; M a t t 1 - 2 ; L u k e 1 - 2 ; A c t s 8:26; 4 Ezra 4 - 5 ; et al.). C h a p t e r 4
e x a m i n e s w h a t is p e r h a p s t h e closest c o n t a c t b e t w e e n angels and
h u m a n s , n a m e l y , the presence of angels in specific h u m a n c o m m u n i t i e s .

4
Angels are actually called priests ( )in the SSS. For a fuller discussion of
angels as priests, see M. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven in Jewish and Christian Apocalypses
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993) esp. 29-46.
5
See Isa 6:3; Matt 18:10; Luke 1:19, 2:15; 1 Clem. 34:5. J. Fossum, The Name
of God and the Angel of the Lord{ Tbingen: J . C. B. Mhr, 1985) 55, 120-124, 139-141.
Cf. Philo, Sacrifices 89.
 CHAPTER FOUR

" A N G E L S IN O U R MIDST":
H U M AN-ANGEL COMMUNITIES

I n this c h a p t e r , texts d e s c r i b i n g a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s living t o g e t h e r

in c o m m u n i t i e s a r e e x a m i n e d . T h e m a j o r i t y of this e v i d e n c e c o m e s
f r o m t h e l i t e r a t u r e d i s c o v e r e d a t Q u m r a n , b u t t w o o t h e r texts t h a t
m a y e v i n c e a n g e l - h u m a n c o m m u n i t i e s P a u l ' s epistles to t h e C o r i n -
t h i a n s a n d t h e so-called H i s t o r y of t h e R e c h a b i t e s a r e also e x a m -
ined. A n u m b e r of s c h o l a r s h a v e a l r e a d y n o t e d t h a t t h e l i t e r a t u r e
f r o m Q u m r a n s e e m s to p r e s e n t a p i c t u r e of a c o m m u n i t y t h a t u n d e r -
stood itself as h a v i n g angels present, w i t h t h e m o s t r e c e n t c o n t r i b u t i o n
c o m i n g f r o m Fletcher-Louis.5
I n his b o o k , All the Glory of Adam, F l e t c h e r - L o u i s seeks t o f o r e -
g r o u n d the p h e n o m e n o n of h u m a n - a n g e l interaction b y d e m o n s t r a t i n g
t w o " i n t e r l o c k i n g " theses:

(1) the theology of ancient J u d a i s m took for granted the belief that in
its original, true, redeemed state humanity is divine ( a n d / o r angelic),
and that (2) this belief was conceptually a n d experientially inextrica-
ble from temple worship in which ordinary space a n d time, and there-
fore h u m a n ontology, are transcended because the true temple is a
model of the universe which offers its entrants a transfer from earth
to heaven, from humanity to divinity and from mortality to immortality. 7

T h e s e theses will b e d e a l t w i t h as specific discussion arises a n d also

in t h e c o n c l u s i o n section. A t t h e outset, it is a p p r o p r i a t e to o f f e r a
g e n e r a l critique of t h e m . R e g a r d i n g his first thesis, it is p e r h a p s m o r e
a c c u r a t e to say simply t h a t h u m a n k i n d in its t r u e f o r m w a s " t h e o -
m o r p h i c " since A d a m w a s m a d e in t h e i m a g e of G o d . T h i s w o u l d
o b v i a t e s o m e of t h e c o n f u s i o n in t h e s e c o n d a r y l i t e r a t u r e r e g a r d i n g
"angelic" a n d "divine." R e g a r d i n g t h e second diesis, the H o l y of Holies
in t h e T e m p l e a n d p e r h a p s t h e liturgical s p a c e of t h e Q u m r a n g r o u p

6
H. Kuhn, Enderwartung und gegenwrtiges Heil (Gttingen: Vanderhoeck and
Ruprecht, 1966) 66-72; C. Rowland, The Open Heaven: A Study of Apocalyptic in Judaism
and Early Christianity (New York: Crossroad, 1982) 113-120; M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien,
pp. 159-161; 209-218; 241-254. C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory of Adam: Liturgical
Anthropology in the Dead Sea Scrolls (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2002).
7
C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory of Adam, p. xii.
m a y i n d e e d h a v e b e e n places w h e r e s o m e J e w s believed t h a t the
e a r t h l y a n d h e a v e n l y s p h e r e s c o u l d h a v e c o n t a c t , c r e a t i n g a synergy.
H o w e v e r , s u c h c o n t a c t did n o t i m p l y a n y p e r m a n e n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
of p a r t i c i p a n t s . T h a t is t o say, p a r t i c i p a n t s (either t h e h i g h priest o r
the Q u m r a n sectarians) m a y h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d s o m e t h i n g t r a n s c e n d e n t
in s u c h a locus w i t h o u t u n d e r g o i n g a p e r m a n e n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n .
T h e p e r t i n e n t q u e s t i o n f o r this s t u d y is to w h a t e x t e n t living in a
specific c o m m u n i t y m e a n t i d e n t i f y i n g w i t h t h e a n g e l s t h a t were
believed to b e p r e s e n t . I n o t h e r w o r d s , w e r e t h e s e c o m m u n i t i e s envi-
sioning d i e i r m e m b e r s as b e i n g t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o p a r t of t h e a n g e l i c
c o m m u n i t y ? O r did t h e y simply believe t h a t t h r o u g h a h e i g h t e n e d
state of p u r i t y t h e y , as h u m a n s , w e r e c r e a t i n g a s p a c e w h e r e angels
c o u l d dwell o n e a r t h ? T h e e v i d e n c e p o i n t s to t h e latter.
S i n c e m u c h of t h e e v i d e n c e in this c h a p t e r c o m e s f r o m t h e D e a d
Sea Scrolls, a p r e l i m i n a r y issue m u s t b e a d d r e s s e d . T h e scrolls a r e
o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e Essenes, a J e w i s h s e c t a r i a n g r o u p k n o w n
p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h t h e w r i t i n g s of J o s e p h u s a n d Philo. T h e m a n y p a r -
allels b e t w e e n t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e c o v e r e d f r o m t h e c a v e s n e a r t h e D e a d
Sea a n d t h e a c c o u n t s of t h e Essenes in classical r e p o r t s h a v e b e e n
well d o c u m e n t e d . 8 Also, J o s e p h u s [B.J. 2.142) says t h a t t h e E s s e n e
g r o u p w a s " t o p r e s e r v e the b o o k s of t h e sect a n d t h e n a m e s of t h e
a n g e l s . " M a n y s c h o l a r s p r o c e e d b y o u t l i n i n g t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n s of "sec-
t a r i a n " a n d " n o n s e c t a r i a n " texts, t h e n s p e a k i n g a b o u t "sectarian"
beliefs. T h i s strategy o f t e n leads to using o n e text to i n t e r p r e t a n o t h e r ,
e v e n t h o u g h t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n s u c h texts is n o t entirely c l e a r ,
w h i c h c a n u l t i m a t e l y l e a d to a s y n t h e s i z e d a n d artificial p i c t u r e of
" s e c t a r i a n " beliefs. S e c t a r i a n p r o v e n a n c e of t h e s e w r i t i n g s d o e s n o t
change w h a t information can be gleaned f r o m t h e m about angel
beliefs. N o r is it c o r r e c t to a s s u m e , e v e n if all t h e texts a r e " s e c t a r -
i a n , " t h a t all m e m b e r s h e l d t h e s a m e beliefs a t t h e s a m e time.
E x a m i n i n g texts i n d i v i d u a l l y as e v i d e n c e for w h a t a t least o n e J e w i s h
a u t h o r ( a n d likely a u d i e n c e ) f r o m this p e r i o d w a s t h i n k i n g about
angels is a m o r e s e c u r e f o u n d a t i o n f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . F o r t h e fol-
l o w i n g analysis, t h e q u e s t i o n of s e c t a r i a n o r n o n s e c t a r i a n h a s b e e n
p u t aside, a n d e a c h p i e c e of e v i d e n c e is c o n s i d e r e d individually. 9

8
See, in particular, T. Beale, Josephus' Description of the Essenes Illustrated by the Dead
Sea Scrolls (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), and M. Goodman and
G. Vermes, The Essenes According to Classical Sources (Sheffield: J S O T Press, 1989).
9
This is the same methodology employed by M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran: A
Comparative Study of 1 Enoch 1-36, 72-108 and the Sectarian Writings from Qumran
(Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994) 138-141.
 44 Vie Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice (4Q400-407,
11Q17, Maslk)

T h e S o n g s of t h e S a b b a t h Sacrifice (SSS), also s o m e t i m e s r e f e r r e d

to as " T h e A n g e l i c L i t u r g y , " exists in eight m a n u s c r i p t s d i s c o v e r e d
at Q u m r a n in c a v e 4 ( 4 Q 4 0 0 - 4 0 7 ) , 1 0 o n e f r o m c a v e 11 ( 1 1 Q 1 7 ) ,
a n d o n e f r o m M a s a d a ( M a s l k ) . 1 1 T h e s e f r a g m e n t s s e e m to r e p r e s e n t
a liturgical cycle o n a 3 6 4 - d a y c a l e n d a r t h a t c o v e r s t h i r t e e n sab-
b a t h s t h e first q u a r t e r of t h e y e a r d u r i n g w h i c h h o l o c a u s t sacrifices
are offered ( N u m 2 8 : 9 1 0 , Ezek 46:4-5). C. N e w s o m p r o d u c e d the
first critical e d i t i o n of all t h e r e l e v a n t f r a g m e n t s in 1985. 1 2 R e c e n t l y ,
t h e SSS h a v e b e e n c o v e r e d in Discoveries in the Judaean Desert a n d t h e
Princeton Theological Seminary Dead Sea Scrolls Series.13
T h e r e is n o i n t e r n a l e v i d e n c e t h a t c a n b e u s e d t o d a t e t h e SSS,
n o r is t h e r e l a t i o n of the SSS to o t h e r s e c t a r i a n l i t e r a t u r e a firm cri-
t e r i o n . T h e SSS a r e d a t e d p a l e o g r a p h i c a l l y b e t w e e n 100 B C E and
6 8 C E , a n d s c h o l a r s w i d e l y a g r e e u p o n this dating. 1 4 E v e n if e a r l i e r
o r l a t e r d a t e s w e r e to b e established, t h e SSS a r e still a n i m p o r t a n t
text in t h e overall discussion of late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n g e l beliefs.
O f all t h e texts f r o m t h e D e a d S e a , n o o t h e r w o r k s e e m s to b e
as f o c u s e d u p o n t h e i n n e r w o r k i n g of t h e h e a v e n l y s a n c t u a r y and
t h e b e i n g s t h e r e i n as t h e SSS. J . S t r u g n e l l believed t h a t t h e SSS w e r e
" n o a n g e l i c liturgy, n o v i s i o n a r y w o r k w h e r e a sect h e a r s t h e praise
of t h e angels, b u t a Maskil's c o m p o s i t i o n f o r a n e a r t h l y liturgy in
w h i c h t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e a n g e l s is in a sense i n v o k e d . " 1 5 Still, t h e

10
First critical edition of 4Q403 and 4Q405 by J . Strugnell, "The Angelic Liturgy
at Qumran4Q Serek Shirot Olat Hashshabbat" in Supplements to Vetus Testamentum,
Congress Volume, ed. G. Andersen et al. (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1960) 318-345.
11
Prefiminary edition by C. Newsom and Y. Yadin, "The Masada Fragment of
the Qumran Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice" IEJ 34 (1984) 77-88; see also, Y. Yadin,
"The Excavations at Masada" IEJ 15 (1965) 105-108, and E. Puech, "Notes sur
les manuscrits des Cantiques du Sacrifice du Sabbat trouv Masada" RQ 12/48
(1987) 575-583.
12
C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice: A Critical Edition (Atlanta: Harvard
Semitic Studies, 1985).
13
C. Newsom, Discoveries in the Judean Desert XI (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998);
J . Charlesworth, ed., The Dead Sea Scrolls: Hebrew, Aramaic, and. Greek Texts with English
Translations: Vol. 4B Angelic Liturgy: Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice (Tbingen: J. C. B.
Mhr [Paul Siebeck], 1999).
14
C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, p. 1, notes that "the hand of the
oldest manuscript, 4Q400, may be dated to ca. 75-50 BCE." See also, J. Charlesworth,
ed., The Dead Sea Scrolls, p. 4; Stegemann, The library at Qumran, (Grand Rapids,
MI: Eerdmans, 1998) 99.
15
j . Strugnell, "The Angelic Liturgy at Qumran," p. 320.
similarities b e t w e e n t h e SSS a n d l a t e r a s c e n t o r mystical l i t e r a t u r e
as e v i n c e d in l a t e r M e r k a v a h a n d H e k h a l o t s o u r c e s h a s b e e n r e g u -
larly n o t e d , a n d t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e for u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
of t h o s e f o r m s of m y s t i c i s m is still b e i n g e x p l o r e d . 1 6 N e w s o m sug-
gests t h a t t h e SSS a r e a " q u a s i - m y s t i c a l liturgy d e s i g n e d to e v o k e a
sense of b e i n g p r e s e n t in t h e h e a v e n l y T e m p l e . ' " ' W h a t is w i d e l y
a c c e p t e d is t h a t t h e SSS r e p r e s e n t s o m e kind of liturgical d o c u m e n t .
W h a t is less c l e a r is h o w t h a t d o c u m e n t w o u l d h a v e b e e n used.
N e w s o m believes t h a t e a c h s o n g b e g a n w i t h " ( t o / f o r t h e
I n s t r u c t o r " ) 1 8 a t e r m t h a t a p p e a r s in o t h e r f i n d s f r o m a m o n g t h e
D e a d S e a Scrolls a n d s e e m s to r e f e r to a h u m a n l e a d e r of t h e sect. 1 9
T h i s t e r m m a y r e p r e s e n t s o m e type of d e d i c a t i o n " t o t h e I n s t r u c t o r "
( s o m e t i m e s suggested to b e t h e T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s ) , o r it m a y
r e p r e s e n t a n o t a t i o n t h a t this is " f o r t h e I n s t r u c t o r . "
T h e SSS a r e o f t e n f r u s t r a t i n g l y i n c o m p l e t e , full of suggestive ter-
m i n o l o g y w h o s e m e a n i n g is o f t e n difficult, if n o t i m p o s s i b l e , to dis-
c e r n . F e w p a s s a g e s a r e of decisive i n t e r p r e t a t i v e v a l u e . J . D a v i l a says,
" t h e overall g e n r e of t h e w o r k r e m a i n s elusive, b u t it d o e s s h a r e a
n u m b e r of f e a t u r e s w i t h a p o c a l y p s e s c o n t a i n i n g o t h e r w o r l d l y j o u r -
neys. . . . E v e n t h e v e r y basic p r o b l e m of w h e t h e r t h e s e songs a r e
prose or poetry does not have a clear answer."20 M o r e o v e r , regard-
ing t h e a n g e l o l o g y of t h e SSS, N e w s o m states, " B e c a u s e t h e cycle of
the S a b b a t h Shirot is a liturgical d o c u m e n t a n d n o t a treatise on
a n g e l o l o g y , n o t all t h e q u e s t i o n s o n e w o u l d like t o raise c a n be
a n s w e r e d . " 2 1 A l t h o u g h t h e y a r e o f t e n r e f e r r e d to as t h e "angelic
l i t u r g y , " t h e SSS d o n o t a c t u a l l y m e n t i o n a n y of t h e w o r d s of t h o s e

16
J. Baumgarten, "The Qumran Sabbath Shirot and Rabbinic Merkabah
Traditions" i?U3 (1988) 199-213; C. Newsom, "Merkabah Exegesis in the Qumran
Sabbath Shirot" JJS 38 (1987) 11-30; L. Schiffman, "Merkavah Speculation at
Qumran: The 4 Q Serekh Shirot Olat ha-Shabbat," in Mystics, Philosophers, and
Politiaans, ed. J. Reinharz and D. Swetschinski (Durham, NC: Duke University Press,
1982) 15-47; C. Rowland, "The Visions of God in Apocalyptic Literature" JSJ 10
(1979) 137-154; C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 387, 392-393.
17
C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, p. 59.
18
C. Newsom, "He Has Established for Himself Priests" in Archaeology and History
in the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. L. Schiffman (Sheffield: J S O T Press, 1990) 102. The term
is found or can be confidently restored in 4Q401 frag. 1; 4Q403 frag. 1 2:18;
4Q405 frag. 20 2:6; 11Q17 frag. 16-18, line 9.
19
Seen elsewhere in 1QS 3:13, 9:12; lQSb 1:1, 3:22, 5:20; CD 12:21, 13:22;
4Q510 4, 4Q511 2 i 1, 8:4; 1QH 20:11.
20
J. Davila, Liturgical Works (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000) 87-88.
21
C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, p. 23.
in w o r s h i p . 2 2 T h u s , it s e e m s safest t o c o n c e d e t h a t t h e g e n r e of t h e
SSS is u n c e r t a i n . E x a m i n a t i o n of p a r t i c u l a r p a s s a g e s is t h e best w a y
to g l e a n i n f o r m a t i o n .
I n h e r critical e d i t i o n , N e w s o m p r o v i d e s a t h o r o u g h discussion of
the various t e r m s d i a t m a y refer to angels in h e r section o n angelology 2 3
a n d also in h e r c o n c o r d a n c e , 2 4 so t h e r e is n o n e e d to r e p e a t s u c h
lists in detail here. 2 5 H o w e v e r , it is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e t h a t N e w s o m ' s
p a r a d i g m f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e SSS h a s r e c e n t l y b e e n criticized b y
F l e t c h e r - L o u i s . 2 6 H e b e l i e v e s t h a t in h e r initial s t u d y of t h e SSS
N e w s o m p r o p o u n d e d a dualistic i n t e r p r e t a t i v e p a r a d i g m t h a t has
p r e v e n t e d a c o r r e c t u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e Songs. R a t h e r t h a n seeing
a d u a l i s m of e a r t h l y w o r s h i p reflecting t h e h e a v e n l y cult (as N e w s o m
does), F l e t c h e r - L o u i s believes t h a t t h e songs r e p r e s e n t a crossing of
t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e t w o r e a l m s , s u c h t h a t b y p a r t i c i p a t i n g in
t h e songs, t h e s e c t a r i a n s w e r e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o divine b e i n g s w h o
p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h e a c t u a l h e a v e n l y cult. H e o b s e r v e s t h a t " i n g e n -
eral w e h a v e b e e n a b l e to distinguish t h e s e h e a v e n l y h u m a n s f r o m
angels a n d spiritual b e i n g s w h o a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y associated w i t h t h e
physical f e a t u r e s of t h e cultic s t r u c t u r e s . " 2 H o w e v e r , h e t h e n a d d s ,
" A c o n f i d e n t c l a i m to k n o w j u s t h o w m u c h ' d i v i n e ' l a n g u a g e is given
to t h e h u m a n w o r s h i p p e r s is n o t possible." 2 8 F l e t c h e r - L o u i s suggests
t h a t this w a y of e n v i s i o n i n g t h e liturgy g a v e t h e s e c t a r i a n s a n alter-
n a t i v e to t h e J e r u s a l e m c u l t t o w h i c h t h e y , n o w living in t h e d e s e r t of
Q u m r a n , n o l o n g e r h a d access. Suffice it t o state a t this p o i n t t h a t
t h e overall a i m of this s t u d y is to clarify o u r t e r m i n o l o g y a n d to m a k e
a case for s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e h e a v e n l y a n d t h e earthly, so t h a t m y
findings largely g o a g a i n s t t h o s e of F l e t c h e r - L o u i s . H o w e v e r , b e f o r e
saying m o r e , w e n e e d t o r e t u r n to o u r e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e texts.
In o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d the relationship b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels
in t h e SSS, it is n e c e s s a r y to a t t e m p t to clarify t h e m e a n i n g of t h e
various terms found therein.

22
D. Allison, "The Silence of .Angels: Reflections on the Songs of the Sabbath
Sacrifice" RQ 13 (1988) 189-197.
23
C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, pp. 23.28
24
C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, pp. 389-466.
25
See also M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran, pp. 248-253.
26
C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 252-394.
27
C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 392.
28
C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 392.
 First, t h e t e r m itself is r a r e in t h e SSS, a n d t h e r e a r e 110
n a m e d a r c h a n g e l s . 2 9 P e r h a p s t h e m o s t c o m m o n t e r m in t h e SSS t h a t
m a y r e f e r t o angels is . T h e t e r m is r a r e in t h e H e b r e w
Bible (Pss 29:1, 89:7; D a n 11:36) b u t is m o r e c o m m o n in t h e liter-
a t u r e f o u n d a t t h e D e a d S e a (especially 1 Q M a n d 1QH).
A n o t h e r c o m m o n t e r m is . I n t h e H e b r e w Bible, this t e r m
is o f t e n used f o r t h e H e b r e w G o d (e.g., G e n 13 ;)h o w e v e r , it is
p l u r a l in f o r m , so it c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d to r e f e r to m u l t i p l e "gods 5 '
of o t h e r n a t i o n s (e.g., E x o d 12:12, 18:11, 20:3; 1 K g s 14:9) o r p e r -
h a p s e v e n to a n g e l s (e.g., Ps 8 2 : 1 , 6; 138:1). 3 0 As N e w s o m notes,
" m a n y o c c u r r e n c e s of in t h e Shirot a r e a m b i g u o u s a n d m i g h t
r e f e r e i t h e r to G o d o r to t h e angels." 3 1 S o m e cases s u c h as
m o s t likely r e f e r to s o m e k i n d of divine b e i n g s , n o t to G o d . It s e e m s
t h a t h e r e in t h e SSS, t h e a r e m e a n t to s t a n d for s o m e t y p e
of d i v i n e b e i n g s s u b o r d i n a t e to G o d . It is u n c l e a r w h e t h e r a n d
a r e m e a n t to b e t h e s a m e o r q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t beings.
C e r t a i n l y , t h e t e r m s a r e c o g n a t e , w i t h b e i n g t h e p l u r a l of
(God) a n d ( pl. in f o r m : G o d o r gods). T h a t t h e t w o t e r m s
a r e s o m e t i m e s used in t h e s a m e section i m p l i e s s o m e type of dis-
tinction b e t w e e n t h e m , b u t equally t h e y m i g h t b e used i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y
for the same being.
O t h e r t e r m s , s u c h as " h o l y o n e s " ( ) a n d "spirits" (),
m a y also r e f e r to a n g e l s / d i v i n e beings. O n e of t h e m o r e u n c o m m o n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e SSS a n g e l o l o g y is t h e discussion of a n g e l s as
priests (), t h o u g h this is n o t a n i d e a exclusive t o t h e SSS (cf. T.
Levi 3:4f.). T h e w i d e a r r a y of t e r m s t h a t m a y r e f e r to a n g e l i c b e i n g s
m a k e s a n y investigation i n t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s and
a n g e l s q u i t e difficult, since t h e m o r e t e r m s t h a t a r e believed to r e f e r
to " a n g e l s , " t h e m o r e c o m p l e x t h e discussion b e c o m e s . It s e e m s best,
t h e n , t o look f o r a n y e v i d e n c e t h a t h u m a n s a n d a n y apparently
divine b e i n g s a r e discussed in t h e s a m e unit.
T h e r e a r e v e r y few p a s s a g e s in w h i c h h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s a r e dis-
c u s s e d t o g e t h e r . T h e first six lines of 4 Q 4 0 0 f r a g m e n t 2 o f f e r o n e
such instance:

29
C. Newsom suggests that Melchizedek may be named in the 4M01, 11, 3
(See The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, p. 37) and perhaps in 4Q401 22, 3. The recon-
structions are by no means certain but are plausible.
30
BDB, pp. 43-44.
81
C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, p. 24.
 [1] to praise your glory wondrously with of knowledge and the
praises of your kingship a m o n g the [Most ] h o y ones].
[2] T h e y are honoured in all the camps of the and revered by
the assembly of h u m a n s [ ], wondrously . . .
[3] than or humans [ ]they declare the majesty of his
kingship according to their knowledge and they exalt [ . . .]
[4] the heavens of his realm. A n d in all the highest heights wondrous
psalms according to all [. . .1
[5] glory of the king of they declare in the dwellings their sta-
tion. ..
[6] How shall we be accounted [among] them? And how shall our
priesthood (be accounted) in their dwellings?

T h e p a s s a g e is r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i v e difficulties f a c e d
in t r y i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d the r e l a t i o n s h i p of h u m a n s a n d angels in t h e
SSS. A t least t w o w o r d s ( a n d ) s e e m to r e f e r to divine
beings. T h e h u m a n s m e n t i o n e d s e e m to c o n s t i t u t e a s e p a r a t e g r o u p .
L i n e 6 suggests, h o w e v e r , t h a t p e r h a p s t h e h u m a n c o m m u n i t y seeks
to b e c o m e p a r t of t h e h e a v e n l y w o r s h i p p i n g c o m m u n i t y .
T h i s is e c h o e d in 4 Q 4 0 1 f r a g m e n t 14, c o l u m n 1, line 8, " T h e y
a r e h o n o r e d a m o n g all t h e c a m p s of t h e a n d r [ e v e r e d b y t h e
asse]mb1y of h u m a n s []." T h e s e p a s s a g e s d o n o t s e e m to p r e -
e l u d e t h e possibility t h a t t h e t w o r e a l m s , h u m a n a n d angelic, c a n
b e o n e a n d t h e s a m e i n s o m u c h as t h e y exist c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s l y a n d
p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e s a m e activity, b u t t h e h u m a n s d o n o t necessarily
b e c o m e angels.
G i v e n t h e lack of specific e v i d e n c e w i t h i n t h e SSS, discussion of
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s in t h e SSS h a s i n s t e a d
f o c u s e d o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e overall f u n c t i o n of t h e text. T h u s , t h a t
it is " a q u a s i - m y s t i c a l " liturgical text m i g h t suggest s o m e sort of c o m -
m u n a l e x p e r i e n c e of t h e divine liturgy. T h e SSS s e e m u n i q u e a m o n g
t h e e x t a n t l i t e r a t u r e , to t h e e x t e n t t h a t this c a n n o t b e r u l e d out.
T h i s t y p e of a p p r o a c h t o t h e texts h a s led C . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s r e c e n t l y
to suggest a " n e w p a r a d i g m " for r e a d i n g t h e SSS. R a t h e r t h a n u n d e r -
s t a n d all t h e v a r i o u s t e r m i n o l o g y as " a n g e l s , " h e suggests t h a t t h e
SSS b e c o m e s m u c h m o r e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e if o n e applies m a n y of these
r e f e r e n c e s to t h e h u m a n c o m m u n i t y , w h o " n o w h a v e a h e a v e n l y ,
a n g e l i c a n d divine identity. 3 2 H e calls u p o n his o w n r e c e n t w o r k a n d

52
C. Fletcher-Louis, "Heavenly Ascent or Incarnational Presence? A Revisionist
Reading of The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice" in SBL 1998 Seminar Papers (Atlanta, GA:
Scholars Press, 1998) 2:367-399; quote p. 369.
t h a t of C . M o r r a y - J o n e s , w h i c h a r g u e d t h a t in t h e l a t e Second
T e m p l e p e r i o d r i g h t e o u s i n d i v i d u a l s w e r e w i d e l y believed t o b e c o m e
a n g e l o m o r p h i c beings. 3 3 T h i s s t u d y c h a l l e n g e s w h e t h e r such a belief
w a s a c t u a l l y held. M o r e o v e r , t h e r e a r e b a s i c issues of t h e applic-
ability of t o p o i f r o m t h e " Q u m r a n l i t e r a t u r e " as a c o r p u s to t h e
SSSnamely, t h a t t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e SSS a n d , for e x a m -
pie, 1 Q H is n o t c l e a r unless o n e a s s u m e s t h e y a r e b o t h w o r k s f r o m
t h e s a m e c o m m u n i t y . As i n t e r e s t i n g as his suggestion is, it w o u l d
r e p r e s e n t t h e o n l y e v i d e n c e f o r a s u s t a i n e d r e f e r e n c e t o h u m a n s as
essentially " g o d s " ( a n d ) . T h a t t h e SSS w o u l d b e u n i q u e
a m o n g t h e e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t p r e c l u d e its possibility, b u t it d o e s s e e m
to m a k e it less likely. U l t i m a t e l y , s u c h a p a r a d i g m c a n n o t b e p r o v e d
a n d c a n n o t e v e n really b e s u s t a i n e d w i t h o u t c o n n e c t i n g t h e SSS to
o t h e r w o r k s f r o m t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls. 3 4
I n s u m m a r y , t h e r e s e e m s little d o u b t t h a t t h e SSS a r e liturgical in
s o m e sense. O n e of t h e i r p r i m a r y c o n c e r n s is w o r s h i p in t h e h e a v -
enly t e m p l e , t h e h i e r a r c h y a n d s t r u c t u r e , a n d so o n . C l e a r l y , t h e SSS
s h a r e a n affinity w i t h b o t h c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s a p o c a l y p t i c (visionary)
w o r k s a n d also w i t h l a t e r mystical writings. W h a t is m u c h less c l e a r
is t h e g e n r e of t h e SSS a n d its f u n c t i o n in its c o m m u n i t y . T h e m a i n
h i n t t h a t it w a s m e a n t in s o m e f o r m t o b e r e a d a n d u s e d b y a c o m -
m u n i t y is t h e o p e n i n g of e a c h song, " t o t h e m a s k i l " ( ) . B e y o n d
t h a t i n d i c a t o r , t h i n g s b e c o m e m u c h less clear. It is c e r t a i n l y possible
t h a t t h e i n t e n t of r e a d i n g such a d o c u m e n t w a s to give die c o m m u n i t y
t h e sense t h a t t h e y w e r e p a r t a k i n g in t h e h e a v e n l y liturgy, a n d if so
s o m e sort of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n m i g h t h a v e b e e n i m p l i e d . It is a t least
c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t t h e SSS w e r e i n d e e d m e a n t to p r o v o k e a sense of
c o m m u n i o n w i t h angels. It m a y b e t h a t t h e y w e r e n o t i n t e n d e d f o r
r e g u l a r liturgical use b u t i n s t e a d f o r use a t a specific t i m e , n a m e l y
t h e e s c h a t o n . It c a n n o t b e s u b s t a n t i a t e d t h a t t h e c o m m u n i t y itself is
t h e r e f e r e n t of t e r m s like a n d as " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " beings.
T h e r e is n o clear i n d i c a t i o n f r o m t h e text itself t h a t angels live a m o n g

33
C. Fletcher-Louis, "Heavenly Ascent," esp. pp. 369-382. See also, J. Charlesworth,
"The Portrayal of the Righteous as Angels" in Ideal Figures in Ancient Judaism: Profiles
and Paradigms, ed. J. Collins and J. Charlesworth (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1980)
135-151.
34
Additionally, Newsom (The S0?1gs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, p. 23) says that the term
is used frequently within the Qumran corpus to refer to angels. If the SSS is
a sectarian document as Retcher-Louis supposes, then this goes against his para-
digm as well.
t h e c o m m u n i t y . It is m o r e likely t h a t , if t h e SSS a r e m e a n t as a
m e a n s by w h i c h t h e c o m m u n i t y c o u l d p a r t a k e in t h e h e a v e n l y liturgy,
t h e n t h e y w o u l d in s o m e sense a s c e n d to t h e h e a v e n s to d o so, b u t
t h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t , if t h e y did, t h e y u n d e r w e n t a n y k i n d of
p e r m a n e n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n b y d o i n g so. T h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e SSS
is a m b i g u o u s . T h e t e x t d o e s n o t clearly distinguish b e t w e e n h u m a n s
a n d a n g e l s b u t suggests a u n i q u e c i r c u m s t a n c e in w h i c h h u m a n a n d
divine liturgy is in s o m e sense c o m b i n e d o r s h a r e d . It is difficult to
d r a w any firm conclusions f r o m the SSS.

4.2 The War Scroll (1QM and 4Q491-496)

A m o n g t h e seven l a r g e m a n u s c r i p t s d i s c o v e r e d in c a v e 1 w a s a d o c -
u m e n t t h a t c o n t a i n e d n i n e t e e n H e b r e w c o l u m n s of w h a t first c a m e
to b e k n o w n f r o m Y. Y a d i n ' s s e m i n a l w o r k as t h e Scroll of t h e W a r
of t h e S o n s of L i g h t a g a i n s t t h e S o n s of D a r k n e s s b u t is n o w m o r e
c o m m o n l y k n o w n as t h e W a r Scroll (1Q_M). 35 I n c a v e 4 f r a g m e n t s
of a n o t h e r six copies of this w o r k w e r e later discovered ( 4 Q 4 9 1 - 4 9 6 ) . 3 6
A t first g l a n c e , t h e W a r Scroll s e e m s t o b e u n i f i e d in c o n t e n t a n d
t h e m e , w h i c h suggests t h a t it c o u l d c o m e f r o m a single author.
H o w e v e r , closer e x a m i n a t i o n reveals r e p e t i t i o n s (e.g., 1 2 : 8 1 6 and
19:1^8) a n d o t h e r d i s c r e p a n c i e s in details s u c h as t i m i n g a n d i m p i e -
m e n t s of w a r , w i t h t h e result t h a t t o d a y it is widely a c c e p t e d t h a t
t h e W a r Scroll is a c o m p o s i t e text w i t h v a r i o u s levels of r e d a c t i o n .
J . V a n d e r Ploeg first suggested t h a t c o l u m n s 1 a n d 1 5 1 9 c o n s t i t u t e d
t h e earliest f o r m of t h e text. 3 ' D a v i e s h a s i d e n t i f i e d t h r e e levels of
redaction ( 2 1 2 9, 1 0 , and 1 5 1 9 , with 1 a n d 1314
additions). 3 8 I n m o s t r e c e n t a t t e m p t s to r e c o n s t r u c t t h e literary his-
t o r y of t h e W a r Scroll, c e r t a i n sections h a v e b e e n r e g u l a r l y r e c o g -
n i z e d as l i t e r a r y u n i t s : c o l u m n s 2 9, 1 0 - 1 2 (or 14), a n d 15-19.
N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e o r d e r in w h i c h t h e s e w e r e p r o d u c e d o r h o w and

35
Y. Yadin, The Scroll of the War of the Sons of Light against the Sons of Darkness
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962).
36
J . VanderKam, The Dead Sea Scrolls Today (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1994).
H. Stegeman, The Library of Qumran: The Essenes, Qumran, John the Baptist, and Jesus (Grand
Rapids, Ml/Cambridge: Eerdmans, 1998) 102, finds'10 mss. of the War Scroll.
37
J . van der Ploeg, "La composition littraire de la Rgle de la Guerre de
Qumran" in Sacra Pagina IL, ed. J. Coppens, A. Descamps, and E. Massaux (Gembloux:
Duculot) 13-19.
38
P. Davies, 1QM: The War Scroll from Qurman (Rome: Biblical Institute, 1977).
w h y t h e y w e r e fitted t o g e t h e r in t h e i r p r e s e n t f o r m , as well as t h e
r e l a t i o n of c o l u m n 1 t o t h e o t h e r s , r e m a i n m a t t e r s of d e b a t e . T h e
c o m p l e x i t y of t h e issues i n v o l v e d h a s c a u s e d s o m e to c o n t i n u e to
a s s u m e u n i t y w h e n p e r f o r m i n g exegesis. 3 9 T h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m t o
b e a n y specific set of a n g e l beliefs r e l a t e d to a n y o n e level of r e d a c -
tional activity, so f o r t h e p u r p o s e of t h e f o l l o w i n g discussion, the
W a r Scroll will be c o n s i d e r e d f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e final r e d a c -
tor, w h o b r o u g h t t h e text i n t o its p r e s e n t f o r m .
T h e literary d e p e n d e n c e of t h e W a r Scroll u p o n t h e B o o k of D a n i e l
(e.g., 1 Q M 1 a n d D a n 1 1 : 4 0 - 1 2 : 3 ) gives us a terminus a quo of a p p r o x -
i m a t e l y 160 B C E . 4 0 P a l o g r a p h i e e v i d e n c e d a t e s 1 Q M to t h e s e c o n d
half of t h e first c e n t u r y B C E , t h u s a likely terminus ad quem.iX H o w e v e r ,
given t h a t t h e scroll w a s d i s c o v e r e d a m o n g t h e finds at t h e Dead
Sea, Y a d i n posits t h a t t h e latest d a t e f o r t h e c o p y i n g of t h e War
42
Scroll e x t a n t to us is 70 C E . M o r e precise d a t e s h a v e b e e n sug-
g e s t e d for t h e t e x t o n t h e basis of c o m p a r i s o n s to c o n t e m p o r a r y mil-
itary m a n u a l s , b u t t h o s e discussions n e e d n o t c o n c e r n us h e r e . T h e
W a r Scroll is firmly w i t h i n t h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l b o u n d s of o u r s t u d y .
D u e to its eschatological c o m p o n e n t s , t h e W a r Scroll a p p e a r s o f t e n
i n d i s c u s s i o n s of a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e f r o m t h e S e c o n d Temple
43
period. H o w e v e r , it is g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d as a rule b o o k , a n d in t h e
s e c o n d a r y l i t e r a t u r e it is s o m e t i m e s e v e n r e f e r r e d t o as t h e W a r R u l e .
T h e s e " r u l e s " w e r e a p p a r e n t l y a m a p of t h e c o r r e c t c o n d i t i o n s n e e d e d
t o c r e a t e a h u m a n - a n g e l a r m y to fight the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l battle. 4 4

39
E.g., M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran (Sheffield: J S O T Press, 1992) 213.
w
G. Vermes, The Dead Sea Scrolls in English, 4th ed. (New York: Penguin, 1995) 124.
41
F. Cross, The Ancient Library of Qumran, 3rd ed. (New York: Doubleday, 1995) 138.
42
See also, D. Dimant, "Qumran Sectarian Literature" in Jewish Writings of the
Second Temple Period, ed. Michael Stone (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984) x;
H. Stegeman, The library at Qumran, pp. 102-104.
43
The rubric "apocalyptic" should not be overemphasized with regard to the
War Scroll, however, since the War Scroll lacks the definitive mark of an apoca-
lypse, i.e., a revelation. C. Rowland states of the evidence regarding the War Scroll,
"All this seems to indicate that we are dealing with a text which is related to the
apocalypses, but one which hardly justifies the label 'apocalyptic'." The Open Heaven,
p. 42. His point is echoed by J . Cotns, who, more recently, says the War Scroll
is "perhaps the most 'apocalyptic' book in the corpus, although its literary form is
that of a rule book and not of a revelation." Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls
(London: Routledge, 1997) 10. See also, R. Bauckham, 77; Climax of Prophecy
(Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1993) 212ff.
44
In some sense, the term "utopian" might be appropriate to this situation, inso-
much as the War Scroll seems to describe a synergy between humans and angels
as the "Sons of Light."
 T h e i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n is: H o w d o e s s u c h a set of rules f u n c t i o n ?
I n c o l u m n 1 w e a r e told t h a t t h e d o c u m e n t is " F o r t h e M [aster, T h e
R u l e of] W a r o n t h e u n l e a s h i n g of t h e a t t a c k of t h e sons of light
a g a i n s t t h e s o n s of d a r k n e s s , t h e a r m y of Belial: a g a i n s t t h e t r o o p of
E d o m , M o a b , t h e sons of A m m o n . " C o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t
c o l u m n s a r e specific d i r e c t i o n s o n t h e a s s i g n m e n t of t r o o p s (col. 2),
t h e rule for t h e t r u m p e t s (cols. 2 - 3 ) , rules f o r t h e s t a n d a r d s (cols.
3 - 4 ) , inscriptions, p r a y e r s , a n d so o n . T h e detail is e x t r a o r d i n a r y .
T h i s specificity w o u l d s e e m to h a v e a d e f i n i t e p u r p o s e . T h e n u m b e r ,
a n d p e r h a p s e v e n c o m p u l s i v e n a t u r e , of t h e rules s e e m s to i m p l y a
n e c e s s a r y state o r c o n d i t i o n m u s t b e o b t a i n e d a n d m a i n t a i n e d f o r
t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l w a r to t a k e p l a c e a n d f o r t h e S o n s of L i g h t to b e
successful. C o l u m n 16 r e i t e r a t e s t h a t " T h e y shall a c t a c c o r d i n g t o
this e n t i r e r u l e . "
T h e W a r Scroll utilizes a t h e m e a l r e a d y p r e s e n t in t h e Hebrew
Bible: holy w a r t h e i d e a t h a t a r m e d c o n f r o n t a t i o n o r d a i n e d b y G o d
a g a i n s t t h o s e w h o s t a n d ideologically o p p o s e d to t h e c h o s e n p e o p l e
of G o d is a n essential c o m p o n e n t in t h e r e o r d e r i n g of history. T h a t
angels a r e a n essential c o m p o n e n t of holy w a r f a r e is well attested
( J o s h u a 5 : 1 3 - 1 5 , 1 C h r 2 1 : 1 6 , 2 K g s 19:35, 1 M a c c 7:41 a n d 2
M a c c 15:22fi, N u m 2 2 : 2 2 , 3 M a c c 6 : 1 8 , 4 M a c c 4 : 1 0 S i r a c h 48:21).
As B a u c k h a m suggests, " h o l y w a r " t r a d i t i o n s c a n b e d i v i d e d into
t w o types: (1) t h o s e in w h i c h G o d (alone o r w i t h his h e a v e n l y forces)
is v i c t o r i o u s (e.g., E x o d 1 4 : 1 3 - 1 4 ; 2 K g s 1 9 : 3 2 - 3 5 ; et al) a n d (2)
t h o s e in w h i c h h u m a n s assist in t h e w a r f a r e . 4 5 H e n o t e s t h a t "the
o n e w o r k n o t p r e s e r v e d b y C h r i s t i a n s w h i c h d o e s give us d e t a i l e d
e v i d e n c e of ideas a b o u t a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l holy w a r in w h i c h Israelite
a r m i e s will fight is t h e W a r Scroll f r o m Q u m r a n ( 1 Q M ) . " 4 6 B a u c k h a m
h i g h l i g h t s t h e u n i q u e n e s s of t h e W a r Scroll's h u m a n p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
t h e h o l y w a r to d e m o n s t r a t e c e r t a i n similarities b e t w e e n 1 Q M and
t h e B o o k of R e v e l a t i o n .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e t h e m e of h o l y w a r in t h e H e b r e w Bible, t h e r e
is also a t r a d i t i o n of G o d as w a r r i o r . E x o d 15:3 states, " T h e L o r d
is a man of war*1 t h e L o r d is his n a m e " ( ).
T h e L X X w a s n o t as c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h calling t h e L o r d a " m a n of
w a r " a n d i n s t e a d h a s " t h e L o r d is c r u s h i n g w a r s ; the L o r d is his

45
R. Bauckham, The Climax of Prophecy, pp. 21 Off.
46
R. Bauckham, The Climax of Prophecy, p. 212.
47
See also Isa 42:13; Hos 12:6, and cf. josh 5:13.
n a m e " ( ). . Segal h a s
s h o w n t h a t in t h e r a b b i n i c t r a d i t i o n s , this p a s s a g e b e c a m e o n e of a
n u m b e r of s o u r c e s t h a t led to t h e " t w o p o w e r s " c o n t r o v e r s y , since
t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of t h e L o r d as a h u m a n w a r r i o r c o u l d h a v e b e e n
u n d e r s t o o d as a n e n t i t y s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e L o r d , especially in light
of p a s s a g e s like D a n 7:13. 4 8 F o r t h e p r e s e n t discussion, t h e p a s s a g e
is r e l e v a n t i n s o m u c h as a d i v i n e b e i n g is d e s c r i b e d as a "man."
H o w e v e r , this t h e o p h a n y d o e s n o t tell us m u c h a b o u t a n g e l s a n d
h u m a n s . Still, t h e L o r d - a s - w a r r i o r m o t i f likely i n f l u e n c e d p o r t r a y a l s
of t h e a n g e l M i c h a e l in 1 Q M a n d R e v e l a t i o n , f o r e x a m p l e .
T h e W a r Scroll, t h e n , s e e m s to allow believers to p a r t i c i p a t e in
t h e r e s t o r a t i o n of G o d ' s o r d e r in history, first t h r o u g h preparation
in t h e rules, t h e n a c t u a l l y fighting side-byside w i t h angels in t h e
final battle. 4 9
Column 1 states t h a t in t h e final struggle b e t w e e n t h e S o n s of
L i g h t a n d t h e S o n s of D a r k n e s s " t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n of divine b e i n g s
[ ]a n d t h e a s s e m b l y of m e n [ ], t h e S o n s of L i g h t , a n d t h e
lot of d a r k n e s s shall fight e a c h o t h e r " ( w . 1011). F u r t h e r m o r e , in
t h a t b a t t l e t h e r e will b e w a r cries (v. 11) f r o m b o t h t h e and
the ( v. 11). H o w e v e r w e u n d e r s t a n d , it is c l e a r t h a t t h e y
a r e s o m e t h i n g qualitatively d i f f e r e n t f r o m . T h e "congregation
of divine b e i n g s " ( ) a n d t h e " a s s e m b l y of m e n
d o b a t t l e a g a i n s t a single f o r c e , t h e lot of d a r k n e s s () . T h i s
lot, called t h e A r m y of Belial in v. 13, also s e e m s to h a v e angels
( ) a m o n g its f o r c e s (v. 15). S o a distinction is m a d e between
the t w o g r o u p s of b e i n g s i n v o l v e d , b u t t h e y s e e m to c o n s t i t u t e o n e
fighting force.
C o l u m n 7 : 4 - 6 c o n t a i n s o r d i n a n c e s for p u r i t y specifically b e c a u s e
the angels a r e to b e w i t h the host. I t states:

[4] . . . Neither lame, nor blind, nor crippled, nor a m a n in whose flesh
there is a permanent blemish, nor a m a n stricken by some uncleanliness
[5] in the flesh, none of them shall go to battle with them. T h e y shall
all be freely enlisted for war, perfect in spirit and in body and pre-
pared for the Day of Vengeance. And
[6] no m a n shall go down with them on the day of battle who is
impure because of his "fount," for the holy angels [ ] shall
be with their hosts [ ] .

