Women

in Western
Political Thought
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Susan Moller Okin

PRINCETON UNMRSITY PRESS

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334
NOTES TO 9. LIBERAL FEMINIST
76. Logic, pp. 451-463.
77. The Subjection of Women, p.453
78. The Subjection of Women, p.489.
79 . The Subjection_ of Women, p. 493
80. The Subjection of Women, pp. 536,544.
81. Letter to T.E. Cliffe Leslie, October 5, 186!), / 11/,i
Collected Works, Vol. 17,p. 1643.
82. Letter to Cliffe Leslie, p. 1643.
83. "Speech of John Stuart Mill, M.P., on tlH Atlml
Women to the Electoral Franchise," p. 12. See also //
Government, pp.292-293.
84. The Subjection of Women, p.477.
8 5. The Subjection of Women, p. 479.
86. This is clear from the way he argues (Tl1r ,II
Women, p. 483) that the husband should earn the 11111111
(since most working class women then as now 11111I
whether to work outside the home or not), as wrll 111
fact that the general preoccupations of his femiuiI wtl
mainly the concerns of middle-class women, rad1r1 th
such as wages, which he was well aware were far 1owrt f
than men (Principles of Political Economy, pp.
87. Letter to Emile de Laveleye, September
Letters, Collected Works, Vol. 17, p. 1638.
88. The Subjection of Women, p. 4 79.
89 . The Subjection of Women, p. 484.
90. Letter to Isabella Beecher Hooker, Sepw111l1r1 i
Later Letters, Collected Works, Vol. 17, p. 1640.
91. Letter to Princess Marie Stcherbatov and A-111 !
cember 18, 1868, Later Letters, Collected Worhs, V111 1
92. The Subjection of Women, pp. 473-474, 1JHtt
93. Essays on Sex Equality, pp. 73-77 (emphllijlN 11111h ,I
94. The Subjection of Women, p. 482.
95. Essays on Sex Equality, p.105,text and not(i,
96. The Subjection of Women, pp. 502, 514-51n, 111 1,1
superintendence of a household ... requires inctNHHIII , I
an eye which no detail escapes, and presents (Jlll'Hll11111 I
sideration and solution, foreseen and unforeseeu, 11 t t \ 1 1
the day, from which the person responsible for 1111 1 111 Hi
ever shake herself free."
97. Later Letters, Collected Works, Vol. 14 1 p. 111,
98. Essays on Sex Equality, p. 107.
u
NI l'l'ES TO 10. WOMEN A
335 1 J
FUNCTIONALISM
CHAPTER 10
l111v1 1 been unable to find the original source of this quo
II IH <JUOted by A. 0. Lovejoy, in The Great Chain of
1 I : 11111IJTidge, Mass., 1936, p. 24, but without reference to
1111111, !Sven a search of the Penguin Dictionary of Modern
11/1111,1 proved fruitless, since it lists the quotation as "at-
11111" 'to Whitehead. Perhaps he said it in a lecture.
I 1111Hl Jones, The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud, New
111111, Vol. u,p. 421.
, 1 N11omi Weisstein, "Psychology Constructs the Female."
bl 1111'111 to Weisstein for directing me to the examples that
1 l I i , C:oromitment required of a woman entering a scien-
1 111l l'Mil1n in present day American society," Woman and
, /, 11 t lfir: Professions, The MIT Symposium on American
rn, 11 111 Science and Engineering, ed. J. Mattfeld and C. Van
11 I ,11111bridge, Mass.,1965,p. 15.
1111 /1'11ar of Being a Woman, New York, 1964, p. 714.
1111111 1 and Outer Space: Reflections on Womanhood."
1
111111 1 and Outer Space," 596.
1111111 1 nnd Outer Space," 604.
1111111 :ind Outer Space," 605.
I I I II111r and Outer Space," 588-593.
lt111tr and Outer Space," 598-599.
l11111r and Outer Space," 586.