48
A. Segal, Two Powers in Heaven (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1977) 33-57.
49
My conclusions regarding the nature of the War Scroll are very much like
those of C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 395-475.
T h e r e s e e m to b e t w o e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r s u c h rules. First, t h e r e m a y
h a v e b e e n m e m b e r s of t h e g r o u p w h o fit t h e s e criteria: b l i n d , d e a f ,
i n f i r m , a n d so o n ; t h u s t h e c o n c e r n w a s to e x c l u d e s u c h members
at key m o m e n t s t o e n s u r e t h e possibility of a n g e l i c p r e s e n c e . S e c o n d ,
t h e r e w e r e n o t necessarily s u c h m e m b e r s , b u t t h e i r h e i g h t e n e d sense
of p u r i t y w a s r e l a t e d to p r e p a r i n g for a holy w a r , since t h e s e p r o -
scriptions a r e v e r y m u c h like t h o s e o u t l i n e d in D e u t 2 3 : 9 1 4 for
t h o s e e n c a m p e d a g a i n s t t h e i r e n e m i e s . It is n o t possible to k n o w
w h i c h of t h e s e is t h e c a s e , o r w h e t h e r it is s o m e of b o t h .
Also, t h e a n g e l s a r e s i m p l y said t o b e "with 5 ' ( )t h e host. T h i s
d o e s n o t necessarily i m p l y a n y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of e i t h e r p a r t y but
simply a j o i n i n g of forces.
A g a i n in 12:8, t h e a n g e l s a r e said to b e a m o n g t h e m e n , "For
t h e L o r d is holy, a n d t h e g l o r i o u s king (is) w i t h us, t o g e t h e r w i t h
t h e h o l y o n e s [[ ]. . .] the h o s t of angels [ ] is a m o n g
o u r n u m b e r e d m e n [ ] . " T h e angels a r e w i t h t h e m e n , b u t
t h e r e is n o c l e a r sense t h a t t h e m e n a r e t r a n s f o r m e d , o n l y t h a t t h e y
h a v e likely a c h i e v e d a n e c e s s a r y level of p u r i t y to allow t h e angels
to b e p r e s e n t .
T h e c o m m u n i t y d o e s s e e m t o h a v e a special c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e
angels. C o l u m n 10:911 states:

[9] W h o is like your people Israel which you have chosen for your-
self from all the peoples of the lands,
[10] the people of the saints of the Covenant, instructed in the laws
and learned in wisdom, taught in d i s c e r n [ m e n t . . .]hearers of the glo-
rious voice, and seers of
[11] holy angels [ ] , open of ear, and hearers of profound
things . . .

T h e r e f e r e n c e to " h e a r e r s of t h e g l o r i o u s v o i c e " m a y m e a n n o m o r e
than understanding T o rah, but when combined with the reference
to s e e i n g angels, it suggests a m o r e i n t i m a t e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the
50
heavenly realm. N o n e of this implies t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , h o w e v e r . T h a t
t h e m e m b e r s m a y b e a b l e t o see angels is n o t e x t r a o r d i n a r y in t h e
c o n t e x t of t h e W a r Scroll itself, since n u m e r o u s p a s s a g e s s p e a k of
angels being present.
Lastly, s o m e o t h e r p a s s a g e s also s e e m to i n d i c a t e t h a t angels a r e
believed to b e p r e s e n t d u r i n g t h e final battle. T h e a r c h a n g e l s ' n a m e s
(Sariel, M i c h a e l , G a b r i e l , a n d R a p h a e l ) a r e i n v o k e d o n shields of t h e

50
C. Rowland, The Open Heaven, p. 116.
t o w e r s ( 9 : 1 4 - 1 6 ) . Also, M i c h a e l will b e definitive in t h e victory of
the S o n s of L i g h t (17:6):

H e has sent an everlasting help to the lot w h o m he has redeemed

through the might of the majestic angel. (He will set) the authority of
Michael in everlasting light. He will cause the covenant of Israel to
shine in joy. Peace and blessing to the lot of God. H e will exalt over
all the divine beings the authority of Michael and the dominion of
Israel over all the flesh.

T h e P r i n c e of L i g h t s m a y b e t h e s a m e b e i n g as M i c h a e l a n d is also
said to b e e n t r u s t e d w i t h t h e r e s c u e of t h e " S o n s of L i g h t " (13:10).
T h e W a r Scroll s h o w s us o n e J e w i s h g r o u p ' s i d e a s a b o u t t h e escha-
tological w a r t h a t w o u l d r e o r d e r history. T h e rules t h e r e i n p r o v i d e
t h e c o m m u n i t y w i t h g u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l b a t t l e t h a t is
to t a k e p l a c e b e t w e e n t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e f o r c e s of d a r k n e s s . T h a t
angels a r e m e a n t to b e a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t of this b a t d e c a n n o t b e
d o u b t e d . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e h u m a n believers t o t h e angels is
n o t entirely c l e a r , h o w e v e r . T h e p a s s a g e s c o n s i d e r e d a b o v e repre-
sent a v e r y small p e r c e n t a g e of t h e e n t i r e d o c u m e n t , w h i c h is largely
c o n c e r n e d with the actions necessary for the h u m a n community.
T h e r e is a n a p p a r e n t c o n c e r n to m a i n t a i n a h e i g h t e n e d sense of
p u r i t y to allow the a n g e l s to b e a m o n g m e n . T h e c o m b i n e d h u m a n -
angelic fighting f o r c e t h e S o n s of L i g h t w i l l c a r r y o u t G o d ' s p l a n
of d e s t r u c t i o n f o r t h e S o n s of D a r k n e s s . T h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m to b e
a n y r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e t h a t a n y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e h u m a n w a r -
riors is i n t e n d e d , at least b e f o r e a n d d u r i n g t h e final battle.

A Related Fragment: 4Q491

O n e o t h e r f r a g m e n t , a t t r i b u t e d to t h e W a r Scroll f a m i l y of texts, is
r e l e v a n t to t h e discussion of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s and
angels: 4 Q 4 9 1 f r a g m e n t 11, col. 1 w a s originally d e e m e d " T h e S o n g
of M i c h a e l a n d t h e J u s t " b y M . Baillet. 5 1 O t h e r r e c e n s i o n s of w h a t
is n o w b e l i e v e d t o b e t h e s a m e text (or at least a v e r y similar text)
a r e : 4 Q 4 7 1 b ; 4 Q 4 2 7 f r a g m e n t 7, a n d p e r h a p s 1 Q H col. 26. 5 2
Baillet w a s likely led to die conclusion t h a t t h e speaker w a s die angel
M i c h a e l b e c a u s e t h e s p e a k e r in t h e text m a k e s s o m e b o l d claims:

51
M. Baillet, DJD VII (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982) 45-49.
52
E. Schuller, "A Hymn from a Cave Four Hodayaot Manuscript: 4Q427 7 i +
ii" JBL 112 (1993) 605-628.
 [12] . . . a powerful throne in the congregation of divine beings [],
on which all the kings of the East cannot sit, and their nobles [. . .]
stand still
[13][. . .] my glory. None is exalted besides me, and none comes to
me, for I have sat on [. . .] in the heavens. T h e r e is no
[14][. . .]jbwm I reckon myself a m o n g the divine beings [ ] , and
my place (is) in the holy congregation.

V e r s e 18 adds, " F o r I a m r e c k o [ n e d ] a m o n g t h e divine b e i n g s [],

[ a n d ] m y glory is w i t h the k i n g ' s s o n s . "
T h e a t t r i b u t i o n of these w o r d s to t h e a n g e l M i c h a e l h a s b e e n c h a l -
lenged by M . Smith, w h o thinks that Michael would not c o m p a r e
himself to s u c h " s m a l l f r y " as e a r t h l y kings ( A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s ) . 5 3
S m i t h sees this as a c l a i m m a d e b y t h e M a s t e r , p e r h a p s t h e T e a c h e r
of R i g h t e o u s n e s s , to a h e a v e n l y seat. J . Collins n o t e s t h a t S m i t h ' s
position n e e d s s o m e q u a l i f i c a t i o n . S m i t h is c o r r e c t t h a t t h e b e i n g is
n o t a n a n g e l , b u t h e is i n c o r r e c t t o say t h a t this text r e p r e s e n t s a n
a s c e n t . C o l l i n s suggests t h a t it is c l o s e r t o texts t h a t discuss t h e
d e i f i c a t i o n ( e n t h r o n e m e n t ) of M o s e s t h a n m y s t i c a l a s c e n t texts. 5 4
Collins's q u a l i f i c a t i o n s s e e m t o m a k e m o r e sense of t h e text as it
currently stands.
H o w e v e r this p a s s a g e is u n d e r s t o o d , it s e e m s c l e a r e n o u g h that
t h e i n d i v i d u a l s p e a k i n g sees himself to h a v e b e e n e x a l t e d a n d is n o w
a m o n g t h e g r o u p called t h e ( line 14) a n d t h a t this g r o u p c o u l d
b e u n d e r s t o o d as a class o r type of angels. 5 5

4.3 The Hodayot (1QH)

T h e Hodayot, o r T h a n k s g i v i n g Scroll, w a s d i s c o v e r e d in c a v e 1, sur-

viving in t w o originally s e p a r a t e m a n u s c r i p t s as well as s o m e sixty-
five f r a g m e n t s . T h e r e a r e e i g h t e e n c o l u m n s w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e l y thirty
h y m n s e x t a n t . T h e h y m n s likely d a t e t o t h e first c e n t u r y B C E . 5 6 A

53
M. Smith, "Two Ascended to Heaven: Jesus and the Author of 4Q491" in Jesus
and the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. J . Charlesworth (New York: Doubleday, 1992) 290-301.
54
J. Collins, "A Throne in the Heavens: Apotheosis in pre-Christian Judaism"
in Death, Ecstasy and Other Worldly Journeys, ed. J. Collins and M. Fishbane (New
York: SUNY, 1995) 43-58.
55
The terms and do appear elsewhere in the 4 Q material: 4QM1
frag. 1-3, v. 3; frag. 5 - 6 v. 1; frag. 13 v. 1; 4QM5 frag. 2 v. 4; 4QM6 frag. 2 v.
2; 3 v. 5, but they add comparatively little to our overall understanding due to
their limited context.
56
D. Dimant, "Qumran Sectarian Literature," p. 107.
f e w s c h o l a r s h a v e e v e n a s s e r t e d t h a t s o m e h y m n s in t h e first p e r s o n
m a y h a v e b e e n written by the T e a c h e r of Righteousness. 5 7 Nevertheless,
their authorship remains uncertain.
H . K u h n ' s w o r k w a s a m o n g t h e first t o suggest the angel-com-
58
m u n i t y i d e a f o r this text. O t h e r s h a v e n o t e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e of this
w o r k in u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n g e l - h u m a n c o m m u n i t i e s as well. 5 9
T h e h y m n s m a k e k n o w n t h e full p o t e n t i a l of t h e believers. C o l u m n
1 1 : 2 0 - 2 2 says:

[20] And I know there is hope

[21] for someone you fashioned out of clay to be an everlasting com-
munity. T h e corrupt spirit you have purified from the great sin so that
he can take his place
[22] with the host of the holy ones, a n d can enter in communion with
the congregation of the sons of heaven [ ] .

H e r e t h e t e r m " a n g e l " d o e s n o t a p p e a r explicitly, b u t t h e situation

s e e m s relatively clear. T h o s e " f a s h i o n e d o u t of c l a y , " h u m a n b e i n g s
( G e n 2:7) w i t h a " c o r r u p t spirit" ( h u m a n s in a fallen state), h a v e a
c h a n c e to t a k e t h e i r p l a c e w i t h t h e " h o l y o n e s , " e n t e r i n g i n t o c o m -
m u n i o n w i t h t h e " s o n s of h e a v e n . " 6 T h i s s e e m s t o suggest a r e t u r n
to a p u r e r , p e r h a p s p r e - F a l l state (cf. A d a m in 3.1 above). I n this
case, h u m a n s b e g i n as s o m e t h i n g d i s t i n c t t h a t is, " t h o s e f a s h i o n e d
o u t of c l a y " w i t h a " c o r r u p t spirit." T h e righteous are purified a n d
e n t e r i n t o c o m m u n i o n w i t h t h e angels.
M e n a n d angels a r e m e n t i o n e d in 1 Q H c o l u m n 14:1213:

[12] . . . For you have brought [your truth and your] glory
[13] to all the men of your council [ ] and in the lot,
together with the angels of the face [ ] , without there being
an interpreter [ ]between y [ 0 u r holy o n e s . . . ]

T h e t e r m a p p e a r s in this p a s s a g e a n d s e e m s j u x t a p o s e d w i t h
t h e " m e n " of t h e c o u n c i l . T h e e n d of line 13 is suggestive. It says
" w i t h o u t t h e r e b e i n g a b e t w e e n . " 6 1 T h e text b r e a k s off a f t e r

57
J. Hyatt, "The View of the Man in the Qumran 'Hodayot'," NTS 2 (1955-1956)
276-284; H. Stegemann, Library, p. 107.
58
H. Kuhn, Enderwartung, pp. 66-72.
59
See, C. Rowland, The Open Heaven, pp. 116-118; C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts,
pp. 185-188 and All the Glory, pp. 104-112; C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology,
p. 174.
60
H. Kuhn, Enderwartung, pp. 91-92, argues that the "holy ones" should be under-
stood as angels, and this seems correct.
61
Interestingly, in Job 33:23 the term is used in connection with , and
the two terms may even stand in apposition.
this p o i n t . T h a t m e n m a y be t o g e t h e r w i t h " a n g e l s of t h e f a c e " is
significant. I t m a y reflect a u n i o n w i t h t h e a n g e l s t h a t n e e d s no
m e d i a t i o n . T h e s o m e w h a t f r a g m e n t a r y n a t u r e of the text is frustrating,
since a c l e a r c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o g r o u p s c a n n o t b e m a d e .
In 1 Q H 1 9 : 1 0 - 1 4 t h e r e s e e m s t o b e a c o n c e r n for p u r i t y so t h a t
m e m b e r s c a n a t t a i n a n e l e v a t e d status:

[10] For your glory, you have purified m a n f r o m sin,

[11] so that he can make himself holy for you from every impure
abomination and blameworthy iniquity, to become united with the sons
of your truth and the lot of your holy ones,
[12] to raise the worms of the dead from the dust, to an [everlasting]
community and from a depraved spirit, to your knowledge,
[13] so that he can take his place in your presence with the peipet-
ual host and the [everlasting] spirits, to renew him with everything
that will exist,
[14] and with those who know in a community of jubilation.

A n g e l s a r e n o t explicitly m e n t i o n e d , b u t t h e p e r p e t u a l h o s t suggests
t h e a n g e l s w h o c o n s t a n t l y w o r s h i p G o d in t h e h e a v e n l y t e m p l e . T h i s
p a s s a g e is n o t u n l i k e c o l u m n 11 a b o v e in t h a t it a p p a r e n t l y speaks
of a r e s t o r a t i o n to a sinless state. S u c h a p u r i f i e d state s e e m s to allow
t h e m e m b e r s t o b e c o m e p a r t of t h e a n g e l i c host. It is n o t c l e a r
w h e t h e r this w o u l d h a p p e n in t h e i r m o r t a l lives o r a f t e r , b u t it is at
least plausible t h a t t h e i n t e n t i o n is f o r a this-life e l e v a t e d state. 5 2
T h e T h a n k s g i v i n g H y m n s a r e suggestive. S o m e passages give t h a n k s
for a p u r i f i e d state in w h i c h it s e e m s h u m a n s c o u l d b e in c o m m u n i o n
w i t h t h e h e a v e n l y host. T h e r e is a c l e a r sense t h a t h u m a n s b e g i n as
flesh a n d b l o o d ( f o r m e d o u t of clay) a n d a r e sinful ( a n d in n e e d of
purification). O n c e t r a n s f o r m e d f r o m the h u m a n condition, they
a p p a r e n t l y b e l i e v e d in t h e possibility of b e i n g identified w i t h angels
in h e a v e n .

4.4 The Rule of the Community (1QS, lQSa, and lQSbf

T h e R u l e of the C o m m u n i t y was also discovered in cave 1. C o n t a i n e d

o n the s a m e scroll a r e t h r e e w o r k s t h a t a r e n o t c o n t i n u o u s : (1) t h e
R u l e of t h e C o m m u n i t y ( 1 Q S ) , (2) t h e R u l e of t h e Congregation
( l Q S a ) , a n d (3) t h e R u l e of t h e Blessings ( l Q S b ) . All t h r e e w o r k s

62
C. Rowland, The Open Heaven, pp. 117-118.
63
Additionally, there are fragments from cave 4 (4Q255-264) and perhaps cave
5 (5QJ 1) that are part of S.
a r e in t h e s a m e h a n d . It is believed to h a v e b e e n c o m p o s e d s o m e t i m e
a r o u n d 1 5 0 - 1 0 0 B C E . 6 4 T h e Serekh c o n t a i n s g u i d e l i n e s f o r c o m m u -
n a l living. T h a t t h e r e a r e t h r e e w o r k s w r i t t e n o n t h e s a m e scroll
suggests t h a t t h e r e m a y b e s o m e relation a m o n g t h e m , b u t this s h o u l d
not be automatically assumed.
1 Q S 11:7 8 suggests a f u s i n g of t h e e a r t h l y c o m m u n i t y w i t h t h e
heavenly:

[7] . . . T o those whom G o d has selected he has given them an ever-

lasting possession; until they inherit t h e m in the lot of
[8] the holy ones []. H e joins their assembly to the sons of heaven
[ ] in order for the counsel of the Community and a foundation
of the building of holiness to be an eternal plantation throughout
[9] all future ages. . .

T h e r e is n o explicit m e n t i o n of angels i n t h e p a s s a g e itself, b u t if

t h e " h o l y o n e s " a r e u n d e r s t o o d as r e f e r r i n g t o t h e h u m a n c o m m u n i t y
a n d t h e " s o n s of h e a v e n " to h e a v e n l y beings, t h e n w e c o u l d p e r h a p s
i n f e r a c o m b i n i n g of t h e t w o g r o u p s . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e p a s s a g e
suggests t h a t t h e t w o g r o u p s a r e distinct a n d will o n l y b e j o i n e d
t o g e t h e r a t a specific p o i n t in t i m e . T h e i r j o i n i n g t o g e t h e r d o e s h a v e
a p e r m a n e n t effect (lines 8 9 ) . C . R o w l a n d suggests h e r e t h a t t h e
c o m m u n i t y c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d as " a n e x t e n s i o n of t h e h e a v e n l y
w o r l d , " a d d i n g , " G o d h a s , as it w e r e , e x t e n d e d t h e b o u n d a r i e s of
h e a v e n to i n c l u d e this h a v e n of holiness." 6 5
l Q S a sets o u t r e g u l a t i o n s f o r t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n ( m e n , w o m e n , a n d
c h i l d r e n ) . T h e r e a r e o n l y t w o e x t a n t c o l u m n s , b e g i n n i n g , " N o w this
is t h e R u l e f o r t h e e n t i r e c o n g r e g a t i o n of Israel, d u r i n g t h e end
t i m e . " T h e R u l e of die C o n g r e g a t i o n 2 : 5 ~ 9 explicitly m e n t i o n s angels.
T h e c o n c e r n h e r e is f o r t h e p u r i t y of t h e m e m b e r s , b e c a u s e the
angels a r e said to b e " a m o n g t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n . "

[5] . . . And everyone who is defiled in his flesh, defiled in his feet or
[6] in the hands, lame 01 blind, deaf or d u m b 01 defiled in his flesh
with a blemish
[7] visible to the eyes, or an old m a n who cannot maintain himself
in the congregation;
[8] these shall not enter to take their place a m o n g the congregation
of the men of name, for angels
[8] of holiness are a m o n g their congre [gation] . . .

64
D. Dirnant, "Qumran," pp. 497-498; H. Stegemann, Library, p. 107.
65
C. Rowland, The Open Heaven, p. 118.
T h i s text q u i t e clearly states t h a t a n g e l s a r e in t h e m i d s t of d i e c o m -
m u n i t y (cf. 1 Q M 7:6, 12:8 above). First, it s e e m s t h e r e m a y well
h a v e b e e n m e m b e r s of t h e g r o u p w h o fit t h e s e criteria: b l i n d , d e a f ,
i n f i r m , etc. If this w e r e t r u e , t h e n c e r t a i n l y n o t all m e m b e r s w o u l d
be a b l e to p a r t i c i p a t e in a n y c e r e m o n y t h a t m i g h t involve t h e p r s -
e n c e of angels. S e c o n d l y , t h a t t h e a n g e l s a r e said to b e p r e s e n t d o e s
n o t m e a n m e m b e r s a r e in a n y w a y t r a n s f o r m e d by t h e i r p r e s e n c e .
T h e r e is p e r h a p s t h e possibility t h a t t h e p u r e m e m b e r s of the c o m -
m u n i t y a r e m e a n t to b e in s o m e w a y t r a n s f o r m e d t h r o u g h their
e x p e r i e n c e , b u t this is b y n o m e a n s necessary.
1 Q S b , T h e R u l e of t h e Blessings, c o l u m n 4 reads:

[24] . . . and you

[25] like an angel of the face [ ] in the holy residence for
the glory of the G o d of Hosts [.. .] [. . .] you be around, serving in
the temple of
[26] the kingdom, casting lot with the angels of the face []
and the Council of the Community . . .

T h i s p a s s a g e is e v e n m o r e suggestive of t h e possible angelic status

of t h e believers. I n line 2 4 only t h e w o r d is e x t a n t , b u t m a n y
t r a n s l a t o r s suggest r e a d i n g s like " m a y y o u b e like" o r " y o u shall b e
like" a n a n g e l of t h e f a c e . T h e s e a r e possible r e a d i n g s , b u t t h e y sug-
gest a p a r t i c u l a r m e a n i n g . 5 6 It is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e t h e p r e f i x to
. It m a k e s a c o m p a r i s o n (like o r as), n o t a n e q u a t i o n (cf. G a l
4:14). I n line 26, t h e angels of t h e f a c e a r e a g a i n m e n t i o n e d , and
t h e s a m e f o r m r e c u r s n e a r t h e e n d of line 25. I n line 26 w e
also get t h e v e r b . It is n o t entirely c l e a r w h a t this p h r a s e m e a n s
(cf. Ps 22:19). 6 7

4.5 Songs of the Sage (4Q511 Fragment 35)

T h e S o n g s of t h e S a g e a r e a n u m b e r of f r a g m e n t s t h a t s e e m t o b e
h y m n s against d e m o n s a n d evil spirits. T h e y are written in a H e r o d i a n

66
E.g., J. Charlesworth and L. Stuckenbruck, The Rule of the Community and Related
Documents (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1994) 127-128; F. Garcia-Martinez,
The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994) 433.
67
C. Fletcher-Louis (All the Glory, pp. 150-161) discusses this text in light of
"priestly" anthropomorphism. While his exegesis is interesting, his synthetic approach
of tying the priesthood to this text is not one that is accepted here.
script a n d d a t e to a r o u n d d i e t u r n of t h e era. 6 8 O n f r a g m e n t 3 5
n i n e lines a r e e x t a n t , t h o u g h o n l y seven c a n b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h
c o n f i d e n c e . T h e first five lines a r e of t h e m o s t interest. L i n e 4 in
p a r t i c u l a r c o u l d b e s e e n as e q u a t i n g priests, t h e r i g h t e o u s p e o p l e ,
G o d ' s a r m y (or host), his servants, a n d t h e a n g e l s t h a t a r e a b l e t o
see the . A fairly literal t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e first five lines is o f f e r e d :

[1] G o d against all flesh, and a j u d g m e n t of vengeance to destroy

wickedness, and through the raging
[2] anger of God. Some of those who are refined seven times and the
holy ones [ [

ary, and purity a m o n g those purified. And they

[4] shall be priests [], his righteous people [ ] , his host
[ ]and his servants [], the angels of his glory [ [

T h e " h o l y o n e s " of line 2 a r e usually u n d e r s t o o d t o b e t h e h u m a n

c o m m u n i t y . 6 9 A s s u m i n g this is d i e case, t h e n t h e r e f e r e n t of t h e v a r -
ious titles of line 4 c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d as t h e h u m a n " h o l y o n e s , "
in w h i c h c a s e " a n g e l s of his g l o r y " c o u l d b e o n e of t h o s e titles.
M . Baillet b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e " h o l y o n e s " w o u l d b e c o m e "servants"
of t h e angels. T h e final mem. of i n d i c a t e s o t h e r w i s e , since a
construct form would be expected.
M . D a v i d s o n sees a b r e a k at "his s e r v a n t s " a n d b e g i n s a n e w sen-
t e n c e w i t h " t h e angels of his glory will praise h i m . " 7 0 T h i s is a p l a u -
sible t r a n s l a t i o n , in w h i c h case t h e r e w o u l d b e n o e q u a t i o n b e t w e e n
h u m a n s a n d angels. As D a v i d s o n himself says, " N o w h e r e else in t h e
c o r p u s [of Q u m r a n l i t e r a t u r e ] is t h e r e f o u n d a n e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t t h e
sectaries will live in h e a v e n , let a l o n e b e c o m e a n g e l s . " 1
C . G i e s c h e n s i m p l y n o t e s line 4 as a n e x a m p l e of a n equation
b e i n g m a d e b e t w e e n priests a n d angels. 7 2 C . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s goes
m u c h f u r t h e r , r e f u t i n g translations t h a t w o u l d n e g a t e equality b e t w e e n
a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s h e r e . 7 3 H e s u p p o r t s this position b y c o n n e c t i n g

68
M. Baillet, DJB VII (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982) 215, 219. Hebrew text
taken from pp. 237-238, pl. LXII.
69
M. Baillet, DJD VII, pp. 237-238; M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran, pp. 282-285;
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 190.
70
M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran, p. 284.
71
M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran, p. 284.
72
C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 174.
73
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 189-193. See also C. Fletcher-Louis, All the
Glory, pp. 293-296.
t h e Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e w i t h t h e E s s e n e s a n d suggesting t h a t w i t h i n
t h e sect w e r e s o m e w h o r e m a i n e d c e l i b a t e b e c a u s e t h e y deemed
t h e m s e l v e s t o b e living in a "state of T e m p l e p u r i t y , " w h i c h they
u n d e r s t o o d as e q u i v a l e n t to a n " a n g e l i c existence." 7 4 J o s e p h u s (B.J.
2 : 1 1 9 - 1 2 1 , 1 6 0 - 1 6 1 ) does r e c o r d drat t h e r e w e r e two types of Essenes,
o n e s t h a t led a c e l i b a t e life a n d o t h e r s t h a t m a r r i e d . T h e problem
in c o n n e c t i n g t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls as a c o r p u s
w i t h w h a t J o s e p h u s says a b o u t t h e Essenes is t h a t t h e link b e t w e e n
t h e scrolls a n d t h e Essenes is n o t c e r t a i n . It m a y well b e w a r r a n t e d ,
b u t a n y conclusions b a s e d o n such a c o n n e c t i o n m u s t r e m a i n tentative.
T h i s f r a g m e n t in a n d of itself d o e s n o t p r o v i d e m u c h i n f o r m a t i o n
a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. A n u m b e r of
t r a n s l a t i o n s a r e possible, s o m e of w h i c h w o u l d m e a n t h a t n o e q u a t i o n
is i n t e n d e d b e t w e e n t h e h u m a n "holy o n e s " a n d t h e " a n g e l s of glory."
Lastly, t h e r e a r e t w o o t h e r pieces of e v i d e n c e b e y o n d t h e D e a d
S e a Scrolls t h a t n e e d to b e c o n s i d e r e d f o r possible c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t
e n v i s i o n e d t h e m s e l v e s as living t o g e t h e r w i t h angels.

4.6 The Corinthian Community

P a u l s e e m s to h a v e h a d a special r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e c o m m u n i t y
in C o r i n t h , w r i t i n g a n d visiting t h e m o f t e n . A s n o t e d , t h e term
a p p e a r s o n l y t e n times in t h e seven letters c o n s i d e r e d to b e
a u t h e n t i c a l l y P a u l i n e (see 3.13). F o u r of t h o s e t e n o c c u r in 1 C o r ,
a n o t h e r t w o in 2 C o r . T h e m o s t suggestive p a s s a g e in t e r m s of
h u m a n - a n g e l i n t e r a c t i o n is 1 C o r 11. P a u l ' s d i s c u s s i o n concerns
p r o p e r w o r s h i p (11:2). I n 11:3 h e says, " t h e h e a d of even, m a n is
C h r i s t , t h e h e a d of a w o m a n is h e r h u s b a n d , a n d t h e h e a d of C h r i s t
is G o d " (11:3). I n 11:10 P a u l m a k e s t h e e n i g m a t i c s t a t e m e n t , " T h a t
is w h y a w o m a n o u g h t t o h a v e [ (lit. " a u t h o r i t y , " though
m o s t t r a n s l a t e as " v e i l " as a s y m b o l of a u t h o r i t y ) ] o n h e r head,
75
b e c a u s e of t h e a n g e l s [ ] ." T w o issues a r e involved
a n d a r e integrally linked f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e passage: t h e m e a n -
i n g of t h e u p o n t h e w o m a n ' s h e a d a n d t h e m e a n i n g of t h e
p h r a s e .

74
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 192-195.
75
The word "veil" appears in several mss. and Patristic sources (Irenaeus,
Jerome). It appears to be a gloss meant to explain the difficult term . See
also Tertullian, Virg. Vet. 7:2.
 M a n y i n t e r p r e t e r s suggest t h a t t h e " a u t h o r i t y " o n h e r h e a d is a
m a r k of s u b o r d i n a t i o n in k e e p i n g with P a u l ' s s t a t e m e n t in 11:3. O t h e r s
h a v e suggested t h a t it is simply a veil t h a t is m e a n t t o m a i n t a i n t h e
c o r r e c t social m o r e s in k e e p i n g with 11:5: t h a t is, a w o m a n ' s b a r e
h e a d is like a s h o r n h e a d - it is n o t socially a c c e p t a b l e . T h i s d o e s n o t
explain w h y P a u l t h e n includes the p h r a s e t , h o w e v e r .
It h a s b e e n suggested t h a t the sense m a y b e t h a t w i t h o u t some
sort of c o v e r i n g f o r t h e i r h e a d s as a p r o p h y l a c t i c , t h e w o m e n of t h e
C o r i n t h i a n c o n g r e g a t i o n w e r e v u l n e r a b l e t o evil angels s u c h as t h e
"sons of G o d " w h o lusted a f t e r w o m e n ( G e n 6:2). 76 T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
h a s o n t h e w h o l e b e e n d i s r e g a r d e d , since it d o e s n o t m a k e sense in
the c o n t e x t of P a u l ' s discussion. P a u l h a s n o t said a n y t h i n g t o sug-
gest these angels a r e p r e s e n t o r w o u l d r e p r e s e n t a n y p r o b l e m . 7 7 O t h e r
i n t e r p r e t e r s h a v e suggested t h a t t h e a n g e l i c p r e s e n c e m a y b e " g o o d "
angels i n t e r e s t e d in t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of t h e o r d e r of c r e a t i o n and
p r o p e r w o r s h i p . 7 8 I n s u c h a case, t h e w o m e n m u s t b e veiled b e c a u s e
t h e y will l e a d t h e a n g e l s to sin. 7 9
J . F i t z m y e r h a s o b s e r v e d t h a t P a u l ' s s t a t e m e n t reflects a n i d e a seen
in s o m e of t h e t e x t s f r o m t h e D e a d Sea c o m m u n i t y considered
a b o v e n a m e l y , t h a t angels s e e m to dwell a m o n g t h e a c t u a l h u m a n
m e m b e r s of t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n at specific times. 8 0 I n this case t h e c o n -
c e r n of P a u l a n d t h e C o r i n t h i a n s is s o m e t h i n g a k i n to w h a t is seen
in t h e W a r Scroll (cf. D e u t 32), w h e r e p u r i t y is a n issue in o r d e r
for a n g e l s t o b e p r e s e n t . T h e w o m e n n e e d to h a v e t h e i r "veils"
b e c a u s e t h e i r u n c o v e r e d h e a d s r e p r e s e n t t h e e q u i v a l e n t of a " b o d i l y
d e f e c t . " F i t z m y e r s u m m a r i z e s his insights f r o m the Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e :
" W e a r e invited b y t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m Q u m r a n to u n d e r s t a n d that
the u n v e i l e d h e a d of a w o m a n is like a b o d i l y d e f e c t w h i c h s h o u l d
be e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e a s s e m b l y , ' b e c a u s e h o l y a n g e l s a r e p r e s e n t in

76
B. Reicke, The Disobedient Spirits and Christian Baptism (Copenhagen: Munksgaard,
1946).
77
M. Hooker, "Authority on Her Head: An Examination of I Cor XI. 10" NTS
10 (1964) 412; G. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans,
1987) 521.
78
Foerster, TDNT 2:573f.; M. Hooker, "Authority on Her Head," pp. 412-413.
79
Cf. T. Reu. 5.
80
J . Fitzmyer, "A Feature of Qumran Angelology and the Angels of 1 Cor 11:10"
in Paul and Qumran, ed. J . Murphy-O'Connor (London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1968)
187-204. See also H. Cadbury, "A Qumran Parallel to Paul" Harvard Theological
Review 51 (1958) 1-2.
the c o n g r e g a t i o n . 8 " ' T h e evidence f r o m Q u m r a n demonstrates a
c o n c e r n e q u a l l y for i n f i r m a n d i m p u r e m e n as it is d o e s f o r w o m e n .
M . H o o k e r h a s o f f e r e d a slightly d i f f e r e n t exegesis. 8 2 S h e suggests
t h a t b e t a k e n t o m e a n " a u t h o r i t y " in t h e sense t h a t the
w o m e n in t h e C o r i n t h i a n c o m m u n i t y c a n p r a y a n d p r o p h e s y side-
by-side w i t h m e n in t h e C o r i n t h i a n c o m m u n i t y . T h e r e is n o w a y t o
be c e r t a i n of P a u l ' s m e a n i n g h e r e , b u t it is n e c e s s a r y to h a v e a n
i d e a of t h e r a n g e of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s since t h e s e a r e integrally r e l a t e d
to h o w o n e i n t e r p r e t s .
F i t z m y e r ' s a n d H o o k e r ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a r e n o t m u t u a l l y exclusive,
h o w e v e r . 8 3 B o t h suggest t h a t t h e angels a r e p r e s e n t in t h e c o m m u n i t y
d u e to a c o n c e r n f o r p r o p e r w o r s h i p . P e r h a p s , r a t h e r t h a n s e e i n g t h e
u n v e i l e d h e a d as a " b o d i l y d e f e c t " t h a t r e q u i r e s a veil, it is m o r e
n a t u r a l t o t a k e as " a u t h o r i t y , " as H o o k e r suggests. The
" a u t h o r i t y " is a sign t h a t in this n e w c o m m u n i t y w o m e n a r e e m p o w -
e r e d to p r a y a n d p r o p h e s y as m e n . T h e is a sign to t h e
a n g e l s t h a t this is c o r r e c t a n d p a r t of t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r t h a t P a u l
o u t l i n e d in 11:3. As w a s t h e case w i t h m u c h of t h e m a t e r i a l f r o m
Q u m r a n a n d as will b e t h e case in t h e text b e l o w (4.7), t h e c o n c e r n
f o r p u r i t y in o r d e r t h a t a n g e l s c a n dwell w i t h h u m a n s s e e m s to b e
i m p o r t a n t , b u t t h e m a y also b e a sign t h a t t h r o u g h b a p t i s m
i n t o t h e c o m m u n i t y a n g e l s c o u l d dwell w i t h w o m e n as well as m e n .
1 Cor 11:10 is n o t t h e o n l y p a s s a g e t h a t suggests t h o s e in t h e
C o r i n d n a n c o m m u n i t y believed in t h e p r e s e n c e of angels. I n 1 C o r
4 : 9 P a u l says, " F o r I t h i n k t h a t G o d has exhibited us apostles
[] as last of all, like m e n s e n t e n c e d to d e a t h [];
because w e h a v e b e c o m e a spectacle [] to the world [],
to angels a n d to m e n [ ] . " I n this section,
P a u l is d e f e n d i n g his a p o s t l e s h i p . H e w a r n s t h e C o r i n t h i a n s a g a i n s t
j u d g i n g a n y p e r s o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y " s e r v a n t s " s u c h as himself o r Apollos,
w h o h a v e c o m e to h i m to s p r e a d t h e gospel. I t is n o t entirely c l e a r
w h y P a u l b r i n g s a n g e l s i n t o this discussion. It m a y simply b e a w a y
of talking a b o u t t h e entire cosmos. 8 4 H o w e v e r , t h e i r inclusion suggests

81
J. Fitzmyer, "A Feature of Qumran Angelology," p. 200.
82
M. Hooker, "Authority on Her Head," pp. 411-416.
83
In discussion at the Graduate NT Seminar (Oxford, UK on 31 January 2002),
Prof. Hooker said she did not see a great difference between hers and J. Fitzmyer's
interpretation of the passage.
84
G. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdrnans, 1987) 521.
t h a t P a u l a n d p e r h a p s his a u d i e n c e b e l i e v e d t h a t a n g e l s t o o k an
interest in t h e affairs of h u m a n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e c a r r y i n g o u t G o d ' s
work.85
I n 1 C o r 6:3 P a u l asks, " D o y o u n o t k n o w t h a t w e will j u d g e
[] 8 6 angels []? H o w m u c h m o r e [], m a t t e r s
p e r t a i n i n g to this life!" T h e c o n t e x t is P a u l ' s discussion regarding
m e m b e r s of the C o r i n t h i a n c h u r c h w h o a r e b r i n g i n g o n e another
b e f o r e s e c u l a r a u t h o r i t i e s to solve disputes. I n 6:2 P a u l asks, "Do
y o u n o t k n o w t h a t t h e saints [oi ] will j u d g e [] d i e w o r l d
[ ] ? " M o s t i n t e r p r e t e r s t a k e t h i s v e r s e t o r e f e r t o the
C o r i n t h i a n s . T h u s , P a u l s e e m s to b e saying t h a t m e m b e r s of t h e c o m -
m u n i t i e s h a v e b e e n given a special p o w e r / o b l i g a t i o n to m a k e j u d g -
m e n t s n o w a b o u t angels. T h i s w o u l d i m p l y a s u p e r i o r i t y of h u m a n s
o v e r a n g e l s (cf. H e b 2:5), w h i c h i n t u r n w o u l d c e r t a i n l y suggest a
s t r o n g distinction b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels.
Lastly, P a u l m a y h i n t a t a n angelic a t t r i b u t e for himself in 1 C o r
13:1 w h e n h e says t h a t h e c a n " s p e a k in t h e t o n g u e s of a n g e l s a n d
m e n " ( ). 8 7 It
s e e m s n a t u r a l f r o m t h e c o n t e x t to t a k e this to r e f e r to t h e ecstatic
p o w e r of s p e a k i n g in t o n g u e s (spiritual gifts []), b u t p e r -
h a p s it m e a n s s o m e t h i n g m o r e in t h e sense of a c t u a l l y s p e a k i n g t h e
l a n g u a g e of t h e angels. P a u l d o e s n o t say t h a t h e does, only "if h e
w e r e t o " s p e a k as a n angel. T h i s w o u l d b e parallel t o P a u l ' s use of
the h y p e r b o l e in G a l 1:8, " B u t e v e n if w e , o r a n a n g e l f r o m h e a v e n ,
s h o u l d p r e a c h to y o u a g o s p e l c o n t r a r y t o t h a t w h i c h w e p r e a c h e d
to y o u , let h i m b e a c c u r s e d . " Still, in light of t h e fact t h a t P a u l uses
the t e r m o n t h r e e o t h e r o c c a s i o n s in 1 C o r , it is at least c o n c e i v a b l e
t h a t h e uses this a n a l o g y b e c a u s e it is f u n c t i o n a l for t h e C o r i n t h i a n s .
T h u s , t h e only p a s s a g e t h a t s e e m s explicitly to r e f e r to t h e p r s -
e n c e of a n g e l s is 1 C o r 11:10: " b e c a u s e of t h e a n g e l s . " T h e c u m u -
lative effect of t h e f o u r C o r i n t h i a n p a s s a g e s m i g h t suggest m o r e t h a n
a p a s s i n g i n t e r e s t in t h e p r e s e n c e of a n g e l s in t h e c o m m u n i t y , b u t
t h e r e is n o w a y to b e c e r t a i n . I n 1 C o r 4 : 9 P a u l s e e m s t o say t h a t
angels as well as m e n o b s e r v e h u m a n affairs. 1 C o r 11:10 i n d i c a t e s

85
M. Hooker, "Authority on Her Head," p. 413.
86
That the verb is future indicative suggests that perhaps Paul is referring to an
eschatological setting for this judgment scene.
87
Speaking in the angelic dialect was an aspect at least one other text consid-
ered abovein the transformation undergone by the daughters of Job in T. Job 48
when they donned special clothing. In that case both their hearts and mouths were
transformed, which is not unlike Paul's overall message in 1 Cor 13.
s o m e specific c o n c e r n a b o u t a n g e l s ' p r e s e n c e a t liturgy. T h e enig-
m a t i c s t a t e m e n t in 1 C o r 6 : 3 p l a c e s h u m a n s in j u d g m e n t of angels,
a n d lastly in 1 C o r 13:1 P a u l h i n t s a t t h e possibility of s p e a k i n g in
a n a n g e l i c dialect, b u t this m a y simply b e s o m e kind of a n a l o g y .
T h e C o r i n t h i a n c o m m u n i t y m a y not have been the only early
C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y to h a v e h a d s u c h beliefs. C o l 2:18 says, " L e t
n o o n e disqualify y o u , insisting o n s e l f - a b a s e m e n t a n d w o r s h i p of
a n g e l s [ ], t a k i n g his s t a n d o n visions, p u f f e d u p
w i t h o u t r e a s o n b y his s e n s u o u s m i n d . " R o w l a n d a r g u e s p e r s u a s i v e l y
for t a k i n g as a subjective genitive. 8 8 T h i s m e a n s t h a t it
is n o t t h e c o m m u n i t y w o r s h i p p i n g angels, b u t i n s t e a d t h e c o m m u -
nity is c o n c e r n e d f o r t h e w o r s h i p of t h e angels in h e a v e n . T w o r e c e n t
studies s h o w t h a t s c h o l a r s h i p is m o v i n g in this direction. 8 9
T h e e v i d e n c e h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m t o suggest a n y identification
b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. O n t h e c o n t r a r y , it s e e m s to m a i n t a i n
die distinction. 111 1 C o r 11:10 the is n e e d e d .
H u m a n f e m a l e s n e e d s o m e type of d i s t i n g u i s h i n g m a r k b e c a u s e of
t h e angels. P a u l says h e c o u l d speak in t h e t o n g u e of m e n or angels
(13:1). A n g e l s and m e n (not necessarily t o g e t h e r ) o b s e r v e t h e a p o s -
ties, w h o h a v e b e c o m e a spectacle, a n d h u m a n s j u d g e a n g e l s (4:9).
E v e n in 6:3, w h e r e P a u l suggests t h a t h u m a n s m a y j u d g e t h e angels,
t h e r e b y giving h u m a n s a s u p e r i o r p o s i t i o n , t h e r e is still a distinction
b e t w e e n t h e classes of beings. N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e e v i d e n c e d o e s sug-
gest t h a t P a u l a n d t h e C o r i n t h i a n c o m m u n i t y saw t h e liturgical s p a c e
as o n e w h e r e h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s c o u l d a n d did i n t e r a c t . B u t at t h e
s a m e t i m e the n e c e s s a r y s e p a r a t i o n / d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d
angels is m a i n t a i n e d .

4.7 The Community of the Rechabites (Hist. Rech.)

T h e text k n o w n as T h e History of die R e c h a b i t e s (also sometimes called

t h e A p o c a l y p s e of Z o s i m u s ) is difficult to d a t e . T h e first translator
of t h e text suggested t h a t t h e Hist. Rech, c a m e f r o m a fifth-century

88
C. Rowland, "Apocalyptic Visions and the Exaltation of Christ in the Letter
to the Colossians" JSNT 19 (1983) 73-83. See also F. Francis, "Humility and Angelic
Veneration in Col 2:18" in Conflict at Cotossae, rev. ed., ed. F. Francis and W. Meeks
(Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1975) 163-195.
89
J. Dunn, The Epistles to the Colossiatis and U> Philemon (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans,
1996) 177-185, and C. Marvin Pate, "The Agony of the Ecstasy" in Communities of
the Last Days: The Dead Sea Scrolls, the New Testament, and the Story of Israel (Leicester:
Apollos, 2000) 179-195 and 271-275.
C E C h r i s t i a n m o n a s t i c setting. 9 0 M o r e r e c e n t l y , b o t h B. M c N e i l a n d
J . C h a r l e s w o r t h h a v e s e e n in it a m o r e a n c i e n t J e w i s h s t r a t u m a n d
h a v e a r g u e d f o r its first-century C E p r o v e n a n c e . 9 1 T h e p r o b l e m s of
d a t i n g a r e insoluble. S i n c e it is possible t h a t t h e r e is a line of t r a -
d i t i o n in this text d a t i n g b a c k to t h e p e r i o d of this study, t h e text
is e x a m i n e d .
T h e R e c h a b i t e s a p p e a r in J e r 35:2, 3, 5, 18. I n J e r e m i a h this reli-
g i o u s g r o u p is said to a b s t a i n f r o m w i n e ; t h e y d o n o t f a r m o r m a k e
p e r m a n e n t h o m e s , living in tents. 9 2
T h e Hist. Rech, r e c o u n t s t h e visit of a h o l y m a n n a m e d Zosimus
to t h e island of t h e p e o p l e k n o w n as " t h e Blessed O n e s . " Z o s i m u s
a b s t a i n s f r o m b r e a d a n d w i n e a n d d o e s n o t see o t h e r h u m a n s f o r
f o r t y y e a r s . A n a n g e l a p p e a r s to h i m a n d tells h i m t h a t h e will b e
g i v e n his wish t o see t h e p e o p l e k n o w n as " t h e Blessed O n e s . "
A f t e r a l o n g j o u r n e y , Z o s i m u s arrives o n t h e island, w h e r e he
m e e t s a n a k e d m a n . H e asks t h e m a n w h y h e is n a k e d , to w h i c h
t h e m a n replies t h a t it is Z o s i m u s w h o is a c t u a l l y n a k e d a n d tells
h i m t h a t , if h e wishes to see h i m , h e s h o u l d look t o t h e h e a v e n s .
As Z o s i m u s d o e s so, h e sees, "his f a c e (to be) like t h e f a c e of a n
a n g e l " (cf. S t e p h e n , A c t s 6:15). Z o s i m u s ' s "eyes w e r e d i m m e d f r o m
f e a r " a n d h e falls to t h e g r o u n d ( 5 : 4 ) c o m m o n r e a c t i o n s to a n g e l o -
p h a n i e s . T h e " m a n " discloses t h a t h e is o n e of the "Blessed O n e s "
(6:1). Z o s i m u s is told a b o u t t h e p l a c e a n d t h e "Blessed O n e s . " T h e
island is like t h e G a r d e n of E d e n , a n d d i e Blessed O n e s a r e like
A d a m a n d E v e b e f o r e t h e y s i n n e d (7:2-3).
W h e n m a n y of t h e c o m m u n i t y h e a r t h a t Z o s i m u s h a s c o m e to
t h e m , t h e y wish to cast h i m o u t ,

[10] And many noble elders and spiritual youths, who were like angels
from heaven, assembled, formed an assembly, and said to me, " O man
of sin, go, exit from a m o n g us. W e do not know how you prepared
yourself so that you were able to come a m o n g us; [10a] perhaps you

90
M. R. James, "On the Story of Zosimus" in Apocrypha Anecdota, Texts and
Studies 2:3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1893) 86-108.
91
B. McNeil, "The Narration of Zosimus" JSJ 9 (1978) 68-82, and J . Charlesworth,
OTP 2:443-461; J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as Angels" in
Ideal Figures in Ancient Judaism, ed.J. Collins and G. Nickelsburg (Chico, CA: Scholars
Press, 1980).
92
That the Essenes or Qumran community might be the descendants of the
Biblical Rechabites has been suggested by some scholars, among them M. Black.
This has on the whole been rejected. See C. H. Knights, "The Rechabites of
Jeremiah 35: Forerunners of the Essenes?" JSP 10 (1992) 81-87.
 wish to deceive us as the Evil O n e deceived our father A d a m . " [11]
However, I, miserable, Zosimus, fell upon my face before them, a n d
with mournful tears entreated them earnestly and said, " H a v e mercy
upon me, Blessed Ones; And forgive m e my offense, earthly angels."
(Hist. Rech. 7:10-11)

T h e Blessed O n e s a r e c o n c e r n e d for t h e p u r i t y of t h e i r c o m m u n i t y .
I n this case t h e i m p u r i t y is sin, b u t t h e sinful b o d y is like a c o r -
r u p t e d g a r m e n t (5:3).
W h a t is m e a n t b y " e a r t h l y a n g e l s " is n o t entirely clear; it suggests
s o m e t y p e of liminal existence. H o w e v e r , t h e c o m m u n i t y is explicit
t h a t t h e y a r e m o r t a l s (11:2a). T h e " a n g e l s of G o d " a r e said to c o m e
a m o n g t h e c o m m u n i t y c o n t i n u o u s l y (12:6).
J . C h a r l e s w o r t h says t h a t t h e Blessed O n e s " a r e in a p o s t - e a r t h l y
b u t p r e - r e s u r r e c t i o n f o r m ; t h e y a r e in a p l a c e w a i t i n g to b e t a k e n
to h e a v e n b y t h e a n g e l s w h o visit t h e m , " 9 3 w h i l e F l e t c h e r - L o u i s c o n -
e l u d e s t h a t , " i n this text w e h a v e a n o t h e r e x a m p l e of a n angelo-
m o r p h i c h u m a n i t y . . . a c o m m u n i t y w h o s e total lifestyle reflects t h e i r
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . " 9 4 I n s o m e sense calling t h e Blessed O n e s "angelo-
m o r p h i c " is a p p r o p r i a t e , since t h e vision t h a t Z o s i m u s h a s of t h e
first m a n he e n c o u n t e r s uses the imagery of angelophanies. Nevertheless,
t h e Blessed O n e s a r e m o r t a l (11:2a) a n d a r e clearly d i f f e r e n t f r o m
t h e h e a v e n l y a n g e l s w h o visit t h e m r e g u l a r l y (12:6).
B. M c N e i l h a s a r g u e d t h a t t h e Hist. Rech, is a w r i t i n g of t h e J e w i s h
ascetic g r o u p k n o w n as t h e T h e r a p u t a e . 9 5 T h e T h e r a p u t a e a r e k n o w n
to us only f r o m Philo, w h o discusses t h e m in his treatise, " O n the
96
Contemplative Life" (2-3, 1 0 - 4 0 , 64-90). The Theraputae share
a n u m b e r of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h t h e Essenes, w h o , if t h e y a r e t a k e n
to b e t h e s a m e g r o u p as t h o s e w h o c o m p o s e d t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls,
w o u l d s h a r e a c o m m u n a l lifestyle, etc. 9 P h i l o says t h e y e x e m p l i f y a
c o m m u n i t y focused on c o n t e m p l a t i o n a n d mystical vision of the divine:

[11] T h e T h e r a p u t a e , a people always taught from the first to use

their sight, should desire the vision of the Existent and soar above the
sun and our senses and never leave their place in this company which
carries them on to perfect happiness. . . [12] but carried away by a
heaven-sent passion of love, remain rapt and possessed like bacchanals

93
J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as Angels," p. 143.
94
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 203.
95
B. McNeil, "The Narration of Zosimus," pp. 68-82.
96
F. Colson, Philo IX (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1941).
97
HJPAJC 11:592-597.
 01 corybants until they see the object of their yearning. [13] T h e n
such is their longing for the deathless a n d blessed life that thinking
their mortal life already ended they abandon their property to their
sons and daughters 01 to other kinsfolk, thus voluntarily advancing the
time of their inheritance. (11-13)

P h i l o e n d s his discussion b y calling t h e T h e r a p u t a e t h o s e w h o h a v e

"lived in t h e soul a l o n e , citizens of H e a v e n a n d t h e w o r l d . " (90).
T h e r e is n o explicit m e n t i o n of a n g e l s in Contempt. Life. M c N e i l h i m -
self n o t e s a t the b e g i n n i n g of his a r g u m e n t , "Also significant is t h e
lack of a single m e n t i o n of a n g e l s w e a r e n o t e v e n told t h a t t h e
T h e r a p u t a e believe in a n g e l s w h e r e a s t h e R e c h a b i t e s a r e ' b r e t h r e n
of a n g e l s ' . " 9 8
M c N e i l c o n c l u d e s , " B u t if it b e a c c e p t e d t h a t t h a t N a r r a t i o n is a
s t a t e m e n t of t h e ideals of a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y , t h e n t h e g r o u p w h o s e
ideals it fits w i t h m i n i m u m of difficulty is t h e T h e r a p u t a e . " 9 9 T o b e
m o r e precise, w h a t M c N e i l s h o u l d say is t h a t it b e s t fits w i t h t h e
J e w i s h e v i d e n c e f r o m a m o n g those g r o u p s a b o u t w h o m m o d e r n schol-
a r s h a v e s o m e k n o w l e d g e . It is equally possible t h a t t h e Hist. Rech.
r e p r e s e n t s the i d e a s of a g r o u p a b o u t w h i c h w e h a v e n o o t h e r i n f o r -
mation or perhaps a m u c h later c o m m u n i t y .
C . Fletcher-Louis includes the T h e r a p u t a e in his discussion of
" A n g e l o m o r p h i c c o m m u n i t i e s w i t h i n Israel." 1 0 0 N o t h i n g explicit in
P h i l o ' s a c c o u n t suggests t h a t t h e c o m m u n i t y , o r a n y o n e l o o k i n g at
t h e m , t h o u g h t t h e y w e r e living a n angelic o r t r a n s f o r m e d life. P h i l o
d o e s say t h a t t h e T h e r a p u t a e s o u g h t to h a v e visions of t h e divine.
H e also says t h a t t h e y " h a v e lived in t h e soul a l o n e , citizens of
H e a v e n a n d t h e w o r l d . " T h e i r ascetic p r a c t i c e s c o u l d h a v e b e e n c o n -
n e c t e d to s o m e belief in angels living a m o n g t h e m , as w e see in
Ilist. Rech, o r p e r h a p s in s o m e of t h e Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e , b u t t h e r e
is n o w a y to be c e r t a i n of this.
T h a t t h e r e w e r e a n u m b e r of c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t w e r e c o n c e r n e d
f o r p u r i t y a n d lived disciplined, ascetic lifestyles c a n n o t b e d o u b t e d ,
b a s e d on the Q u m r a n evidence, Philo's description of t h e T h e r a p u t a e ,
a n d t h e p i c t u r e seen in t h e Hist. Rech., as well as p e r h a p s t h e c o m -
m u n i t y b e h i n d t h e G o s p e l of T h o m a s . 1 0 1 N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e is n o

98
B. McNeil, "The Narration of Zosimus," p. 77.
99
B. McNeil, "The Narration of Zosimus," p. 81.
100
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 198-199.
101
See A. DeConick, Seek to See Him: Ascent and Vision Mysticism in the Gospel of
r e a s o n to s u p p o s e t h a t all t h e c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e o n e a n d t h e s a m e ,
n o r t h a t a n y of t h e m specifically believed t h a t b y t h e i r a c t i o n s t h e y
w e r e b e c o m i n g angels.
T h e r e f o r e , t h e Hist. Rech, m u s t b e u s e d w i t h s o m e c a u t i o n in a n y
discussion of late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n g e l beliefs, since its d a t e and
provenance are by no m e a n s certain. An identification with the
T h e r a p u t a e m a y b e c o r r e c t , b u t it is also possible t h a t this g r o u p is
t h e best fit f r o m a m o n g t h e g r o u p s a b o u t w h i c h w e h a v e i n f o r m a -
tion. F u r t h e r , e v e n if this i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w e r e c o r r e c t , it a d d s little to
o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e R e c h a b i t e c o m m u n i o n w i t h angels. The
Hist. Rech, suggests t h e r e w a s a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y t h a t believed it
w a s d e s c e n d e d f r o m t h e R e c h a b i t e s of J e r 3 5 a n d t h a t h a d angels
living a m o n g t h e m . T h i s i d e a of e a r t h l y c o m m u n i o n w i t h a n g e l s is
n o t u n l i k e w h a t w a s s e e n in s o m e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e D e a d Sea
Scrolls. T h i s g r o u p s e e m s t o h a v e m a i n t a i n e d a p u r e state so t h a t
h e a v e n l y a n g e l s c o u l d b e p r e s e n t . T h e t e r m " e a r t h l y a n g e l s " sug-
gests t h e liminal o r t r a n s f o r m e d state of t h e c o m m u n i t y . U l t i m a t e l y ,
this m a t e r i a l r e m a i n s a m b i g u o u s .

Conclusions

S e v e n u n i t s of e v i d e n c e w e r e e x a m i n e d in this c h a p t e r . T h e a n a l y -
sis a i m e d to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a n g e l s d w e l l i n g a m o n g a human
c o m m u n i t y signified o r i m p l i e d a n y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e human
c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s into a n angelic status. S o m e of t h e Qumran
m a t e r i a l clearly s h o w e d a belief t h a t angels w e r e to live a m o n g t h e
c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s , b u t o f t e n p u r i t y laws w e r e laid o u t t h a t s e e m e d
to b e a n e c e s s a r y p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r a n g e l i c p r e s e n c e . 1 Q H did sug-
gest t h a t h u m a n s , t h o u g h originally distinct f r o m angels, m i g h t b e c o m e
p a r t of t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n of h e a v e n as angels.
R e g a r d i n g the evidence f r o m Q u m r a n generally, Fletcher-Louis
c o n c l u d e s , "this discussion of Q i i m r a n m a t e r i a l , in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h
w h a t else is k n o w n of t h e Essenes [ f r o m J o s e p h u s ] , h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d
t h e i m p o r t a n c e f o r t h e c o m m u n i t y of a n i d e n t i t y t r a n s f o r m e d f r o m
t h a t of n o r m a l m o r t a l i t y to t h e angelic life.'" 0 2 T h e e v i d e n c e o n t h e

Thomas (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1996) 86-93, who makes a strong case for seeing the
Gos. Thorn, as a mysticalrather than Gnostictext wherein the community sought
communion with the divine through an ascetic lifestyle.
102
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 198; bracketed material is my own.
w h o l e d o e s n o t s u p p o r t s u c h a n assertion. M u c h of t h e e v i d e n c e is
a m b i g u o u s , a n d if t h e Q u m r a n m a t e r i a l is n o t first s y n t h e s i z e d a n d
t h e n m a t e r i a l f r o m J o s e p h u s ( a b o u t t h e Essenes) a d d e d to t h e dis-
cussion, s u c h a n assertion s e e m s e v e n less t e n a b l e .
F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s r e c e n t l y a r t i c u l a t e d this p o s i t i o n m o r e fully. 1 0 3
H e sees t h e locus of h u m a n to a n g e l (divine) t r a n s f o r m a t i o n as t h e
T e m p l e , o r in t h e case of Q u m r a n , t h e c o m m u n a l liturgical space.
T h e r e a r e t w o m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s w i t h this idea. 1 0 4 O n e is see-
i n g t h e m a t e r i a l f r o m Q u m r a n as a c o r p u s ; t h e o t h e r is seeing t h e
d o c u m e n t s as r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e i d e a s of t h e c o m m u n i t y a t a n y given
t i m e . T h e s e t w o issues d e t r a c t f r o m t h e i m p a c t of a n y exegesis t h a t
w o u l d d e r i v e a c o h e r e n t set of beliefs f o r t h e c o m m u n i t y . Still, t h e s e
c r i t i q u e s aside, F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s p r o v i d e d s c h o l a r s w i t h s o m e use-
ful insights. T h e T e m p l e o r liturgical s p a c e of t h e c o m m u n i t y may
105
b e u n d e r s t o o d as qualitatively d i f f e r e n t f r o m n o r m a l space. It is
c e r t a i n l y possible t h a t this specific locus w a s a p l a c e w h e r e a t least
s o m e J e w s ( a n d in this case, the Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y ) understood
that the earthly and heavenly spheres could have contact a n d some
f o r m of t r a n s c e n d e n c e c o u l d o c c u r . T h i s s e e m s to be t h e type of
u n d e r s t a n d i n g m a n y J e w s w o u l d h a v e h e l d f o r t h e h i g h priest e n t e r -
i n g t h e H o l y of H o l i e s o n Y o m K i p p u r . W h e t h e r it e x t e n d e d b e y o n d
this locus for m o s t J e w s is u n c l e a r . E v e n if it d i d . h o w e v e r , t h e effect
s e e m s to h a v e b e e n t r a n s i e n t .
I n s o m u c h as a n y " m y s t i c a l " e x p e r i e n c e c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d as trans-
f o r m a t i v e , it s e e m s this o n e w o u l d h a v e b e e n as well; h o w e v e r , t h e
p r e p o n d e r a n c e of t h e e v i d e n c e s e e m s to i n d i c a t e t h a t s u c h t r a n s f o r -
m a t i o n s w e r e o n l y g l i m p s e s p e r h a p s at m o s t a c c u m u l a t i n g steps in
the right d i r e c t i o n t h a t w o u l d n o t h a v e c a u s e d p a r t i c i p a n t s to see
o n e a n o t h e r as angels b u t i n s t e a d as r i g h t e o u s h u m a n s ultimately
seeking to c o m m u n e w i t h (and p e r h a p s t r a n s f o r m into) angels in t h e
afterlife. I n so d o i n g , t h e y w o u l d t h u s fulfill t h e u l t i m a t e goal of t h e
mystic: to reside w i t h G o d in t h e t h r o n e r o o m . T h i s , I suggest, w a s
n o t s i m p l y a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i d e a / h o p e . T h e belief in t h e possibility
of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o n the m o d e l of righteous i n d i v i d u a l s of t h e p a s t
w a s a f o c u s of t h e m y s t i c in this life. O n e c o u l d n o t s i m p l y believe,
"I will t r a n s f o r m i n t o a n a n g e l w h e n I die, a n d t h u s I will o n e d a y

103
C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory.
104
See my review of All the Glory in CBQ 65 (2003) 256-258.
105
This seems to be similar to what Paul is suggesting in 1 Cor. See 4.6 above.
be w i t h G o d . " O n e h a d to p r e p a r e oneself in this life a n d b e g i n a
p r o c e s s t h a t w o u l d ( a n d could) o n l y b e fully realized in t h e afterlife.
S e e n in this light, F l e t c h e r - L o u i s ' s assertions a r e v a l u a b l e .
T h e first p a r t of F l e t c h e r - L o u i s ' s thesis f r o m All the Glory is t h a t
"in its original, t r u e a n d r e d e e m e d state h u m a n i t y is divine ( a n d / o r
angelic)." A d a m is said to b e m a d e in t h e i m a g e of G o d a n d t h u s
h u m a n i t y is as well. T h i s m e a n s t h a t A d a m a n d h u m a n s a r e t h e o -
m o r p h i c (or p e r h a p s " d i v i n e " ) , b u t to call t h e m "angelomorphic"
s e e m s to a d d u n n e c e s s a r y c o n f u s i o n to t h e discussion, so I suggest
stressing t h e " t h e o m o r p h i c " c h a r a c t e r of h u m a n i t y i n its o r i g i n a l
state. T h e thesis m a y o r m a y n o t b e c o r r e c t , b u t it is n o t n e c e s s a r y
as l o n g as t r a n s f o r m a t i o n could o c c u r in t h e afterlife. 1 0 6
T h e s e c o n d , interlocking c o m p o n e n t of F l e t c h e r - L o u i s ' s thesis states
that:

T h e attainment now, for the redeemed, of this true humanity was con-
ceptually and experientially grounded in their 'temple' worship in which
ordinary space and time, a n d therefore h u m a n ontology, are trail-
scended. T h e y take for granted a cultic mythology which means that
those who enter the worship of the community experience a transfer
from earth to heaven, from humanity to divinity and from mortality
to immortality. 107

T h i s s e e m s possible f o r a v e r y specific set of loci (i.e., t h e T e m p l e

o r t h e liturgical s p a c e a t Q u m r a n ) , b u t u l t i m a t e l y it is u n c l e a r t h a t
t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e scrolls s u p p o r t s s u c h a c l a i m , especially o n a
c o r p o r a t e level. As s e e n in c h a p t e r 3, " h u m a n o n t o l o g y " w a s t r a n -
s c e n d e d o n l y for specific, r i g h t e o u s individuals. H u m a n s a n d angels
r e m a i n e d s e p a r a t e , a l t h o u g h it d o e s s e e m t h a t s o m e of t h e Q u m r a n
texts (as well as p e r h a p s s o m e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n texts), s a w the litur-
gical s p a c e as a p l a c e w h e r e t h e e a r t h l y a n d h e a v e n l y s p h e r e s c o u l d
h a v e c o n t a c t a n d h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s c o u l d i n t e r a c t . T h i s is d i f f e r e n t
f r o m saying t h a t t h e s e c t a r i a n s t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o " d i v i n e h u m a n i t y . "
A n g e l s m e d i a t e b e t w e e n G o d a n d h u m a n s (i.e., t h e y a r e a b l e to
cross t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e h e a v e n l y a n d t h e earthly) a n d s t a n d
b e f o r e G o d in t h e t h r o n e r o o m . S o m e h u m a n s (especially "mystics")
s o u g h t to e x p e r i e n c e G o d . S o it s e e m s logical t h a t t h e s e humans
w o u l d a s p i r e t o angelic status in o r d e r t o b e c o m e closer to G o d .
T h e e x a m p l e s f r o m t h e i r p a s t of h u m a n s w h o h a d a c t u a l l y g o n e t o

106
C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, p. 476.
107
C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, p. 476.
h e a v e n a n d a t t a i n e d a n a n g e l i c status m e a n t t h a t t h e y believed t h e
potential existed f o r access t o G o d . T h e early J e w i s h a n d Christian
mystics likely built u p o n this belief, a n d eventually t h e early C h r i s t i a n s
d e v e l o p e d it i n t o the i d e a of t h e . 1 0 8
I n t h e case of t h e C o r i n t h i a n c o m m u n i t y , it w a s n o t entirely c l e a r
w h a t beliefs t h e y h e l d c o n c e r n i n g angels, b u t 1 C o r 11:10 c e r t a i n l y
s e e m e d t o suggest t h e r e w a s s o m e belief in t h e p r e s e n c e of angels
d u r i n g t h e liturgy. T h e m e a n i n g of w a s u n c l e a r also, b u t
it s e e m s likely, especially in light of e v i d e n c e f r o m Q u m r a n , that
w h a t e v e r P a u l m e a n s b y t h e t e r m , it s t e m s f r o m a c o n c e r n f o r m a i n -
t a i n i n g p u r i t y so t h a t a n g e l s c a n b e p r e s e n t . O n t h e w h o l e , only
11:10 s e e m e d t o suggest a n g e l i c p r e s e n c e in t h e c o m m u n i t y .
T h e Hist. Rech, p r e s e n t e d insights i n t o w h a t o n e author/commu-
n i t y e n v i s i o n e d as t h e p r o g r e s s of t h e ascetic c o m m u n i t y of J e r 35.
T h e difficulties involved in d a t i n g t h e text m a k e a n y c o n c l u s i o n s t e n -
tative, b u t e v e n t h e r e t h e Blessed O n e s a r e m o r t a l s . E v e n in this
case p u r i t y issues a r e i n v o l v e d in m a i n t a i n i n g a state in w h i c h divine
angels c o u l d b e p r e s e n t . T h e status of t h e " e a r t h l y a n g e l s " of t h e
community was somewhat ambiguous.
It is f a s c i n a t i n g to c o n s i d e r t h a t t h e r e is e v i d e n c e t h a t a n g e l s a r e
believed to b e p r e s e n t a m o n g v a r i o u s c o m m u n i t i e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e
e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t e v e n in cases w h e r e a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s live
in c o m m u n i t i e s t o g e t h e r , a distinction is m a i n t a i n e d b e t w e e n t h e t w o
classes of beings. T h e distinction b e t w e e n t h e t w o is cast i n t o h i g h
relief by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e o f t e n s e e m to b e serious p u r i t y c o n c e r n s
involved w h e n a n g e l s a r e m e a n t to b e p r e s e n t ; h u m a n s m u s t m a i n -
t a i n a h e i g h t e n e d state of p u r i t y in o r d e r for t h e possibility of angelic
p r e s e n c e e v e n to o c c u r .

108
One step along this path might be seen in a passage like 2 Cor 3:18.
 CHAPTER FIVE

"GUESS WHO'S C O M I N G T O DINNER":

HOSPITALITY AND EATING WITH ANGELS

T h i s c h a p t e r will c o n s i d e r h u m a n - a n g e l i n t e r a c t i o n b y examining
p o r t r a y a l s of h u m a n s o f f e r i n g h o s p i t a l i t y t o a n g e l s o n e a r t h and
angels a p p e a r i n g to c o n s u m e h u m a n f o o d . T h e e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s
t h a t w h e n h u m a n s offer angels hospitality, t h e angels h a v e almost
always a p p e a r e d in h u m a n f o r m a n d the o n e visited is n o t a w a r e
of t h e a n g e l ' s t r u e n a t u r e . I n s o m e i n s t a n c e s angels a p p e a r to eat
h u m a n f o o d , b u t late S e c o n d T e m p l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e s e t r a d i -
tions d e n y t h a t t h e a n g e l ate.
F o r t h e p u r p o s e s of t h e discussion in this c h a p t e r , hospitality is
u n d e r s t o o d as " t h e f r i e n d l y a n d g e n e r o u s r e c e p t i o n a n d entertain-
m e n t of guests o r s t r a n g e r s . ' " I n t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d t h e t w o m a i n
c o m p o n e n t s of this w o u l d likely h a v e b e e n f o o d a n d shelter.
E x a m p l e s of t h e practice of hospitality a r e f o u n d in G r a e c o - R o m a n ,
J e w i s h , a n d e a r l y C h r i s t i a n w r i t i n g s f r o m t h e p e r i o d . 2 T h e r e is n o
o n e H e b r e w t e r m t h a t directly t r a n s l a t e s as " h o s p i t a l i t y . " I n G r e e k
t h e t e r m is .
I n t h e J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n A b r a h a m s e e m s to s t a n d as the p a r a d i g m
of t h e v i r t u e of hospitality, b a s e d u p o n G e n 18. 3 M o s t of t h e t r a d i -
tions discussed i n this c h a p t e r a r e b a s e d o n A b r a h a m ' s encounter
w i t h divine guests (e.g., Gm. Rab. 43:7). E v e n L o t ' s hospitality is likely
m o d e l e d o n A b r a h a m ' s . 4 H o s p i t a l i t y is also listed a m o n g t h e virtues
of J o b ( J o b 31:32).

1
The Concise Oxford Dictionary, 9th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998)
656. See also J. Koenig, "Hospitality" in ABD 3:299-301.
2
For examples in Graeco-Roman writings, see Ovid, Metamorphoses 628-632,
where Zeus and Hermes are guests of the old couple Baucis and Philemon (cf. Acts
14:11-12, Homer, Od. 17:485-487) and the discussion in L. Martin, "Gods or
Ambassadors of God? Barnabas and Paul in Lystra" NTS 41 (1995) 152-156. See
also G. Sthlin, "" in TDNT 5:1-36, esp.' 17-25; Philo, Mos. 1:58.
3
See JE 8:1030-1033 for a summary of the Jewish evidence regarding hospi-
tality. Cf. T. Zeb. 6:4.
4
T. Desmond Alexander, "Lot's Hospitality: A Clue to His Righteousness" JBL
104 (1985) 289-291.
 H o s p i t a l i t y s e e m s to h a v e b e e n a n i m p o r t a n t v i r t u e in t h e e a r -
liest C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s . T h e N T c o n t a i n s a n u m b e r of o t h e r p a s -
sages t h a t state t h e i m p o r t a n c e of hospitality generally. 5 I n p a r t i c u l a r ,
J e s u s ' s p r o n o u n c e m e n t s a b o u t t h e k i n g d o m in t h e gospels, t h e G o s p e l
of L u k e itself, a n d t h e w r i t i n g s of P a u l s e e m to e v i n c e a c o n c e r n f o r
this virtue. 6 T h e s e w r i t i n g s s e e m to h a v e a p r a c t i c a l o r h u m a n i t a r -
ian basis r a t h e r t h a n overtly suggesting t h a t t h e g u e s t so w e l c o m e d
m a y b e a n a n g e l . H e b r e w s 13:2 d o e s s e e m t o suggest t h a t t h e v i r t u e
of h o s p i t a l i t y is i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e t h e h o s t m a y u n k n o w i n g l y be
e n t e r t a i n i n g a n g e l s , as s o m e f i g u r e s f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible had
d o n e . 7 T h e early c h u r c h f a t h e r s c o n t i n u e d to stress t h e i m p o r t a n c e
of hospitality, a n d it h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t C h r i s t i a n hospitality
facilitated t h e s p r e a d of t h e gospel. 8 T h e v i r t u e of hospitality w a s
i m p o r t a n t across c u l t u r e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n a r o u n d t h e
t u m of t h e e r a .
A n i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t of hospitality is f o o d . T h e q u e s t i o n of
whether or not angels require any sustenance has been considered
by D . G o o d m a n . 9 H i s article s u r v e y e d t h e J e w i s h m a t e r i a l o n t h e
t o p i c f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible t h r o u g h t h e r a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e , a s k i n g
t h r e e q u e s t i o n s : (1) H o w a r e angels s u s t a i n e d ? (2) Is t h e r e a n y e a t -
ing o r d r i n k i n g in h e a v e n ? A n d (3) d o angels b e h a v e as m e n w h e n
t h e y d e s c e n d to e a r t h ? 1 0 T h e last of his q u e s t i o n s is m o s t r e l e v a n t
to t h e p r e s e n t discussion, b u t it is also useful to c o n s i d e r his c o n -
elusions a b o u t t h e first t w o q u e s t i o n s to give c o n t e x t t o t h e t h i r d .
W i t h r e g a r d t o angelic s u s t e n a n c e (1), G o o d m a n b e g i n s his a n a l y -
sis w i t h Ps 7 8 : 2 3 2 5 , w h i c h states, " Y e t h e c o m m a n d e d t h e skies
a b o v e , a n d o p e n e d t h e d o o r s of h e a v e n ; a n d h e r a i n e d d o w n upon
t h e m m a n n a to e a t , a n d g a v e t h e m t h e g r a i n of h e a v e n . M a n ate
of t h e b r e a d of the m i g h t y [ ] o r as t h e L X X r e a d s , ' b r e a d
of t h e a n g e l s ' [ ] . " 1 1 G o o d m a n notes that a certain

5
Rom 12:13; 1 Tim 3:2, 5:10; Tit 1:8; 1 Pet 4:9; Heb 13:2 and cf. Acts 28:7.
For more on this idea see C. Pohl, Making Room: Recovering Hospitality as Christian
Tradition (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999), and A. Malherbe, "Hospitality and
Inhospitality in the Church" in Social Aspects of Early Christianity (Philadelphia: Fortress
Press, 1983) 92-112.
6
J. Koenig, New Testament Hospitality (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985).
7
Heb 13:2 is discussed in more detail below in section 5.7.
8
D. Riddle, "Early Christian Hospitality: A Factor in the Gospel Transmission"
JBL 57 (1938) 141-154. Did. 11-13 suggests that such hospitality could be abused,
however.
!1
D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" JJS 37 (1986) 160-175.
10
D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" p. 160.
11
See also D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" p. 161 n. 5.
a m b i v a l e n c e t o w a r d t h e m a n n a is a l r e a d y e v i n c e d in t h e Hebrew
Bible. E x o d 16:15 states, " W h e n t h e p e o p l e of Israel s a w it, t h e y
said t o o n e a n o t h e r , ' W h a t is it?' F o r t h e y did n o t k n o w w h a t it
was. A n d M o s e s said to t h e m , 'It is t h e b r e a d w h i c h the L o r d h a s
given y o u t o e a t . ' " Little else is said in t h e H e b r e w Bible r e g a r d -
ing angelic f o o d . G o o d m a n cites b. Torna 7 5 b , in w h i c h R . Aqiba
says t h e m i n i s t e r i n g a n g e l s e a t t h e h e a v e n l y b r e a d , b u t R . I s h m a e l
rejects R . A q i b a o n t h e basis of D e u t 9:18, w h e r e M o s e s o n Sinai
states, " I n e i t h e r a t e b r e a d n o r d r a n k w a t e r . "
As f o r e a t i n g a n d d r i n k i n g in h e a v e n (2), G o o d m a n s h o w s t h a t
m u c h of t h e e v i d e n c e focuses u p o n h o w M o s e s w a s s u s t a i n e d d u r -
i n g his f o r t y d a y s o n S i n a i ( D e u t 9 : 9 , 18; E x o d 24:912.(11 To
G o o d m a n , t h e e v i d e n c e suggests t h a t t h e a n c i e n t a u t h o r s believed
t h e r e w a s n o f o o d in h e a v e n . H o w e v e r , h u m a n s in mystical a s c e n t
c a n survive b y n o u r i s h m e n t f r o m t h e divine ( E x o d 3 4 : 2 8 9 , Apoc.
Abr. 13). S u r v e y i n g t h e r a b b i n i c writings, G o o d m a n finds little dis-
cussion of h o w t h e a n g e l s t h e m s e l v e s w e r e s u s t a i n e d , since d u e to
t h e i r i n c o r p o r e a l i t y t h e y a p p a r e n t l y did n o t r e q u i r e s u s t e n a n c e . By
t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y C E a t r a d i t i o n s e e m s to h a v e d e v e l o p e d t h a t t h e
a n g e l s w e r e s u s t a i n e d by c o n t a c t w i t h t h e S h e k i n a h .
As f o r h o w angels b e h a v e o n e a r t h (3), G o o d m a n s u r v e y e d t h e
related literature: J u d g 6 a n d 13, in w h i c h f o o d is o f f e r e d to t h e
Angel of t h e L o r d , w h o refuses, b u t t h e f o o d is nevertheless c o n s u m e d
by fire; T o b 12, w h e r e t h e a n g e l R a p h a e l a n n o u n c e s t h a t h e o n l y
a p p e a r e d to e a t a n d d r i n k ; a n d L u k e 24, w h e r e t h e r e s u r r e c t e d J e s u s
eats fish in f r o n t of t h e disciples as p r o o f h e is n o t a n apparition.
T h e m a j o r i t y of G o o d m a n ' s analysis is f o c u s e d u p o n A b r a h a m and
his h e a v e n l y visitors ( G e n 1819 a n d r e l a t e d traditions). I t is w i t h
t h e s e s a m e p a s s a g e s a n d o n e o t h e r t h a t this c h a p t e r is c o n c e r n e d . 1 3
G o o d m a n s u m s u p his c o n c l u s i o n s r e g a r d i n g angelic sustenance
by r e l a t i n g t h e m to t h e c o n c l u s i o n s of P. S c h f e r o n t h e n e g a t i v e
r e p o r t s a b o u t angels in m u c h of t h e r a b b i n i c literature: 1 4

12
D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" pp. 162-163; There is also a late tradition
that Moses partook of the food of the angels while on Sinai (based on Exod 34:28)
in the Samaritan M. Marq. 4.6 (cf. also Philo, Moses 2.69; Josephus, Ant. 3.99). See
W. Meeks, "Moses as God and King" in Religions in Antiquity, ed. J. Neusner (Leiden:
E . J . Brill, 1968) 370 n. 5.
13
To the discussion of angelic sustenance it is illuminating to add the honey-
comb in JA, which will be considered below (5.4).
14
P. Schfer, Rivalitt zwischen Engeln und Menschen (New York: de Gruyter, 1975).
 T h e earliest stage in the beliefs concerning angelic sustenance seems
to be that angels do not eat the same food as m e n but nevertheless
partake of some form of nourishment. Subsequent to the mid-second
century C E , when negative reports are found about the angels, par-
ticularly in the dealings with m a n , interest in the angelic appetite
evolves m o r e from a concern for the welfare of m a n when he is in
heaven, either during a mystical ascent 01 at the eschatological time,
t h a n from an interest in the angels themselves. 15

T h u s it s e e m s t h a t in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , a n g e l s w e r e
believed to h a v e s o m e f o r m of s u s t e n a n c e , b u t it w a s n o t t h e s a m e
as t h a t m e a n t f o r h u m a n s (cf. LA.E. 4:2). I n s t e a d , angels in h e a v e n
w e r e s u s t a i n e d b y b e i n g p r e s e n t to G o d . T h e y h a d n o n e e d of sus-
t e n a n c e in t h e s a m e w a y as h u m a n s . G o o d m a n says t h e t r a d i t i o n s
based on G e n 1819 suggest "possibly a n equality of status between
5
angels a n d m e n . ' " T h i s e q u a l i t y , h o w e v e r , s e e m i n g l y c o m e s in h o w
o n e receives a visitor, b u t it d o e s n o t e x t e n d to t h e r e a l m of i d e n -
tity. G i v e n t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e G e n 1 8 1 9 story o n s u b s e q u e n t t r a -
ditions a b o u t h o s p i t a l i t y t o a n g e l s , it is a p p r o p r i a t e t o b e g i n the
e x a m i n a t i o n of e v i d e n c e t h e r e .

5.1 The Book of Genesis 18-19

S e c t i o n 2.1 a b o v e lays o u t t h e e v i d e n c e f o r t h e " m e n " of G e n 18-19

b e i n g i n t e r p r e t e d as a n g e l s in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d . F r o m
t h a t evidence, it s e e m e d p r o b a b l e t h a t m o s t i n t e r p r e t e r s in t h a t p e r i o d
u n d e r s t o o d t h e s e " m e n " to b e angels. T h i s b e i n g t h e case, w h a t will
b e c o n s i d e r e d in this section is t h e i n t e r e s t i n g n o t i o n t h a t A b r a h a m
a n d L o t o f f e r e d hospitality (food, shelter, rest, etc.) t o t h e i r angelic
guests.
In G e n 18:2 A b r a h a m sees t h e t h r e e " m e n " a p p r o a c h his t e n t ;
h e h u r r i e s o u t to g r e e t t h e m a n d o f f e r t h e m hospitality. Abraham
b e g s t h e v i s i t o r s t h o u g h h e a d d r e s s e s t h e " L o r d " in t h e s i n g u l a r ,
w h o is said to a p p e a r to h i m (v. 1)to r e m a i n w i t h h i m (v. 3). First,
A b r a h a m o r d e r s w a t e r t o b e b r o u g h t so t h e y c a n w a s h t h e i r feet
a n d sees t h a t t h e y rest t h e m s e l v e s u n d e r t h e t r e e (v. 4). H e then
asks w h e t h e r t h e y will r e m a i n f o r s o m e b r e a d t o r e f r e s h t h e m s e l v e s
(v. 5). O n c e t h e y a g r e e , A b r a h a m tells S a r a h to p r e p a r e t h r e e c a k e s

15
D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" p. 174.
16
D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" pp. 174-175; italics are mine.
of b r e a d (v. 6). H e n e x t selects a t e n d e r calf a n d gives it to his ser-
v a n t t o p r e p a r e (v. 7). T h e e n t i r e m e a l , w h i c h i n c l u d e s c u r d s a n d
milk, is p l a c e d b e f o r e t h e travelers. T h e n A b r a h a m s t a n d s by t h e m
u n d e r the t r e e " a n d t h e y a t e " ( ; ) (v. 8). A b r a h a m ' s
hospitality is q u i t e g e n e r o u s . F r o m t h e n a r r a t i v e , A b r a h a m d o e s n o t
s e e m to k n o w the visitors o r t h e i r divine n a t u r e . H e r e q u e s t s t h a t
t h e y r e m a i n , rest t h e m s e l v e s , a n d eat. T h e m e a l h e p r e p a r e s is m o r e
t h a n t h e simple b r e a d h e h a s originally o f f e r e d t h e m . T h e text explic-
itly states t h a t t h e visitors a t e w h a t w a s p r e p a r e d f o r t h e m .
I n c h a p t e r 19, L o t g r e e t s t h e visitors, n o w r e f e r r e d to as angels
(19:1, 15; t h e y a r e called " m e n " a g a i n i n 19:16), w i t h a n e n t r e a t y
to r e m a i n w i t h h i m t h r o u g h t h e n i g h t . H i s w o r d s e c h o t h o s e of
A b r a h a m to his t h r e e visitors. T h e visitors a g r e e t o stay w i t h Lot
a f t e r first s a y i n g t h e y w o u l d r e m a i n in t h e s t r e e t (v. 2). L o t feeds
t h e m (v. 3). B e f o r e t h e visitors a r e a b l e to settle in f o r t h e n i g h t ,
the t o w n s m e n s u r r o u n d Lot's house, d e m a n d i n g the m e n be given
to t h e m . T h e visitors a r e o n c e a g a i n r e f e r r e d to as angels in v. 15,
w h e n t h e angels w a r n L o t to leave t h e city w i t h his f a m i l y o r b e
d e s t r o y e d a l o n g w i t h t h e city. W h a t is p e r t i n e n t for t h e p r e s e n t dis-
cussion is t o c o n s i d e r w h a t s u b s e q u e n t i n t e r p r e t e r s did w i t h t h e t r a d i -
tion of angels eating; t h a t is, did they m a i n t a i n , c h a n g e , o r eliminate it?
I n Abr. P h i l o m a k e s s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g c o m m e n t s o n A b r a h a m ' s vis-
itors. 1 7 P h i l o says explicitly t h a t " a n g e l s r e c e i v e d hospitality []
f r o m m e n " (115 cf. 167). I n s o m e sense, P h i l o i n t e r p r e t s A b r a h a m ' s
v e r y hospitality as t h e r e w a r d () for his v i r t u e b u t a d d s t h a t
A b r a h a m ' s hospitality w a s only a " b y - p r o d u c t of his g r e a t e r virtue . . .
piety [ ] " (114). 1 8
P h i l o is c l e a r t h a t t h e guests did n o t p a r t a k e of t h e f o o d o f f e r e d
to t h e m , s a y i n g t h a t d i e y f e a s t e d " n o t so m u c h o n t h a t p r e p a r e d f o r
t h e m as o n t h e g o o d will of t h e i r h o s t " (110). M o r e explicitly, P h i l o
says of A b r a h a m ' s visitors, "It is a m a r v e l i n d e e d t h a t t h o u g h t h e y
n e i t h e r a t e n o r d r a n k , t h e y g a v e t h e a p p e a r a n c e of b o t h e a t i n g a n d
d r i n k i n g " (118). So for P h i l o , t h e angels received A b r a h a m ' s h o s p i -
tality a n d r e s p o n d e d b y a p p e a r i n g t o e a t t h e f o o d p r e p a r e d for t h e m
w i t h o u t actually e a t i n g it.

17
Unfortunately, Philo's QG end immediately before where the events of Gen
18-19 would likely have been discussed.
18
This same idea is evident in 1 Clem. 10:7: "Because of his faith [] and
hospitality [] a son was given him in his old age." Lot is saved for his
"hospitality [] and piety []" (11:1). (Cf. also 1 Clem. 12:1; Did. 12).
 J o s e p h u s in t h e Ant. 1 . 1 9 6 - 1 9 7 p r e s e n t s a similar analysis of t h e
situation. T h e t h r e e m e n a r e a n g e l s () t h a t A b r a h a m t a k e s t o
b e s t r a n g e r s (), w h o m h e asks to p a r t a k e of his hospitality ().
A b r a h a m h a s c a k e s m a d e a n d kills a calf. T h e angels, h o w e v e r , o n l y
" g a v e t o h i m t h e a p p e a r a n c e of h a v i n g c o n s u m e d " (oi
). J o s e p h u s also stresses t h a t L o t e x t e n d e d h o s p i -
tality to t h e angels, a lesson l e a r n e d f r o m living w i t h A b r a h a m (Ant.
1.200). Like P h i l o , J o s e p h u s is c l e a r t h a t t h e b e i n g s w e r e a n g e l s w h o
only g a v e t h e a p p e a r a n c e of e a t i n g .
T h e o n l y o t h e r r e l e v a n t e v i d e n c e r e g a r d i n g t h e r e c e p t i o n of this
p a s s a g e c o m e s f r o m t h e T a r g u m i m . Tg. Onq. is q u i t e similar to t h e
G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e as w e h a v e it in t h e M a s o r e t i c t r a d i t i o n a n d t h e
L X X . A c c o r d i n g to 18:8, t h e angels did a p p a r e n t l y e a t w h a t A b r a h a m
p l a c e d b e f o r e t h e m , a n d a g a i n in 19:3 t h e t w o angels w h o visited
L o t a p p e a r to h a v e e a t e n t h e m e a l p u t b e f o r e t h e m . Tg. Neo. says
t h a t t h e a n g e l s o n l y " g a v e t h e a p p e a r a n c e of e a t i n g a n d d r i n k i n g . "
Tg. Ps-J. also m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e a n g e l s only a p p e a r e d to p a r t a k e of
the f o o d p l a c e d b e f o r e t h e m , a d d i n g t h a t t h e hosts d i d this " a c c o r d -
ing t o t h e m a n n e r (and) c u s t o m of h u m a n b e i n g s . ' " 9 T h i s s e e m s t o
h i n t at b o t h t h e c u s t o m of hospitality p r a c t i c e d a m o n g h u m a n b e i n g s
as well as t h e simple fact t h a t t h e y w e r e g i v e n f o o d t h a t humans
n e e d but angels d o not.
O v e r a l l , t h e t r a d i t i o n is c l e a r t h a t A b r a h a m w a r m l y o f f e r e d h o s -
pitality to his (angelic) visitors. I n t h e H e b r e w n a r r a t i v e it a p p e a r s
a t least t h a t t h e visitors a t e w h a t w a s p l a c e d b e f o r e t h e m . By t h e
late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d a n d b e y o n d , i n t e r p r e t e r s w e r e a p p a r e n t l y
m a k i n g c l e a r t h a t t h e angels did n o t e a t b u t w o u l d give t h e a p p e a r -
a n c e of d o i n g so in o r d e r t o c o n c e a l t h e i r i d e n t i t y o r a c c e p t t h e i r
h o s t s ' hospitality.

5.2 The Book of Judges 6 and 13

T w i c e in t h e B o o k of J u d g e s , t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d a p p e a r s to
h u m a n s . I n e a c h of t h e s e a c c o u n t s t h e o n e visited offers hospitality
i n c l u d i n g f o o d to t h e a n g e l , b u t in n e i t h e r case d o e s it a p p e a r t h e
f o o d is e a t e n ; i n s t e a d it is a c c e p t e d as a t y p e of sacrificial offering.

19
This reading is seen in the fragmentary Targumim (P and V), which say, "And
they appeared as though they were eating and as though they were drinking."
 J u d g 6 : 1 1 - 2 4 r e c o r d s d i e visit of t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d to G i d e o n
at the time w h e n t h e Israelites h a v e b e e n taken over by the Midianites.
J u d g 6:11 says, " N o w t h e a n g e l of t h e L o r d c a m e a n d sat u n d e r
t h e o a k at O p h r a h , w h i c h b e l o n g e d to J o a s h the A b i e z r i t e , as his
son G i d e o n w a s b e a t i n g o u t w h e a t in t h e w i n e press, to h i d e it f r o m
t h e M i d i a n i t e s . " G i d e o n is told t h a t h e is to deliver his p e o p l e o u t
of t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n (6:14); t h u s t h e p r i m a r y p u r p o s e of t h e visitation
s e e m s to b e t h e r e v e l a t i o n of G o d ' s p l a n for G i d e o n . G i d e o n s e e m s
u n a w a r e t h a t d i e p e r s o n s p e a k i n g to h i m is t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d
a n d asks t h e p e r s o n to r e m a i n as h e p r e p a r e s a gift (v. 18). G i d e o n
r e t u r n s w i t h a s u b s t a n t i a l m e a l of a p r e p a r e d kid, b r o t h , a n d u n l e a v -
e n e d cakes. T h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d tells G i d e o n t o p u t his f o o d
o f f e r i n g o n a rock, w h i c h h e d o e s (v. 20). T h e a n g e l t o u c h e s t h e
o f f e r i n g w i t h his staff; t h e o f f e r i n g is c o n s u m e d b y fire, a n d a t t h e
s a m e m o m e n t the a n g e l v a n i s h e s (v. 21). G i d e o n t h e n d i s c e r n s t h a t
his visitor w a s i n d e e d t h e L o r d a n d f e a r s t h a t h e will die, "Alas,
L o r d G o d ! F o r n o w I h a v e seen t h e a n g e l of t h e L o r d f a c e to face.
B u t t h e L o r d said to h i m , ' P e a c e b e to y o u ; d o n o t f e a r , y o u shall
n o t d i e . ' " G i d e o n , like J a c o b in G e n 2 8 a n d 32, t h e n e r e c t s a n a l t a r
at t h e site of his e p i p h a n y .
J o s e p h u s discusses t h e a n g e l o p h a n y [Ant. 5 . 2 1 3 - 2 1 4 ) b u t is silent
o n w h e t h e r o r n o t G i d e o n m a d e a n y o f f e r of f o o d . P h i l o d o e s n o t
m e n t i o n e i t h e r a n g e l o p h a n y f r o m Judges. 2 0 T h e T a r g u m o n J u d g 6
likewise r e c o r d s t h a t t h e a n g e l did n o t e a t b u t t h a t t h e f o o d p r e -
p a r e d for h i m w a s c o n s u m e d b y fire as h e d i s a p p e a r e d . I n P s . - P h i l o
the consumption of t h e f o o d a n d w a t e r o c c u r s in r e s p o n s e to a
r e q u e s t f o r a sign b y G i d e o n . M o r e o v e r , o n l y w a t e r is p o u r e d o v e r
a rock. As it is p o u r e d o u t , it d i s a p p e a r s as half b l o o d a n d half fire
(LA.B. 35:6).
In J u d g 1 3 : 3 - 2 1 , t h e A n g e l of the L o r d a p p e a r s to M a n o a h a n d his
wife, a n n o u n c i n g t h e b i r t h of t h e i r son, S a m s o n . M a n o a h asks t h e
a n g e l to r e m a i n w i t h h i m so t h a t h e m i g h t f e e d h i m . O n c e a g a i n ,
t h e issue of h o s p i t a l i t y c o m e s i n t o play. T h e a n g e l says, "If y o u
d e t a i n m e , I will n o t eat of y o u r f o o d ; b u t if y o u m a k e r e a d y a
b u r n t o f f e r i n g , t h e n o f f e r it t o t h e L o r d " (v. 16a). W e also l e a r n t h a t
" M a n o a h did n o t k n o w t h a t h e w a s t h e a n g e l of t h e L o r d " (v. 16b).