I 1111tr :md Outer Space," 598 (emphasis added).
l"l '111111-r and Outer Space," 593.
I 11111ily, Socialization and Interaction Process, p. 22.
111 1 for example, Ann Oakley, Woman's Work, pp. 178-
j11ll1'1 Mitchell, Woman's Estate, pp. u6-117.
111111/y, Socialization, pp. 12-15; "Age and Sex in the Social
of the United States," 605, 608-609.
11 nnd Sex," 605.
Hf' 11nd Sex," 609.
11 / 11111i/y, Socialization, p. 129.
\w and Sex," 613.
\111 :,nd Sex," 610.
1 / ,1111i/y. Socialization, p. 15, and note 13.
, 11 ,,,un11.'s Work, pp. 181-185.
, , ,,, '' l'. Socialization, p. 23.
 334
NOTES TO 9. LIBERAL FEMINIST
76. Logic, pp. 451-463.
77. The Subjection of Women, p. 453.
78. The Subjection of Women, p. 489.
79. The Subjection_ of Women, p. 493.
80. The Subjection of Women, pp. 536,544.
81. Letter to T. E. Cliffe Leslie, October 5, 186!),
Collected Works, Vol. 17,p. 1643.
82. Letter to Cliffe Leslie, p. 1643.
83. "Speech of John Stuart Mill, M.P., on tht i\1hnl
Women to the Electoral Franchise," p. 12. See also U
Government, pp. 292-293.
8 4. The Subjection of Women, p. 477.
85. The Subjection of Women, p. 479.
86. This is clear from the way he argues (Tl11 811/,
Women, p. 483) that the husband should earn the fllmll
(since most working class women then as now 11111I H
whether to work outside the home or not), as wtll NI
fact that the general preoccupations of his feminiI Wl'I
mainly the concerns of middle-class women, ratl1c1 th
such as wages, which he was well aware were far lowrt f
than men (Principles of Political Economy, pp. /!IM
87. Letter to Emile de Laveleye, September 11, 111
Letters, Collected Works, Vol. 17, p. 1638.
88. The Subjection of Women, p. 479.
89. The Subjection of Women, p. 484.
90. Letter to Isabella Beecher Hooker, SepL1111l1r1 1
Later Letters, Collected Works, Vol. 17, p. 1640,
91. Letter to Princess Marie Stcherbatov and "111 I
cember 18, 1868, Later Letters, Collected Works, V11l 1
92. The Subjection of Women, pp. 473-474, ijHtt
93. Essays on Sex Equality, pp. 73-77 (emplrnsi1' 1111111 ti
94. The Subjection of Women, p. 482:
95. Essays on Sex Equality, p. 105,text and n0IC,
96. The Subjection of Women, pp. 502, 514-5ltj, 111
superintendence of a household . .. requires inc't'Nltlll , 1
an eye which no detail escapes, and presents q11tNll1111 I
sideration and solution, foreseen and unforeseeu, 111 1 I 1 1 t I
the day, from which the person responsible for I 111 1111 1 ,oi
ever shake herself free. "
97. Later Letters, Collected Works, Vol. 14, p. 1M,
98. Essays on Sex Equality, p. 107.
335
NI )'l'i':S TO 10. WOMEN AUFUNCTIONALISM
CHAPTER 10
i I l i11v, hcen unable to find the original source of this quo
li1111 It IN <JUOted by A. 0. Lovejoy, in The Great Chain of
11 I :111111iriclge, Mass., 1936, p. 24, but without reference to
11111 ,,, lven a search of the Penguin Dictionary of Modern
, ,1/1111/,I' proved fruitless, since it lists the quotation as "at-
111111" 'to Whitehead. Perhaps he said it in a lecture.
I 11ttNI Jones, The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud, New
111!11, Vol.n,p.421.