20
Additionally, 1Q6 fragment 1 contains part of Judg 6:20-22, only retaining
one readable letter, , where is expected from the Masoretic text (DJD 1:62).
 J o s e p h u s , Ant. 5 . 2 8 2 2 8 4 , r e c o r d s :

[282] . . . and though M a n o a h invited him [the angel] to stay and par-
take of hospitality [], he did not give his consent. However, he
was persuaded at his earnest entreaty to remain while some token of
hospitality [] might be brought to him. [283] So, he killed a kid
and bid his wife to cook it. W h e n all was ready, the angel []
ordered them to set out the loaves and the meat upon the rock, with-
out the vessels. [284] T h a t done, he touched the meat with the rod
which he held and a fire blazing out, it was consumed along with the
bread, while the angel [], borne on the smoke as on a char-
iot, was plainly seen by them ascending to heaven.

J o s e p h u s v e r y m u c h stresses t h e hospitality of M a n o a h . S i n c e t h e
original tale h a s t h e a n g e l r e f u s i n g , J o s e p h u s says t h a t it w a s t h r o u g h
M a n o a h ' s p e r s u a s i o n t h a t t h e a n g e l d i d a c c e p t a t o k e n of his h o s -
pitality, c o n s u m i n g it w i t h fire.
I n his retelling of J u d g 14, Ps.-Philo says t h a t M a n o a h a n d his
wife a r e a b l e t o o f f e r b o t h b r e a d a n d gifts to t h e a n g e l , w h o says,
"I will n o t e n t e r y o u r h o u s e w i t h y o u , n o r e a t y o u r b r e a d , n o r t a k e
y o u r gifts" ( L A . B . 42:8). A f t e r o f f e r i n g v a r i o u s sacrifices o n his n e w l y
m a d e altar, M a n o a h puts o u t the m e a t h e h a s cut. T h e angel " r e a c h e d
o u t a n d t o u c h e d t h e m w i t h t h e tip of his staff," a n d fire c o m e s f r o m
t h e rock a n d c o n s u m e s it. A t t h e e n d of the c h a p t e r w e l e a r n t h a t
the a n g e l h a s a n a m e , F a d a h e l .
T h e T a r g u m o n J u d g 13 has little expansion b u t m a k e s n o significant
c h a n g e s w i t h r e g a r d to t h e a n g e l n o t c o n s u m i n g t h e f o o d .
W h i l e t h e offer of hospitality s e e m s to b e t h e c o r r e c t c o u r s e of
a c t i o n in b o t h of t h e s e cases in J u d g e s , in n e i t h e r case did t h e o n e
visited a p p a r e n t l y k n o w t h a t t h e g u e s t w a s t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d .
T h e offer of f o o d is a c c e p t e d , b u t t h e f o o d is n o t e a t e n a n d is i n s t e a d
c o n s u m e d b y fire as if a t y p e of sacrificial offering.

5.3 77he Book of Tobit 5-12

I n t h e B o o k of T o b i t , t h e a r c h a n g e l R a p h a e l acts as travel com-

21
p a n i o n to T o b i a s in c h a p t e r s 5 - 1 2 . R a p h a e l a p p e a r s as a man,
a n d n o o n e s e e m s to discern a n y d i f f e r e n c e until, j u s t b e f o r e his
d e p a r t u r e , t h e angel p r o c l a i m s , " '1 a m R a p h a e l , o n e of t h e seven

21
For a discussion of the issues regarding the dating and genre of Tobit, see
section 2.6 above.
h o l y a n g e l s w h o p r e s e n t t h e p r a y e r s of t h e saints a n d e n t e r i n t o t h e
p r e s e n c e of t h e g l o r y of t h e H o l y O n e . ' T h e y w e r e b o t h alarmed;
a n d t h e y fell u p o n t h e i r faces, for t h e y w e r e a f r a i d " ( 1 2 : 1 5 1 6 ) .
Interestingly, in T o b 6:5, w h e n R a p h a e l a n d T o b i a s a r e e n c a m p e d
o n t h e b a n k s of t h e Tigris, R a p h a e l tells T o b i a s to c a t c h a l a r g e fish,
saving t h e g u t s for a h e a l i n g r e m e d y . O n c e h e h a s d o n e this, t h e y
" r o a s t e d a n d ate [] t h e fish."22 T h i s c u r i o u s p a s s a g e suggests
t h a t p e r h a p s R a p h a e l d i d i n d e e d e a t w i t h his h u m a n companion.
H o w e v e r , a f t e r t h e revelation of his t r u e identity in 1 2 : 1 5 1 6 , R a p h a e l
t h e n p r o c l a i m s , "All t h e s e d a y s I m e r e l y a p p e a r e d t o y o u a n d d i d
n o t e a t o r d r i n k , b u t y o u w e r e s e e i n g a v i s i o n " (12:19). T h i s is a n
e a r l y a t t e s t a t i o n of t h e i d e a t h a t angels d o n o t c o n s u m e h u m a n f o o d .
T h e parallels of a n a n g e l h e r e a n a r c h a n g e l c o m i n g to a h u m a n
a n d not being recognized, giving a n i m p o r t a n t revelation, appear-
i n g to eat, t h e n d e p a r t i n g a r e all i m p o r t a n t e v i d e n c e of t h e m o t i f
in t h e l i t e r a t u r e p r i o r t o t h e first c e n t u r y C E .
Hospitality does not figure i n t o this c a s e specifically. 2 3 T h e r e is
definitely a n a n g e l , t h e a r c h a n g e l R a p h a e l , w h o s e t r u e n a t u r e is n o t
k n o w n until t h e e n d of t h e tale. I n t h e c o n t e x t of t h e story, h e
a p p e a r s to eat, b u t it is r e v e a l e d l a t e r t h a t h e did n o t .

5.4 Joseph and Aseneth 15~16

I n section 2 . 1 0 a b o v e w e c o n s i d e r e d t h e e v i d e n c e for t h e visitor to

A s e n e t h in c h a p t e r s 1 4 - 1 7 of JA b e i n g u n d e r s t o o d as a n a n g e l . I n
this s u b s e c t i o n t h e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e a n g e l a c c e p t s A s e n e t h ' s h o s p i -
tality a n d also r e q u e s t s a specific f o o d (a h o n e y c o m b ) is a n a l y z e d .
P a r t of t h e d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n A s e n e t h a n d t h e a n g e l is as follows:

[15:14] And the m a n said to her, "Speak (up)." A n d Aseneth stretched

out her right h a n d and put it on his knees and said to him, "I beg
you, Lord, sit down a little on this bed, because this bed is pure a n d
undefiled, and a m a n or a w o m a n never sat on it. And I will set a
table before you, and bring you bread and you will eat, a n d bring

22
Similarly, the (S) version of Tobit reads ; and 4Q197 (Aramaic copy of
Tobit) reads . The fact that both of these are singular in form suggests that
only Tobit ate.
23
But in 4:16 Tobit tells his son before his journey to "Give of your bread to
the hungry, and of your clothing to the naked. Give all your surplus to charity,
and do not let your eye begrudge the gift when you made it.,
 you from my storeroom old and good wine, the exhalation of which
will go up till heaven, and you will drink from it. [15] And after this
you will go out (on) your way." And the man said to her, "Hurry and
bring (it) quickly."
[16:1] And Aseneth hurried and set a new table before him and went
to provide bread for him. And the man said to her, "Bring me also
a honeycomb." [2] And Aseneth stood still and was distressed, because
she did not have a honeycomb in her storeroom.

H e r hospitality includes rest, g o o d food, a n d wine, followed by a

d e p a r t u r e after having b e e n refreshed. T h e visitor agrees. H e t h e n
requests a h o n e y c o m b . Aseneth is distressed because she does n o t h a v e
o n e in h e r stores, b u t she tells h i m t h a t she will send a b o y to fetch
one. T h e angel assures h e r t h a t t h e r e will be o n e in h e r stores w h e n
she checks, a n d i n d e e d this is the case (v. 8). T h e h o n e y c o m b is n o t
a typical one. It is said to give h o n e y t h a t is "like d e w f r o m h e a v e n
a n d its exhalation like b r e a t h of life" (v. 9). F u r t h e r , the angel says
t h a t it is "full of the spirit of life. A n d the bees of paradise of delight
have m a d e this f r o m the d e w of the roses of life t h a t are in the p a r -
adise of G o d " (v. 14). T h e angel t h e n eats s o m e of the h o n e y c o m b :

[16:15] And the man stretched out his right hand and broke a small
portion of the comb, and he himself ate and what was left he put
with his hand into Asenetli's mouth, and said to her, "Eat." And she
ate. [16] And the man said to Aseneth, "Behold, you have eaten bread
of life, and drunk a cup of immortality, and been anointed with oint-
ment of incorruptibility."

It is clear t h a t die h o n e y c o m b is divine. T h e angel is said to eat it.

N o m e n t i o n is m a d e of his eating (or not eating) the food that Asenedi
p r e p a r e d , b u t p r e s u m a b l y with the e m p h a s i s o n t h e h o n e y c o m b , the
o t h e r f o o d is ignored. M o s t interesting is the fact t h a t A s e n e t h is
allowed to p a r t a k e of the h o n e y c o m b . By d o i n g so, she h a s " e a t e n
b r e a d of life, a n d d r u n k a c u p of immortality, a n d b e e n a n o i n t e d
with o i n t m e n t of incorruptibility." It is u n i q u e a m o n g the passages
considered in this c h a p t e r t h a t the h u m a n benefits by e a t i n g angelic
food a f t e r offering hospitality a n d h u m a n food to h e r guest.
Lastly, it is interesting to n o t e t h a t Aseneth indicates to h e r guest
t h a t the b e d u p o n w h i c h she has asked h i m to recline is " p u r e a n d
u n d e f i l e d , " with n e i t h e r a m a n n o r w o m a n h a v i n g sat u p o n it. T h i s
seems to reflect the s a m e type of purity c o n c e r n s seen in m u c h of
the evidence analyzed in c h a p t e r 4.
 5.5 The Testament of Abraham.

T h e Testament of Abraham (T. Abr.) likely d a t e s to t h e first-second cen-

tury GE. T h e t e x t exists t o d a y in t w o m a i n f o r m s : t h e longer,
R e c e n s i o n A ( G r e e k ms., s u p p o r t e d b y a R o m a n i a n version), w h i c h
is likely closer to its original f o r m ; a n d t h e s h o r t e r , R e c e n s i o n
( G r e e k ms., s u p p o r t e d b y a S l a v o n i c a n d o t h e r versions); h o w e v e r ,
t h e precise r e l a t i o n of t h e t w o v e r s i o n s is n o t clear. 2 4 It is i n s t r u c -
tive to look at t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m b o t h recensions.
Like o t h e r w r i t i n g s in t h e t e s t a m e n t g e n r e , T. Abr. tells of t h e t i m e
n e a r t h e p a t r i a r c h ' s d e a t h . H o w e v e r , A b r a h a m r e f u s e s to a c c e p t t h a t
t h e t i m e of his d e a t h h a s c o m e . T h i s text is u n u s u a l in t h e testa-
m e n t g e n r e in t h a t it d o e s n o t c o n t a i n a t e s t a m e n t o r m u c h ethical
teaching from Abraham.
G o d first s e n d s t h e a n g e l M i c h a e l () to Abraham.
M i c h a e l ' s arrival e c h o e s t h e visitation of t h e angels in G e n 18 19,
a n d w i t h i n t h e story it is s u b s e q u e n t l y r e v e a l e d t h a t M i c h a e l was
i n d e e d o n e of t h e t h r e e visitors to h i m in t h e past at t h e o a k of
M a m r e . T h e T. Abr. s e e m s t o e x p a n d o n the i d e a of A b r a h a m ' s hos-
pitality b y u s i n g G e n 18 as a m o d e l f o r h o w A b r a h a m greets a n y
guests.
I n R e c e n s i o n A , A b r a h a m is said to b e a r i g h t e o u s m a n w h o w a s
v e r y h o s p i t a b l e (1:1). A b r a h a m is in his fields w i t h o t h e r w o r k e r s
w h e n t h e a n g e l M i c h a e l is said t o a p p e a r t o h i m as a n "honored
soldier, b r i g h t as t h e sun a n d m o s t h a n d s o m e , m o r e t h a n all t h e
sons of m e n " (2:4); M i c h a e l ' s brilliant a p p e a r a n c e s e e m s to signal
his angelic n a t u r e . A b r a h a m g r e e t s M i c h a e l a n d asks h i m to t r a v e l
w i t h h i m across his fields (2:7). T h e y arrive a t A b r a h a m ' s t e n t . W h e n
I s a a c sees t h e f a c e of t h e a n g e l , h e says to S a r a h , " M y l a d y m o t h e r ,
b e h o l d : t h e m a n w h o is sitting w i t h m y f a t h e r A b r a h a m is n o son
of t h e r a c e w h i c h dwells u p o n t h e e a r t h " (3:5). I s a a c t h e n w o r s h i p s
M i c h a e l (v. 6). T h e p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r t h e i r g u e s t a r e extensive, i n c l u d -
i n g b e a u t i f y i n g t h e g u e s t r o o m w i t h p u r p l e c l o t h a n d silk (4:2).
M i c h a e l t h e n m a k e s a discreet exit a n d a s c e n d s to h e a v e n . There
h e says to G o d t h a t h e c a n n o t a n n o u n c e t o A b r a h a m his d e a t h
b e c a u s e " I h a v e n o t seen u p o n t h e e a r t h a m a n like h i m m e r c i f u l ,

24
E. P. Sanders, "The Testament of Abraham" in OTP 1:871; HJPAJC Ill.ii:
761-766.
hospitable, righteous, G o d - f e a r i n g , r e f r a i n i n g f r o m every evil d e e d "
(4:6). M i c h a e l is c o m m a n d e d by t h e L o r d , " G o d o w n to m y friend,
A b r a h a m , a n d w h a t e v e r h e should say to y o u , this do, a n d w h a t -
ever he should eat y o u also eat with h i m " (4:7). M i c h a e l clearly finds
this c o m m a n d p r o b l e m a t i c , saying in 4:9:

Lord, all the heavenly spirits are incorporeal, and they neither eat nor
drink. Now he has set before me a table with an abundance of all
the good things which are earthly and perishable. And now, Lord,
what shall I do? How shall I escape his notice while I am sitting at
one table with him?

T h e L o r d t h e n says (4:10):

Go down to him, and do not be concerned about this. For when you
are seated with him I shall send upon you an all-devouring spirit, and,
from your hands and through your mouth, it will consume everything
which is on the table. Make merry with him in everything.

W i t h this c o m m a n d , M i c h a e l r e t u r n s to A b r a h a m . T h e text does n o t

say t h a t M i c h a e l ate b u t picks u p the story " a f t e r the s u p p e r was
finished" (5:2), so p r e s u m a b l y h e gave the a p p e a r a n c e of eating.
S a r a h later recognizes the angel as o n e of the " t h r e e h e a v e n l y
m e n w h o stayed as guests in o u r tent beside the oak of M a m r e , " a
clear reference to G e n 18 (6:4).
It is clear in this recension of the story t h a t M i c h a e l did n o t eat
any f o o d p r e p a r e d f o r h i m , b u t instead h e gives the a p p e a r a n c e of
eating, while t h e food is c o n s u m e d by a spirit. M i c h a e l does accept
A b r a h a m ' s hospitality.
T h e r e are s o m e significant differences b e t w e e n recensions A a n d
B. I n c h a p t e r 2 of R e c e n s i o n B, w h e n A b r a h a m sees a s t r a n g e r
w h o is actually the angel M i c h a e l , t h o u g h A b r a h a m does n o t k n o w
t h i s h e arises a n d first wishes h i m well on his j o u r n e y . W h e n the
angel replies with kind w o r d s , A b r a h a m t h e n offers h i m hospitality
(rest a n d food). M i c h a e l asks A b r a h a m his n a m e . W h e n h e learns
t h a t h e is A b r a m , r e n a m e d A b r a h a m by the L o r d , M i c h a e l says,
" B e a r with m e , m y f a t h e r , m a n w h o h a s b e e n t a k e n t h o u g h t of by
G o d , because I a m a stranger, a n d I h e a r d a b o u t y o u w h e n y o u
w e n t a p a r t forty stadia a n d took a calf a n d slaughtered it, enter-
taining angels as guests in y o u r house, so t h a t they m i g h t rest" (v. 10).
M i c h a e l returns to h e a v e n to pray. H e tells G o d t h a t he c a n n o t
deliver the message of A b r a h a m ' s d e a t h to h i m , saying A b r a h a m is
" a righteous m a n , w h o welcomes strangers" (4:10). M i c h a e l is o r d e r e d
to r e t u r n to A b r a h a m , w h e r e h e is to "stay w i t h h i m as a guest.
A n d w h a t e v e r y o u see (him) e a t i n g , y o u also e a t . " T h u s , M i c h a e l is
to a c c e p t gracefully A b r a h a m ' s hospitality a n d a t least give the a p p e a r -
a n c e of e a t i n g . C h a p t e r 5 says t h a t u p o n M i c h a e l ' s r e t u r n , "they
ate, d r a n k , a n d m a d e m e r r y " (v. 1). It is n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r M i c h a e l
ate. S i n c e h e is c o m m a n d e d b y G o d to e a t w h a t h e sees A b r a h a m
eat, t h e i m p l i c a t i o n is at least t h a t e a t i n g is n o t a n o r m a l activity
for h i m , b u t t h e t e x t is n o t as explicit as R e c e n s i o n A in s a y i n g t h a t
a spirit c o n s u m e d t h e f o o d f o r h i m .
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , a t 6 : 1 0 S a r a h says, " I d e c l a r e a n d say t h a t this is
o n e of t h e t h r e e m e n w h o stayed as o u r guests at t h e o a k of M a m r e , "
a c l e a r r e f e r e n c e to G e n 18, w h i c h is d i e n q u o t e d (v. 11). A b r a h a m
discloses t h a t h e also k n o w s t h e identity of t h e i r visitor ( w . 12-13).
M i c h a e l d o e s n o t b r i n g A b r a h a m to h e a v e n , so D e a t h is s e n t t o
h i m . E v e n t h o u g h A b r a h a m fears t h e sight of D e a t h (13:4), h e offers
h i m hospitality (13:6).
C l e a r l y , A b r a h a m ' s hospitality lies at t h e h e a r t of t h e n a r r a t i v e in
this r e c e n s i o n . M i c h a e l is told to eat a n d s e e m s to d o so in 5:1. It
is n o t c l e a r , h o w e v e r , since G o d h a s g i v e n h i m leave to e a t , w h e t h e r
this is a c a s e of a n a n g e l a c t u a l l y e a t i n g o r simply a p p e a r i n g to eat.
The Gen 1 8 - 1 9 narrative clearly influenced the portrayal of
A b r a h a m in the T. Abr. T h e angel M i c h a e l , w h o c o m e s to A b r a h a m , is
revealed as o n e of t h e angels to h a v e visited h i m a t M a m r e (A-6:4;
B-6:10). A b r a h a m is t h e m o d e l of a h o s p i t a b l e h o s t ( A - l : l ; B - 4 : l l ) .
T h e angel M i c h a e l is struck by A b r a h a m ' s virtue to t h e e x t e n t t h a t h e
c a n n o t c a r r y o u t his d u t y (A-4:6; B-4:12). A f t e r c o n s u l t i n g God,
M i c h a e l gives t h e a p p e a r a n c e of e a t i n g so as n o t to o f f e n d A b r a h a m ' s
hospitality, b u t t h e f o o d is c o n s u m e d by a spirit, n o t M i c h a e l (A-4:7,
10; B-4:15).

5.6 77le Gospel of Luke

T h e r e a r e s o m e similarities b e t w e e n t h e a n g e l i c visitation in Gen

1 8 - 1 9 a n d t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n a p p e a r a n c e of J e s u s o n t h e E m m a u s r o a d
in L u k e 24. 2 5 I n b o t h cases, divine b e i n g s a p p e a r as s t r a n g e r s t o

25
The idea of a divine being or angel as travel companion is seen in Tob 512.
On this see M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien, pp. 144-148. See also C. Fletcher-Louis,
Luke-Acts, pp. 6263.
h u m a n s . T h e h u m a n s a r e u n a w a r e of t h e t r u e n a t u r e of t h e s t r a n g e r
a n d ask h i m to a c c e p t t h e i r hospitality. T h e t w o b r e a k b r e a d w i t h
J e s u s (24:30) a n d i m m e d i a t e l y realize w h o h e is. A t t h a t moment
Jesus d i s a p p e a r s (cf. J u d g 6:21 a n d 13:20). T h e t w o disciples w h o
first see J e s u s o n t h e r o a d r e t u r n t o J e r u s a l e m a n d t h e o t h e r disci-
pies (24:33). O n c e t h e r e , t h e y tell t h e o t h e r s w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d t o
them (24:34-35). T h e n :

[36] As they were saying this, Jesus himself stood a m o n g them. [37]
But they were startled a n d frightened, and supposed that they saw a
spirit, [, D reads ] [38] And he said to them, " W h y
are you troubled, a n d why do questionings rise in your hearts? [39]
See my hands and my feet, that it is I myself; handle me, and see;
for a spirit [] has not flesh [] and bones [] as you
see that I have." [41] A n d while they still disbelieved for joy, and
wondered, he said to them, " H a v e you anything here to eat?" [42]
T h e y gave him a piece of broiled fish, [43] and he took it a n d ate
[] before them. 2 6

L u k e (or t h e a u t h o r of this r e s u r r e c t i o n a c c o u n t ) p r o b a b l y d r e w o n
t h e t r a d i t i o n s m e n t i o n e d , so J e s u s w o u l d t a k e o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s asso-
c i a t e d with t h e divine visitors. 2 ' H o w e v e r , the text d o e s r e a d ,
n o t , t h o u g h it is g r a n t e d t h a t "spirit" is a t e r m sometimes
m e a n t to r e f e r to a n y i n c o r p o r e a l o r divine s u p e r n a t u r a l (cf. L u k e
4 : 3 3 , 9:39, 13:11). Is J e s u s m e a n t to b e a n angel? J e s u s offers t w o
p r o o f s of his identity. O n e is t h e e a t i n g of t h e fishhe is flesh a n d
b l o o d a n d t h e o t h e r is t h e f u l f i l l m e n t of w o r d s h e s p o k e while alive
( w . 4 4 - 4 8 ) ; it is really t h e s a m e J e s u s . T h e use of e a t i n g as a p r o o f
of his h u m a n n e s s implies t h a t e a t i n g is g e n e r a l l y a h u m a n activity,
n o t o n e in w h i c h i n c o r p o r e a l b e i n g s p a r t a k e . 2 8 T h e p o i n t is t h a t
J e s u s is n o t a n a n g e l o r spirit b u t is m e a n t to b e flesh a n d b l o o d .

26
There is an interesting variant at 24:42: ("and from
a honeycomb"). B. Metzger says this is an "obvious interpolation," inserted as a
justification for honey being used in celebration of the Eucharist and in the bap-
tismal liturgy; A Textual Commmtary on the New Testament (New York: United Bible
Societies, 1994) 161. However, it is interesting that in JA 16 the angel requests a
honeycomb from Aseneth, and it turns out to be divine food.
27
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 63, says that Jesus's appearance has the "clear
contours of an angelophany" but notes that Luke may see this as a weak Christology.
28
D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" p. 168.
 5.7 The Epistle to the Hebrews and Christian Hospitality

O n e of t h e clearest allusions to G e n 1 8 - 1 9 in t h e N T c o m e s in H e b
13:2: " D o n o t n e g l e c t t o s h o w hospitality [] to s t r a n g e r s ,
f o r t h e r e b y s o m e h a v e e n t e r t a i n e d angels [] u n a w a r e s . " T h i s
r e m i n d e r o c c u r s at t h e e n d of t h e epistle in a section of e x h o r t a t i v e
s t a t e m e n t s . H . A t t r i d g e n o t e s t h a t t h e " s o m e " () in this verse
m a y refer to a n u m b e r of persons f r o m H e b r e w Bible stories: A b r a h a m
a n d S a r a h ( G e n 18:2-15); L o t ( G e n 19: 1 - 1 4 ) , G i d e o n ( J u d g 6 : 1 1 - 1 8 ) ,
M a n o a h ( J u d g 1 3 : 2 - 2 2 ) , o r T o b i t ( T o b 1 2 : l - 2 0 ) . 2 9 All of t h e pas-
sages a r e possible r e f e r e n t s , since t h e issue of h o s p i t a l i t y is involved,
b u t t h e a s p e c t of giving hospitality u n a w a r e s s e e m s t o p o i n t t o w a r d
G e n e s i s o r T o b i t . W h i c h e v e r t e x t o r texts it is, t h e c o m m a n d of t h e
a u t h o r of H e b r e w s s e e m s clear: y o u (first-century a u d i e n c e ) s h o u l d
(in y o u r p r e s e n t c o n t e x t ) n o t neglect hospitality, b e c a u s e s o m e (in
o u r history) h a v e e n t e r t a i n e d a n g e l s (in t h e i r o w n time). It is a n
e x h o r t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t in t h e p r e s e n t , j u s t i f y i n g w h y C h r i s t i a n s s h o u l d
always s h o w hospitality to s t r a n g e r s . H o w seriously o n e is t o take
s u c h a c o m m a n d is n o t clear. It m i g h t b e a n e x a g g e r a t i o n meant
to stress a p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t . H o w e v e r , in light of t h e p a s s a g e s c o n -
s i d e r e d a b o v e , t h e a u t h o r m a y t a k e seriously t h e possibility of angelic
visitation t o h u m a n s (e.g. G a l 4:14).
T e r t u l l i a n , w r i t i n g in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E , says in c h a p t e r 2 6
of De Oratione, " Y o u will n o t dismiss a b r o t h e r w h o h a s e n t e r e d y o u r
h o u s e w i t h o u t p r a y e r . ' H a v e y o u seen, 5 says S c r i p t u r e , 'a b r o t h e r ?
y o u h a v e seen y o u r L o r d ' ; e s p e c i a l l y ' a s t r a n g e r , ' lest p e r h a p s h e
be ' a n a n g e l ' \angelus\."3 His c o m m e n t is b a s e d o n H e b 13:2, b u t
his e x h o r t a t i o n is t a r g e t e d t o w a r d his p r e s e n t c o m m u n i t y a n d c o u l d
reflect a c o n t i n u i n g belief in a n g e l s visiting h u m a n beings.
T h e c o n g e n i a l r e c e p t i o n of s t r a n g e r s e m b o d i e s t h e ideal t h a t J e s u s
sets o u t in M a t t 2 5 : 3 5 - 3 6 , " F o r I w a s h u n g r y a n d y o u g a v e me
f o o d , I w a s thirsty a n d y o u g a v e m e d r i n k , I w a s a s t r a n g e r and
y o u w e l c o m e d m e , 1 w a s n a k e d a n d y o u c l o t h e d m e , I w a s sick a n d
y o u visited m e , I w a s in p r i s o n a n d y o u c a m e t o m e . " T h e s e w o r d s
of t h e M a t t h e a n J e s u s idealize t h e v i r t u e of hospitality. I n giving

29
H. Attridge, Hebrews: A Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews (Philadelphia:
Fortress Press, 1989) 386.
30
Translation from the ANF 3:690.
f o o d a n d d r i n k to t h e lowly, d i e r i g h t e o u s a r e a c t u a l l y g i v i n g it t o
the S o n of M a n himself. In M a t t 10:40, J e s u s d e c l a r e s , " H e who
receives y o u receives m e , a n d h e w h o receives m e receives h i m w h o
sent m e " (cf. M a t t 18:10). 31 As n o t e d a b o v e , it is c l e a r t h a t h o s p i -
tality c o n t i n u e s in t h e early c h u r c h a n d m a y e v e n h a v e b e e n a fac-
t o r in t h e s p r e a d of t h e gospel. T h e possibility exists t h a t a least a
p a r t i a l f a c t o r in the p u s h for s t r o n g hospitality w a s t h e belief t h a t
divine beings, angels, o r e v e n J e s u s m i g h t visit t h e c o m m u n i t y .

Conclusions

T h e e x a m i n a t i o n of e v i d e n c e in this c h a p t e r s h o w e d t h a t t h e m o t i f
of a n g e l s visiting h u m a n s o n e a r t h a n d b e i n g o f f e r e d hospitality w a s
p r e s e n t in the l i t e r a t u r e of t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d . M u c h of
it s e e m s to b e b a s e d o n t h e G e n 18 n a r r a t i v e a b o u t A b r a h a m b e i n g
h o s p i t a b l e to his t h r e e guests at t h e o a k of M a m r e . T h i s story clearly
i n f l u e n c e d t h e p o r t r a y a l of A b r a h a m in t h e T. Abr.
I n all t h e cases, hospitality w a s o f f e r e d to t h e angels w h i l e t h e
h o s t w a s u n a w a r e of t h e a n g e l ' s d i v i n e n a t u r e . N o explicit r e a s o n s
w e r e g i v e n s i m p l y a n u n d e r l y i n g u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t angels did n o t
e a t h u m a n f o o d . I n t h e case of JA, t h e f o o d of t h e a n g e l is a spe-
cial h o n e y c o m b . R e g a r d l e s s of w h e t h e r t h e y a c t u a l l y a t e o r only
a p p e a r e d t o e a t , t h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t hosts s h o u l d d o a n y t h i n g
o t h e r t h a n o f f e r t h e best ( h u m a n ) hospitality to t h e i r guests (angelic
o r otherwise), p a r t i c u l a r l y since t h e y c o u l d n o t a l w a y s b e c e r t a i n of
their guests' true nature.
T h e evidence from the N T showed that G e n 18-19 and other
H e b r e w Bible passages i n f o r m e d t h e e x h o r t a t i o n in H e b 13:2 b u t also
t h e i d e a of C h r i s t i a n hospitality as a w h o l e ; a n g e l s c o u l d visit, so o n e
n e e d e d to b e r e a d y to offer t h e m t h e p r o p e r w e l c o m e a t a n y t i m e .
E c h o i n g t h e c o n c l u s i o n s of D . G o o d m a n , C . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s says
t h a t literal r e a d i n g s of texts such as G e n 18 w e r e d e n i e d f r o m early
o n , t h u s c o n f i r m i n g " t h a t it w a s a s t a n d a r d a s s u m p t i o n t h a t angels
did n o t eat." 3 2 T h i s s e e m s t o b e t h e c a s e f o r t h e S e c o n d Temple

51
The idea of hospitality may also lie behind the commandment to "Love your
neighbor as yourself" in Matt 5:43, 19:19, 22:39; Mark 12:31, 33; Luke 10:27;
Rom 13:9; Gal 5:14; Jas 2:8; cf. Rom 13:8, 10. See C. Rowland, "Apocalyptic, the
Poor, and the Gospel of Matthew" JTS 45 (1994) 504-518.
82
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 69.
evidence. Angels did n o t eat h u m a n food, p r e s u m a b l y because eating
is a h u m a n activity t h a t is u n n e c e s s a r y for t h e m . I n L u k e 24, J e s u s
actually goes a b o u t p r o v i n g his c o r p o r e a l n a t u r e by eating. It seems,
then, t h a t o n e factor in distinguishing h u m a n s f r o m angels is w h e t h e r
they n e e d to eat. Angels, even w h e n o n e a r t h , h a v e n o n e e d to eat,
while h u m a n s do. But angels, w h e n offered food, a i m e d n o t to offend
their hosts so gave the a p p e a r a n c e of eating.
 " T H E Y M I G H T BE GIANTS":
HUMAN-ANGEL HYBRID OFFSPRING

T h i s c h a p t e r investigates t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels
by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e p o r t r a y a l s (deriving f r o m G e n 6 : 1 - 4 ) of angels
h a v i n g sexual r e l a t i o n s w i t h h u m a n w o m e n . I n a n u m b e r of texts
t h e s e r e l a t i o n s r e s u l t e d in viable offspring: a n g e l - h u m a n h y b r i d s t h a t
c a m e to b e k n o w n as t h e N e p h i l i m , G i b o r i m , o r giants.
T h e " t a k i n g of wives" in t h e G e n 6 n a r r a t i v e a n d s u b s e q u e n t inter-
p r e t a t i o n s w a s u n d e r s t o o d as a e u p h e m i s m for s e x u a l relations t h a t
led to hybrid offspring. T h e t e r m " h y b r i d " will be u n d e r s t o o d to m e a n ,
" t h e o f f s p r i n g of t w o a n i m a l s [or beings] of d i f f e r e n t species o r vari-
eties." 1 T h i s t e r m r e g u l a r l y h a s t h e c o n n o t a t i o n t h a t t h e t w o entities
involved a r e i n c o n g r u o u s t h a t is, d o n o t r e g u l a r l y o r n a t u r a l l y j o i n .
T h e e v i d e n c e in this c h a p t e r i n d i c a t e s t h a t a u n i o n b e t w e e n angels
a n d h u m a n s w a s n o t c o n s i d e r e d n a t u r a l . T h e y w e r e distinct b e i n g s
(or species) f r o m t h e c r e a t i o n o n w a r d . T h e a n g e l s ' d e s c e n t to e a r t h
w a s a t r a n s g r e s s i o n of t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r t h a t r e p r e s e n t e d a significant
p r o b l e m . It w a s e v e n c o n s i d e r e d b y s o m e i n t e r p r e t e r s to b e the
s o u r c e of evil in t h e w o r l d .

6.1 Genesis 6:1-4 in the Hebrew Bible

P r i o r to t h e s h o r t story of t h e " s o n s of G o d " in G e n 6 : 1 - 4 a r e t h e

c r e a t i o n (chaps. 12), t h e story of A d a m a n d E v e a n d t h e i r e x p u l -
sion f r o m t h e g a r d e n of E d e n (chaps. 3 - 4 ) , a n d t h e n a list of t h e
g e n e r a t i o n s a f t e r A d a m u p to t h e m e n t i o n of N o a h a n d his t h r e e
sons ( c h a p . 5). W i t h s e e m i n g l y n o c o n n e c t i o n to t h e p r e c e d i n g m a t e -
rial, c h a p t e r 6 a b r u p t l y i n t e r j e c t s this s h o r t tale of t h e " s o n s of G o d "
a n d t h e d a u g h t e r s of m e n :

1
The Concise Oxford Dictionary, 9th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998)
665. The words in brackets are mine.
 [1] W h e n m e n [ ]began to multiply on the face of the ground,
and daughters were b o r n to them,
[2] the sons of G o d [ ]saw that the daughters of m e n
[ ] were fair; and they took to wife [ ] such of
them as they chose.
[3] T h e n the Lord said, " M y spirit shall not abide in m a n for ever,
for he is flesh, but his days shall be a hundred and twenty years."
[4] T h e Nephilim [ ]were on the earth in those days, and also
afterward, when the sons of G o d [ ] came in to the daugh-
ters of men [] , a n d they bore children to them, these []
(were) the mighty men [ ]that were of old, the m e n of renown.

I m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r this s h o r t a c c o u n t , it is said t h a t t h e L o r d looks

u p o n t h e e a r t h , sees t h a t h u m a n s a r e w i c k e d , a n d r e p e n t s of his e r e -
a t i o n (6:5). T h i s c o n n e c t i o n with t h e evil of t h e a g e a n d t h e flood
is c e n t r a l in l a t e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . T h e flood n a r r a t i v e s follow, w h e n
G o d purifies t h e e a r t h of t h e first, w i c k e d h u m a n s . O n l y t h o s e of
N o a h ' s f a m i l y survive (chaps. 6 9 ) . So, a l r e a d y in t h e H e b r e w Bible
t r a d i t i o n , t h e d e s c e n t to e a r t h a n d t a k i n g of wives b y divine b e i n g s
s e e m s to h a v e p r e c i p i t a t e d a j u d g m e n t u p o n t h e e a r t h .
A brief o u t l i n e of d i e G e n 6 : 1 - 4 n a r r a t i v e will b e h e l p f u l , since
(a) t h e p a s s a g e itself is r a t h e r brief a n d n o t logically well s t r u c t u r e d ,
a n d (b) s u b s e q u e n t t r a d i t i o n s p i c k u p o n p a r t i c u l a r p a r t s of t h e
passage:

1. H u m a n s a r e said to i n c r e a s e in n u m b e r u p o n t h e e a r t h (6:1a).
2. D a u g h t e r s a r e b o r n to t h e h u m a n s (6:1b). T h e " s o n s of G o d "
t h e n see t h a t t h e d a u g h t e r s a r e p l e a s i n g to t h e eye (6:2a), a n d
t h e y " t a k e w i v e s " f r o m a m o n g t h e h u m a n f e m a l e s (6:2b).
3. T h e n t h e L o r d says t h a t his spirit ( )will n o t r e m a i n in h u m a n s
for l o n g e r t h a n 120 y e a r s (6:3). 2 N o a p p a r e n t r a t i o n a l e is given
for t h e s u d d e n l i m i t a t i o n , especially since it is a l r e a d y c l e a r t h a t
h u m a n s a r e m o r t a l ( G e n 3:19), n o r f o r t h e specific maximum
d u r a t i o n of life (120 years). T h i s verse i n t e r r u p t s t h e story, a n d
it is s o m e t i m e s o m i t t e d in s u b s e q u e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .

2
The significance of the term "spirit" here is not entirely clear. It seems to rep-
resent the life force (breath) that God gave to humans. However, "spirit" is a term
sometimes used to refer to angels, especially in some of the Dead Sea Scrolls. On
this see A. Sekki, The Meaning of Ruah at Qumran (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1989)
145-171. If the "sons of God" were to be understood as humans, then this might
suggest that God's spirit does not remain in them because of their action. However,
virtually all subsequent interpretations seem to suggest that these beings are angels.
4. T h e N e p h i l i m a r e said to exist f r o m this p o i n t in history o n w a r d
(6:4a). 3 It is i m p l i e d , b u t n o t explicit, t h a t t h e s e N e p h i l i m a r e t h e
offspring of t h e "sons of G o d " a n d t h e d a u g h t e r s of h u m a n s (6:4b).
T h e N e p h i l i m a r e also called " t h e m i g h t y m e n of o l d " ( 4 (
w h o a r e " m e n of r e n o w n ' 5 ( 6 : 4 )( c ) .

A t first g l a n c e , G e n 6 : 1 - 4 s e e m s to p r e s e n t t w o distinct aetiologies:

m o r t a l i t y (i.e., a finite life s p a n for h u m a n s ) a n d t h e N e p h i l i m ; h o w -
ever, n o c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o aetiologies is readily a p p a r -
ent. G. W e s t e r m a n n a r g u e s t h a t verses 1-2 and 4 make up the
original p a s s a g e , while v. 3 is a later, i n t e r p r e t i v e gloss t h a t d i s r u p t s
t h e How of t h e original n a r r a t i v e . 0 T h i s w o u l d m e a n t h a t t h e t h r u s t
of t h e original n a r r a t i v e w a s t h e origin of t h e N e p h i l i m , w h o w e r e
t h e o f f s p r i n g of t h e " s o n s of G o d " a n d h u m a n w o m e n . T h i s e x p i a -
n a t i o n s e e m s plausible, b u t t h e originality of v. 3 d o e s n o t neces-
sarily h a v e a n y i m p a c t o n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of this p a s s a g e w i t h
r e g a r d to t h e a n g e l - h u m a n r e l a t i o n s h i p . I n v. 4 t h e N e p h i l i m a r e
said to b e t h e n u p o n t h e face of t h e e a r t h , a f t e r t h e sons of G o d
h a d o f f s p r i n g via h u m a n w o m e n , i m p l y i n g t h a t t h e N e p h i l i m are
t h e s a m e as t h e " m i g h t y m e n of old, t h e m e n of r e n o w n . "
As n o t e d , this s h o r t n a r r a t i v e is o f t e n t a k e n b y m o d e m i n t e r p r e t e r s
to be s e p a r a t e f r o m the larger n a r r a t i v e s c h e m e of Genesis. R . H e n d e l ,
h o w e v e r , h a s o f f e r e d a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of this p a s s a g e t h a t seeks to
u n i t e 6 : 1 - 4 w i t h t h e F l o o d n a r r a t i v e t h a t follows it. 6 H e says, " t h e
story of t h e m i n g l i n g of g o d s a n d m o r t a l s a n d t h e p r o c r e a t i o n of
t h e d e m i g o d s w a s originally c o n n e c t e d to t h e f l o o d n a r r a t i v e and
f u n c t i o n e d as its m o t i v a t i o n . " 7 D e m o n s t r a t i n g parallels in o t h e r a n c i e n t
c u l t u r e s , H e n d e l suggests t h a t , " T h e P r i m e v a l C y c l e is c h a r a c t e r i s e d
by a series of m y t h o l o g i c a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n s of b o u n d a r i e s t h a t result
in a r a n g e of divine r e s p o n s e s w h i c h slowly b u i l d u p t h e present
o r d e r of t h e c o s m o s . " T h e t a k i n g of h u m a n wives b y t h e " s o n s of
G o d " w a s o n e s u c h t r a n s g r e s s i o n . N o t i n g t h e w o r k of M . D o u g l a s ,

3
Other occurrences of the Nephilim are at Num 13:33 (cf. Deut 2:10-11); Jos
8:25; Judg 20:46; 2 Ki 25:11; Ps 145:14; Jer 39:9; Jer 52:15; Ezek 32:22, 24. See
DDD, pp. 1163-1168.
4
The term appears 20 times in the Hebrew Bible. The beings in Gen
6:1-4 seem to be different from David's fighters in 2 Sam 23:8-39 = 1 Chr 11:10-47.
5
C. Westermann, Genesis (London: SPCK 1985) 363-383.
6
R. Hendel, "Of Demigods and the Deluge: Toward an Interpretation of 6:1-4"
JBL 106 (1987) 13-26.
7
R. Hendel, "Of Demigods," p. 16.
h e suggests t h a t s u c h a u n i o n w e n t a g a i n s t t h e " c a t e g o r i e s of e r e -
a t i o n . " 8 T h e s e c a t e g o r i e s w e r e m e a n t t o b e distinct f r o m e a c h o t h e r :
h u m a n a n d divine. T h e f u s i o n of t h e t w o c r e a t e d a n "imbalance
a n d a c o n f u s i o n in t h e c o s m i c o r d e r , " w h i c h h a d to b e r e d r e s s e d .
R. Hendel sees t h e Flood as " t h e n a t u r a l c o n c l u s i o n of Gen
6 : 1 4 . . . t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of h u m a n i t y a n d t h e c o n c o m i t a n t a n n i h i l a -
tion of t h e d i s o r d e r . " 9 E v e n if o n e d o e s n o t a c c e p t his e n t i r e exegesis,
H e n d e l ' s a s s e r t i o n t h a t c a t e g o r i e s of p u r i t y a n d c r e a t i o n o r d e r a r e
d i s r u p t e d b y t h e a c t i o n s of t h e " s o n s of G o d " is i l l u m i n a t i n g , since
it c o n n e c t s t h e story w i t h its i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t r a t h e r t h a n seeing
it as a d i s j o i n t e d s e g m e n t . It also s h o w s t h a t t h e m i x i n g of divine
a n d h u m a n c o u l d h a v e b e e n u n d e r s t o o d as p r o b l e m a t i c f r o m t h e
earliest p e r i o d . It a p p a r e n t l y c o n t i n u e d to b e a p r o b l e m for s o m e ,
s u c h as t h e a u t h o r s of Jub. a n d T. Naph.
T h u s , this s h o r t n a r r a t i v e in t h e H e b r e w Bible tells of t h e i n t e r -
m i n g l i n g of h u m a n ( d a u g h t e r s of m e n ) a n d d i v i n e (sons of G o d )
b l o o d , w h i c h s e e m s to h a v e led to u n u s u a l offspring. It a p p e a r s t o
be s o m e w h a t u n c o n n e c t e d to the s u r r o u n d i n g passages, b u t as H e n d e l
suggests, a l r e a d y in this n a r r a t i v e , t h e sin of b o u n d a r y t r a n s g r e s s i o n
c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d as l e a d i n g to t h e F l o o d . V i r t u a l l y all s u b s e q u e n t
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of this p a s s a g e will u n d e r s t a n d t h e "sons of G o d " as
angels. T h e earliest of these seems to h a v e b e e n t h e Book of W a t c h e r s .

6.2 1 Enoch 6-11: The Book of Watchers

U n t i l t h e d i s c o v e r y of t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls, d a t e s f o r 1 E n o c h h a d
b e e n p o s i t e d as early as t h e first c e n t u r y B C E to as late as t h e t h i r d
c e n t u r y C E . D i s c o v e r y of A r a m a i c f r a g m e n t s of all t h e m a j o r sec-
tions of 1 E n o c h e x c e p t t h e S i m i l i t u d e s ( c h a p t e r s 3 7 - 7 1 ) h a s led
m o s t s c h o l a r s to believe t h a t 1 E n o c h 1 - 3 6 a n d 7 2 - 1 0 8 a r e a t least
first c e n t u r y B C E in origin a n d p r o b a b l y as old as t h e t h i r d c e n -
tury BCE.10
A few scholars h a v e suggested t h a t 1 E n o c h m a y even b e old e n o u g h
to h a v e i n f l u e n c e d t h e B o o k of G e n e s i s itself, b u t this i d e a h a s n o t

8
M. Douglas, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (London:
Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966) esp. 53-54; R. Hendel, "Of Demigods," p. 23.
R. Hendel, "Of Demigods," p. 23.
10
G. Nickelsburg, "Apocalyptic and Myth in 1 Enoch 6-11" JBL 96 (1977)
389-391. G. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 2001) 14-15.
w o n m u c h scholarly support. 1 1 T h e n a r r a t i v e in 1 E n o c h is m u c h m o r e
e x p a n s i v e t h a n in G e n e s i s a n d clarifies s o m e a m b i g u i t i e s . T h e r e f o r e ,
t h e p r i o r i t y of t h e G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e will b e a s s u m e d . It will b e seen
t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n s in 1 E n o c h , h o w e v e r , did i n f l u e n c e m a n y , if n o t
all, s u b s e q u e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e fallen a n g e l n a r r a t i v e .
T h e t e r m " W a t c h e r s " ( )c a m e to b e a p p l i e d to t h e divine b e i n g s
(angels) w h o left t h e i r p l a c e in h e a v e n . 1 2 I n the H e b r e w Bible t h e
t e r m only a p p e a r s in t h e B o o k of D a n i e l as r e f e r r i n g t o h e a v e n l y
b e i n g s (4:13, 17, 23); it a p p e a r s in Jub. 3:15, 5:1, C D 2:18, t h e Gen.
Apoc., a n d several o t h e r late S e c o n d T e m p l e writings. T h e t e r m is
n o t exclusive to t h e fallen angels, since 1 En. 20:1 applies it to t h e
f o u r a r c h a n g e l s . J . Collins n o t e s t h a t t h e f u n c t i o n of t h e W a t c h e r s
o v e r l a p s t h a t of t h e angels b u t t h a t t h e W a t c h e r s w e r e likely c o n -
c e i v e d of as a distinct class of a n g e l i c beings. 1 3
T h e m o s t r e l e v a n t section of t h e B o o k of W a t c h e r s is c h a p t e r s
6 ^ 1 5 , w h e r e t h e n a r r a t i v e of G e n 6 is discussed a n d e x p a n d e d u p o n .
T h e r e s e e m to b e t w o s t r a n d s of t r a d i t i o n w i t h i n t h e passage: t h e
S h e m a z i a h a n d t h e Azazel. 1 4 C h a p t e r 6 says:

[1] 111 those days, when the children of m a n h a d multiplied, it hap-

pened that there were b o r n unto them handsome and beautiful daugh-
ters. [2] And the angels, the children of heaven, saw them and desired
them; and they said to one another, " C o m e , let us choose wives for
ourselves from among the daughters of m a n arid beget us children."
[3] And Semyaz, being their leader, said unto them, "I fear that per-
haps you will not consent that this deed should be done, and I alone
will become (responsible) for this great sin." [4] But they all responded
to him, "Let us swear an oath and bind everyone a m o n g us by a
curse not to abandon this suggestion but to do the deed." T h e n they
all swore together and b o u n d one another by (the curse). 15

11
J. MiUk, The Booh of Enoch: Aramaic Fragments of Qumran Cave 4 (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1976) 31, 124-5. M. Barker, The Last Prophet: The Book of Enoch
and Its Influence of Christianity (London: SPCK, 1988), but see M. Barker, The Older
Testament(London: SPCK," 1987) 12-16.
J . Collins, "Watchers" in DDD, pp. 1681-1685. See also J . Fitzmyer, The Genes
Apocryphon of Qumran Cave I: A Commentary, 2nd ed., Biblica et Orientalia 18a (Rome:
Biblical Institute Press, 1971) 80-81.
13
J. Collins, "Watchers" p. 1684.
14
D. Dimant, "I Enoch 6-11: A Methodological Perspective" SBLSP (1978)
323-339; G. Nickelsburg, "Apocalyptic and Myth in 1 Enoch 6-11," pp. 383-405;
HJPAJC IIIi:255.
15
Then the names of these angels are given: "And they were altogether two
hundred; and they descended into Ardos, which is the summit of Hermon. And
they called the mount Armon, for they swore and bound one another by a curse.
1 En. 6 a p p e a r s to e x p a n d u p o n t h e c o r e n a r r a t i v e f r o m G e n 6. (1)
H u m a n s m u l t i p l y o n t h e e a r t h ( G e n 6:1). (2) D i v i n e b e i n g s see t h e
b e a u t y of t h e d a u g h t e r s of t h e h u m a n s a n d d e s c e n d to t h e earth
( G e n 6:2a). A t this p o i n t t h e n a r r a t i v e is e x p a n d e d to i n c l u d e a l o n g
discussion b e t w e e n S e m y a z a n d his c o c o n s p i r a t o r s . A s t h e leader,
S e m y a z d o e s n o t t r u s t t h a t his c o m p a n i o n s will follow t h r o u g h o n
t h e i r p l a n to g o to t h e h u m a n w o m e n , b e c a u s e it is a g r e a t sin, so
t h e y all s w e a r a n o a t h . W e a r e told t h e n u m b e r of angels, t w o h u n -
d r e d , a n d w e a r e also told fifteen n a m e s of v a r i o u s l e a d e r s a m o n g
t h e angels. O n c e b o u n d b y a n o a t h , t h e y d e s c e n d a n d t a k e wives
( G e n 6:2b).
I t is i n t e r e s t i n g to n o t e in p a s s i n g t h a t 1 E n o c h d o e s n o t s e e m t o
m a k e r e f e r e n c e to G e n 6:3, w h e r e G o d limits t h e life s p a n of h u m a n s .
As w a s n o t e d , W e s t e r m a n n suggested t h a t this verse m a y n o t be
original. T h a t 1 E n o c h d o e s n o t reflect G e n 6:3 d o e s n o t p r o v e o r
e v e n suggest t h a t t h e verse w a s n o t a l r e a d y p r e s e n t , since it possi-
ble t h a t t h e a u t h o r of 1 E n o c h h a d p a r t i c u l a r m o t i v a t i o n s f o r o m i t -
ting r e f e r e n c e to t h e verse.
A f t e r t h e n a m e s of t h e l e a d i n g a n g e l s a r e g i v e n ( w . 7 8 ) , c h a p -
ter 7 continues:

[1] And they took wives unto themselves, and everyone (respectively)
chose one w o m a n for himself, and they began to go unto them. And
they taught them magical medicine, incantations, the cutting of roots,
and taught t h e m (about) plants. [2] A n d the w o m e n became pregnant
and gave birth to great giants whose heights were three hundred cubits.
[3] These (giants) consumed the produce of all the people until the
people detested feeding them. [4] So the giants turned against (the
people) in order to eat them. [5] A n d they began to sin against birds,
wild beasts, reptiles, and fish. [6] And their flesh was devoured the
one by the other, and they drank blood. And then the earth brought
an accusation against the oppressors. 16

T h e angels t h e n t e a c h h u m a n b e i n g s a b o u t m e d i c i n e , h e r b a l i s m , a n d
m a g i c . T h e w o m e n b e c o m e p r e g n a n t a n d h a v e offspring. 1 E n o c h
is explicit t h a t t h e s e o f f s p r i n g w e r e g i a n t s w h o w e r e 3 0 0 c u b i t s h i g h
(cf. G e n 6:4). T h e s e h y b r i d c r e a t u r e s b r i n g sin i n t o t h e w o r l d , espe-
d a i l y c a n n i b a l i s m , a n d t h e e a r t h is said to a c c u s e t h e m .

And their names are as follows: Semyaz, the leader of Arakeb, Ramael, Tamel, Rarnel,
Danel, Baraqyal, Asel, Baratel, Ananel, Sasomaspweel, Kestarel, Turel, Yamayol,
and Arazyal. These are their chiefs of tens and others with them" (1 En. 6:6-8).
16
Translation of all 1 En. passages taken from E. Isaac, OTP 1:15-16.
 A t t h e b e g i n n i n g of c h a p t e r 8, Azazel 1 7 is said to t e a c h h u m a n s

[1] (the art of) making swords and knives, and shields, and breastplates;
and he showed to their chosen ones bracelets, decorations (shadowing
of the eye) with antimony, ornamentation, the beautifying of the eye-
lids, all kinds of precious stones, and all coloring tinctures and alchemy.

T h e list c o n t i n u e s , w i t h o t h e r s t e a c h i n g i n c a n t a t i o n s a n d astrology,
until t h e p e o p l e c r i e d a n d t h e i r voice r e a c h e d h e a v e n (v. 4). A n g e l s
t e a c h i n g h u m a n s m a n y skills, m o s t of w h i c h lead o n l y to d e s t r u c t i o n
( w e a p o n s , a r m o r ) o r d a n g e r o u s arts (seduction, astrology), is a n e l a b -
o r a t i o n u p o n t h e G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e . It m a y b e a n e x t e n s i o n of t h e
i d e a in G e n 6:5, " T h e L o r d saw t h a t the wickedness of m a n w a s g r e a t
in t h e e a r t h , a n d t h a t e v e r y i m a g i n a t i o n of the t h o u g h t s of his h e a r t
w a s o n l y evil c o n t i n u a l l y . " R o w l a n d p o i n t s o u t t h e i r o n y of t h e
angelic r e v e l a t i o n a p p e a r i n g in a n a p o c a l y p t i c text: " O n e c a n o n l y
a s s u m e t h a t t h e m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n E n o c h a n d t h e angels is
t h e fact t h a t m a n receives t h e h e a v e n l y m y s t e r i e s b y m e a n s of rev-
elation, w h e r e a s angels a r e guilty of e x p o s i n g t h e h e a v e n l y m y s t e r i e s
to m a n w i t h o u t G o d ' s p e r m i s s i o n . ' " 8 So, e v e n in die case of t h e angels
revealing knowledge, it seems d i a t divine p a r a m e t e r s w e r e transgressed.
In chapter 9 the archangels (Michael, Surafel, a n d Gabriel) are
o b s e r v i n g t h e e a r t h . T h e y b e s e e c h G o d to d o s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e
evil t h a t is u p o n t h e e a r t h , saying:

[6] You see what Azazel has done; how he has taught all (forms o f )
oppression u p o n the earth. A n d they revealed eternal secrets which
are performed in heaven (and which) m a n learned. [7] (Moreover)
Semyaz, to whom you have given power to rule over his companions,
co-operating, they went in unto the daughters of the people of the
earth; [8] and they lay together with themwith those w o m e n a n d
defiled themselves, and revealed to them every (kind o f ) sin. [9] As
for the women, they gave birth to giants to the degree that the whole
earth was filled with blood.

G o d d e c i d e s t h a t a d e l u g e will be sent to p u r i f y t h e w o r l d , a n d N o a h
is w a r n e d (10:13). G o d t h e n s e n d s R a p h a e l to b i n d A z a z e l a n d cast
h i m i n t o d a r k n e s s (10:5). R a p h a e l is said t o m a k e a h o l e i n t h e d e s e r t
t h a t w a s in D u d a e l a n d cast h i m t h e r e . T h i s is i n t e r e s t i n g i n light
of L e v 16, in w h i c h t h e g o a t t h a t is o f f e r e d f o r A z a z e l is sent o u t

17
For other texts re: Azazel see: Lev 16:8, 10, 26; 1 En. 8:1, 9:6, 10:4-8, 13:1,
54:5-6, 55:4, 69:2; Apoc. Abr. 13:6-14, 14:4-6, 20:6-7.
18
C. Rowland, The Open Heaven (New York: Crossroads, 1982) 93-94.
i n t o t h e d e s e r t o n t h e D a y of A t o n e m e n t . G a b r i e l is sent " t o p r o -
c e e d a g a i n s t t h e b a s t a r d s a n d r e p r o b a t e s a n d a g a i n s t t h e c h i l d r e n of
a d u l t e r y . . . a n d expel t h e c h i l d r e n of t h e W a t c h e r s f r o m a m o n g t h e
p e o p l e " (10:9). Lastly, M i c h a e l is sent to " M a k e k n o w n to S e m y a z a
a n d the others w h o are with h i m , w h o fornicated with the w o m e n ,
t h a t t h e y will die t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e m in t h e i r d e f i l e m e n t " (10:11).
Interestingly, in 1 En. 1 2 - 1 3 , E n o c h is called u p o n by the W a t c h e r s
to i n t e r c e d e o n t h e i r b e h a l f . T h i s i r o n i c twist h a s a h u m a n in h e a v e n
p l e a d i n g o n b e h a l f of angels w h o a r e o n t h e e a r t h . T h e a n g e l s h a v e
t r a n s g r e s s e d t h e b o u n d a r i e s a n d left tiieir natural position, while
E n o c h h a s b e e n c h o s e n by G o d a n d b r o u g h t u p i n t o t h e i r a b o d e .
A n u m b e r of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s h a v e b e e n o f f e r e d f o r t h e present
state of t h e text. B o t h G . N i c k e l s b u r g a n d P. H a n s o n h a v e a t t e m p t e d
t o link t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e t r a d i t i o n of t h e fallen W a t c h e r s w i t h
Graeco-Roman myths.19 In particular, Hesiod's Tlieogony 1 8 5 and
H o m e r ' s Odyssey 7.59 b o t h m e n t i o n t h a t b l o o d f r o m h e a v e n m i n g l e d
w i t h t h e e a r t h to c r e a t e giants. T h e s e parallels a r e interesting, b u t t h e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of this n a r r a t i v e h a s b e e n p u s h e d f u r t h e r by M . B a r k e r
a n d especially D . Suter. 2 0 1). S u t e r locates in 1 E n o c h a c o n c e r n f o r
p u r i t y in t h e priestly b l o o d l i n e , w h i c h h a s b e e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o a
m y t h a b o u t angels w h o p r o c r e a t e w i t h w o m e n a n d m i x b l o o d . T h i s
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is p a r t i c u l a r l y i l l u m i n a t i n g f o r t h e p r e s e n t discussion.
It is also in k e e p i n g w i t h H e n d e l ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of G e n 6 : 1 - 4 , in
w h i c h t h e m i x i n g of t h e t w o t y p e s of b e i n g s w a s a l r e a d y a f u n d a -
m e n t a l p r o b l e m a n d c a u s e of t h e d e s t r u c t i o n in t h e F l o o d . H e r e t h e
u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h e sin of t h e a n g e l s is t o g o t o e a r t h a n d c o p -
ulate w i t h h u m a n w o m e n is m o r e explicit. A n a d d i t i o n a l sin is t o
t e a c h h u m a n s v a r i o u s types of h i d d e n k n o w l e d g e .
T h u s , t h e B o o k of W a t c h e r s is a n early t r a d i t i o n , b u t it d o e s still
s e e m to d e p e n d u p o n t h e c o r e n a r r a t i v e in G e n 6. V i r t u a l l y all s u b -
s e q u e n t i n t e r p r e t e r s of t h e W a t c h e r s n a r r a t i v e likely h a d s o m e a w a r e -

19
G. Nickelsburg, "Apocalyptic and Myth in 1 Enoch 6-11," pp. 383-405;
P. Hanson, "Rebellion in Heaven, Azazel, and Euhermeristic Heroes in 1 Enoch 6-11"
JBL 96 (1977) 195-233. See also J . Coffins, "Methodological Issues in the Study
of I Enoch: Reflections on the Articles of P. Hanson and G. Nickelsburg" SBLSP
(1978) 315-322, with responses in the same volume by Hanson (pp. 307-309) and
Nickelsburg (pp. 311-314).
20
M. Barker, The Older Testament (London: SPCK, 1987) 8-80; D. Suter, "Fallen
Angel, Fallen Priest: The Problem of Family Purity in 1 Enoch 6-16" HUCA 50
(1979) 115-135.
ness of t h e k i n d s of i d e a s t h a t d e v e l o p e d in 1 E n o c h . I n p a r t i c u l a r ,
it is m a d e explicit t h a t t h e d i v i n e b e i n g s w h o c a m e t o e a r t h w e r e
angels, e v e n n a m e d angels. O n e of t h e i r t r a n s g r e s s i o n s w a s t o h a v e
relations w i t h h u m a n w o m e n a n d s p a w n g i a n t h y b r i d offspring, b u t
a n o t h e r w a s to t e a c h h u m a n s m a n y secrets. As J . K l a w a n s points
o u t , " T h e w a t c h e r s e n g a g e in sexually defiling b e h a v i o r w h i c h leads
to t h e i r p e r m a n e n t d e g r a d a t i o n a n d t h e i r exile f r o m H e a v e n . " 2 1

6.3 The Septuagint

It is i m p o r t a n t to see h o w t h e key H e b r e w t e r m s ( ; ;
a n d ) of G e n 6 : 1 - 4 w e r e t r a n s l a t e d in t h e L X X to g a i n insight
i n t o t h o s e i n t e r p r e t e r s ' i d e a s a b o u t a n g e l s in t h e S e c o n d Temple
p e r i o d . " S o n s of G o d " ( ) is a r a r e t e r m in t h e Hebrew
S c r i p t u r e s ; besides its t w o o c c u r r e n c e s in G e n 6, it a p p e a r s only in
Job 1:6, 2:1, a n d 38:7 (all t h r e e a r e ;) Ps 29:1 ( , (
8 2 : 6 ("gods, a n d sons of t h e M o s t H i g h " ( ;)) a n d D a n
3:25 ( ) . T h e t h r e e cases in J o b a n d o n e in D a n i e l a r e r e n -
d e r e d w i t h , w h i l e t h e o t h e r s a r e r e n d e r e d literally. 111 e a c h
c a s e , t h e " s o n s of G o d " s e e m s to r e f e r to divine beings. 2 2
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , in t h e t w o o c c u r r e n c e s in G e n 6:2 a n d 4 t h e text
s e e m s to h a v e m a i n t a i n e d this t e r m , using to t r a n s l a t e
it directly. 2 3 O n e version ( C o d e x A) h a s oi at v. 2,
b u t , as P. A l e x a n d e r p o i n t s o u t , this is n o t likely to h a v e b e e n t h e
original r e a d i n g . 2 4 T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of this a r e n o t entirely clear. It
c o u l d m e a n t h a t t h e translators w e r e n o t a w a r e of the line of tradition,
s u c h as in 1 E n o c h , t h a t w a s i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e "sons of G o d " as angels.
C o n v e r s e l y , it m a y r e p r e s e n t a r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t s u c h a n i n t e r p r e t a -
d o n . T h i r d l y , it m a y r e p r e s e n t s o m e a m b i v a l e n c e t o w a r d t h e question,

21
J. Klawans, Sin and Impurity in Ancient Israel (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2000) 57.
22
B. Byrne, "Sans of God""Seed of Abraham": A Study of the Idea of Sonship of God
of All Christians in Paul against the Jewish Background (Rome: Pontifical Institute, 1979)
10-23, provides a good survey of the range of meaning for "son of God" as angelic
beings. See also "Son of God" in ABD 6:129, and S. Parker, "Sons of (the) G0d(s)"
in DDD, pp. 1499-1510.
23
Symmachus translates "sons of the powerful ones []"; Theodotion
"sons of God"; and Aquila "sons of gods []."
24
P. Alexander, "The Targumim and Early Exegesis of 'Sons of God' in Genesis
6" JJS 23 (1972) 60-71.
so t h a t a literal t r a n s l a t i o n w a s a d o p t e d . T h e q u e s t i o n is likely n o t
a n s w e r a b l e , b u t a t least o n e v a r i a n t of t h e L X X d o e s d e m o n s t r a t e t h e
r e a d i n g , so s u c h a r e a d i n g w a s a t least possible.
T h e L X X t r a n s l a t e s b o t h t h e t e r m a n d as -
, 2 5 d e m o n s t r a t i n g t w o i n t e r p r e t i v e m o v e s . First, t h e N e p h i l i m a n d
t h e G i b o r i m a r e e q u a t e d . A l t h o u g h this is t h e likely i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ,
it is n o t explicit in t h e H e b r e w . S e c o n d , t h e s e b e i n g s w e r e u n d e r -
s t o o d as " g i a n t s . " N u m 1 3 : 3 2 - 3 3 echoes the same idea regarding
t h e N e p h i l i m , a g a i n t r a n s l a t i n g t h e i r n a m e s as " g i a n t s " a n d s t a t i n g
t h a t t h e y a r e h u m a n s of e n o r m o u s s t a t u r e :

[32] So they brought to the people of Israel an evil report of the land
which they h a d spied out, saying, " T h e land, through which we have
gone, to spy it out, is a land that devours its inhabitants; and all the
people that we saw in it are men of great stature. [33] And there we
saw the Nephilim [] (the sons of Anak, who come from the
Nephilim); a n d we seemed to ourselves like grasshoppers, a n d so we
seemed to them."

A n o t h e r text hints t h a t gigantic features belong to angel-human

h y b r i d s . JA 2 2 : 7 ~ 8 states of (die h e a v e n l y ) J a c o b :

[7] And Aseneth saw him a n d was amazed at his beauty, because
J a c o b was exceedingly beautiful to look at, and his old age (was) like
the youth of a handsome (young) man, a n d his head was all white as
snow, and the hairs of his head were all exceedingly close and thick
like those of an Ethiopian, and his b e a r d (was) white reaching down
to his breast, and his eyes (were) flashing and darting (flashes of) light-
ning, and his sinews and his shoulders a n d his arms were like those
of an angel, and his thighs and calves a n d his feet like (those) of a
giant. [8] And J a c o b was like a m a n who had wrestled with God. 2 6

T h e parallels h e r e a r e i n t r i g u i n g . B o t h t h e b e i n g s in G e n 6:1 4 a n d
J a c o b in this text a r e h y b r i d s , b e i n g b o t h h u m a n a n d divine (in JA
explicitly said to b e " a n g e l i c , " a n d in t h e L X X version of G e n 6
this is at least a possible reading). I n b o t h cases, g i g a n t i s m is p a r t
of t h e i r h y b r i d n a t u r e . 2 7

25
On the Greek background to this term, see DDD, pp. 649-653.
26
C. Burchard, OTP 2:238.
27
In the Book of Elchasai as recorded in fragments in Hippolytus, Ref. 9.13.2-3
(third century CE), an angel is said to have gigantic features: "It had been com-
municated by an angel, whose height was 24 schoinoi, which is 96 miles, his breath
four schoinoi, and from shoulder to shoulder six schoinoi, and the tracks of his feet
in length 3.5 schoinoi, which is 14 miles, and in breadth 1.5 schoinoi, and in height
half a schoinos (translation: J. Irmscher in E. Hennecke, New Testament Apocrypha
[London: Lutterworth Press, 1965] 747-748).
 T h u s , t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e L X X is u n c l e a r as to w h e t h e r t h e
" s o n s of G o d " a r e u n d e r s t o o d specifically as angels in t h e earliest
versions. T h e L X X a u t h o r s o p t e d for a literal t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e t e r m .
T h e L X X ' s c h o i c e t o m a i n t a i n s o n s of G o d ( ) is i n t e r -
p r e t a t i v e l y a m b i g u o u s , b u t at least o n e v a r i a n t d o e s s h o w oi
. T h e N e p h i l i m a n d G i b o r i m a r e e q u a t e d b y t h e i r c o m m o n
r e n d e r i n g as " g i a n t s " (). T h i s s e e m s t o suggest a n ongoing
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e o f f s p r i n g as g i a n t s (1 En. a n d L X X ) in t h e e a r l y
p a r t of t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d .

6.4 The Dead Sea Scrolls

A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e n o f r a g m e n t s of G e n 6:14 a m o n g t h e e x t a n t
D e a d S e a Scrolls, a n u m b e r of texts t a k e t h e i r i n s p i r a t i o n f r o m t h e
G e n 6 n a r r a t i v e : t h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n (Gen. Apoc), t h e B o o k of
Giants, and some fragments.28
M o s t scholars date the Genesis A p o c r y p h o n ( 1 Q a p G e n a r = 1Q20)
to t h e e n d of t h e first c e n t u r y B C E o r early first c e n t u r y C E . 2 9 T h e
g e n r e of t h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n is still a m a t t e r of scholarly debate. 3 0
It s e e m s to b e a r e w r i t t e n version of G e n 5 1 5 . T h a t t h e text s e e m s
to k n o w G e n 6 a n d especially 1 E n o c h is clear. T h e first e x t a n t col-
u m n , c o l u m n 2, c o n t a i n s a discussion b e t w e e n L a m e c h a n d his wife
B a t e n o s h (cf. Jub. 4:28). T h e first 18 lines state:

[1] Behold, I thought then within my heart that conception was (due)
to the Watchers [ ]a n d the Holy O n e s . . . and to the Giants
[]
[2] and my heart was troubled within m e because of this child.
[3] T h e n I, Lamech, approached Bathenosh [my] wife in haste a n d
said to her,
[4] [ . . . ] by the Most High, the Great Lord, the King of all the uni-
verse and Ruler of
[5] [. . .]the Sons of Heaven [], until you tell m e all things
truthfully . . .
[6] You will and without lies let me know whether this

28
4Q252 col. 1:2-3, however, reflects Gen 6:3 closely, stating, "And God said:
'My spirit will not reside in man for ever. Their days shall be fixed at one hun-
dred and twenty years until the end of the waters of the flood.' " The complete
form of this text may well have included the whole of the Gen 6:1-4 narrative,
though it cannot be known for certain.
29
N. Avigad and Y. Yadin, A Genesis Apocryphon (Jerusalem: Magnus Press, 1956) 38.
50
See HJPAJC IIIi:318-25.
 [7] by the King of the all the universe that you are speaking to me
frankly and without lies
[8] T h e n Batenosh, my bride, spoke to me veiy harshly, she wept
[9] saying. " O h my brother, my Lord, r e m e m b e r my pleasure!
[10] [. . .] the time of love, the gasping of my breath in my breast. I
[. . .] will tell you everything accurately
[11] [ . . . ] and then within m e my heart was very upset
[121 W h e n Batenosh, my wife, realized that my countenance h a d
altered
[13] then she suppressed her anger, speaking to m e and saying to me,
" O my lord
[14] my pleasure. I swear to you by the Holy Great O n e , the King
of [the heavens] . . .
[15] that this seed is yours and that [this] conception is f r o m you.
This fruit was planted by you . . .
[16] a n d by n o s t r a n g e r or W a t c h e r [ ]or Son of H e a v e n
[ ] . . .
[17] [Why] is your countenance thus changed and dismayed, and why
is your spirit thus distressed . . .
[18] I speak to you truthfully."

L a m e c h is c o n c e r n e d t h a t his child ( N o a h ) m a y b e the o f f s p r i n g of

t h e W a t c h e r s (). I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e y a r e j u x t a p o s e d w i t h "Holy
O n e s " in e a c h o c c u r r e n c e j u s t as in t h e B o o k of D a n i e l (4:10, 14,
20). T w o o t h e r tides u s e d in t h e f r a g m e n t a r e n o t e w o r t h y . " S o n s of
H e a v e n 5 ' is a n o t i i e r t h a t seems to refer to t h e s a m e beings as W a t c h e r s
a n d H o l y O n e s , a n d c o n n e c t s t h e b e i n g s m o r e closely w i t h t h e divine
t h a n t h e h u m a n . T h e N e p h i l i m a r e also m e n t i o n e d (v. 1), a n d t h e r e
m a y b e s o m e i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e y a r e e q u i v a l e n t to t h e Watchers
( H o l y O n e s ) , b u t this is n o t c e r t a i n d u e to t h e f r a g m e n t a r y n a t u r e
of t h e text.
T h e m o s t i n t r i g u i n g a s p e c t of Gen. Apoc. is t h a t B a t h e n o s h must
c o n v i n c e h e r h u s b a n d , L a m e c h , t h a t she is p r e g n a n t t h r o u g h him
a n d n o t a n y s u p e r h u m a n b e i n g . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n of t h e story is t h a t
s o m e t h i n g a b o u t N o a h ' s a p p e a r a n c e a t b i r t h h a s led L a m e c h to
believe h e is a b n o r m a l , p e r h a p s s u p e r h u m a n , a n d to ask w h e t h e r
t h e c h i l d is his o w n . T h i s e x p a n s i o n is v e r y m u c h like t h a t seen in
1 En. 106. 3 1 B a t h e n o s h ' s p r o t e s t s a r e explicit, r e m i n d i n g L a m e c h of
h e r p l e a s u r e in t h e i r s e x u a l u n i o n . S h e d e n i e s t h a t a n y o n e b u t h i m
h a s f a t h e r e d t h e i r s o n , s a y i n g it w a s b y n o " s t r a n g e r , o r W a t c h e r
o r son of H e a v e n . "

81
For the discussion of 1 En. 106 on Noah as angebe, see 3.4 above.
 Gen. Apoc. i n d i c a t e s t h a t , f o r a t least o n e a u t h o r , a b i r t h t h a t h a d
b e e n c o n c e i v e d b y t h e m i x i n g of h u m a n a n d divine stock w a s pos-
sible. If Gen. Apoc. picks u p o n t r a d i t i o n s in 1 E n o c h , t h e n w e c a n
see t h e t r a d i t i o n r e c o r d e d in m o r e t h a n o n e text. T h e a u t h o r d i d
n o t c h o o s e to use t h e t e r m f o r a n g e l ( ) , as in L X X (A) a n d
1 E n o c h ; h o w e v e r , t h e r e is c e r t a i n l y m e n t i o n of b e i n g s w h o a r e f r o m
h e a v e n (of divine origin), w h o s e e m to b e distinct f r o m h u m a n beings
b u t w h o a r e still a b l e to a c t b o t h in the h e a v e n s a n d o n e a r t h . T h i s
m a y o n l y reflect t h e a u t h o r ' s i d e a s a b o u t e v e n t s in t h e a n t e d i l u v i a n
p a s t , b u t it gives us a g l i m p s e i n t o h o w t h e a u t h o r m i g h t h a v e p e r -
c e i v e d t h e a c t i o n s of h e a v e n l y b e i n g s i n his o w n t i m e .
A B o o k of G i a n t s t h a t c i r c u l a t e d a m o n g t h e M a n i c h e a n s ( M a n i ,
t h i r d c e n t u r y C E ) h a s b e e n k n o w n to s c h o l a r s f o r s o m e time. 3 2 M o r e
recendy, a Book of G i a n t s f r o m Q u m r a n h a s b e e n identified ( 1 Q 2 3 - 2 4 ,
4 Q 5 3 0 - 5 3 1 , a n d 6 Q 8 , a n d possibly others). 3 3 D a t e s f o r t h e Q u m r a n
B o o k of G i a n t s v a r y b u t likely lie s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n t h e late t h i r d
a n d m i d d l e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E , so it is a n i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e f o r
this p e r i o d . 3 4 T h e r e l a t i o n of t h e Q u m r a n B o o k of G i a n t s to t h e
Manichean o n e is u n c l e a r , especially b e c a u s e of t h e fragmentary
n a t u r e of m o s t of t h e Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e . T h e M a n i c h e a n text m a y
d e p e n d o n t h e Q u m r a n text in s o m e w a y , b u t t h e r e is n o w a y t o
b e c e r t a i n . T h e Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e is t h u s t a k e n o n its o w n a n d is
n o t s u p p l e m e n t e d b y t h e M a n i c h e a n texts. 3 5
T h e Q u m r a n f r a g m e n t s r e p r e s e n t a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of G e n 6 : 1 - 4
similar t o 1 E n o c h . T h e m e r e f a c t t h a t a n e n t i r e b o o k w a s d e d i -
c a t e d to s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t t h e g i a n t s i n d i c a t e s t h e i m p a c t t h e G e n
6 p a s s a g e h a d o n a t least o n e a u t h o r a n d community.
T h e f r a g m e n t a r y n a t u r e of t h e e x t a n t Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e makes
a n y a s s e s s m e n t of t h e p u r p o s e o r g e n r e of t h e B o o k of G i a n t s at

32
For the Manichean text, see W. Henning, "The Book of Giants" BSOAS 11
(1943-1946) 52-74.
33
J. Milik, The Book of Enoch, pp. 298-339, first identified 13 fragments as belong-
ing to a Qumran Book of Giants. L. Stuckenbruck has put out a critical edition
of all the fragments of the Book of Giants from among the Dead Sea Scrolls: The
Book of Giants from Qumran (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997). I have based my trans-
lations on the text given in the latter.
34
L. Stuckenbruck, The Book of Giants, p. 31.
35
J. Reeves, Jewish Lore in Manichean Cosmogony: Studies in the Book of Giants Traditions
(Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 1992) 207-209, suggests that Jewish tra-
ditions did exert a determinative force on Mani's cosmology. Reeves includes in
"Jewish influence" Gen 6, 1 En., and other works. He does not necessarily see any
direct influence (contra J. Mlik, Enoch, pp. 298-339).
Q u m r a n difficult, if n o t impossible. T a k e n t o g e t h e r , t h e f r a g m e n t s
s h o w a n interest in t h e giants, n a m i n g t h e m (two h a v e B a b y l o n i a n
n a m e s ) , a n d in E n o c h as a n i n t e r p r e t e r of d r e a m s , suggesting a story
similar to 1 E n o c h b u t o n e t h a t e l a b o r a t e s u p o n the o f f s p r i n g giants.
W h a t p u r p o s e s u c h a text w o u l d h a v e s e r v e d r e m a i n s u n c e r t a i n .
T h r e e f r a g m e n t s a r e of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t b e c a u s e v a r i o u s key
w o r d s (e.g., N e p h i l i m , etc.) a p p e a r in t h e text: 4 Q 2 0 3 f r a g m e n t s 7
a n d 8, a n d 4 Q 5 3 1 f r a g m e n t 5.
4 Q 2 0 3 f r a g m e n t 7 is s h o r t b u t refers t o A z a z e l , G i b o r i m , and
p r o b a b l y t h e W a t c h e r s (which is r e s t o r e d f r o m a n initial a n d a
final s e e m i n g l y w i t h s p a c e for ( 36 .(

[6] us [ b u t . . .]h Aza[z]e1 and made h [ i m . . .]

[7] the giants [ ]and the Wa[tellers]. All [their] c0[mpa11i0ns] will
rise up [against. . .]

T h i s f r a g m e n t is t o o s h o r t to b e c e r t a i n of its l a r g e r c o n t e x t , b u t
the m e n t i o n of A z a z e l , t h e G i b o r i m , a n d the W a t c h e r s s e e m s to sit-
u a t e it w i t h i n t h e s c o p e of G e n 6, 1 E n o c h a n d t h e i r interprta-
tions. T h i s m a k e s sense g i v e n t h a t t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t of t h e B o o k of
G i a n t s is t h e h y b r i d offspring, giants.
T h e n e x t f r a g m e n t ( 4 Q 2 0 3 f r a g m e n t 8) is m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l , b u t
its e v i d e n c e is still p a r t i a l . It states:

[1] T h e boo[k . . .]
[2] vacat
[3] A copy of the s[ec0]nd tablet of the 1[etter . . . ]
[4] in a writing by the h a n d of Enoch, the scribe of righteousness
[...]
[5] and the Holy O n e to Sheinihazah and to all (his) c o m p a n i o n s . . .]
[6] "Let it be known to you t h [ a t . . .]/[. . . ]
[7] your deeds a n d those of (your) wives [. . . ]
[8] [. . . ] those [. . . ] son[s and] the wives of [. ..]
[9] through your fornication on the earth, for it has [. . .]
[10] accusing you regarding the deeds of your sons [ . . .]
[11] the corruption which you have committed on it [. . .]
[12] until the coming of Raphael. Behold d e s t r u c t i o n . . .]
[13] those who are in the deserts and those who are in the seas. And
the interpretation of [ . . .]
[14] evil upon you. So, now, set loose what you hold mh[.. ]
[15] and pray. [. . .]

36
L. Stuckenbruck, The Book of Giants, p. 78.
It is i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t this p a s s a g e m e n t i o n s E n o c h as a scribe of right-
eousness, since in 1 En. 12:4, E n o c h is called u p o n b y t h e W a t c h e r s
to i n t e r c e d e o n t h e i r b e h a l f . T h i s m a y suggest a similar c o n t e x t f o r
diis f r a g m e n t . T w o angels a r e n a m e d explicitly in this text, S h e m i h a z a h
(1 En.) a n d R a p h a e l ( T o b i t , 1 Q M , 1 En., Apoc. Mos.). T h i s very m u c h
e c h o e s 1 En. 9 11, w h e r e t h e a r c h a n g e l s i n t e r c e d e o n b e h a l f of
h u m a n s a n d a r e g i v e n tasks by G o d . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n of " f o r n i c a t i o n
o n t h e e a r t h " a n d " c o r r u p t i o n " s e e m s to i n d i c a t e t h a t this is t h e case.
O n e o t h e r f r a g m e n t ( 4 Q 5 3 1 f r a g m e n t 5) m e n t i o n s t h e giants:

[1] .] they defiled themselves [.. .]

[] .] Giants [ ]and Nephilim [] ]j . . . ]
[3] .] they begat. Behold k[. . .].
W .] in its blood, and by means of mh[. . . 1
[5] .] because it was not enough for them and for [.
[6] .] and they d e m a n d e d much to eat ml[ ]
[7] vacat
[. . .] [. . .] the Nephilim [ ]destroyed it [. . .]

H e r e t h e N e p h i l i m a r e m e n t i o n e d a l o n g w i t h the G i b o r i m . T h e y s e e m
to b e linked w i t h d e f i l e m e n t a n d t h e c o r r u p t i o n of t h e e a r t h , if w e
a s s u m e a c o n t e x t similar to t h a t of 1 E n o c h a n d t h e texts a l r e a d y
discussed.
O v e r a l l , t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e B o o k of G i a n t s is q u i t e limited,
b u t it d o e s s h o w t h a t a t least o n e c o m m u n i t y w a s greatly e x p a n d -
ing u p o n t h e t r a d i t i o n s of G e n 6 a n d 1 Enoch. T h e r e the term
" a n g e l ( " ) d o e s n o t explicitly o c c u r , b u t s o m e n a m e d angels a r e
m e n t i o n e d . C e r t a i n l y , t h e i d e a of divine b e i n g s a n d h u m a n s c o p u -
lating was picked u p a n d expanded.
T h e D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t ( C D ) w a s first k n o w n to s c h o l a r s f r o m
t h e m a n u s c r i p t s f o u n d in t h e C a i r o G e n i z a h a t t h e e n d of t h e n i n e -
t e e n t h c e n t u r y . M a n y f r a g m e n t s of C D w e r e p r e s e n t a t Qiimran.
4 Q 2 6 7 f r a g m e n t 2 a n d 4 Q 2 7 0 f r a g m e n t 1 discuss the W a t c h e r s w h o
fell f r o m h e a v e n . 3 7 T h e y a r e listed in a section t h a t discusses s i n n e r s
a n d r i g h t e o u s figures f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible. T h e W a t c h e r s b e g i n a
list of figures f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible w h o s u f f e r e d specifically b e c a u s e
t h e y did n o t k e e p t h e p r e c e p t s of G o d . C D says of t h e W a t c h e r s :

37
Both fragments are largely reconstructed from the Genizah manuscripts. Cf.
DJB XVIII.
 [16] . . . For many
[17] have failed due to them; mighty warriors [ ] have stum-
bled due to them, from the earliest times and until today, walking in
the stubbornness
[18] of their hearts, the Watchers [ ]of the heavens fell; on account
of it they were caught, for they did not follow the precepts of God.
[19] And their sons, whose height was like that of cedars and whose
bodies were like mountains when they fell. (4Q267 frag. 2)

N o t a b l y , h e r e t h e W a t c h e r s fall b e c a u s e t h e y fail to follow t h e p r e -

c e p t s of G o d , p r e s u m a b l y to m a i n t a i n t h e i r c o r r e c t p l a c e in t h e cos-
m o s . Also, t h e o f f s p r i n g of t h e W a t c h e r s a r e said t o b e of e n o r m o u s
s t a t u r e , tall as c e d a r s a n d w i t h b o d i e s like m o u n t a i n s . F u r t h e r , t h e
W a t c h e r s a r e sinful in t h e i r a c t i o n s a g a i n s t G o d .
Lastly, f r a g m e n t s 4 Q 1 8 0 a n d 4 Q 1 8 1 , also k n o w n as " T h e A g e s
of C r e a t i o n , " d a t e to t h e first c e n t u r y C E . 3 8 T h e y d o n o t p r o v i d e
m u c h a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n b u t s e e m t o m a k e r e f e r e n c e to the
1 E n o c h t r a d i t i o n . 4 Q J 8 0 says:

[7] [And] the interpretation concerning Azazel [ ]and the angels

[ ]who
[8] they bore to them giants []. And concerning Azazel [ . . . [

[10] judgments a n d j u d g m e n t of the congregation . . .

A l t h o u g h t h e text is f r a g m e n t a r y , it a d d s to o u r overall collection of

e x t a n t texts t h a t s p e c u l a t e a b o u t the e v e n t s d e s c r i b e d in G e n 6 : 1 - 4 .
It also m e n t i o n s A z a z e l (discussed a b o v e ) a n d s e e m s to i n d i c a t e t h a t
angels a n d h u m a n s h a d viable offspring. S i m i l a r to line 8 of 4 H 8 0 ,
4 Q 1 8 1 f r a g m e n t 2 line 2 says, ". . . m a n a n d b o r e to t h e m g i a n t s
[]. "
T o s u m u p , t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls is q u i t e v a r -
ied. Gen. Apoc. is a r e w o r k i n g of G e n e s i s . Its u n i q u e interpretation
h a s L a m e c h c o n c e r n e d t h a t his son, N o a h , is n o t his o w n b u t t h e
son of t h e h e a v e n l y W a t c h e r s d u e to his f a n t a s t i c a p p e a r a n c e a t his
b i r t h . F r a g m e n t s f r o m w h a t h a s b e e n identified as a Q i i m r a n B o o k
of G i a n t s s h o w t h a t t h e h y b r i d o f f s p r i n g w a s a s u b j e c t w o r t h y of its
o w n text. T h e D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t a n d o t h e r f r a g m e n t s s h o w t h a t
the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of G e n 6 a n d 1 E n o c h w a s a l r e a d y q u i t e p e r v a -
sive in t h e l i t e r a t u r e f r o m Q u m r a n . All of this suggests t h a t 1 E n o c h

38
J. Allegro, DJD V (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968) 77-79.
w a s v e r y i n f l u e n t i a l a t Q i i m r a n , a n d it a d d s to t h e p i c t u r e of h o w
w i d e s p r e a d t h e d i s c u s s i o n of t h e G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e o n t h e f a l l e n
W a t c h e r s h a d b e c o m e b y t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d .

6.5 The Book of Jubilees

T h e B o o k of J u b i l e e s (Jub.) is a t y p e of Biblical m i d r a s h o n t h e B o o k
of Genesis. 3 9 I t d a t e s to t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E a n d w a s f o u n d
a m o n g t h e w o r k s a t Q u m r a n , so it s e e m s likely t h a t t h e a u t h o r of
J u b i l e e s w o u l d h a v e k n o w n t r a d i t i o n s s e e n in 1 E n o c h . T h r e e pas-
sages a r e of interest. First, Jub. 4 : 1 5 says:

[15] And in the second week of the tenth jubilee, Mahalalel took for
himself a wife, Dinah, the daughter of Barakiel, the daughter of his
father's brother, as a wife. And she bore a son for him in the third
week of the sixth year. And he called him J a r e d because in his days
the angels of the Lord, who were called Watchers, came down upon
the earth in order to teach the sons of man, a n d perform j u d g m e n t
and uprightness upon the earth. 40

T h i s p a s s a g e says t h a t W a t c h e r s a r e " a n g e l s of t h e L o r d . " The

W a t c h e r s a r e said t o h a v e c o m e to t h e e a r t h to t e a c h m e n a n d to
e x e c u t e j u d g m e n t . T h e t e a c h i n g a s p e c t of t h e i r visit to e a r t h p a r a l -
lels p a r t of t h e t r a d i t i o n in 1 En. 7 - 8 t h a t is n o t in t h e G e n e s i s pas-
sage. M o r e o v e r , as in 1 En. 20, t h e a r c h a n g e l s c a n a p p a r e n t l y also
b e r e f e r r e d t o as W a t c h e r s , since t h e y also " p e r f o r m j u d g m e n t a n d
u p r i g h t n e s s u p o n t h e e a r t h . " I n 4 : 1 6 t h e b i r t h of E n o c h is r e c o u n t e d .
Jub. 4 : 2 2 say t h a t E n o c h

[22] . . . wrote eveiything, and bore witness to the Watchers, the ones
who sinned with the daughters of m e n because they began to mingle
themselves with the daughters of men so they might be polluted. And
Enoch bore witness against them.

T h i s m a k e s c l e a r t h a t t h e i n t e r m i n g l i n g of t h e h e a v e n l y W a t c h e r s
w i t h h u m a n k i n d is a t r a n s g r e s s i o n (= sin) t h a t l e a d s to pollution. I n
this p a s s a g e , it is n o t explicit t h a t this m i n g l i n g n e e d e v e n p r o d u c e
offspring, b u t t h a t t h e i r u n i o n d i d i n d e e d p r o v e v i a b l e is m a d e c l e a r

39
For a discussion of the date and genre of Jubilees see 2.1a above; see also
HJPAJC 3i:309.
40
Translations by O. Wintermute, OTP 2:62 and 64.
in c h a p t e r 5. J u b i l e e s s e e m s to b e a w a r e of 1 En. 1 2 1 6 , in w h i c h
E n o c h , w h o is in the heavens, actually intercedes o n behalf of the fallen
o n e s (1 En. 1 2 - 1 3 ) b u t says t h a t h e " b o r e witness a g a i n s t t h e m . "
Jub. 5 : 1 - 2 is t h e p o i n t at w h i c h G e n 6 : 1 - 4 is r e c o u n t e d . 4 1 The
p a s s a g e says:

[1] And w h e n the children of men began to multiply on the surface

of the earth and daughters were born to them, the angels of the Lord
saw in a certain year of that jubilee that they were good to look at.
And they took wives for themselves from all those w h o m they chose.
And they bore children for them; and they were the giants. [2] And
injustice increased upon the earth, and all flesh corrupted its way; m a n
and cattle and beasts and birds and everything which walks on the
earth. And they all corrupted their way and their ordinances, and they
began to eat one another. And injustice grew upon the earth and every
imagination of the thoughts of all mankind was thus continually evil.

Jub. 5 : 1 2 c o n t a i n s t h r e e of t h e f o u r m a i n c o m p o n e n t s of G e n 6 : 1 - 4 ,
lacking o n l y t h e m e n t i o n of t h e l i m i t a t i o n of t h e h u m a n life s p a n .
E a c h of t h e o t h e r a s p e c t s h u m a n p r o l i f e r a t i o n , angelic lust, and
u l t i m a t e l y c o r r u p t i o n i s p r e s e n t . J u b i l e e s d o e s n o t a p p e a r to e x p a n d
u p o n t h e t r a d i t i o n , b u t it is explicit t h a t a n g e l s l o o k e d u p o n the
h u m a n f e m a l e s a n d t o o k t h e m as wives. M o r e o v e r , it m a k e s c l e a r
t h a t t h e o f f s p r i n g of t h e u n i o n b e t w e e n t h e divine b e i n g s a n d h u m a n
f e m a l e s w e r e giants. A c l e a r c o n n e c t i o n is also m a d e b e t w e e n the
arrival of t h e g i a n t s o n t h e e a r t h a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g of injustice in
the w o r l d . I n v. 4 G o d says, " I will w i p e o u t m a n a n d all flesh
w h i c h I h a v e c r e a t e d f r o m u p o n t h e s u r f a c e of t h e e a r t h . " N o a h is
s p a r e d (v. 5). V e r s e 6 says of G o d , " A n d a g a i n s t his angels w h o m
h e h a d sent to t h e e a r t h h e w a s v e r y a n g r y . " T h e a n g e l t h e n says,
" A n d h e told us to b i n d t h e m in t h e d e p t h s of t h e e a r t h , " a n d t h e y
a r e b o u n d ( w . 6, 10). T h e o f f s p r i n g , n e v e r r e f e r r e d t o as giants, a r e
said to kill o n e a n o t h e r b e c a u s e G o d s e n d s o u t his s w o r d among
t h e m ( w . 7, 9). G o d t h e n s p e a k s o u t a g a i n s t h u m a n i t y , saying (cf.
G e n 6:3) t h a t " M y spirit will n o t a b i d e in m a n f o r e v e r ; f o r t h e y a r e
flesh, a n d t h e i r d a y s will b e o n e h u n d r e d t w e n t y y e a r s " (v. 9).
J . v a n R u i t e n h a s e x a m i n e d t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of G e n 6 : 1 - 1 2 in
Jub. 5 : 1 - 1 9 in detail. 4 2 H e sees J u b i l e e s as b o t h utilizing G e n 6:1-4

41
Jub. 5:1-2 is also evinced in a small fragment from Qumran (11Q12 fragment
5). The text itself is fragmentary and adds little to the discussion of angels, so it
has not been given separate consideration.
42
J . van Ruiten, "The Interpretation of Genesis 6:1-12 in Jubilees 5:1-19" in
a n d also a d a p t i n g it as n e c e s s a r y . T h e s e a d a p t a t i o n s , h e says, s e e m
" n o t to b e c a u s e d by exegetical p r o b l e m s , b u t b y c u r r e n t i n t e r p r e -
t a t i o n s of t h e text." 4 3 H e is q u i t e c o r r e c t . I n p a r t i c u l a r , J u b i l e e s s e e m s
to b e well a w a r e of t h e story f r o m t h e B o o k of W a t c h e r s (1 En.)
a n d uses this m a t e r i a l freely as well as b e i n g b a s e d in t h e G e n e s i s
n a r r a t i v e , especially r e g a r d i n g t h e i d e a of t h e a n g e l s b e i n g sent by
G o d t o the w o r l d to t e a c h m a n b u t t u r n i n g a w a y f r o m G o d .
J u b i l e e s is t h e r e f o r e i n t e r e s t i n g f o r a n u m b e r of r e a s o n s . First, it
was present at Q u m r a n a n d is r o u g h l y c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h both
1 Enoch and the L X X . Jubilees demonstrates dependence on both
G e n 6 a n d 1 E n o c h , w h i l e m a k i n g its o w n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a n d a d a p -
tations. T h e b e i n g s w h o c o m e to e a r t h a r e a n g e l s of G o d , c a l l e d
W a t c h e r s . T h e y a c t u a l l y s e e m to h a v e originally b e e n sent b y G o d ,
b u t s u b s e q u e n t l y , b e c a u s e t h e y c o p u l a t e d w i t h h u m a n females, t u r n e d
a w a y f r o m G o d a n d p o l l u t e d t h e m s e l v e s . T h e o f f s p r i n g of t h e angels
a n d h u m a n s a r e r e f e r r e d to as giants. T h e i r p o l l u t i o n l e a d s to t h e i r
b e i n g b o u n d a n d cast a w a y to a w a i t final j u d g m e n t . T h e g i a n t s a r e
c o m p e l l e d b y G o d to d e s t r o y o n e a n o t h e r , w h i l e h u m a n i t y , e x c e p t
for N o a h , is d e s t r o y e d b y t h e F l o o d .

6.6 Josephus and. Philo

In book 1 of t h e Antiquities, J o s e p h u s e x p o u n d s t h e G e n e s i s story.

L e a d i n g u p to discussion of N o a h a n d t h e F l o o d , J o s e p h u s d e s c r i b e s
h o w t h e seven g e n e r a t i o n s a f t e r S e t h slowly t u r n e d a w a y f r o m G o d .
U l t i m a t e l y , t h e r e is a m i n g l i n g w i t h angels:

[73] For m a n y angels of G o d [ ] consorted with women

and sired sons who were licentious [] a n d disdainful of every
virtue, such confidence had they in their strength; in fact the deeds
that tradition ascribes to them resemble the audacious exploits told by
the Greeks [] of the giants [],

J o s e p h u s says t h a t t h e beings w h o c o n s o r t e d w i t h w o m e n w e r e angels

of G o d . H e s e e m s to reflect a t r a d i t i o n in k e e p i n g w i t h t h e t y p e of
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in 1 E n o c h a n d s o m e of t h e D e a d S e a Scroll e v i d e n c e ,
w h e r e t h e h y b r i d o f f s p r i n g of angels a n d h u m a n s w e r e violent a n d

Studies in the Book ofJubilees, ed. M. Albani, J. Frey, and A. Longe (Tbingen: Mohr
Siebeck, 1997) 59-75.
43
J . van Ruiten, "The Interpretation of Genesis 6:1-12 in Jubilees 5:1-19," p. 74.
i g n o r a n t of v i r t u e . M o r e o v e r , J o s e p h u s n o t e s t h a t a c c o r d i n g to t r a -
dition t h e a c t i o n s of t h e s e a n g e l s r e s e m b l e t h o s e of t h e g i a n t s in
G r e e k l e g e n d . H e m a k e s this i n t e r p r e t a t i v e m o v e in o r d e r to m a k e
the story m o r e accessible to his G r a e c o - R o m a n a u d i e n c e , w h o w e r e
likely to b e a w a r e of t h e m y t h s r e g a r d i n g t h e giants. 4 4 J o s e p h u s t h e n
j u x t a p o s e s N o a h w i t h t h e ( u n r i g h t e o u s ) h y b r i d sons. N o a h tries t o
get t h e m t o c h a n g e t h e i r ways, b u t , realizing h e will b e u n s u c c e s s -
ful, h e takes his f a m i l y a n d leaves t h e a r e a (74). N o a h a n d his f a m -
ily a r e s p a r e d f r o m t h e F l o o d , while t h e h y b r i d sons a n d all of w i c k e d
h u m a n i t y a r e w i p e d o u t (76).
P h i l o h a s m u c h m o r e to say r e g a r d i n g G e n 6. H e d e v o t e s an
e n t i r e treatise to t h e g i a n t s (Gig.), w h i l e also d e a l i n g w i t h the pas-
sage in Questions and Solutions on Genesis (QG ). T h e treatise " O n t h e
G i a n t s " is a n e x t e n d e d discussion of G e n 6 : 1 - 4 . H o w e v e r , t h e title
is s o m e w h a t m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of its c o n t e n t . T h e treatise is d i v i d e d
by m o d e r n s c h o l a r s i n t o 61 c h a p t e r s . O f these, t h e vast m a j o r i t y
( c h a p t e r s 1 9 - 5 7 ) a r e d e v o t e d t o a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of G o d ' s nature
a n d t h e u n w o r t h i n e s s of flesh. H i s l o n g allegory is a digression f r o m
a n y t h i n g really r e l a t e d to t h e giants. I n t h e o t h e r material118
a n d 5 8 6 1 t h e r e a r e t w o p a s s a g e s r e l e v a n t t o t h e p r e s e n t discus-
sion. As seen in his o t h e r writings, P h i l o uses allegory to i n t e r p r e t
angels. I n c h a p t e r 6 h e says t h a t w h a t M o s e s ( T o r a h ) calls angels,
the p h i l o s o p h e r s (Greeks) call d e m o n s .

[6] "And w h e n the angels of G o d saw the daughters of m e n that they

were fair, they took to themselves wives from all, those whom they
chose" (Gen 6:2). It is Moses' custom to give the n a m e angels to those
whom other philosophers call demons [], souls that is, which
fly a n d hover in the air.

T h e discussion goes o n to e x p l a i n t h a t s u c h c r e a t u r e s a r e n o t m y t h
(9-11). Ultimately, Philo explains t h a t souls (), d e m o n s (),
a n d a n g e l s () a r e d i f f e r e n t n a m e s f o r t h e s a m e underlying
p h e n o m e n o n , saying, " S o if y o u realize t h a t souls a n d d e m o n s a n d
angels a r e b u t d i f f e r e n t n a m e s for t h e s a m e o n e u n d e r l y i n g o b j e c t ,

44
The relationship with the giants of Greek mythology seems to be reflected in
Sib. Or. 2:227-232, which says: "Then Uriel, the great angel, will break the gigan-
tic bolts, of unyielding and unbreakable steel, of the gates of Hades, not forged of
metal; he will throw them wide open and will lead the mournful forms to judge-
ment, especially those of ancient phantoms, Titans and the Giants and such as the Flood
destroyed"' (translation by J. J. Coffins, in OTP 1:350-51). Also, one Greek ms. of
1 En. 9:9 reads where most read .
you will cast f r o m y o u t h a t most grievous b u r d e n , the fear of d e m o n s
or superstition" (16). M o r e o v e r , Philo says that:

[16] T h e common usage of men is to give the name of demon to bad

and good demons alike, and the name of soul to good and bad souls.
And so, too, you also will not go wrong if you reckon as angels, not
only those who are worthy of the name, who are as ambassadors back-
ward and forwards between man and God and are rendered sacred
and inviolate by reason of glorious and blameless ministry, but also
those who are unholy and unworthy of the title.

T h e t e r m s "angels," " d e m o n s , " a n d "spirits" refer to the s a m e beings

for Philo. T h e t e r m "angels" c a n a p p l y to b o t h g o o d a n d evil angels.
T h i s interpretative m o v e m a y well stem f r o m the r e a d i n g in
his source text. T h e n o r m a l lot of angels is to be p u r e , w o r s h i p p i n g
God.
A f t e r his long exposition o n G o d ' s spirit, Philo e m p h a s i z e s t h a t
the m e n t i o n of giants in the T o r a h (by Moses) is n o t m y t h b u t c a n
be e x p l a i n e d as a n allegory of die origins of various types of m e n .

[58] "Now the giants were on the earth in those days." Some may
think that the Lawgiver is alluding to the myths of the poets about
the giants, but indeed myth-making is a thing most alien to him, and
his mind is set on following in the steps of truth and nothing but
truth. . . . So, then, it is no myth at all of giants that he sets before
us; rather he wishes to show you that some men are earth-born, some
heaven-born, and some G o d - b o r n . . .

First, Philo denies t h a t the story is m y t h akin to the G r e e k writers

a b o u t the giants. His exegesis of G e n 6:4 is a n allegory explaining
t h a t t h e r e are t h r e e types of m e n : earthly, heavenly, a n d Godly. T h e
giants are considered earthlylustful a n d hedonistic. T h e e x e m p l a r
of these is N i m r o d (Gen 10:8), whose n a m e is said to m e a n "deserter."
A b r a m , t u r n e d A b r a h a m , is said to b e the p a r a d i g m of the heavenly
m a n w h o cultivates die m i n d a n d is totally focused on G o d . T h i s
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a l t h o u g h a n allegory, seems to h a r k back to 1 E n o c h ,
in w h i c h the angels a r e p u n i s h e d for their violence a n d indiscretion.
I n the QG 1:92 Philo discusses G e n 6:4 in detail:

Why were the giants born from angels and women? T h e poets relate
that the giants were earth-born, children of the earth. But he (Moses)
uses this name improperly [] and frequently when he
wishes to indicate excessive size of the body, after the likeness of Haik.
And he relates that their creation was a mixture of two things, of
angels and of mortal women. But the substance [] of angels is
 spiritual []; however, it often happens that they imitate the
forms of m e n a n d for immediate putposes, as in respect of knowing
w o m e n for the sake of begetting giants. But if children become zeal-
ous emulators of maternal depravity, they will draw away f r o m pater-
nal virtue and depart from it through contempt and arrogance toward
the better they are condemned as guilty of wilful wrongdoing. But
sometimes he calls the angels "sons of G o d " because they are made
incorporeal through no mortal m a n but are spirits without body. But
rather does that exhorter, Moses give to good and excellent m e n the
n a m e "sons of G o d , " while wicked and evil men, he calls "bodies." 45

Philo is explicit tiiat the giants a r e the offspring of h u m a n s a n d angels. 4 5

H e r e h e says t h a t t h e n a t u r e () of angels is spiritual (),
distinct f r o m e a r t h l y , w h i c h is in k e e p i n g w i t h his u s u a l i n t e r p r e t a -
t i o n of a n g e l s as spiritual b e i n g s a n d e v e n h e a v e n l y . P h i l o says
t h a t G e n e s i s d e s c r i b e s t h e g i a n t s as t h e o f f s p r i n g of h u m a n f e m a l e s
a n d angels, t h o u g h a n g e l s a r e a b l e to t a k e o n v a r i o u s f o r m s as n e c -
essary (). H e e q u a t e s d e p r a v i t y w i t h t h e f e m i n i n e a n d virtue
w i t h t h e m a s c u l i n e . H e d o e s n o t explicitly m e n t i o n t h e g i a n t s as
d e p r a v e d , b u t it s e e m s logical to i n f e r t h a t P h i l o is saying t h e g i a n t s ,
w h o s e only h u m a n c o m p o n e n t w a s f e m a l e , fell into d e p r a v i t y b e c a u s e
t h e y i n c l i n e d t o w a r d t h e f e m i n i n e . 4 7 W h a t is c l e a r is t h a t t h e g i a n t s
w e r e t h e o f f s p r i n g of h u m a n s (earthly) a n d a n g e l s (spiritual) a n d t h a t
t h e y w e r e a s o u r c e of c o r r u p t i o n in t h e w o r l d . P h i l o also n o t e s t h a t
M o s e s (the T o r a h ) s o m e t i m e s uses t h e t e r m " s o n s of G o d " to r e f e r
to angels. T h u s , P h i l o s e e m s to b e a w a r e of b o t h " s o n s of G o d "
a n d " a n g e l s " as t e r m s f o r t h e b e i n g s w h o c a m e d o w n t o e a r t h t o
t a k e h u m a n wives.
T h e e v i d e n c e of J o s e p h u s a n d P h i l o tells us a n u m b e r of things.
First-century Hellenized J e w s were dealing with the G e n 6 passage.
I n t h e i r c o n t e x t , it s e e m s t h a t s o m e c o n n e c t i o n w a s m a d e b e t w e e n
the g i a n t s of G e n e s i s a n d g i a n t s in G r e e k m y t h s . T h e y b o t h u n d e r -
stood t h e "sons of G o d " as angels. T h a t angels c o p u l a t e d with w o m e n
d o e s n o t s e e m to h a v e p r e s e n t e d a n y p r o b l e m . W h e r e t h e r e is m o r e

45
English translation from F. Colson, Philo Supplement I (Cambridge, MA: Harvard,
1958) 60-61.
46
Philo also says that the beings were angels in Deus 1:1, "'And after this,' says
Moses, 'when angels of God [ ] went in unto the daughters of
men [] and they bore children to them.' "
47
On the issue of how Philo sees the female gender, see D. Sly, Philo's Perception
of Women (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1990) 91-110.
discussion is o v e r t h e n a t u r e of t h e offspring. T h e g i a n t s a r e u n d e r -
stood f o r v a r i o u s r e a s o n s as d e p r a v e d a n d c o r r u p t . T h i s t y p e of inter-
p r e t a t i o n d o e s n o t c o m e f r o m G e n e s i s b u t a p p e a r s to d e r i v e f r o m
texts like 1 E n o c h .

6.7 Other Second Temple Interpretations

T h r e e o t h e r texts t h a t likely d a t e t o o r n e a r t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e

p e r i o d a r e w o r t h y of d i s c u s s i o n : T h e t e s t a m e n t s of R e u b e n and
48
Naphtali, and 2 Baruch. T h e T e s t a m e n t of R e u b e n likely d a t e s
f r o m s o m e t i m e in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E . 4 9 T h e t e s t a m e n t s p u r -
p o r t to b e s p e e c h e s b y e a c h of t h e twelve s o n s of J a c o b j u s t b e f o r e
t h e i r d e a t h . R e u b e n is t h e eldest son ( G e n 35:23). His s p e e c h largely
w a r n s a g a i n s t t h e vices of t h e flesh, b u t in p a r t i c u l a r R e u b e n w a r n s
of t h e d a n g e r s of w o m e n , b a s e d u p o n his o w n failing w i t h B i l h a h
( G e n 35:22). R e u b e n w a r n s his kin, " D o n o t d e v o t e y o u r a t t e n t i o n
to a w o m a n ' s looks, n o r live w i t h a w o m a n w h o is a l r e a d y m a r r i e d ,
n o r b e c o m e involved in t h e affairs widi w o m e n . " I n c h a p t e r 5 R e u b e n
says, " O r d e r y o u r wives a n d y o u r d a u g h t e r s n o t t o a d o r n t h e i r h e a d s
a n d t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e s so as to deceive m e n ' s s o u n d m i n d s . " H e t h e n
says in v. 6:

[6] For it was thus that they [women] charmed the Watchers, who
were there before the Hood. As they continued looking at the women,
they were filled with desire for them and perpetrated the act in their
minds. They were transformed into h u m a n males, and while the women
were cohabiting with their husbands they appeared to them. Since the
women's minds were filled with lust for these apparitions, they gave
birth to giants. For the W'atchers were disclosed to them as being as
high as the heavens.

T h i s line of t r a d i t i o n is u n i q u e in suggesting t h e r e w a s n o i n t e r c o u r s e
b e t w e e n t h e angels a n d h u m a n s . B l a m e f o r t h e fall of t h e angels is
placed squarely on the w o m e n w h o c h a r m e d the Watchers.30 The

48
Pseudo-Philo, L.A.B. 3:1-3 also discusses Gen 6:1-4, though there is very lit-
tie variation from the Genesis narrative.
49
II. Kee, "Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs" in OTP 1:777. Although there
may be some Christian interpolations, it seems that the main body of the text dates
from the second century BCE.
50
Some later interpreters share the idea that the women are culpable: Justin
Martyr (see below) and Pirqe R. El. 22:15.
angels lusted a f t e r t h e w o m e n a n d so c h a n g e d t h e i r f o r m i n t o h u m a n
m a l e s . T h e w o m e n , u p o n s e e i n g t h e m , lusted a f t e r t h e m a n d t h u s
g a v e b i r t h to t h e giants.
A s h o r t n o t e in T. Naph. 3 : 5 also m e n t i o n s the W a t c h e r s , saying,
"Likewise t h e W a t c h e r s d e p a r t e d f r o m n a t u r e ' s o r d e r ; t h e L o r d p r o -
n o u n c e d a c u r s e o n t h e m at t h e F l o o d . O n t h e i r a c c o u n t h e o r d e r e d
t h a t the e a r t h b e w i t h o u t d w e l l e r o r p r o d u c e . " 5 1 T h i s i n t e r e s t i n g pas-
sage r e i n f o r c e s t h e i d e a t h a t t h e fall of t h e angels w a s a t r a n s g r e s -
sion of t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r .
L a s d y , 2 B a r u c h , w h i c h exists t o d a y in a S y r i a c c o p y b u t has
likely c o m e f r o m a G r e e k original, 5 2 is w i d e l y a c c e p t e d , b a s e d on
i n t e r n a l e v i d e n c e ( 3 2 : 2 4 , w h e r e t w o d e s t r u c t i o n s of t h e T e m p l e a r e
m e n t i o n e d ) , to b e p o s t - 7 0 C E . T h e w o r k s e e m s to s h a r e a close rela-
t i o n s h i p w i t h 4 E z r a a n d also t h e L.A.B. of P s e u d o - P h i l o . 2 B a r u c h
m a y possibly b e c i t e d in Ep. Bam. 61:7. T h u s , m o s t s c h o l a r s a c c e p t
a d a t e a r o u n d 100 C E for this a p o c a l y p s e . 5 3
T h e w o r k p r e s e n t s itself as a w r i t i n g b y B a r u c h of his revelations
d e a l i n g w i t h t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e First J e r u s a l e m T e m p l e (c. 5 8 7
B C E ) , b u t , as n o t e d , t h e a u t h o r is p r o b a b l y in f a c t c o m i n g to grips
with t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e . C h a p t e r 5 6 is p a r t of
the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a vision of d a r k c l o u d s a n d w a t e r s t h a t B a r u c h
h a s r e c e i v e d in c h a p t e r 53. H u m a n s a r e fallen a n d a r e a d a n g e r n o t
only to themselves, b u t to t h e angels. V e r s e s 1 0 1 5 state:

[10] For he who was a danger to himself [humankind] was also a

danger to the angels. [11] For they possessed a freedom in that time
in which they were created. [12] And some of them came down a n d
mingled themselves with women. [13] At that time they who acted
like this were tormented in chains. [14] But the rest of the multitude
of angels, who have no number, restrained themselves. [15] A n d those
living on earth perished together through the waters of the flood.

T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is like t h a t of t h e T e s t a m e n t of R e u b e n in t h a t
h u m a n s a r e c u l p a b l e f o r t h e a n g e l i c sin. It is also like 1 E n o c h a n d
o t h e r t r a d i t i o n s t h a t r e c o r d t h a t t h e angels w h o d i d sin w e r e p u n -
ished f o r t h e i r t r a n s g r e s s i o n . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n is t h a t a n y o f f s p r i n g
were destroyed in the Flood.
By t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , t h e m y t h a b o u t t h e s o n s of

51
H. Kee, OTP 1:812.
52
A. Klijn, OTP 1:615-616.
53
HJPAJC IIIii:752-753; OTP 1:616-617.
G o d a n d t h e g i a n t s m a i n t a i n e d in G e n 6 : 1 - 4 h a d b e e n elaborated
u p o n c o n s i d e r a b l y . T h e i d e n t i t y of t h e " s o n s of G o d " as angels s e e m s
to h a v e b e e n widely r e c o g n i z e d . T h a t t h e s e a n g e l s d i d w r o n g by
t r a n s g r e s s i n g divine b o u n d a r i e s a n d c o p u l a t i n g w i t h w o m e n is also
widely a c c e p t e d , as e v i n c e d in t h e s e texts.

6.8 Early Christian Writings

In t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e G e n 6 n a r r a t i v e c o n n e c t
t h e a n g e l s ' sin (their t r a n s g r e s s i o n of t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n h u m a n
a n d divine) w i t h evil in t h e w o r l d . O n e r e c e n t article h a s p o s i t e d a
c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p o r t r a y a l of t h e disciples in t h e G o s p e l of
M a r k a n d t h e t r a d i t i o n s r e l a t i n g to t h e W a t c h e r s . 5 4 R . S t r e l a n sug-
gests t h a t " B y d e p i c t i n g t h e disciples in a guise r e m i n i s c e n t of t h e
l e g e n d a r y fallen W a t c h e r s , M a r k u r g e s w a t c h f u l n e s s a n d holiness in
C h r i s t i a n discipleship." 5 5 H i s assertion d o e s s e e m to p r e s s t h e i n t e r -
p r e t a t i o n of s o m e t e r m s in M a r k , s u c h as t h e call to w a t c h f u l n e s s
in M a r k 13:37, b u t his i n t r i g u i n g suggestion s h o w s t h a t t h e i n f l u e n c e
of t h e W a t c h e r s n a r r a t i v e c o u l d h a v e b e e n q u i t e p e r v a s i v e in t h e
t h i n k i n g of a n c i e n t a u t h o r s .
T h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e W a t c h e r s n a r r a t i v e is m o r e explicit in t h e
Epistle of J u d e . I n J u d e 5 1 0 , a n u m b e r of evildoers f r o m the H e b r e w
Bible a r e listed. First a m o n g t h e m , t h e a n g e l s () " t h a t d i d
n o t k e e p t h e i r o w n p o s i t i o n b u t left t h e i r p r o p e r d w e l l i n g h a v e b e e n
kept by h i m in e t e r n a l c h a i n s in t h e n e t h e r g l o o m until t h e j u d g -
m e n t of t h e g r e a t d a y " (v. 6). T h e a n g e l s a r e f o l l o w e d in this list
by t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of S o d o m a n d G o m o r r a h , " w h i c h likewise a c t e d
i m m o r a l l y a n d i n d u l g e d in u n n a t u r a l lust [
]." T h e link b e t w e e n
t h e t w o (angels a n d i n h a b i t a n t s of S o d o m a n d G o m o r r a h ) is t h a t
t h e y h a v e b e e n sexually i m p r o p e r (= pollution). It s e e m s highly p r o b -
a b l e , especially given t h e r e f e r e n c e to E n o c h as a s o u r c e in v. 15,
t h a t J u d e 6 is d e p e n d e n t o n 1 E n o c h as its s o u r c e f o r t h e t r a d i t i o n
of t h e a n g e l s w h o left t h e i r p l a c e a n d w e r e t h e n b o u n d until a final
judgment.56

54
R. Strelan, "The Fallen Watchers and the Disciples in Mark" JSP 20 (1999)
73-92.
55
R. Strelan, "The Fallen Watchers," p. 92.
56
R. Bauckham, 2 Peter, Jude (Waco, TX: Word, 1983) 43-55.
 2 P e t e r 2:4 also m e n t i o n s t h e s a m e t r a d i t i o n . It s e e m s to d e p e n d
at least partially o n J u d e . 5 7 2 P e t 2:4 (cf. 1 P e t 3 : 1 9 - 2 0 ) states, " G o d
did n o t s p a r e t h e angels w h e n t h e y s i n n e d , b u t cast t h e m i n t o hell
a n d c o m m i t t e d t h e m to pits of n e t h e r g l o o m to b e k e p t until t h e
j u d g m e n t . " T h i s reflects t h e t r a d i t i o n seen in b o t h 1 E n o c h a n d in
J u b i l e e s a b o u t the p u n i s h m e n t of t h e fallen W a t c h e r s .
Lastly, o n e of t h e early apologists discusses this t r a d i t i o n . J u s t i n
M a r t y r ( s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E ) discusses G e n 6 o n t w o occasions. 5 8
J u s t i n a p p e a r s to m a i n t a i n t h e t y p e of a n g e l t r a d i t i o n w e saw in
1 E n o c h , especially i n his r e f e r e n c e to t h e angels b r i n g i n g h i d d e n
k n o w l e d g e to h u m a n i t y . I n his s e c o n d A p o l o g y h e writes:

[5] But the angels transgressed this appointment, and were captivated
by love of women, and bore children who are those that are called
demons []; a n d besides, they aftetwards subdued the h u m a n
race to themselves, partly by magical writings, and partly by fears and
the punishments they occasioned, a n d partly by teaching them to offer
sacrifices, and incense, and libations, of which things they stood in
need after they were enslaved by lustful passions; and a m o n g m e n they
sowed murders, wars, adulteries, intemperate deeds, and all wicked-
ness. Whence also the poets and mythologists, not knowing that it was
the angels a n d those demons who had been begotten by them that
did these things to men, a n d women, a n d cities, and nations, which
they related, ascribed them to G o d himself, and to those who were
accounted to be his very offspring, a n d to the offspring of those who
were called his brother, Neptune and Pluto, and to the children again
of these their offspring. For whatever n a m e each of the angels h a d
given to himself and his children, by that n a m e they called them.

J u s t i n places b l a m e u p o n t h e h u m a n f e m a l e s (cf. T. Reu). H e cer-

tainly m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e lustful b e i n g s w e r e angels, t h a t t h e y w e r e
a b l e t o c o p u l a t e w i t h w o m e n , a n d t h a t o n c e t h e y h a d d o n e so, t h e y
r e v e a l e d secret k n o w l e d g e to h u m a n s , w h i c h u l t i m a t e l y leads to sin
a n d evil in t h e w o r l d (cf. 1 En). I n t e r e s t i n g l y , J u s t i n d o e s n o t say
explicitly t h a t t h e offspring w e r e giants b u t instead calls t h e m d e m o n s .
T h i s m a y reflect a v a l u e j u d g m e n t o n t h e h y b r i d o f f s p r i n g as e x e m -
plifying t h e sin of t h e a n g e l s w i t h h u m a n w o m e n . J u s t i n s e e m s t o
d e p e n d o n a n u m b e r of t r a d i t i o n s , c e r t a i n l y G e n 6 a n d 1 Enoch
a n d perhaps others.

57
R. Bauckharn, 2 Peter, Jude, pp. 245-257.
58
See also First Apology 5.
 J . V a n d e r K a m h a s s u r v e y e d t h e e v i d e n c e f o r C h r i s t i a n use of t h e
W a t c h e r s m y t h in C h r i s t i a n i t y t h r o u g h t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y C E . 5 9 H i s
survey s h o w s t h a t t h e m y t h , w h e t h e r directly o r indirectly depen-
d e n t u p o n E n o c h , w a s w i d e s p r e a d in C h r i s t i a n circles: " C o n s e q u e n t l y ,
o n e m a y say t h a t C h r i s t i a n e m p l o y m e n t of t h e W a t c h e r m y t h is
attested t h r o u g h o u t the R o m a n world."60

6.9 Later Jewish Interpretations

T h e p r e d o m i n a n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e " s o n s of G o d " f r o m G e n 6:2

a n d 4 in the late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d w a s t h a t t h e b e i n g s w e r e
angels. N o dissenting voice is h e a r d until R . S i m e o n b. Y o h a i in
Gen. Rah. 2 6 : 5 states, " R . S i m e o n b. Y o h a i called t h e m t h e s o n s of
t h e j u d g e s [ ;]R . S i m e o n b. Y o h a i c u r s e d all w h o called t h e m
'sons of G o d ' . " 6 1 T h i s s e e m s to h a v e b e e n t h e first of a n u m b e r of
r e a c t i o n s a g a i n s t b o t h t h e literal r e a d i n g of " s o n s of G o d " a n d also
a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e m as angels. 6 2
Tg. Onq. a n d Tg. Ps.-J call t h e b e i n g s of G e n 6:2 " s o n s of t h e
g r e a t o n e s [ ] . " Tg. Neo. r e f e r s to t h e b e i n g s as " t h e sons
of t h e j u d g e s [ ] , " w h i l e t h e m a r g i n a l n o t e s t o Tg. Neo. h a v e
. Tg. Onq. a n d Tg. Neo. a t G e n 6:4 call t h e b e i n g s G i b o r i m ,
b u t interestingly, Tg. Ps.J. m e n t i o n s t h e angels S h a m a h a z i a n d Azazel
(cf. 1 En. 6 1 1 ) as h a v i n g fallen f r o m h e a v e n . 6 3 R e g a r d i n g t h e evi-
d e n c e f r o m t h e T a r g u m i m , P. A l e x a n d e r c o n c l u d e s :

0. and JV. represent an exegesis which originated with the rabbis shortly
after the Second Jewish W a r a n exegesis which reflects the general

59
J. VanderKam, "Early Christian Uses of the Enochic Angel Story" in The
Jewish Apocalyptic Heritage in Early Christianity, ed. J . VanderKam and W. Adler
(Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1996) 60-88.
60
J. VanderKam, "Early Christian Uses of the Enochic Angel Story," p. 87.
61
Translation from J. Neuesner, Genesis Rabbah: The Judaic Commentary to the Book
of Genesis, A New American Translation, Brown Judaic Studies 104-106 (Atlanta, GA:
Scholars Press, 1985) 1:282.
62
P. Alexander, "The Targumim and Early Exegesis of 'Sons of God' in Genesis
6" JJS 23 (1972) 60-71. See also J. Bowker, The Targums and Rabbinic Literature: An
Introduction to Jewish Interpretati0?1s of Scripture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1969) 151-160.
63
P. Alexander, "The Targumim and Early Exegesis," p. 70 calls it "rather puz-
zling." It seems that Ps.J. is at least aware of traditions like those in 1 En. Alexander
suggests that Ps.-J. was changed in light of Tg. Onq.
 struggle to wean Jews from beliefs out of keeping with the essence of
T o r a h Judaism. Ps-J. (in its original form) and Nmg. represent the old
Palestinian T a r g u m , current before the Second Jewish W a r , which the
0. tradition was intended to replace. 64

T h i s suggests t h a t t h e r e w a s a n o n g o i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e b e i n g s
of G e n 6:2 a n d 4 as angels. S o m e of t h e r a b b i n i c t r a d i t i o n seems
to w o r k to dispel s u c h a r e a d i n g , b u t e v e n so, t h a t t r a d i t i o n (Tg.
Neo. m a r g i n a l n o t e s a n d Tg. Ps.-J.) reflects a n a n g e l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

Conclusions

T h e story of divine " s o n s of G o d " w h o c o m e to e a r t h to t a k e h u m a n

wives in G e n 6 : 1 4 is a n e n i g m a t i c tale t h a t w a s f o u n d a t i o n a l f o r
a s u b s t a n t i a l a m o u n t of s u b s e q u e n t l i t e r a t u r e in the S e c o n d T e m p l e
p e r i o d a n d b e y o n d . F r o m early o n , e n t i r e w o r k s w e r e d e d i c a t e d t o
e x p o u n d i n g this tale. T h e B o o k of W a t c h e r s (1 En. 136 )seems to
h a v e b e e n a n early i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t m a d e c l e a r t h a t t h e b e i n g s
w e r e a n g e l s a n d t h e i r o f f s p r i n g giants. T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w a s a p p a r -
ently i n f l u e n t i a l t h r o u g h o u t t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d a n d b e y o n d .
T h e e v i d e n c e of t h e L X X w a s a m b i g u o u s , b u t at least o n e version
contained the term "angel." T h e evidence from Q u m r a n showed
t h a t t h e story w a s c o m m o n a m o n g t h e e x t a n t texts. T h e f r a g m e n t s
of a B o o k of G i a n t s also s h o w t h a t t h e r e w a s significant s p e c u l a t i o n
a b o u t the h y b r i d offspring. M o r e o v e r , o t h e r f r a g m e n t s m a d e r e f e r e n c e
to t h e W a t c h e r s . C o p i e s of b o t h 1 E n o c h a n d J u b i l e e s w e r e f o u n d
at Q u m r a n , s h o w i n g t h a t t h e story w a s f o u n d in a w i d e v a r i e t y of
texts. J u b i l e e s a p p e a r s to be d e p e n d e n t u p o n G e n 6 as a c o r e n a r r a t i v e
b u t w a s likely i n f l u e n c e d b y c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s s u c h
as in 1 E n o c h . O t h e r w o r k s , s u c h as t h e T e s t a m e n t of R e u b e n a n d
2 B a r u c h , s h o w e d j u s t h o w w i d e s p r e a d die tale w a s in S e c o n d T e m p l e
J u d a i s m . J o s e p h u s said t h e beings w e r e angels a n d t h a t t h e i r offspring,
the giants, w e r e n o t v i r t u o u s a n d e v e n violent. P h i l o h a d m o r e t o
say, d e d i c a t i n g a n e n t i r e treatise to t h e giants, a l t h o u g h m u c h of it
w a s n o t specifically a b o u t t h e W a t c h e r s ' story. E v i d e n c e f r o m t h e
N e w T e s t a m e n t a n d early Christianity showed that the narrative
continued to b e w i d e s p r e a d . Later Jewish i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s in the

64
P. Alexander, "The Targumim and Early Exegesis," p. 71.
T a r g u m i m a n d t h e r a b b i n i c w r i t i n g s d o w n p l a y e d t h e role t h e angels
p l a y e d , b u t e v i d e n c e of t h e a n g e l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n still a p p e a r s . 6 5
F r o m early in t h e t r a d i t i o n , p e r h a p s w i t h i n G e n 6 itself, t h e f u n -
d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m w i t h t h e " s o n s of G o d " (angels) c o m i n g to e a r t h
a n d t a k i n g h u m a n wives is t h e i r t r a n s g r e s s i o n of t h e b o u n d a r y set
at c r e a t i o n . T h e i r u n i o n w i t h h u m a n w o m e n c r e a t e s a h y b r i d , i n t e r -
p r e t e d as " g i a n t s , " t h a t w e r e n o t m e a n t to exist. 6 6 It s e e m s , t h e n ,
t h a t h u m a n s a n d angels w e r e distinct beings. P r o b l e m s only a r o s e
w h e n angels t r a n s g r e s s e d p r e d e t e r m i n e d b o u n d a r i e s a n d m a t e d w i t h
h u m a n w o m e n . 5 M a n y i n t e r p r e t e r s u n d e r s t o o d this as the v e r y source
of evil in t h e w o r l d . V i r t u a l l y all t o o k it as t h e r e a s o n f o r t h e F l o o d
a n d r e - c r e a t i o n of t h e w o r l d .

65
This would fit well with M. Mach's suggestion that the rabbis downplayed
angel beliefs (Entwicklungsstadien, pp. 330-332). It may also represent one of the pre-
cursor's to the rivalry identified between humans and angels in P. Schfer, Rivalitt,
pp. 75-218.
66
There is a need for further study of the issues of gender and sexuality in rela-
tion to angel betiefs. Much has been made of the idea that angels were celibate
(from the passages in the gospels [Matt 22:23-33, Mark 12:18-27, Luke 20:34-40]).
However, the gospels are the only texts that mention such an idea in extant Second
Temple literature. The large body of literature examined in this chapter suggests
that at least one group of angels was not believed to have been celibate. Also, in
the vast majority of cases where the physical appearance of angels is described,
they appear as men or young males. The only women described as angelomorphic
were the daughters of Job in T. Job, and perhaps Aseneth in JA.
67
P. Alexander, "The Demonology of the Dead Sea Scrolls" in The Dead Sea
Scrolls after 50 rears, ed. P. Flint and J . VanderKam (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1999) 2:350.
 CHAPTER SEVEN

CONCLUSION:
LIMPING T O W A R D A BETTER UNDERSTANDING

T h e a i m of this b o o k h a s b e e n to a d d to o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e
diverse a n g e l beliefs of the late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d early C h r i s t i a n
p e r i o d b y investigating t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels
as d e m o n s t r a t e d in t h e e x t a n t l i t e r a t u r e . T h i s final c h a p t e r seeks to
s u m m a r i z e t h e c o n c l u s i o n s t h a t c a n b e d r a w n f r o m this investiga-
tion a n d to c o n s i d e r t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s for c u r -
r e n t s c h o l a r s h i p in t h e a r e a s of c o s m o l o g y , C h r i s t o l o g y , a n d e a r l y
J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n mysticism.
T h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s a r e o f f e r e d w i t h full a w a r e n e s s t h a t t h e
a n g e l t r a d i t i o n s discussed m a y well r e p r e s e n t o n l y a small p o r t i o n
of t h e diverse beliefs a b o u t angels f r o m t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d ,
since the beliefs f o r w h i c h w r i t t e n r e c o r d s r e m a i n likely r e p r e s e n t
only a f r a c t i o n of all t h e beliefs t h a t existed in t h e J e w i s h a n d e a r l y
C h r i s t i a n c o s m o l o g y . F u r t h e r m o r e , in m a k i n g a n y kind of s u m m a r y
it is i m p o r t a n t n o t to o v e r s y n t h e s i z e d i s p a r a t e u n i t s of e v i d e n c e . T h e
e v i d e n c e c o n s i d e r e d a b o v e c o m e s f r o m a w i d e r a n g e of d a t e s , p r o v e -
n a n c e s , a n d social situations, so it is h a n d l e d w i t h d u e c o n s i d e r a t i o n
for its variety.

7.1 The Relationship between Humans and Angels

T h r e e m a i n issues a r e i n v o l v e d in u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e relationship
b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. First, t h e s e m a n t i c r a n g e of t h e t e r m s
for a n g e l ( a n d ) allows f o r r e f e r e n c e t o e i t h e r angelic
o r h u m a n m e s s e n g e r s . T h i s r a n g e of m e a n i n g d o e s n o t necessarily
imply any fluidity between angels and h u m a n s , however. Terms
d e r i v e m e a n i n g f r o m t h e i r c o n t e x t . T h e r e a r e few, if a n y , o c c a s i o n s
w h e n the context does n o t supply a clear m e a n i n g for "angel." A n d ,
w h e r e t h e r e is c o n f u s i o n , it likely r e p r e s e n t s m o r e of a modern
h e r m e n e u t i c a l p r o b l e m t h a n a n y u n d e r s t o o d fluidity in t h e c a t e g o r y
(e.g., M a i 3:1).
 N e x t , as n o t e d a b o v e , the physical m a n i f e s t a t i o n of a h e a v e n l y
entity in h u m a n f o r m does n o t necessarily imply its e q u a t i o n with
a h u m a n being. T h e f o r m t h a t angels a s s u m e in their initial a p p e a r -
a n c e to h u m a n s is often a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c (e.g., G e n 18, J o s h 5,
et al), b u t this seems to be for the benefit of the seer, since b r i g h t
light, fear, a n d even fear of d e a t h are often associated with angelo-
phanies. By taking on a h u m a n f o r m , angels c a n deliver their news
w i t h o u t h i n d r a n c e . O f t e n o n c e they d o so, they again assume a n
angelic f o r m a n d r e t u r n to h e a v e n (e.g., J u d g 6 a n d 13).
P e r h a p s the most interesting a n d challenging material is the a p p e a r -
ances of h u m a n s as angels. T h e vast m a j o r i t y of the material involves
discussion of righteous individuals. M a n y of the individuals e x a m -
ined a r e in fact described in a n g e l o m o r p h i c terms; t h a t is, they are
described in ways often associated with angels. Nevertheless, t h e r e
does n o t s e e m to b e good reason to suppose t h a t they w e r e c o n -
sidered a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n h u m a n beings. T h e i r a n g e l o m o r p h i c
description is a n a l o g o u s to the w a y in w h i c h G o d c a n be described
in a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c t e r m s w i t h o u t b e i n g h u m a n . E x a m p l e s in this
g r o u p include N o a h , S t e p h e n , a n d T a x o .
S o m e cases, h o w e v e r , are m o r e a m b i g u o u s , such as Melchizedek,
J o h n the Baptist, a n d Paul. T h e s e individuals are p o r t r a y e d in angelo-
m o r p h i c terms, a n d it seems that some type of identification is implied.
Ultimately, h o w e v e r , it r e m a i n s u n c l e a r w h e t h e r they w e r e m e a n t to
be u n d e r s t o o d as a n y t h i n g m o r e t h a n h u m a n . I n the cases of A d a m
a n d Moses, however, their " t h e o m o r p h i c " i m a g e seems to be stressed.
F o r the sake of precision in m o d e r n discourse, it m a y b e w o r t h w h i l e
to stress this t h e o m o r p h i c c h a r a c t e r over their a n g e l o m o r p h i c c h a r -
acter. O n l y in the cases of Seth(el), E n o c h , a n d J a c o b / I s r a e l does it
seem clear t h a t h u m a n s h a v e t r a n s f o r m e d into angels. Yet in these
cases the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is usually u n d e r s t o o d as h a v i n g o c c u r r e d in
the heavenly sphere.
T h i r d , in those instances w h e n the interaction b e t w e e n h u m a n s
a n d angels is particularly close or intimate, t h e r e still does n o t s e e m
to be a n y indication t h a t separation b e t w e e n angels a n d h u m a n s is
n o t m a i n t a i n e d . T e x t s involving issues of living in c o m m u n i t i e s , eat-
ing together, a n d even p r o c r e a t i n g w e r e e x a m i n e d . In a n u m b e r of
the cases of a n g e l - h u m a n c o m m u n i t i e s , purity issues arose (e.g., W a r
Scroll, 1 C o r , Hist. Recli.). If the h u m a n m e m b e r s did n o t m a i n t a i n
a h e i g h t e n e d level of purity, t h e n angels could n o t be p r e s e n t in the
c o m m u n i t y . T h i s suggests that indeed there was a qualitative difference
b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels.
 I n t h e c a s e of hospitality a n d f o o d , h u m a n s o f t e n o f f e r e d h o s p i -
tality, i n c l u d i n g a m e a l , to a n g e l i c guests (especially G e n 1 8 1 9 ) , but
it w a s r e g u l a r l y t h e case t h a t t h e y w e r e u n a w a r e of t h e t r u e n a t u r e
of t h e s t r a n g e r s . It s e e m s a c o m m o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g in t h e Second
T e m p l e p e r i o d t h a t a n g e l s did n o t e a t h u m a n f o o d . T h i s f a c t s h o w s
a n o t h e r w a y in w h i c h a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s w e r e t h o u g h t to differ.
T h e issue of h u m a n s a n d angels c o p u l a t i n g offers p e r h a p s t h e m o s t
i n t r i g u i n g m a t e r i a l . T r a n s g r e s s i o n of t h e c r e a t e d o r d e r b y s o m e angels
( G e n 6 : 1 - 4 ) w a s s e e n as e x t r e m e l y p r o b l e m a t i c a n d w a s u n d e r s t o o d
by a n u m b e r of i n t e r p r e t e r s as d i e v e r y origin of evil i n t h e w o r l d
(7 En.). T h e u n i o n of a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s b r o u g h t f o r t h h y b r i d g i a n t s
w h o w e r e usually u n d e r s t o o d t o h a v e b e e n d e s t r o y e d in t h e F l o o d .
T h a t angels w e r e n o t believed to h a v e sex o r p r o c r e a t e h i g h l i g h t s a
significant d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n h u m a n s o n e a r t h , w h o m u s t p r o c r e -
ate f o r survival of t h e species, a n d a n g e l s in h e a v e n , w h o d o n o t .
T o s u m u p briefly, m y investigation s h o w s t h a t in t h e l i t e r a t u r e
f r o m this p e r i o d t h e r e w a s a w i d e r a n g e of u n d e r s t a n d i n g a b o u t h o w
angels l o o k e d a n d h o w t h e y i n t e r a c t e d w i t h h u m a n s . A significant
set of t h e s e u n d e r s t a n d i n g s f o c u s e d o n a n g e l s l o o k i n g like h u m a n s
a n d , w h e n t h e y did, h a v i n g i n t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e m . D e s p i t e
this similarity of appearance a n d closeness of interaction, t h e r e d o e s n o t
s e e m to b e a n y r e a s o n to s u p p o s e t h a t t h e r e w a s a n y b l u r r i n g of
categories between angels a n d h u m a n s . W h e n there was an a p p a r -
e n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f r o m the h u m a n to t h e angelic ( E n o c h = M e t a t r o n
o r J a c o b - I s r a e l ) , it w a s a o n e - t i m e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t h a t occurred
b e y o n d t h e e a r t h l y s p h e r e . I n s o m e sense, t h e e v i d e n c e f o r h u m a n s
a c h i e v i n g a n g e l i c status is t h e e x c e p t i o n t h a t p r o v e s t h e rule. O n l y
h u m a n s of e x c e p t i o n a l r i g h t e o u s n e s s a n d w h o h a d a special rela-
t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d a p p e a r t o h a v e h a d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to b e c o m e
angels; n o o t h e r h u m a n s e n j o y e d s u c h a special status.

7.2 Cosmology and Angelology

T h i s s t u d y in s o m e sense also r e p r e s e n t s a n a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d
t h e g e n e r a l c o s m o l o g i c a l o u t l o o k of t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e and
early C h r i s t i a n l i t e r a t u r e a n d , m o r e specifically, t h e p l a c e of angels,
a n d to a lesser e x t e n t h u m a n s , in d i a t cosmos. 1 A n g e l s a r e like G o d

1
This is not to suggest that there was a single cosmology (especially across late
Second Temple Judaism and early Christianity), but instead these conclusions aim
to discuss what can be gleaned broadly from the material.
in t h a t t h e y reside in h e a v e n a n d a r e i n c o r p o r e a l , h a v i n g n o n e e d
f o r f o o d o r p r o c r e a t i o n . H o w e v e r , a n g e l s a r e like h u m a n s in t h a t
t h e y a r e c r e a t e d b y G o d a n d c a n a t t i m e s dwell o n e a r t h , e v e n tak-
i n g o n h u m a n f o r m . A d d i t i o n a l l y , angels travel b e t w e e n t w o s e p a -
rate s p h e r e s t h e heavenly a n d the earthly.
I n r e s p o n s e to the w o r k of F l e t c h e r - L o u i s o n i d e n t i f y i n g a n a n g e l o -
m o r p h i c h u m a n i t y tradition in late S e c o n d T e m p l e J u d a i s m , J . O ' N e i l l
states, " t h e s e c l a i m s t o o n t o l o g i c a l i d e n t i t y a r e s i m p l y misunder-
s t a n d i n g s of t h e J e w i s h e v i d e n c e , " a d d i n g , " t h e r e is a c l e a r a n d c o n -
sistently m a i n t a i n e d d i f f e r e n c e in kind b e t w e e n G o d a n d a n g e l s a n d
h u m a n beings."2 M y findings strongly support O'Neill's assertion.
R a t h e r t h a n t h i n k of t h e c a t e g o r i e s as " o p e n a n d fluid" as F l e t c h e r -
L o u i s does, it is p e r h a p s m o r e v a l u a b l e t o t h i n k a b o u t t h e b o u n d -
a r y b e t w e e n t h e m as fixed b u t n o t absolute. It is n o t a b s o l u t e b e c a u s e
w e see t h a t a n g e l s r e g u l a r l y c o m e to e a r t h a n d t a k e o n h u m a n f o r m ,
a n d o n s o m e v e r y r a r e occasions, h u m a n s c a n a s c e n d t o h e a v e n a n d
e v e n b e c o m e like angels. Angels a n d h u m a n s are very different beings,
b u t this does n o t m e a n t h a t they n e v e r i n t e r a c t e d m a n y texts
d e s c r i b e h o w t h e y did i n t e r a c t . H o w e v e r , in l a r g e p a r t t h e y r e m a i n e d
separate from one another.
O n t h e n o t i o n of s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n earthly a n d h e a v e n l y denizens,
M . H i m m e l f a r b writes:

It is not only what G o d reveals to the visionary that is important, but

the veiy fact that G o d is willing to bring a h u m a n being near him.
U n d e r certain circumstances, according to the apocalypses, h u m a n
beings can cross the boundary and join the angels. 3

E l s e w h e r e she w r i t e s r e g a r d i n g !1er analysis of a s c e n t s in v a r i o u s

apocalypses, " I n d e e d it t u r n s o u t t h a t t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n h u m a n s
a n d angels a r e n o t v e r y clear. O n e g r o u p of a p o c a l y p s e s offers g r e a t
h e r o e s of t h e p a s t as e x a m p l e s of h o w close h u m a n b e i n g s c a n c o m e
to G o d . " 4 It n e e d n o t b e t h e c a s e t h a t " t h e b o u n d a r i e s between

2
J. O'Neill, Review of G. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts in JTS 50 (1999) 225-230.
8
M. Himmelfarb, "Revelation and Rapture: The Transformation of the Visionary
in the Ascent Apocalypses" in Mysteries and Revelations: Apocalyptic Studies since the
Uppsala Colloquium, ed. J . Collins and J. Charlesworth (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic
Press, 1991) 90.
4
M. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven in Jewish and Christian Apocalypses (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1993) 70. For similar ideas about the importance of key individ-
uals, see J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as an Angel in Ideal
Figures in Ancient Judaism. (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1980) 135-151, and J. Fossum,
The Name of God and the Angel of the Lord: Samaritan and Jewish Concepts of Intermediation
and the Origin of Gnosticism (Tbingen: J . C. B. Mhr, 1985) 333.
h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s a r e n o t v e r y c l e a r . " It n e e d only b e t h e c a s e (as
t h e e v i d e n c e b e a r s out) t h a t t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e t w o largely
s e p a r a t e r e a l m s (earthly a n d h e a v e n l y ) b e a b l e to b e crossed. D e s p i t e
this c r i t i q u e , I v e r y m u c h a g r e e w i t h h e r a s s e s s m e n t t h a t t h e " g r e a t
h e r o e s " of t h e p a s t o f f e r e d e x a m p l e s to t h o s e w h o w o u l d seek to
c o m m u n e w i t h G o d . S o m e h u m a n s did a c h i e v e a n g e l i c status b u t
o n l y in h e a v e n , w h e n t h e y w e r e a l r e a d y n e a r to G o d . H i m m e r l f a r b
also sees a n o t h e r s t r e a m of t r a d i t i o n in t h e a p o c a l y p s e s t h a t , "if o r d i -
nary h u m a n beings are righteous, after death they can take tiieir
p l a c e in t h e h e a v e n l y h i e r a r c h y . " 5 A g a i n , e v e n if this is p a r t of t h e
t r a d i t i o n of a p o c a l y p s e s , h u m a n s a r e n o t a t t a i n i n g a n "angelomor-
p h i c " life o n e a r t h . S u c h s t a t u s is a t t a i n e d in h e a v e n , w h e n h u m a n s
a r e in close p r o x i m i t y t o G o d .

7.3 Christology and Angelology

N e x t , w e c o n s i d e r d i e i m p l i c a t i o n s of this s t u d y f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
of early C h r i s t o l o g y . C . G i e s c h e n h a s , I believe, o f f e r e d a p e r s u a -
sive c a s e f o r s e e i n g a n g e l t r a d i t i o n s of late S e c o n d T e m p l e J u d a i s m
as i n f l u e n c i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of early C h r i s t i a n t y . 6 N e v e r t h e l e s s , I
w o u l d o f f e r s o m e c r i t i q u e h e r e of o n e a s p e c t of his case. In his sec-
tion o n " a n g e l n o m e n c l a t u r e " G i e s c h e n states:

Because angels often appear in the form of men, the distinction between
what is anthropomorphic and what is angelomorphic is difficult to
maintain. W h a t one person may interpret as an anthropomorphism,
another could see as a concrete description of an angelomorphic figure.7

W h i l e s o m e texts m a y b e difficult to i n t e r p r e t f o r t h e m o d e r n r e a d e r
(e.g., M a i 3:1), a n c i e n t a u t h o r s w e r e n o t a p p a r e n t l y in a n y way
ambiguous in their presentations or their understandings. Moreover,
t h a t l a t e r i n t e r p r e t e r s c o u l d exploit t h e a m b i g u i t y in a t e r m d o e s n o t
m e a n a n a m b i g u i t y w a s originally i n t e n d e d . R e c o g n i t i o n of t h e i m p o r -
t a n c e of t h e c o n t e x t in w h i c h t h e a n g e l t r a d i t i o n a p p e a r s is t h e key
to a v o i d i n g s u c h c o n f u s i o n .
Gieschen offered categories u n d e r which h u m a n s might be u n d e r -
stood as " a n g e l o m o r p h i c . " 8 T h e s e categories were: Patriarchs, Prophets,

5
M. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven, p. 71.
6
C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology: Antecedents and Early Evidence (Leiden: E. J.
Brill, 1997).
7
C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 28.
8
C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, pp. 152-183.
Priests, K i n g s , Apostles, a n d Elect O n e s . I n d i v i d u a l s in t h e s e roles
o f t e n e n j o y e d a privileged status relative t o G o d a n d in s o m e senses
f u n c t i o n e d as m e d i a t o r s b e t w e e n h u m a n i t y a n d G o d . E v e n t h o u g h
w e m a y c a t e g o r i z e t h e m a t e r i a l in this w a y t o d a y , a n c i e n t a u t h o r s
did n o t a p p a r e n t l y think in these t e r m s . T h e results of m y r e s e a r c h
indicate t h a t t h e r e was n o t a c o h e r e n t idea of " a n g e l o m o r p h i c h u m a n -
ity" in late S e c o n d T e m p l e J u d a i s m . A t best, s u c h ideas m a y h a v e
a p p l i e d to a select f e w individuals.
G i e s c h e n states t h a t these c a t e g o r i e s " p u s h t h e r e a d e r to a b r o a d e r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of w h a t a n a n g e l w a s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e in first c e n -
tury J u d a i s m a n d Christianity."9 I would argue that without synthe-
sizing t h e m a t e r i a l into these categories, t h e evidence d o e s n o t s u p p o r t
t h e i d e a t h a t t h e r e w a s in t h e first c e n t u r y a c o h e r e n t angelomor-
p h i c h u m a n i t y c o n c e p t t h a t in t u r n c o u l d h a v e b e e n a b u i l d i n g block
for early C h r i s t o l o g y .
C . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s o f f e r e d t h e f o l l o w i n g in his s u m m a r y of
Jewish angelomorphic traditions:

W e submit that an approach to the data . . . which does not impose a

rigid dualism, but rather accepts the openness and fluidity of h u m a n ,
angelic and Divine categories, allows for simplicity of interpretation,
a n d does most justice to the texts' own worldviews(s). Accordingly our
label 'angelomorphic', has proved heuristically invaluable. 10

W h i l e t h e t e r m " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " m a y b e heuristically v a l u a b l e in

m a k i n g sense of a n g e l t r a d i t i o n s r e l a t e d to C h r i s t o l o g y , it s h o u l d n o t
be t a k e n to i m p l y a n y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of h u m a n s a n d angels. " A n g e l o -
m o r p h i c " m u s t b e e m p l o y e d w i t h c a u t i o n to discussions of h u m a n -
ity in g e n e r a l . A rigid d u a l i s m is n o t b e i n g " i m p o s e d " u p o n the
e v i d e n c e b u t is p r e s e n t in t h e e v i d e n c e . I n s t e a d of s e e i n g " f l u i d i t y "
between categories, we should recognize that the evidence shows
t h e r e w a s s o m e possibility of c r o s s i n g t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n the
e a r t h l y a n d h e a v e n l y s p h e r e , especially b y a n g e l s a n d o n r a r e o c c a -
sions by v e r y r i g h t e o u s h u m a n s .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s d r a w n o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e rich
v a r i e t y of a n g e l beliefs f r o m t h e p e r i o d , especially in the Qiimran
l i t e r a t u r e . I n his m o r e r e c e n t b o o k , All the Glory of Adam, Fletcher-
L o u i s sees t h e T e m p l e as t h e locus "in w h i c h o r d i n a r y s p a c e a n d

9
G. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 183.
10
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts: Angels, Christology, and Soteriology, WUNT 2.94
(Tubingen: J . C. B. Mhr, 1997) 211.
time, a n d therefore h u m a n ontology, are transcended," adding that
the worshipping c o m m u n i t y would "experience a transfer f r o m earth
to h e a v e n , f r o m h u m a n i t y to divinity a n d f r o m m o r t a l i t y to i m m o r a l -
ity." 1 1 W h i l e it m a y b e t r u e t h a t J e w s u n d e r s t o o d t h e T e m p l e as a
special l o c a t i o n , it is n o t c l e a r f r o m F l e t c h e r - L o u i s ' s analysis w h e t h e r
h e envisions s u c h a c h a n g e as t e m p o r a r y o r p e r m a n e n t a n d in w h a t
w a y s p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e t r a n s f o r m e d . T h i s leaves us with t h e q u e s -
tion of w h e t h e r o r n o t w e s h o u l d see this as a case of " a n g e l o m o r -
p h i c h u m a n i t y " o r simply a " m y s t i c a l " e x p e r i e n c e of t h e T e m p l e o r
liturgical s p a c e . I a m i n c l i n e d to t h i n k t h a t t h e T e m p l e w a s a spe-
cial locus w h e r e first-century J e w s believed t h a t t h e y c o u l d c o m m u n e
w i t h G o d , b u t I a m less i n c l i n e d to believe t h a t t h e y envisioned
t h e m s e l v e s as t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n g e l s (or a n g e l i c h u m a n s ) o n e a r t h
d u e to t h e e x p e r i e n c e .
T h u s , t h e assertion of F l e t c h e r - L o u i s a n d G i e s c h e n t h a t t h e r e w a s
a n identifiable " a n g e l o m o r p h i c h u m a n i t y " t r a d i t i o n in late Second
T e m p l e J u d a i s m is significantly w e a k e n e d , t h o u g h n o t a l t o g e t h e r p r e -
e l u d e d , b y t h e results of m y investigation.
A l t h o u g h m y analysis u n d e r m i n e s t h e case for a n y "angelomor-
p h i c h u m a n i t y " c o n c e p t b e i n g p r e v a l e n t in the late S e c o n d T e m p l e
p e r i o d , it d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t a n g e l o m o r p h i c categories did n o t i n f o r m
early C h r i s t o l o g i e s i t s h o u l d b e c l e a r t h a t t h e y did. As C . R o w l a n d
h a s persuasively a r g u e d , t h e i m a g e r y o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n g e l o -
p h a n i e s w a s a p p r o p r i a t e d i n t o early C h r i s t o l o g y . 1 2 I m a g e r y is a m o r e
solid f o u n d a t i o n a n d is t h e n likely t h e m o r e fruitful r o u t e f o r f u t u r e
studies of t h e a n g e l o m o r p h i c b a c k g r o u n d of e a r l y C h r i s t o l o g i e s . T h e
r e c e n t w o r k of R . B a u c k h a r n s e e m s to signal, h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e schol-
arly d e b a t e is f a r f r o m over.
I n his b o o k , God Crucified, R . B a u c k h a r n a r g u e s t h a t in t h e cos-
m o l o g y of t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d early C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d t h e r e
w a s G o d a n d e v e r y t h i n g else. 1 3 H e states, "Jewish m o n o t h e i s m clearly

11
C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory of Adam: Liturgical Anthropology in the Dead Sea
Scrolls (Leiden: E. J . Brill, 2002) 476.
12
C. Rowland, "A Man Clothed in Linen: Daniel 10:6ff. and Jewish Angelology"
JVT 24 (1985) 99-110.
13
R. Bauckharn, God Crucified: Monothsm and Christology in the New Testament (Grand
Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998). These ideas are also developed in his article, "The
Throne of God and the Worship of Jesus" in The Jetvish Roots of Christological
Monotheism: Papersfromthe St. Andrews Conference on the Historical Origins of the Worship
ofJesus, ed. C. Newman, J. Davila, and G. Lewis (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1999) 43-69.
d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e o n e G o d a n d all o t h e r r e a l i t y . ' " 4 B a u c k h a m stresses
t h e i d e a of t h e " d i v i n e i d e n t i t y " o v e r t h e i d e a of " d i v i n e n a t u r e " as
the p a r a d i g m t h a t first-century J e w s would have used for recogniz-
ing G o d . S o J e w s w o u l d n o t b e c o n c e r n e d so m u c h for w h a t G o d
is b u t w h o G o d is. F o l l o w i n g f r o m this, B a u c k h a m a r g u e s t h a t J e w i s h
m o n o t h e i s m c o u l d n o t a c c o m m o d a t e a n y type of s e m i d i v i n e b e i n g ,
viceroy, subordinate d e i t y , o r t h e like. I n c o n t r a s t t o Gieschen,
F l e t c h e r - L o u i s , a n d m o s t n o t a b l y H u r t a d o , B a u c k h a m believes t h a t
J e w i s h i n t e r m e d i a r y figures s u c h as p r i n c i p a l angels a n d exalted p a t r i -
a r c h s t h e r e f o r e did n o t p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t role in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
of early C h r i s t o l o g y . 1 5
B a u c k h a m a r g u e s t h a t J e s u s w a s t h e n s u b s u m e d i n t o the u n i q u e
divine i d e n t i t y a m o v e t h a t h e d e s c r i b e s as a " r a d i c a l l y novel devel-
o p m e n t , a l m o s t u n p r e c e d e n t e d i n J e w i s h t h e o l o g y . " 1 6 H e also says
t h a t t h e decisive step of i n c l u d i n g J e s u s in t h e divine i d e n t i t y t h r o u g h
exegesis of t h e H e b r e w S c r i p t u r e s w a s " a s t e p w h i c h , w h e n e v e r it
w e r e t a k e n , h a d to b e t a k e n s i m p l y f o r its o w n sake a n d de novo."17
W h a t r e m a i n s u n c l e a r f r o m B a u c k h a m ' s discussion, h o w e v e r , is why
the early C h r i s t i a n s w o u l d m a k e s u c h a novel a n d unprecedented
identification. If G o d w a s truly u n i q u e , t h e n w h y d i d t h e y ever d e c i d e
to i n c l u d e J e s u s in t h a t identity?
It seems m o r e plausible to m e to suggest t h a t t h e significant a m o u n t
of l i t e r a t u r e t h a t talks a b o u t i n t e r m e d i a r i e s w o u l d h a v e i n f l u e n c e d
early C h r i s t o l o g y o n s o m e level. T h i s is n o t to say t h a t all C h r i s t i a n s
u s e d this line of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o r t h a t it w a s m a i n t a i n e d in t h e t r a -
dition. N e v e r t h e l e s s , it s e e m s t h a t angels, especially in t h e i r f u n c -
tion as m e d i a t o r s b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d e a r t h , c o u l d h a v e provided
a n d d i d p r o v i d e t h e earliest C h r i s t i a n s w i t h a n e x a m p l e b y w h i c h
J e s u s a h u m a n b e i n g c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d as a s u p e r h u m a n or
heavenly being.

14
R. Bauckham, God Crucified, p. 4.
15
R. Bauckham, God Crucified, pp. 4-5, 1622. Contra C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-
Acts; C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, and L. Hurtado, One God, One Lord. This
also goes against the work of others such as C. Rowland and J. Fossum. Just prior
to completing the edits to my page proofs, I learned of the release of L. Hurtado's
new book Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 2003). I was not able, therefore, to take it into account in this mono-
graph. I am encouraged, though, to see that his discussion on pp. 27-78 has points
of contact with my own work.
16
R. Bauckham, God Crucified, p. 4.
17
R. Bauckham, God Crucified, p. 28.
 CONCLUSION: LIMPING T O W A R D A BETTER UNDERSTANDING 235

B a u c k h a m says t h a t a "strict J e w i s h m o n o t h e i s m " c o u l d n o t a c c o m -

m o d a t e i n t e r m e d i a r y figures. H o w e v e r , t o say t h a t a strict m o n o t h e -
ism c o u l d n o t a c c o m m o d a t e s u c h i n t e r m e d i a r y figures is ver) different
f r o m saying that these figures did n o t exist in J e w i s h cosmology;
clearly t h e y d i d . T o i g n o r e this fact is to miss a n i m p o r t a n t p i e c e
of t h e overall p i c t u r e . T h e d a n g e r h e r e lies in n o t seeing a devel-
o p m e n t of C h r i s t o l o g y b a s e d u p o n a c o n f l u e n c e of traditions. It s e e m s
u n n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l a u s i b l e to suggest t h a t J e s u s w a s i m m e d i a t e l y i n c o r -
p o r a t e d i n t o t h e divine i d e n t i t y as p a r t of a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d move
in J e w i s h t h e o l o g y . W h a t s e e m s m o r e p l a u s i b l e to m e is t h a t a vari-
ety of t r a d i t i o n s i n f l u e n c e d e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t J e s u s
a n d t h a t i n t e r m e d i a r y figures s u c h as angels, w h o e n j o y e d a u n i q u e
r e l a t i o n s h i p to b o t h h u m a n s a n d G o d , w e r e a logical s t a r t i n g p o i n t
for t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s as t h e y p o n d e r e d t h e significance a n d i d e n -
tity of J e s u s . T o suggest t h a t angelological s u p p o s i t i o n s h a d n o t h i n g
to d o w i t h t h e i r earliest s p e c u l a t i o n s a n d t h a t t h e early Christian
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of J e s u s w i t h G o d w a s n o v e l a n d u n p r e c e d e n t e d s e e m s
s o m e w h a t d i s i n g e n u o u s . 1 8 S o w e close h e r e w i t h a w o r d of c a u t i o n
from C. Rowland:

So recognition of the existence of traditions of this kind [Jewish angelo-

logical beliefs] should cause us to pause before we suppose that the
Christological developments of early Christianity necessarily indicate
an inventiveness and unique creativity which cannot be paralleled in
early Judaism. 1 9

7.4 Early Jewish and Christian Mysticism and Angelology

Lastly, m y i n v e s t i g a t i o n h a s p o t e n t i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s for t h e s t u d y of
early J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n mysticism. S e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t traditions
discussed in this s t u d y w o u l d h a v e i n f l u e n c e d these mystics. A l t h o u g h
t h e e a r t h l y a n d h e a v e n l y r e a l m s a n d b e i n g s w e r e largely c o n c e i v e d

18
One final note regarding the above critique of Bauckham: his monograph and
article are only steps in a direction that he will expound more fully in a forth-
coming study, so my comments are only in response to his initial work. Scholars
who believe in the importance of angel categories for the development of early
Christology will certainly need to engage with his fuller study once it is available.
In his article, "The Throne of God" (p. 49), Bauckham notes that his more com-
plete study is provisionally entitled 'Jesus and the Identity of God: Jewish Monotheism
and New Testament Christology."
19
C. Rowland, Christian Origins, 2nd ed. (London: SPCK, 2002) 36.
as separate, the b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e m w a s n o t seen as absolute.
T h i s m e a n t t h a t the possibility existed for the mystic to r e a c h b e y o n d
the earthly r e a l m to the heavenly. T h e goal of the J e w i s h mystics
was to see G o d e n t h r o n e d . T h e only beings regularly able to cross
b e t w e e n the two realms a n d also constantly p r e s e n t in the t h r o n e
r o o m besides G o d w e r e the angels, so traditions a n d speculation
a b o u t t h e m w o u l d likely h a v e b e e n very i m p o r t a n t to a n y o n e try-
ing to get to the t h r o n e r o o m .
T h a t s o m e righteous h u m a n s h a d a s c e n d e d to h e a v e n (e.g., E n o c h ,
Isaiah) m e a n t drat there was a m o d e l for others to follow. Additionally,
some h u m a n beings w e r e t h o u g h t to h a v e t r a n s f o r m e d into angels
in the afterlife (especially E n o c h ) ; such a c o n v i c t i o n w o u l d h a v e
e m b o l d e n e d mystics to believe they m i g h t attain t h e s a m e status.
T h e s e n o t a b l e exceptions stood o u t p r o m i n e n t l y as m o d e l s for the
early J e w i s h a n d Christian mystics.
I n s u m , I find t h a t the evidence s u p p o r t s a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the
literature of the period t h a t sees the a u t h o r s as envisioning G o d ,
angels, a n d h u m a n s as beings t h a t for the m o s t p a r t existed in sep-
a r a t e spheres, the earthly a n d heavenly. Angels m e d i a t e d b e t w e e n
these two realms a n d , t h o u g h they often appeared as h u m a n beings
a n d regularly interacted with t h e m , they w e r e nevertheless distinct f r o m
t h e m . A select few righteous h u m a n s did t r a n s f o r m into angels in
h e a v e n . T h e s e exceptional cases acted as a n i m p o r t a n t m o d e l for
early J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n mystics as t h e y sought to c o m m u n e with
G o d in the divine t h r o n e r o o m .
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 MODERN AUTHOR
Abegg, M. 240
Ackroyd, P. 240
Adler, W. 223 n. 59
Alexander, P. iii, 18 n. 37; 43
nn. 12-14; 92 n. 27; 179 n. 4; 205,
205 n. 24; 223, 223 nn. 6 2 2 2 4 ;63 Bosker, B. 242
n. 64; 225 n. 67; 237, 240
Alexander, T. 240
Allegro, J. 40 n. 5; 212 n. 38; 237
Allison. D. 115 n. 91; 151 n. 22; 240
Andersen, D. 48 n. 29; 87, 87 n. 8; 92
Andersen, G. 149 n. 10
Archambault, G. 237
Arndt, W. 17 n. 70; 239
Ashton, J . 16 n. 68; 57 n. 58; 240
Atkinson, K. M. T. 240
Attridge. H. 193, 193 n. 29; 237,
240
Aune, D. 20 n. 94; 75 n. 101; 76
n. 103; 134 n. 156; 136, 136
n. 161; 240
Avenary, H. 240
Babcock, W. 240
Bakker, A. 241
Bamberger, B. 241
Bamfylde, G. 241
Barker, M. 10, 10 n. 35; 11 n. 36;
75 n. 101; 123 n. 124; 201 n. 11;
204, 204 n. 20; 241
Barrera, J. 241
Barton, G. 19 n. 88; 241
Bauckham, R. 76 n. 102; 156 n. 43;
157, 157 nn. 45-46; 221 n. 56; 222
n. 57; 233, 233 n. 13; 234, 234
nn. 14-17; 235, 235 n. 18; 241
Baumgarten, J . 150 n. 16; 241
Bayer, B. 241
Beall, T. 241
Becking, B. xiii
Beeston, A. 241
Benoit, P. 241
Betz. H. 15, 15 n. 63; 20 n. 94
Bianchi, U. 241
Billerbeck, P. 240
Black, M. 86 n. 3; 136 n. 165; 172
n. 92
INDEX
Blackburn, B. 241
Blanc, C. 237
Bohak, G. 77, 77 n. 110; 78 n. 113
Boling, R. 57 n. 57; 58 n. 60; 241
Borgen, P. 239, 241
Bowker, B. 223 n. 62
Brock, S. 130 n. 145; 237, 242
Brooke, G. 242
Broshi, M. 237
Brown, F. 239
Brown, P. 242
Brown, R. 67 nn. 85, 87; 69 n. 89,
121 n. 116, 242
Brownlee, W. 242
Brueggeman, W. 242
Bhner, J. 110 n. 81; 137 n. 169
Burch, V. 136 n. 164; 242
Burchard, C. 77 nn. 106, 109; 78
n. 112, 102 n. 60; 109, 206 n. 26,
237
Burkett, D. 64 n. 75
Burney, C. F. 242
Byrne,' B. 205 n. 22; 242
Cadbuiy, H. 72 n. 95; 168 n. 80; 242
Cameron, R. 90 nn. 20-21; 237
Carlston, C. 242
Carr, W. 20 n. 93; 242
Carre 11, P. 12, 12 nn. 4 6 1 3 ;47
nn. 48-49; 63, 145 n. 3; 242
Charles, R. H. 2, 86 n. 6; 136
n. 165; 237
Charlesworth, J. xiii, 2, 4, 5, 5
nn. 9-10; 7, 16, 51 n. 42; 85, 85
n. 1; 90, 90 n. 22; 91 n. 24; 140,
140 n. 174; 149 nn. 13-14; 154
n. 33; 161 n. 53; 165 n. 66; 172,
172 n. 91; 173, 173 n. 93; 230
nn. 3-4; 237, 239, 242
Chesnutt, R. 77 n. 9; 242
Chester, A. xi, 12 n. 44; 242
Coffins, j . 64, 64 nn. 76-78; 91
n. 24; 131 n. 149; 136 n. 162;
154 n. 33; 156 n. 43; 161, 161 n. 54;
172 n. 91; 201, 201 nn. 12-13; 204
n. 19; 216 n. 44; 230 n. 3; 242
Colson, F. 99 nn. 48-50; 173 n. 96;
218 n. 45; 237
Conzelmann, H. 243
Cook, S. 57 n. 58; 242
Cooke, G. 243
Cummins, S. 122, 122 nn. 120-121
Danby, H. 237
Danilou 4 . 8; 5, 243
Daube, D. 21, 21 . 97; 22, 22
. 98; 135, 135 . 158; 243
Davidson, M. 10, 10 nn. 31-32; 16,
145 . 3; 148 . 9; 151 . 25; 156
. 39; 166, 166 . 69-71; 243
Davies, . 155 . 38
Davies, W. 115 . 91; 155
Davila, J . 15 . 66; 96 . 40; 97
. 43; 124 . 127; 126 . 130; 150,
150 . 20; 233 . 13; 237, 243
Davis. . 243
Davis, P. G. 12 . 44; 13, 13 . 52;
243
Day, . 18 . 79; 243
De Lacey, D. 248
Delco r, M. 96 n. 40; 244
DeConick, A. xii, 116 n. 100; 174
n. 101; 177 n. 104; 243
De Jonge, M. 96 n. 40; 243
Dewey, A. 90 nn. 20-21
Dey, I,. 244
Dimant. D. 106 n. 73; 156 n. 42; 161
n. 56; 164 n. 64; 201 n. 15; 244
Dix, G. 244
Donaldson, J. 238
Douglas, M. 199, 200 n. 8; 244
Duhaime, J . 244
Dunn, J. 114, 114 n. 87; 121 n. 118;
171 n. 89; 244
Dupont-Somrner, A. 244
Elior, R. 244
Elliger, . 237
Elliot, J. 70 . 91; 237
Emerton, J . 244
Endres, J." 244
Eshel, E. 237
Eshel, H.
Eslinger, L. 47 n. 28
Evans, C. 239-240, 244
Falk, D. 244
Fee, 168 n. 77; 169 n. 84; 244
Fishbane, M. 47 n. 28; 136 n. 162;
161 n. 54; 244
Fitzmyer, J . 15 n. 64; 96 n. 40; 168,
168 n. 80; 169, 169 nn. 81, 83; 201
n. 12; 244
Fletcher-Louis, C. 6 n. 14; 12, 12
n. 43; 14, 14 nn. 57-61; 15, 15
n. 62; 16, 21 n. 97; 28, 28 nn. 6;7
64 n. 79; 68, 68 n. 88, 78, 78
nn. 113-114; 79, 79 nn. 115-116;
85 n. 1; 89, 89 nn. 16-18; 92, 92
n. 28; 96, 96 nn. 3 8 1 0 4 ;39
n. 63; 105 n. 67; 106, 106 nn. 70,
73; 107, 107 n. 75; 110 n. 81; 115
n. 94; 116 n. 103; 120, 120 nn. 112,
114-115; 127, 127 n. 137; 128, 128
nn. 138-139; 129, 129 n. 143; 134
nn. 156-157; 140, 140 n. 175; 141
n. 176; 147, 147 nn. 6-7; 151, 151
nn. 26-28; 153, 154 nn. 33-34; 158
n. 49; 162 n. 59; 165 n. 67; 166,
166 nn. 69, 73; 167 n. 74; 173, 173
n. 94; 174, 174 n. 100; 175, 175
n. 102; 176, 176 n. 103; 177, 177
nn. 106-107; 191 n. 25; 192 n. 27;
194, 194 n. 32; 230, 230 n. 2; 232,
232 n. 10; 87, 233, 233 n. 11;
234, 234 n. 15; 244
Forsyth, N. 245
Fossum, J. xii, 6, 6 nn. 15-16; 17
n. 75, 87 n. 10; 88 n. 11; 90 n. 19;
105 nn. 67-68; 115 n. 93; 117
n. 104; 146 n. 5; 230 n. 4; 234
n. 15; 245
Francis, F. xi, 171 n. 88; 245
Freedman, H. 48, 48 n. 29; 237
Fuglseth, K. 239
Gammie, J. 20, 20 nn. 90, 92; 245
Garcia Martinez, F. 19 n. 83; 126
n. 130; 165 n. 66; 237, 245
Garrett, S. 245
Gaston, L. 245
Gertner, M. 47 n. 28; 245
Gieschen, C. xii, 4 n. 8; 6 n. 14; 12,
12 n. 43; 13, 13 n. 51; 14, 14
nn. 53-56; 15, 15 n. 65; 16, 28
nn. 4-5; 31 n. 10; 53 n. 48; 85
n. 1; 87 n. 10; 88, 88 n. 11; 89, 89
nn. 16; 18; 94 n. 32; 97, 97 n. 44;
104 n. 63; 105 n. 67; 108, 112, 112
n. 85; 114 n. 88; 123, 123 n. 124;
124, 140 n. 175; 162 n. 59; 166,
166 n. 72; 231, 231 nn. 6-8; 232,
232 n. 9; 233, 234, 234 n. 15; 24-5
Gingrich, F. 17 n. 70
Ginzburg, L. 237, 245 Hurtado, L. 9 n. 24; 11, 11 n. 42,
Glasson, T. 245 12, 12 n. 43; 85 n. 1; 104 n. 63;
Glornbitza, O. 120, 120 n. 111; 245 106 n. 70; 234, 234 n. 15; 247
Gnuse, R. 245 Hyatt, J. 162 n. 57; 247
Goddard, A. 122, 122 nn. 120-121;
245 Inowlocki, S. 247
Goodenough, E. 42, 42 n. 9; 100 Irvin, D. 247
n. 52; 105 n. 68; 245
Gooder, P. 123 n. 125; 245 Jervell, J. 85 n. 2, 87 n. 7; 247
Goodman, D. 180, 180 nn. 9 , 1 8 1 ;10Johnson, A. 38 n. 2; 57 n. 58; 247
181 n. 12; 182, 182 nn. 15-16; 192 Johnson, L. 73, 73 n. 98; 247
n. 28; 194, 246 Joynes, C. 112 n. 85; 123 n. 123
Goodman, M. xi, 148 n. 8 Jung, L. 247
Goodrick, E. 239
Gray, S. 246 Kasher. R. 247
Grossfield, B. 43 n. 12; 237 Keck, D. 247
Gruenwald, I. 246, 248 Kilgallen, J . 247
Guillaumont, A. 237 Kittel, G. 239
Gundry, R. 12 n. 46; 246 Klawans, J . 205, 205 n. 21; 247
Gunkel, H. 45, 45 nn. 19-20, 22; Klein, M. 238
46, 50, 50 n. 36; 246 Knibb, M. 86 n. 5: 130 n. 147; 136
Gunther, J. 246 nn. 163-165; 137 n. 167
Knight, J. 136 nn. 164-165; 247
Haenchen, E. 22 n. 99; 72 n. 95; Kobelski, P. 96 n. 40; 247
119 . 110; 246 Koenig, J. 179 n. 1; 180 n. 6; 247
Hall, R. 136 nn. 164-165; 246 Koester. C. 247
Halperin, D. 246 Kohlenberger, J. 239
Hamilton, V. 18 n. 79; 246 Kovacs, J . 247
Hanhart, K. 246 Kraeling, E. 247
Hannah, D. 13, 13 nn. 50-51; 15 Kraemer, R. 77, 77 n. I l l ; 102
n. 66; 19 n. 84; 29, 29 n. 8; 31, 31 n. 59, 247
n. 10; 94 n. 32; 124 n. 127; 145 Kuhn, . . 247
n. 3 Kuhn, H. W. 247
Hanson, P. D. xii, 204, 204 n. 19; 246 Kuhn, H. 147 . 6; 162, 162 nn. 58;
Harrington, D. 109 nn. 78-79; 238 60, 247
Hatch, E. 239 Kuhn, . 239
Hay, D. M. 246
Hayward, R. 43 n. 14; 246 Lake, . 72 . 95; 79 . 118; 238
Heidt, W. G. 17 n. 72; 246 Lane Fox, R. 134 . 155; 248
Hendel, R. 199, 199 nn. 6-7; 200. Lang, J. 248
200 nn. 8 2 0 4 ;9 Langton, . 248
Hennecke, E. 206 n. 27; 237 Larson, . 238
Himmelfarb, M. 6, 6 nn. 17-18; 91 Lesses, R. 20 . 94; 248
n. 24; 137 nn. 168-169; 138 n. 170; Levene, . 238
146 n. 4; 230, 230 n. 3; 231 n. 5 Levenson. J. 248
Holladay, C. 52 nn. 45-46; 105 n. 68; Levey, S.' 238
237, 246 Levinson, J . 90 n. 19; 248
Hooker, M. 168 nn. 77-78; 169, 169 Liddel 17 n. 70
nn. 82-83; 170 n. 85; 246 Lieu, J. 248
Horbury, W. 11, 11 nn. 39-41; 16, Lincoln, A. 248
108 n. 76, 246 Lindars, B. 248
Horst, P. 246 Longenecker, R. 248
Horton, F. 96 n. 40; 246 Lunt, H. 51 nn. 40-41; 52 n. 44; 238
Huggins, R. 95, 95 n. 37; 247 Lust, J. 238
MacDonald, J. 238
Mach, M. 4 . 4; 7, 7 nn. 1 9 , 8
8 . 23; 9, 9 . 26; 16, 16 . 68;
17, 20 . 90; 68 . 88; 131 . 150;
140, 145 . 2-3; 147
. 6; 191 . 25; 225 . 65; 248
Maher, . 43 . 14
Maier, J. 248
Malherbe, . 121 . 117; 180 . 5; 248 Nickelsburg, G. 86 . 3; 94 . 33;
Mann, C. 248
Manson, T. 126, 126 . 131; 248
Mara, M. 70 . 92
Marcus, J. 248
Martin, D. 248
Martin, L. 248
Martin, T. 179 n. 2; 248
Martyn, L. 125 n. 128; 248
Mayr-Harting, H. 249
McKenzie, J. 249
McNamara, M. 43 n. 13; 238
McNeil, B. 172, 172 n. 91; 173, 173
n. 95; 174, 174 nn. 98-99; 249
Mearns, C. 86 n. 5; 249
Meeks, W. 103, 103 n. 62; 105
n. 68; 171 n. 88; 181 n. 12; 249
Meier, S. 27, 27 n. 2; 57 n. 57; 249
Mendels, D. 249
Metzger, . 192 . 26
Migne, J. 53 . 48; 238
Milik. J. 86, 86 nn. 3-4; 94 n. 31;
201 n. 11; 209 nn. 33, 35; 238
Miller, P. D. 249
Miller, P. J. 55 n. 52; 249
Miller, W. 249
Mitchell, S. 20 n. 93; 249
Molina ri, A. 118 11. 107; 238
Moore, C. 249
Moore, G. 249
Morray-Jones, C. 10, 10 nn. 33-34;
124, 124 n. 126; 154, 249
Moses, A. 249
Moulton, J. 72 n. 95; 249
Moxnes, H. 249
Mullen, E. 17 n. 73; 249
Munoa, P. 88 n. 14; 249
Murphy, F. 109 n. 79; 249
Murray, R. 249
Musurillo, H. 238
Myers, C. 249
Nanos, M. 250
Nebe, G. 250
Nelson, R. 55 n. 52; 250
Neusner, J. 50 n. 39; 99 n. 46; 100
;21 n. 52; 181 n. 12; 250
Newsom, C. 9, 9 nn. 27-28; 10
n. 29; 16 n. 68; 27, 27 n. 3; 57
n. 57; 106 n. 73; 120 n. 112; 149,
149 nn. 11-14; 150, 150 nn. 16-18,
21; 151, 151 nn. 23-24; 152, 152
n. 31; 154 n. 34; 250
131 . 149; 135, 135 . 159; 172
. 91; 200 . 10; 201 . 14; 204,
204 . 19; 250
Nitzan, . 250
Nogueira, P. 115 . 94; 250
N11, S. 250
Nolland, J. 250
O'Neill 14, 15 . 62; 16, 16 . 67;
230, 230 . 2; 250
Odeberg, . 250
Olyan, S. 7 . 22; 18, 19 . 82; 250
Osborne, . 250
Osiek, C. 79 . 117; 80, 80 . 119;
81, 81 . 121; 138, 138 . 171; 250
Otzen, . 250
Owen, . 250
Pageis, . 18 . 79; 251
Pate, C. 171 . 89; 251
Pohl, C. 180 . 5; 251
Propp, W. 251
Quimron, . 251
Rahlts, . 238
Rainbow, P. 12 . 44; 251
Redpath, . 239
Reeves, J. 95, 95 nn. 36-37; 209
n. 35; 251
Rengstorf, K. 239
Reventlow, H. 251
Riches, J . 251
Riddle, D. 180 n. 8; 251
Roberts, A. 238
Robinson, J. 31 n. 9; 53 n. 49; 118
n. 108; 251
Robinson, S. 251
Rowland, C. xi, 5, 5 nn. 11, 13; 6, 43
n. 11; 60 n. 65; 61 n. 67; 63, 63
n. 73; 64, 64 n. 78; 73 n. 97; 82,
82 n. 123; 87 n. 7; 91 n. 26; 115,
115 n. 94; 156 n. 43; 164, 164 n. 65;
171, 171 n. 88; 203, 234 n. 15; 251
Rudolph, W. 237 Talbert, C. 253
Ruiten, J. 214, 214 . 42; 215 . 43; Thackeray, H. 49 n. 34
251 Thompson 240
Russell, D. 252 Thrall, M. 253
Topham, M. 253
Saldarini, . 238 Trigg, J . 253
Salvesen, A. xi Tromp, J . 106, 106 nn. 70-71; 126,
Schfer, P. 3, 3 nn. 1-2; 4, 4 126 nn. 133-135
nn. 3-4; 16 n. 68; 181, 181 n. 14;
225 n. 65; 252 Ulrich xii, 239
Schams, C. 252 Urbach, . 253
Schiffman, L. 10 n. 28; 145 n. 3;
150 nn. 16; 18, 252 Valantasis, R. 116 . 101; 117, 117
Scholem, G. 252 . 106; 253
Schuller, E. 160 n. 52 van der Horst, P. xiii, 130, 130 . 147
Schrer, E. xiii, 252 van der Toorn, . xiii
Scott 239 Van der Woude, A. 96 n. 40; 253
Segal, A. 4, 4 nn. 6 6 1,6;7n. 67; VanderKam. j . 18 n. 80; 145 n. 3;
158, 158 n. 48; 252 155 n. 36; 223, 223 nn. 59-60;
Segert, S. 252 225 n. 67; 253
Seim, T. 134, 134 n. 156; 252 Vermes, G. 50 . 39; 99 . 46; 148
Sekki, A. 198 n. 2; 252 . 8; 156 . 40; 253
Sheppard, A. 20 n. 93; 252 Viviano, . 135, 135 . 160; 254
Shinan, A. 252 von Rad, G. 45, 45 . 21; 254
Silberman, L. 252
Skarsaune, O. 53 n. 50; 252 Walls, . 254
Skarsten, R. 239 Walters, S. 254
Sly, D. 218 n. 47; 252 Webb, R. 239
Smith, M. 115 n. 93; 161, 161 Weber, R. 239
n. 53; 252 Wenham, G. 254
Smith, J . 99, 100, 100 nn. 52-53, 55; Westermann, C. 199, 199 . 5; 202,
101, 101 n. 57; 238 254
Smith, R. 20 n. 94; 253 Wevers, J. 239
Stegeman, H. 149 n. 14; 155 11. 36; Whiston, W. 239
156 n. 42; 162 n. 57; 164 n. 64; Whitaker, G. 237
253 Wiebe, R. 239
Stein, R. 115 . 92; 253 Wolff, H. 48 . 29; 254
Stem, M. 127 n. 136 Wolfson, . 42, 42 . 10; 254
Steudel, A. 253
Strack, H. 240 Yadin, Y. 9 . 28; 19 . 88; 96
Strelan, R. 221, 221 nn. 54-55; 253 . 40; 149 . 11; 155, 155 . 35;
Strugnell, J . 149, 149 nn. 10, 15 156, 207 . 29; 254
Stuckenbruck, L. 12, 12 11. 45; 20 Yarbro Coffins, . 64 . 75; 136
nn. 93-94; 75 n. 101; 76 nn. 103; . 162; 254
105; 128, 128 n. 140; 165 n. 66; 209 Yoder-Neufeld, . 254
nn. 33-34; 210 n. 36; 253 Yonge, C. 239
Sullivan, K. v, xii, 253
Suter, D. 204, 204 n. 20; 253 Zimmerli, W. 60 . 66; 254
 SUBJECT
Abraham 37-39, 39 n. 3; 40-42, 42
n. 7; 43-44, 52 n. 44; 54, 54 n. 51;
58, 81, 81 n. 122; 82, 88, 88
nn. 12-14; 96, 100, 103, 121,
124-125, 132, 138, 179, 181-184,
189, 189 n. 24; 190-191, 193-194,
205 n. 22; 217, 242, 249
Adam 5, 6, 18 n. 78; 19, 8 5 8 9
nn. 15, 18; 90, 90 n. 19; 91, 96
n. 38; 136 n. 165; 139
Afterlife 131-133, 133 n. 153;
134-136, 138-139, 176-177, 236
Angel of God 6, 15, 17-18, 32-33,
46-52, 54, 57-61, 66-67, 74, 100,
108, 108 n. 77; 109, 111, 121, 123,
124, 245
Angel of the Lord 6 n. 15; 17
nn. 74-75; 30, 46, 32, 38 n. 2; 50
n. 35; 56, 56 nn. 54-55; 57, 58, 58
n. 59; 59-60, 62, 66 n. 83; 69,
71-72, 87 n. 10; 72 n. 93; 90 n. 19;
109, 109 n. 80; 114, 181, 184-186,
230 n. 4
Angelology 4, 4 n. 8; 5, 5 n. 11; 6,
7, 7 nn. 20, 22; 8, 12, 12 n. 46; 15
n. 64; 17 n. 72; 18 n. 80; 20
nn. 90, 92; 42, 63 n. 73; 145 n. 3;
150-152, 168 n. 80; 169 n. 81; 229,
231, 233 n. 12; 235, 241-242,
244-247, 251-252
Angelomorphic 4 n. 8; 5 6 ,6 n. 14;
9, 11-12, 12 nn. 43, 46; 13, 13
n. 65; 16, 21 n. 96; 27-28, 28
nn. 4-5; 29, 31, 31 n. 10; 32, 34,
78-79, 85 n. 1; 87, 88 n. 11; 89,
89 n. 16; 90, 94, 94 n. 32; 96-97,
97 n. 44; 104 n. 63; 105 n. 67;
106-107, 108 n. 76; 109, 112, 112
n. 85; 114, 114 n. 88; 115-116,
118, 119 n. 109; 121, 123, 123
n. 124; 124, 127, 129-131, 140,
140 n. 175; 141, 154, 162 n. 59;
166 n. 72; 173-174, 177, 225
n. 66; 228, 230-231, 231 nn. 6;9
232-233, 234 n. 15; 245-246
INDEX
Angelophany 34, 56, 69, 78, 83, 127,
185, 192 n. 27
Angels, minister 85 n. 2; 181
Angelus 2, 106-107, l l l n . 83; 193
Anthropomorphic 17-18, 27-30, 32,
34, 37, 65-66, 81, 83, 228, 231
Angelikos Bios 134 11. 155
,89 vii, 6 n. 17; 12 nn.
Apocalypse
45-46; 13, 20 n. 94; 31, 33, 52
n. 44; 74-75, 75 n. 101; 81, 81
n. 122; 87, 90, 91 n. 24; 115,
123-124, 126 n. 132; 128 n. 140;
136 n. 162; 138 n. 170; 145 n. 3;
146 n. 4; 150, 156 n. 43; 171, 220,
230-231, 242, 246-247, 253
Appearance vii, 22, 25, 27, 27 n. 1;
29-32, 34, 41-42, 54, 58, 6062,
62 n. 71; 63, 67, 67 n. 85; 68-69,
69 n. 90; 71, 73, 8 2 9 4,94,83
n. 33; 96-97, 103, 107, 109,
111-112, 115, 118-119, 119 n. 109;
120-121, 121 n. 117; 126, 131,
139, 145, 183-184, 189-191, 192
n. 27; 195, 208, 212, 219, 225
n. 66; 228-229, 251
Archangel 13, 19, 21, 50 n. 39;
51-52, 56, 61-62, 65-66, 80, 88
n. 11; 98-99, 99 n. 46; 100, 100
n. 56; 105, 126, 152, 159, 186-187,
201, 203, 211, 213, 244, 253
Azazel 40, 201, 203, 203 n. 17; 204
n. 19; 210, 212, 223
n.
Blessed Ones 172-173, 178
Brightness 60, 70-71, 131
Christology ix, 1, 4, 4 n. 8; 5, 6
n. 14; 9-12, 12 nn. 43-46; 13, 13
nn. 50-52; 14, 14 nn. 53-56;
15-16, 20 n. 93; 28 n. 4; 29, 75
n. 101; 85 n. 1; 106 n. 73; 114,
114 n. 87; 115 n. 94; 128 n. 140;
136 n. 164; 145 n. 3; 192 n. 27;
227, 231-232, 232 n. 10; 233,
233 n. 13; 234-235, 241-247,
249-251, 253
Clothing 28, 70, 82, 92, 170 n. 87;
187 n. 23
Communities viii, 1, 7, 9, 15 n. 61;
23, 145-148, 162, 167, 171 n. 89;
174-175, 178, 228, 251
Congregation 2, 119, 158, 161-164,
168-169, 175, 212, 252
Copulation 139
Corporeal 132, 195
Cosmology ix, 1, 64 n. 75; 209 n. 35;
227, 229, 229 n. 1; 233, 235, 254
Creation 40, 129, 212, 248
Creation 19, 40-41, 80, 85, 85 n. 2;
86-87, 89, 91, 129, 168, 197-200,
212, 217, 225, 248
Daughter of Job viii, 129-130, 140,
170 n. 87; 225 n. 66
David xii, 108-109, 109 n. 80; 139,
199 n. 4; 240
Dead Sea Scrolls 1-2, 9, 9 n. 26; 10,
10 n. 28; 17 n. 71; 18 nn. 78, 80;
30, 37, 40, 48 n. 31; 96 n. 38; 106
n. 73; 145 n. 3; 147 n. 6; 148, 148
n. 8; 149, 149 nn. 1 3 1 5 0,150;14Fallen Angels 201, 247
n. 18; 154, 155 n. 36; 156 nn. 40,
43; 161 n. 53; 165 n. 66; 167, 171
n. 89; 173, 175, 198 n. 2; 200, 207, Fear xii, 30, 32-34, 5 8 , 6 7 5 9 ,
209 n. 33; 212, 225 n. 67; 233
n. 11; 237-241, 243-244, 248-254
Demons xiii, 19 n. 88; 21, 165,
216-217, 222, 240-241, 247
Divine 6, 8-9, 11-12, 12 n. 44; 13,
13 n. 52; 14-15, 17, 17 n. 73; 20,
21, 27, 33-35, 37-38, 41, 41 n. 6;
42, 42 n. 8; 46, 48-50, 52, 54-57,
59-60, 63, 64 n. 79; 67-68, 71,
75-76, 82-83, 85-86, 89-90, 93,
98, 101 n. 58; 102-103, 103 n. 62;
104-105, 107-108, 110-111, 114,
115 n. 95; 117-118, 122 nn. 119-120;
124, 128, 128 n. 139; 129, 132,
138-140, 146-147, 151-153, 155,
158, 160-161, 165, 173-174, 175
n. 101; 176-179, 181, 183, 188,
191, 191 n. 25; 192, 192 n. 26;
194, 198-203, 205-206, 208-209,
211, 214, 216-217, 221-222, 224,
232, 234-236, 240-241, 243-244,
247-249, 254
Earthly 11, 14, 33-34, 73, 88, 92,
114, 123, 129, 132, 134, 148-149,
151, 161, 164, 173, 175-178, 190,
217-218, 229-232, 235-236
Eeating 23, 50 n. 37; 55, 145,
179-181, 183-184, 184 n. 19; 188,
190-192, 195, 228
Elohim 11, 97
Enoch 5-6, 10, 10 n. 31; 61, 64,
85-86, 86 nn. 3-5, 87; 87 n. 8;
90-91, 91 n. 26; 92, 92 n. 27;
93-94, 94 n. 33; 9 6 , 1 2 4,103,98
132, 137, 139, 145, 148 n. 9; 200,
200 n. 10; 201, 201 nn. 11, 14;
202, 203-204, 204 nn. 1 9 , 2 0 5 ;20
207, 209, 209 n. 35; 210-215, 217,
219-224, 228-229, 236-238,
240-241, 243, 246-247, 249-251, 253
Epiphany 119, 185
Eschatology 64 n. 75
Essenes 148, 148 n. 8; 155 n. 36;
167, 172 n. 92; 173, 175-176, 239,
241, 249, 253
Evil spirits 165
Exalted Patriarchs 12, 31, 234
Falling to the Ground 30, 32-34, 79,
127
66
67 n. 85; 69, 79, 83, 102-104, 108
n. 77; 115 n. 91; 172, 185,
190-191, 201, 217, 222, 228
Fiery Appearance 30
Gabriel 19, 19 nn. 85, 89; 21, 32,
42, 61-63, 65, 67, 159, 203-204,
245, 250
Garments 80, 82, 115, 129-130
Gender 130, 130 n. 148; 134 n. 156;
218 n. 47; 225 n. 66; 252
Giants ix, 40, 86, 94, 95 nn. 36;37
197, 202-204, 206-207, 209, 209
n. 32; 210, 210 n. 36; 211-212,
214-216, 216 n. 44; 217-222,
224-225, 229, 239, 247, 251
Giborim 197, 206-207, 210-211, 223
God 4 - 6 , 6 nn. 15-16; 10 n. 35; 11,
11 n. 42; 12, 12 n. 43; 13-17, 17
n. 70, 75; 18, 20 n. 93; 21 n. 96;
31-35, 38, 38 n. 2; 39-40, 42,
44-45, 45 n. 22; 4 6 4 9,49n. 33;
50-53, 53 n. 49; 54, 54 n. 51;
55-58, 58 n. 61; 59-62, 62 n. 69;
66, 66 n. 83; 67, 70, 72-76, 80-81,
 83, 85, 85 n. 1; 87 n. 10; 88, 88
n. 11; 89, 89 n. 18; 90, 90 n. 19;
91, 93, 97-101, 101 n. 58; 102-103,
104 n. 63; 105, 105 nn. 67-68;
106, 106 n. 70; 107-109, 109 n. 80;
110-111, 113, 115, 115 n. 93; 117
n. 104; 118-124, 126 n. 133;
127-128, 128 n. 141; 129-130, 132,
134, 137, 137 n. 169; 139, 145-146,
146 n. 5; 147, 150, 152, 154, 157,
160, 163-170, 173, 176-179, 181
n. 12; 182, 188-191, 197-200,
202-205, 205 nn. 2 3 , 2 0 6 - 2 0 7 ;24
207 n. 28; 211-212, 214-218,
218 n. 46; 221-223, 223 n. 62;
224-225, 228-230, 230 n. 4; 231-233,
233 n. 13; 234, 234 nn. 14-17;
235, 235 n. 18; 236
God as warrior 157
Guardian angels 75
Guests 124, 179, 179 n. 2; 182-183,
189-191, 194, 229
Heavenly Ascent 8, 10 n. 34; 115,
123 n. 125; 146, 153 n. 32; 154
n. 33; 243-246, 252
Heavenly 6 1 0,9n. 34; 12, 17-18,
20. 27. 29. 31, 33-35, 50, 57 n. 57;
73-75, 79, 83, 86, 98, 107, 113,
115, 115 n. 94; 123, 126, 129,
130-131, 137, 145-146, 148-151,
153-155, 157, 159, 161, 163-164,
173, 175-177, 181, 190, 201, 203,
206, 209, 212-213, 217-218, 228,
230-232, 234-236
high priest viii, 3, 59, 64, 64 n. 79;
110, 126 n. 133; 127, 127 n. 137;
128, 128 n. 139; 129, 140, 148,
176, 244
Holy of Holies 176
Holy Ones 14, 92, 94, 97, 104, 132,
152, 159, 162, 162 n. 60; 163-164,
166-167, 207-208
Holy War 242-243
holy war 56, 96 n. 40; 126 n. 130;
157, 159
honeycomb 181 n. 13; 187-188, 192
n. 26; 194
Hospitality 1, 23, 37, 42, 58,59
124-125, 145, 179, 179 nn. 1, 3-4;
180, 180 nn. 5-6, 8; 182-183, 183
n. 18; 184-194, 194 n. 31; 229,
240, 247-248, 251
Hosts 2, 47, 111, 127, 158, 165, 184,
194-195, 241
Humans 1-6, 6 n. 14; 7-9, 9 n. 26;
10, 10 n. 30; 11-20, 21 n. 96;
22-23, 27-29, 33, 37, 39, 44,
54-55, 61, 63, 66, 68, 74-76, 83,
85-87, 90-91, 106-107, 110, 114,
126, 131-134, 138, 140-141,
145-148, 151-155, 156 n. 44;
157-158, 160, 162-163, 166-167,
169-172, 175-179, 181-182, 184,
192-195, 197-198, 198 n. 2, 199,
202-206, 211-212, 215, 218-219,
220, 222, 225, 225 n. 65; 227-233,
235-236
Hybrid offspring 23, 145, 197, 205,
210, 212, 215, 222, 224
Iaoel 81-82
Incorporeal 27, 73, 132, 181, 190,
192, 218, 230
Interaction viii, 19, 22, 46, 54-55, 59
n. 64; 141, 143, 145, 147, 167, 179,
228-229
Intermediary 244
intermediary 128, 234-235
Jabbok 44, 46, 49-54, 99-102, 249
Jacob/Israel 98, 100-101, 228
Jesus xiii, 4, 6, 11, 12 nn. 46-47; 13,
13 nn. 48-49; 15, 16, 21 n. 95; 24
n. 1; 32-33, 42, 52-54, 66 n. 83;
67-69, 69 n. 90; 70-71, 73, 75, 75
n. 101; 76 n. 102; 85, 111-112, 112
n. 85; 114-115, 115 n. 93; 116, 116
n. 97; 117-118, 120-125, 133-134,
134 n. 156; 140, 145 n. 3; 155 n. 36;
161 n. 53; 180-181, 191-192, 192
n. 27; 193-195, 233, 233 n. 13;
234, 234 n. 15; 235, 235 n. 18;
240-242, 244-245, 247-248, 250,
252-253
John the Baptist 66, 111-112, 112
nn. 85-86; 113, 140, 155 n. 36;
228, 247, 253
Judaism 4-5, 5 nn. 9, 11; 12 n. 45;
16, 42 nn. 9-10; 50 n. 39; 61 n. 67;
67 n. 86; 72, 75 n. 101; 76 n. 103;
85, 85 n. 1; 90, 90 n. 19; 99 n. 46;
103 n. 62; 105 n. 68; 127 n. 136;
128 n. 140; 131 n. 149; 147, 147
n. 6; 154 n. 33; 161 n. 54; 172 n. 91;
224, 229 n. 1; 230, 230 n. 4; 231-233,
235, 239, 242-243, 245, 247-254
Judge 47, 57, 57 n. 57; 58 n. 60; 58
n. 159; 59, 96-97, 127, 131, 170,
171, 184-186, 223, 241, 248
Lithargoel 118
Liturgy, angelic 67 . 86; 146, 149,
149 . 10, 13, 15; 150, 239, 251
Liturgical space 47, 171, 176-177,233
LXX xiii, 2, 8, 11 . 37; 17, 19-20,
37, 39, 43, 48, 50 . 38; 56, 56
. 53; 61, 62 . 69; 63, 65, 72, 72
. 93; 82, 99, 100 . 55; 107 . 76;
108, 110-111, 122 . 120; 131-132,
157, 180, 184, 205-207, 209, 215,
224, 252
Mamre 38, 40, 53 . 50; 189-191,
194, 249
Man 5 . 11, 13; 58, 63 . 73; 64,
64 . 75; 82 . 123; 98, 162 . 57;
185, 194, 233 . 12; 241-242, 245,
247, 249-251
Marriage 133, 133 . 154; 134, 139
Martyrdom 120-123, 136, 136
. 163-165; 137, 137 . 167
Melchizedek 6, 30, 85, 96, 96 . 40;
97, 97 . 43; 98, 126 . 130; 139,
152 . 29; 228, 2 4 3 , 2 4 6 - 2 4 7 ,244 50 . 35; 59, 59 . 62;
254
Messenger 8, 12, 15, 15 . 64; 17,
17 . 70; 27, 28 . 3; 41, 41 . 6;
48, 49 . 33; 50, 57, 69, 71, 75,
82, 104, 106, 108 . 76; 109-110,
110 . 82; 111, 111 . 83; 112-113,
119, 121-122, 125-126, 126 . 134;
127-128, 128 . 141-142; 140,
146, 227, 249, 253
Metatron 91 . 26; 92-93, 139, 229
Michael xii, 4 . 8; 7, 13, 13
. 50-51; 19, 19 . 83-84, 89;
21, 29, 42, 56, 56 . 53; 61, 63-65,
72 . 96; 78, 80, 89, 92, 96 . 40;
97, 97 . 43; 98, 105, 126, 126
. 130; 145 . 3; 156 . 42;
158-161, 189-191, 203-204, 238
Monotheism 11, 11 . 42; 12 . 44;
81, 233, 233 . 13; 234-235, 235
. 18; 241, 247, 250-251
Moses viii, 3, 6, 33, 40-41, 54 . 51;
56, 56 . 54; 57, 103-104, 104
. 66; 105, 105 . 67-68; 106, 106
. 69, 70-71, 73; 107, 114 . 89;
115, 115 . 91; 116, 119-120,
125-126, 126 . 132; 134; 139-140,
161, 181, 181 . 12; 216-218, 218
. 46; 228, 239, 244, 249, 253
Mysticism ix, 1, 6 . 15; 10, 10 . 33;
124 . 126; 150, 174 . 101; 227, 235,
243-246, 248-249, 251-252
Name 6, 6 nn. 15-16; 11, 17 n. 75;
18, 19 n. 88; 44, 87 n. 10; 88 n. 11;
90 n. 19; 98, 100, 105 nn. 67-68; 117
n. 104; 146 n. 5; 230 n. 4; 241, 245
Natural order 169, 197, 220
Nephilim 197-199, 199 n. 3;
206-208, 210-211
Noah 85-86, 93-94, 94 n. 33; 95, 95
nn. 35, 37; 96-97, 103, 139, 197-198,
203, 208, 208 n. 31; 212, 214-216,
228, 247
Nuntius 106, 106 . 72; 107, 125-126
Paul xi, 10, 10 . 34; 15, 15
nn. 63-64; 21, 21 . 96; 30, 42, 76
. 102; 85, 85 . 2; 115 . 95; 121,
121 . 117; 122, 122 . 119-120,
122; 123, 123 . 123-125;
124-125, 134-135, 138 . 170; 140,
147, 149 . 13; 167-168, 168 . 80;
169-170, 170 . 86-87; 171, 176
. 105; 178, 179 . 2; 180, 200
m 8; 205 . 22; 228
192
Pneuma 170, 218
Post-mortem 141
Priesthood 9 6 1 6 5,153,129,97
. 67; 250
Prince 2, 30, 56, 63, 65, 72 . 96;
97, 108 . 76; 160, 241
Prophets 18, 76, 82-83, 109-111,
113, 139, 231, 238, 247, 252
Purity 148, 158-160, 163-164,
166-169, 173-175, 178, 188, 200,
200 . 8; 204, 204 . 20; 205
. 21; 228, 244, 247, 253
Qumran 7, 7 . 22; 9, 9 . 28; 10,
10 . 31; 15 . 32; 64, 39-41, 43,
43 . 15; 56 . 56; 61, 63 . 74;
65, 86, 91 . 25; 93-94, 96, 96
. 40, 42; 97-98, 120, 126 . 130;
127 . 137; 145 . 3; 147-148, 148
. 9; 149, 149 . 10-11; 14-15;
150 . 16; 151, 154, 154 . 34; 155
. 36-37; 156, 156 . 39, 42;
157, 161, 162 . 57; 164 . 64;
166, 166 . 69-71; 167-168, 168
. 80; 169, 169 . 81; 172 . 92;
174, 175-178, 198, 198 . 2;
209-213, 215, 224
Raphael 19, 19 . 86; 21, 56, 65,66
105, 159, 181, 186-187, 203, 210-211
Rechabites 5, 147, 171-172, 172
n. 92; 174-175
Resurrection 21-22, 73, 115, 115
n. 92; 131, 131 n. 149; 133-135,
135 nn. 159-160; 173, 191-192,
242, 247, 250, 253-254
Righteous humans as angels 4 - 5
Rivalry 3, 4, 225 n. 65; 252
Sadducees 21, 21 n. 97; 22, 133,
135, 135 nn. 158, 160; 241, 247,
254
Sariel 45 n. 22; 50 n. 39; 51, 52, 99
n. 46; 159, 100 n. 54; 253
Satan 18, 18 nn. 77, 79; 30-31, 59,
81, 123, 123 n. 125; 243, 245,
250-251
Sinai 41, 66, 103-104, 106, 106
n. 73; 107, 119-120, 120 n. 112;
181, 181 n. 12; 244
Son of Man 61, 63-64, 64 nn.
75-76, 80; 65, 83, 86, 93, 120, 194,
241-242, 245, 250
Sons of God 11, 62 n. 69; 72, 97,
100, 134, 168, 197-198, 198 n. 2;
218, 221, 223, 223 n. 62; 224-225,
240, 242
Spirits 2, 152, 163, 165, 168 n. 76;
190, 217-218, 244
Stars 2, 8, 30, 74-75, 104, 131, 131
n. 150, 138
Stephen viii, 85, 118-119, 119
nn. 109-110; 120-121, 138 n. 172;
140, 172, 228, 249-250
sustenance 180-181, 181 n. 13; 82
Taxo 125-126, 126 nn. 134-135;
127, 140, 228, 253
Teacher of Righteousness 150,
161-162, 240
Temple 1, 6 1 8,16-18,8nn. 80-81;
19, 23, 28, 37, 37 . 1; 39, 43-44,
56, 56 n. 53; 67 n. 86; 71, 77, 77
n. 110; 81, 83, 87, 91-92, 98, 102
n. 59; 107, 111, 129-130, 135,
139-141, 147, 149-150, 154, 156,
156 n. 42; 163, 165, 167, 175-177,
179, 182, 184, 194, 201, 205, 207,
213, 219-220, 223-225, 225 . 66;
227, 229-233, 241, 244, 249,
252-253
Theomorphic 89, 96, 107, 147, 177, 228
Theraputae 173-175
Throne 33, 60, 73, 88, 101 n. 58;
104, 161, 161 n. 54; 176-177, 233,
233 n. 13; 235 n. 18; 236, 241
Transformation 5 1 0,9-10,7n. 33;
22, 54, 66, 73, 79, 91, 91 n. 24;
92, 103, 105, 107, 115-116, 121,
124 n. 126; 129-130, 132, 137
n. 168; 138, 138 n. 170; 139, 141,
148, 154-155, 159-160. 170 n. 87;
173, 175-177, 228-229, 230 n. 3;
246, 249
Transfiguration 69 n. 90; 114, 114
n. 89; 115, 115 nn. 91-94; 116, 116
n. 103; 119 n. 110; 140, 242, 249,253
Two Powers 4, 4 nn. 6-7; 61 n. 67;
158, 158 n. 48; 252
Uriel 19, 19 n. 87; 100, 100 n. 56;
101, 216 n. 44
199,
Veil 103, 119, 167, 167 n. 75;
168-169
Veneration 12, 12 n. 45; 20
nn. 93-94; 33 n. 11; 75 n. 101; 76
nn. 103, 105; 89, 128, 128 n. 140;
171 n. 88, 253
Watchers 86, 92-95, 95 nn. 34-35;
200-201, 201 nn. 12-13; 204-205,
207-208, 210-213, 215, 219-221,
221 nn. 54-55; 222-224, 253
Worship 11-12,31,33,48,55,61,
75, 76, 76 nn. 102-103; 89,90
105, 127-130, 137, 137 n. 169, 147,
151, 154, 163, 167-169, 171, 177,
189, 233 n. 13; 241, 245, 247,
249-250, 253
young men 37, 41-42, 70-71, 79-81,
83, 130, 130 n. 148
Zosimus 171-172, 172 nn. 90-91;
173, 173 n. 95, 174 nn. 98-99; 249
 ANCIENT LITERATURE INDEX

OLD TESTAMENT

Genesis 18-19 37-44, 83,

1:26 83 181-184, 189,
1:26-27 85, 8'9 191, 193, 194,
2-3 85 18:1-3 37-38
2:7 162 18:2 182-183
2:17 87 18:2-15 193
3:17f 87 19:1 183
3:22 a, b 86 19:1-4 193
3:24 18 n. 81, 19 19:15-16 183
4:25 91 22 17 n. 74, 72
5-15 207 n. 93
5:18-24 91 22:11,15 146
5:21-32 87 23:22 57
5:24 91, 93, 139 24 17 n. 74, 72
5:29-9:28 93 n. 93
6 59 n. 63, 102, 24:7 146
204-205, 216, 25:8 132
218, 221--222 25:26 46, 99 n. 50
6:1 202 25:31 44
6:1-4 10 n. 30, 23, 27 45
197-200, 204, 27:45 44
205-207, 207 28 101
n. 28, 209, 212, 28:10-22 51
214, :216, 219 32 38 n. 2, 44-5
n. 48 ,221, 224, 83, 99 n. 51,
229 101, 102
6:1-12 214 32:1-2 98
6:2 11 n. 37, 168, 32:7 44
202 32:9-12 45
6:2, 4 205, 223-224 32:22-31 44
6:3 202, 207 n. 28, 214 32:24-32 54
6:4 202, 217 32:25 99
6:5 198 32:29 52, 99
6:5-8 93 32:30 57, 101
6:9 93 32:33 50 n. 37
12 45 35 99 n. 51, 101
12:2 38 35:10 46 n. 24
14:18 96 38:8 133 n. 154
16 17 n. 74, 29, 72 38:18 52 n. 44
n. 93 39 45
16-21 124 41:37-45 76
16:7f 146 46:2 46 n. 24
16:13 47 46:20 76
17:2 38 48:16 72, 146
18 38 n. 2, 124-125, 50-52 76
179, 194, 228 52:21 45
Exodus 23:9-14 159
1 103 25:5-10 133 n . 154
3 72 n. 93, 103 32 168
3:2 17 n. 74, 30, 33, 32:1-43 105
56 n. 54, 57 32:8 11 n. 37, 62
3:5 56 n. 69, 72
3:6 33 34:5 116
3:14 117 33:2 120
4:24 17
12:12 156 Joshua
14:13-14 157 5 228
14:19 146 5:13-15 19 n. 89, 33,
15:3 157-8 55-56, 78, 157
16:15 181 n . 47
20:19 33 6-24 56
18-20 103 8:25 199 n. 3
18:11 156
20:3 156 Judges
23:2f 98 2:1 27, 57, 57 n. 57
23:20-21 72 2:1-2, 4, 5 57
23:20-23 146 2:1-4 29
23:21-22 56 2:1-5 27
24:9-11 181 5:23 27
24:11 47 6, 13 17, 103, 146, 228
24:16 115 6-13 181, 184-186
25, 26 18 n. 81 6:11 57
33:20 47 6:11-18 193
34 106 6:11-24 58, 185
34:28-9 181 6:13 38 n. 2
34:28 181 n . 12 6:20-22 185 n . 20
34:29-30 103 6:21 192
34:29-35 115 n . 91, 119 6:22-23 47, 101
34:33, 35 103 6:23 33
6:24 57
Leviticus 13 41 n. 6, 67 n. 84,
6:10 63 72 n. 93
12:1-8 130 13:2-22 193
15:25-30 130 13:3-21 58, 185
16 203 13:17 46
16:8, 10, 26 203 n. 17 13:20 192
24:16 117 n. 105 13:22 33, 101
13:23 57
Numbers 14 186
13:32-33 206 20:46 199 n . 3
13:33 199 n . 3
20 17 n. 74 Ruth.
22:31 32 4:1-10 133 n. 154
22 17, 17 n. 74, 72
n. 93, 146 1 Samuel
23:22 157 24:16-17 146
28:9-10 149 29:9 108

Deuteronomy 2 Samuel
2:10-11 199 n. 3 14:17 88
9:9,18 181 14:17, 20 108
19:27 108 34 17
23:8-39 199 n. 4 34, 35 72 n. 93
34:7 146
1 Kings 78:23-25 180
14:9 152 82 17, 96
14:18 58 n. 61 82:1, 6 11 n. 37, 152
22:19-22 17 82:6 205
88:4-6 131
2 Kings 89:7 152
1 72 n. 93 91:11 72
2:11 91, 113, 116 110 98
17:34 46 !1. 24 110:4 96
19 72 n. 93 115:17 131
19:32-35 157 135:4 46 n. 24
19:35 157 138:1 152
25:11 199 n. 3 145:14 199 n. 3

1 Chronicles Ecclesiastes
11:10-47 199 n. 4 5:5 27
21:1 18 n. 77 9:4-10 131
21:12-30 146
21:16 157 Isaiah
21:20 32 6 19
21:26 56 n. 55 6:1-13 140 n. 173
23:6 11 n. 38 6:3 146 n. 5
9:6 107 n. 76
2 Chronicles 9:6-7 11 n. 38
12:5-8 110 24-27 131 n. 149
15:1-8 110 37 72 n. 93
19:1-3 110 38:18-19 131
21:12-15 110 40:3 112
36:15-16 110 42:13 157 n. 47
44:26 110 n. 82
Job 63:9 146
1-2 17
1:6 11 n. 37, 20 Jeremiah
n. 91, 205 35 175, 178
1:14, 16, 17, 18 20 n. 91 35:2, 3, 5, 18 172
2:1 20 n. 91, 205 39:9 199 n. 3
4:18 20 n. 91 52:15 199 n. 3
5:1 20 n. 91
20:15 20 n. 91 Ezekiel
36:14 20 n. 91 1 102 n. 61
31:32 179 1:26 47, 98
33:23 20, 162 1:28 33
38:7 11 n. 37, 20 1:26-27 60
n. 91, 131, 205 8:2, 40:3 60
40:11, 19 20 n. 91 8-2 62 n. 71
41:25 20 n. 91 9:2, 3, 11 63
10 19 n. 81
Psalms 10:2, 6, 7 63
6:6 131 32:22, 24 199 n. 3
8:5 33 37 131 n. 149
29:1 11 n. 37, 152, 44:17 63
205 46:4-5 149
268 ANCIENT LITERATURE INDEX

Daniel 12:1 61, 63

1-6 61 12:2-3 131
2:46 61 12:3 120 n. 113
3 65 12:6 63
3:25 11 n. 37, 61, 205
3:28 146 Hosea
4:10, 14, 20 208 6:2 131 n. 149
4:13, 17, 23 201 12 102
6:22 146 12:6 157 n. 47
7 17, 102 n. 61
7-12 61, 146 Haggai
7:13 61-65, 82, 128, 1:12-13 110
158
7:18, 27 64 Zechariah
7:28 61 1:8-11 59-60
8:15 62 l:9f 146
8:16 19, 61 1:9, 14 59
8:16-17 32 2:1, 4 60
8:11, 12:1 56 2:1-7 59
9:20-21 67 n. 85 4:1-5 59
9:21 19, 61-62 5:5-10 59
10:5-6 62-63, 68 6:4-5 59
10:6 63, 82, 102 12:7-9 109 n. 80
10:13 19, 56, 61, 72
n. 96 Malachi
10:16, 18 63 1:1 111
10:20 56 2:7 127
10:21 19, 61, 63 3:1 27-28, 111-11
11:5 72 n.96 227, 231
11:36 152 3: If. 126
11:40-12:3 156 4:5 111-113

NEW TESTAMENT

Matthew 28:2-7 69
1-2 146 28:3 30, 102
1:20 66 n. 83 28:4-5 32
2:13, 19 66 n. 83
3:17 116 n. 97 Mark
5:8 75 1:1-14 112
5:43 194 n. 31 1:2 68, 113
10:40 122, 194 1:2-4 112
11:7-14 112-113 1:11 116 n. 97
16:13-20 116 n. 102 1:13 68
17:1-9 69 . 90, 114 5:42 72
17:10-13 113 6:14 112
18:10 73, 146 n. 5, 194 6:14-16 113
19:1 194 n. 31 8:27-30 116 n. 102
22:23 133 8:38 68
22:23-33 133, 225 n . 6 9:2-10 69 n . 90, 114
22:30 138 9:37 122
22:39 194 n. 31 12:13-17 133
25:35-36 193 12:18 132
12:18-27 132, 225 13:20 122
n. 66 20:12 70
12:25 68
12:28-34 133 Acts
12:31, 33 194 n . 31 1:10 68
13:32 68 1:10-11 70
13:37 221 4:1 22
14:51-52 68 4:1-2 133
16:5 67, 102 5:19 72, 146
16:6-7 68 6:11 118
6:12-13 119
Luke 6:15 119-122, 121
1 29 n. 117, 172
1-2 146 7:30 30
1:11-12 32 7:33 56
1:11-24 66 7:38 120
1:19 146 n . 5 7:53 120
1:26-38 66 7:55 120
2: If 66-67 8:26 146
2:9-15, 21 66 9:7 63
2:13-14 130, 146 10:3-4 32
2:15 146 n . 5 10:34 32
3:22 116 10:45 72
4:33 192 11:13 29
7:24 15 n. 64 12 72f
7:24-35 112 n . 86 12:7 30
8:56 72 12:7-9 73
9:18-21 116 n . 102 12:7-11 146
9:28-36 69 n. 90, 114 12:12 72
9:29 102 12:15 72-74
9:39 192 12:23 146
9:52 15 n. 64 14:11-12 21 n . 96, 179 n. 2
10:16 122 14:12 31
10:27 191 n . 31 22:9 63
13:11 192 22:22 134
20:27 22, 133 23:1 134
20:27-40 133 23:6-8 134-136
20:34-40 225 n . 66 23:8 21-22
20:35 134 23:8-9 133
20:39 134 n . 157 23:9 134 n. 157
24:4-5 69 28:7 180 n. 5
24:22 72 28:8-9 74
23 191-192, 195
24:33-43 192 Romans
24:37 73 5:12 87
24:42 192 n . 26 8:38 121 n. 116
24:44-48 192 12:2 115 n. 95
12:13 180 n. 5
John 13:8, 10 194 n. 31
1:14 98 13:9 194 n. 31
1:18 47
4:12 47 1 Corinthians
6:67-71 116 n. 102 3:1 123
10:304 117 n. 105 4:9 121 n. 116, 169-171
270 ANCIENT LITERATURE INDEX

6:2 170 Philemon

6:3 1 2 1 n. 116, 17 123
170-71
11:3 167, 168, 169 Hebrews
11:5 168 1-2 114
11:10 5 9 n. 6 3 , 1 2 1 1:6 146
n. 1 1 6 , 1 4 6 , 1 6 7 , 2:2 120
169, 1 7 1 , 178 2:5 170
13 1 7 0 n. 8 7 5-7 96
13:1 121 n. 1 1 6 , 130, 13:2 180, 180
171 193, 194
15:51 95, 1 1 5 n. 9 5
James
2 Corinthians 2:8 1 9 4 . 31
2:17 123 2:24 1 5 . 64
3:18 9 5 , 1 7 8 n. 108
11:14 30, 1 2 1 n. 116 1 Peter
11:23-33 123 3:19-20 222
12:1-10 123 4:9 1 8 0 . 5
12:2-5 123
12:3 1 2 1 n. 117 2 Peter
12:7 121 n. 116 1:16-18 1 1 4 . 90
2:4 222
Galatians
1:8 29 Jude
1:12 122 5-10 221
1:16, 2:20 1 2 2 n. 119 6 221
3-4 121
3:19 29, 120, 121 Revelation
n. 1 1 6 1:13 63
4:1-11 121 1:13-14 64
4:14 15, 121 1:14 68
nn. 116-117, 1:16 1 2 0 . 1 1 3
121-123, 165, 1:20 30, 74
193 4-22 7 4 11. 1 0 0
4:21-31 125 4:8 146
4:29 124 5:2 74
5:14 1 9 4 n. 3 1 5:11 74
6:9-11 136
Philippians 6:11 68
2:25 122 7:1-2 74
7:8-10 74
Colossians 8:2 74
1:15 53, 101 8:3-5 1 2 6 . 132
2:18 1 1 4 , 146, 171 8:10 29
10:1 30
1 Thessalonians 14:16 29
4:16 121 n. 116 15:6 74
16 146
1 Timothy 19:17 30
3:2 1 8 0 n. 5 19:10 33, 74-75
5:10 1 8 0 n. 5 19:9 75
22:8 33
Titus 22:8-9 75
1:8 1 8 0 n. 5 22:9 74
 OLD TESTAMENT APOCRYPHA

Additions to the Book of Esthtr Tobit

15:13-15 1 0 8 n. 77 3:17 19
5-12 1 8 6 - 1 8 7 , 1 9 1 n. 2 5
2 Esdras 5:3-6 65
1:40 111 n. 83 5:4 19
5:5 66
1 Maccabees 5:10-12 66
7:41 146, 157 5:21 72, 146
6:5 187
2 Maccabees 7:8 19
3:26f 102 9:1, 5 19
7:14 131 n. 149 11:2, 7 19
11:6 146 12 181
15:22f 157 12:1-20 193
12:12-15 1 2 6 n. 132
3 Maccabees 12:15 19, 66, 80
6:18 157 12:15-16 187
12:16-22 66, 76 n. 102
4 Maccabees 12:19 187
4:10 157
7:19 132, 138 Wisdom of Jesus Son of Sirach
n. 1 7 2 44-45 103
16:15 132, 138 44:16 91
n. 1 7 2 45:2 103
48:9-10 113
Prayer of Azariah 48:10 126
1:26 62 48:21 146, 157
49:16 87
Susanna
1:55, 59 146 Wisdom of Solomon
2:23 87
10:1 87

PSEUDEPIGRAPHAL LITERATURE

Apocalypse of Abraham Apocalypse of Sethel

1-8 " 81 2:10 " 9 0 n. 2 3
9-31 81 3:3 9 0 n. 2 3
9-32 4 n. 5 12:12 9 0 n. 2 3
10-18 146 48:19 9 0 n. 2 3
10:3-4 81 49:4, 16 9 0 n. 2 3
11:1-3 82 50-51 91
13 181 50:1 91
13:6-4 2 0 3 n. 1 7 50:4 9 0 n. 2 3
14:4-6 2 0 3 n, 1 7 51:1 91
17 6 7 n. !86, 51:5-6 9 0 n. 2 3
146 51:6-15 91
20:6-7 2 0 3 n. 1 7 52:4 90 n. 2 3
54:3 90 n. 2 3
56:12 9 0 n. 2 3
Apocalypse of Moses 58:3, 22 9 0 n. 2 3
40:2 " 8 0 n. 1 2 0 59:4 9 0 n. 2 3
60:10 9 0 n. 2 3
Apocalypse of Zfphaniah 10:5 203
6:11-14 31, 131 10:9 204
6:11-15 76 n. 102 10:11 204
12-13 204
Ascension of Isaiah 12-16 214
1-5 136-137 12:1-2 92
3:13-4:22 137 12:3-5 91 n . 26
5:11 137 12:4 211
6-11 136-137 13:1 203 n . 17
7:21 33 14:14 33
7:25 137 n . 169 17-36 146
7:37 146 20 213
8-9 76 20:1 201
8:15 137 20:2 100 n . 56
8:16-17 137 23 30
9:24-26 136 36-71 86, 93, 200
9:31 146 39:4-5 132
9:33-34 137 n . 169 40:9 80 n. 120
9:37-38, 39 137 n . 169 46:1 64 n. 80
11:35 137 n. 169 46:3 64
54:5-6 203 n . 17
2 Baruch 54:6 80 n . 120
32:2-4 220 61:10-12 146
49:2 131 69:2 203 n . 17
51:3-13 30 69:11 86
51:5 138 71:8 80 n. 120
51:10 131 71:11 93
53 220 71:14-17 93
56 220 72-108 10, 200
56:10-15 220 83-90 86
90:21 80
3 Baruch 91-105 86, 126 n . 132
11:6 56 104:2-6 30, 131
13:3 56 104:4 138
106 95, 208
1 Enoch 106-107 86
1-36 10, 86 , 200, 106:1-6 93-94
224
6 202 2 Enoch
6-11 200-205 19:1 80
6:1-4 201 22:6 56
6:6-8 201, 202 22:6-10 92
n. 15 22:8 124
6:11 23 30:11 87
7-8 213 31:2 88
7:1-6 202 32:1-2 88
8:1 203, 203 n . 17 33:10 56
9-10 126 n . 132 69-73 97
9-11 211 71:2 97
9:1 80 n. 120 71:17-19 97
9:6 203 n. 17
9:6-9 203 3 Enoch
9:9 216 n . 44 1:12 146
10:1-3 203 4:3 92
10:4-8 203 n . 17 16:1-5 76 n. 102
Ezekiel the Tragedian 5:1-19 214
68-82 104 4:21-23 93
4:28 207
4 Ezra 6 67 86
2:43f 102 10:17 91 26
3-14 146 15 67 86
4-5 146 16:1 40
4:1 100 n. 56 18:7 40
10:28 100 n. 56 30-31 67 . 86
13:2f 64 30:18 146

Greek Apocalypse of Ezra Ladder of Jacob

1:4 56 4:1-4 101
4:24 56
Life of Adam and Eve
History of the Rechabites Vita
passim 171-175 13:1-3 89
5:3 173 14:2, 3 89
5:4 170 16:1 89
6:1 170
7:2-3 170 Lives of the Prophets
7:10-11 172-173 16:1-3 111
11:2 173
12:6 173 Prayer of Joseph
passim 99-101, 113
Joseph and Aseneth 1-9 100
4:16 187 n. 23
6:6 79 Pseudo-Philo, Liber Antiquitatum
14 63 Biblicarum
14-17 78, 187-188 3:1-3 219 . 48
14:4-10 78 4:2 182
14:7 56 11:12 72
14:9 79 15:5 72
15-16 187-188 35:6 185
15:9 102 42:8 186
15:11-12 76 n. 102 59:4 72, 146
15:14-16:2 187-188 61:8-9 109
18:11 79
16 188, 192 n. Sibylline Oracles
26, 194 2:227-232 216 . 44
16:14 79
21:9 79 Testament of Abraham
22:7-8 102, 206 pasxm 189- 191,
194
Jubilees 1:1 189
passim 40-41, l:4ff. 56
213-15 1:7 189
1:27-28 40 3:5 189
2 67 n. 86 4:2 189
3:15 201 4:6-10 190
4:15 213 4:10 190
4:16 213 5:1 191
4:22 213 5:2 190
5:1 201 6:4 190
5:1-2 214, 214 n. 41 6:10-13 191
274 ANCIENT LITERATURE INDEX

11:4, 9 88 10:2 125

12 88 11:17 106
13:2 88
13:4, 6 191 Testament of Solomon
22:20 21 n. 95
Testament of Adam
3:2, 4 89 . 18 Testaments of the
Twelve Patriarchs
Testament of Jacob T. Levi
1:10 72 3 67 n. 86
3:8 146
Testament of Job 8:1 80
48 170 . 87 T. Reuben
48:1-2 129 3:5 220
49:1-3 129 5 168 n.79
50:1-3 130 5:6 219
T. Zfbulrn
Testament of Moses 6:4 179 n. 3
passim 105-106
9-10 125-126

QUMRAN LITERATURE

CD lQSa
2:18 201, 211 passim 163-165
5:18 97 2:5-9 164
12:21 150 . 19
13:22 150 . 19 lQSb
16:3-4 41 passim 163-165
1:1 150 . 1!
1QM 3:22 150 . 1!
passim 155-160 4:24-26 146, 165
1 178 5:20 150 . 1!
7:4-6 158
7:6 165 1QH
9:14-15 51 passim 161-163
9:14-16 80 . 120, 160
10:9-11 159 1Q20
12:8 159, 165 passim 43 n. 15,
12:8-16 157 207-210
13:10 97, 160 2:1-18 94-95,
19:1-8 157 207-208
2: 20-21 94-95
1QS
passim 163-165 1Q23-24
3:13 150 . 19 passim 209
3:20 97
4:12 146 4Q156-157
9:12 150 . 19 passim 43 n. 15
11:7-8 164 4Q180-181
4Q180 2 - 4 40
1Q6 4Q180 7-10 212
passim 185 . 20 4Q181 2:2 212
4 0 1 9 6 - 1 9 9 , 200 4Q491-496
passim 65 passim 155
40197 187 n. 22 160-161
4Q491
4Q491 1:12-14 161
4O203 160
4Q491 11:1
7:5-7 210
8:1-15 210 4Q510-511
4Q511 150 n. 19
40252 4Q511 35 165-167
1:2-3 207 n. 28 4Q511 35:1-5 166

40255-264 4Q521
pasm 163 n. 63 2 131 n. 149
40-252 col 1:2-3 207 n. 28
4Q530-531
40267 passim 209
2 211 4Q531:1-7 211
4Q531 5 210
40270
1 211 4Q534
20 146 passim 95 n. 35

40374 5Q.11
passim 120 passim 163 n. 63
2:6-8 106
6Q8
40400-407 passim 209
passim 149-155
4:400-405 9 11Q.10
40400, 2 152-153 43 n. 15
4 0 4 0 1 , 14 1:8 153 passim
4Q405 20, 2:6 150 n. 18
110,12 214 n. 41
40427
7 160 11 Q.14
b
7-14 97
4Q47 l
passim 160

PHILO

On the Life of Abraham 17 On the Contemplative Life

92 10-40 173
107 42, 42 n. 7 11-13 173-174
110-118 183 64-90 173
115 42 90 174
167 183 203 173

On the Confusion of Tongues On Flight and Finding

27 ' 42 n. 8, 5 104
132
146 53, 98, On the Giants
100-101 If. 216-219
1-18 216 Questions and Answers
6 216 on Exodus 2:29, 40
9-11 216 104
16 217
19-57 216 Questions and Answers
58 217 on Genesis 1:85-86
58-61 216 92, 183 n. 17
1:92 217-218
Who is the Heir 2 183 n. 17
252 99 n. 50 2:56 87
3 183 n. 17
Allegorical Interpretation 4:8 104
1.161 99 n. 50
2:89 99 n. 50 On the Sacrifices of
3:15, 93 99 n. 50 Cain and Abel 8-10
104
On the Migration of Abraham 9 105
200-201 99 42 99 n. 50

On the Life of Moses On Dreams

1:58 179 n. 2 1:142 104
1: 158 105 1:171 99 n. 50
2:69 181 n. 12
On the Virtues
On the Change of Names 34 72-79 104-105
92
81 99 n. 50

JOSEPHUS

Antiquities of the Jews 3:400 41 n. 6

33f 101 5:213 50 n. 35, 58
73 215 5:213-214 185
74, 76 216 5:277 50 n. 35, 59
86 92 5:279 41 n. 6, 59
196 41-42 5:282-284 186
196-197 184 10:272 50 n. 35
200 41-42, 41 18:16 133
n. 6, 184
1:325 50 n. 35 Jewish War
1:331, 333 50 n. 35 2:119-121, 160-161 167
2:82 50 n. 35 2:142 148
3:62 50 n. 35 2:165 133
3:99 181 n. 12 3:353, 5:381 50 n. 35
3:180 104 n. 66

RABBINIC LITERATURE

Mishnah Megillah
Hagigah 2:1 43 n. 16
2:1 60 4:10 60
Kelim Sanhedn
1:8 130 7:4-5 117 . 105
Tadaim 18:1 19 n. 83
4:5 44 n. 16 25:1 91 n. 26
Tebam 26:5 223
3:9 133 n. 154 43:7 179
68:12 101 n. 58
Babylonian Talmud 78:1 45 n. 22
Shabat 115a 44 n. 16 78:3 101 n. 58
Yoma 75 b 181 82:2 101 n. 58
Midrash Rabbah Pirqe R. Eliezer
8:3-6 85 n. 2 22:15 219 n. 50

SAMARITAN LITERATURE

Memar Marqa
4:6 181 n. 12

TARGUMIM

Targum Neofiti Targum Pseudo-Jonathan

Gen 5:24 91 n. 26 Gen 6:2, 4 223
Gen 6:2, 4 223 Gen 18-19 43-44, 184
Gen 18-19 43-44, 184 Gen 28 43
Gen 32 54
Targum of the Prophets
Targum Onqelos Josh 5:13 56
Gen 6:2, 4 223 Judg 6 185
Gen 18-19 43-44 Judg 13 186
Gen 18:8 184
Gen 19:3 184 Fragmentary Targumim
passim 184 n. 19

GRAECO-ROMAN LITERATURE

Apollodorus, The Library Iamblichus, De Mysteriis Aegtptus

2.4.8 " 21 n. 96 1.1 21 n. 96

Hesiod, Shield of Heracles Plato, Cratylus

1-56 21 n. 96 407e' " 17 . 70
Theogony Lams
4:717d 17 n. 70
185 204 Sophist
216B 21 n. 96
Homer, Odyssey
5:29 " 17 n. 70 Ovid, Metamorpheses
7:59 204 8:611-724 21 n. 96
17:485 21 n. 96 628-632 179 n. 2
17:485-487 179 n. 2
Llliad Silus Italicus
2:786, 3:121 17 n. 70 7:176 21 n. 96
 APOSTOLIC FATHERS

1 Clement 3.1.6-8 80
10:7 183 n. 18 3.2.5 80
12:1 183 n. 18 3.4.1 80
34:5 146 n. 5 3.10.1 80
6.2.1 81
Didache Mandates
11-13 180 n. 8 6.22.2 146
11:3-4 123 Similitudes
12 183 n. 18 6.1.5 80
6.2.1 81
Epistle of Barnabas 8.3.3 80
61:7 220 9.6.1 80
9:25:2 120, 138
Shepherd of Hermas
Visions Martyrdom of Polycarp
1.4.1 80 2:3 ~ 120, 122:
2:2:7 120, 138 12:1 120

NEW TESTAMENT APOCRYPHA

(Including Nag Hammadi Codices)

Acts of Paul and Thecla Hypostasis of the Archons

3 121 n. 117 93:13-22 31

Acts of Peter Melchizedek

15-17 115 n. 90 9:1 97

Acts of Peter and the Twelve On the Origin of the World

9 118 105 53 n. 49, 101
Papyrus Oxyrhynchus
Gospel of Peter 1:654, 655 116 n. 98
35-37 70-71
Tripartite Tractate
Gospel of Thomas 64:28-65:1 47
13 116-117

PATRISTIC LITERATURE

Clement of Alexandria Tertullian

Stromata De Oratione
5.14.111 21 n. 96 26 193
Excerpta ex Theodoto Virg. Vel.
10, 6-11 73 7:2 167 n. 75

Hippolytus Justin Martyr

Rejutatio Dialogue with Trypho
9.13.2-3 206 n. 27 58:3 ' 54
59:1 54 n. 51
120.5 137 n. 166 Eusebius
125:5 53, 101 Praeparatio Evangelica
De Patientin 9.21.1-19 52
14 137 . 166 Ecclesiastical History
Apology 3.3.2 70
2:5 222 6.12 70

Origen
Commentary on the Gospel of John
passim 113