1111 N11omi Weisstein, "Psychology Constructs the Female. "
i iI 1111' 1 11 to Weisstein for directing me to the examples that
11 1 11 Commitment required of a woman entering a scien-
1111il11HNlon in present clay American society," Woman and
, 1, 11/ifi,c Professions, The MIT Symposium on American
,1111 111 Science and Engineering, ed. J. Mattfeld and C. Van
,1 1 :11111lnidge,Mass.,1965,p. 15.
I /111 l1'1 nr of Being a Woman, New York, 1964, p. 714.
1
111111 1' and Outer Space: Reflections on Womanhood."
1
1111111 1 and Outer Space," 596.
11111111 nnd Outer Space," 604.
1111111 and Outer Space," 605.
ii 'l1111nr :.ind Outer Space," 588-593.
111111'1' :.ind Outer Space," 598-599.
1
1111111 and Outer Space," 586.
1
I 11111\I' and Outer Space," 598 (emphasis added).
11111tr and Outer Space," 593.
0
I ,11111/y, Socialization and Interaction Process, p. 22.
Ill 11111,, for example, Ann Oakley, Woman's Work, pp. 178-
111ll1'1 Mitchell, Woman's Estate, pp. u6-117.
11111/ly, Socialization, pp. 12-15; "Age and Sex in the Social
1,11111111 of I.he United States," 605, 608-609.
11 1 1\w nnd Sex," 605.
11 'A1v 11nd Sex," 609.
11 / 11111 ily, Socialization, p. 129.
A w :ind Sex," 613.
\ I', (' :ind Sex," 610.
1 I ,1111il y . Socialization, p. 15,and note 13.
1 II ,.1111111.'s Work, pp. 181-185.
, "",I\'. Socialization, p. 23.
 336
NOTES TO 11. PERSONS, WOMEN AND THE LAW
26. Family, Socialization, pp. 43, 63.
27. Family, Socialization, pp. 35,80, 94,98, 387.
28. Family, Socialization, p. 51, Fig. 4.
CHAPTER 11
I. In 1872, only four years after ratification of the Fourteenth
Amendment, the Supreme Court stated that it was very unlikely
that any type of discrimination other than racial would be held
to come within the purview of the Equal Protection Clause. Ruth
B. Ginsburg, Constitutional Aspects of Sex-Based Discrimination,
p. 10. Their prediction was, of course, subsequently proved
wrong.
2. Constitutional Aspects, p. 3.
3. Bunim v. Bunim, 298, N.Y. 391, quoting Maynard v. Hill,
125 U.S. 190,205.
4. 75 Ariz. 308, 309, quoted in Leo Kanowitz, Women and the
Law: The Unfinished Revolution, p. 50.
5. Quoted in M. Gruberg, Women in American Politics, Osh
kosh, Wisc., 1968, p. 4.
6. Book 1, Chap. 15, pp. 468-470, 2nd American ed., Boston,
1799
7. Commentaries, p. 471.
8. See below,for example, at note 14.
9. Forbush v. Wallace, U.S. District Court, M.D. Alabama,
N.D., 1971, 341 F. Supp. 241, quoted in Kanowitz, Sex Roles in
Law and Society, pp. 517-520.
10. In re Lockwood, 154 U.S. 116 (emphasis added).
11. Commonwealth v. Welosky, 276 Mass. 398, cert. denied,
284 U.S. 684 (1932).
12. Bradwell v. The State, 83 U.S. (16 Wall.) 130 (1872). The
expression "the sex" was a not uncommon, and clearly deprecat
ing, nineteenth-century mode of referring to the female sex.
13. The Creator was cited as an authority as recently as 1970
by the Oregon Court of Appeals. "The Creator took care of classi
fying men and women differently," the Court argued, "and if
the legislature accepts these differences in a matter like this, we
are not prepared to say that the classifications made were without
good reason." State v. Bearcub, Or. App., 465 P.2d 253. In a
337
NOTES TO 11. PERSONS, WOMEN AND THE LAW
similar vein, Senator Sam Ervin regards the Equal Rights Amend
ment as an attempt to "repeal the handiwork of God." Quoted in
Kanowitz, Sex Roles in Law and Society, p. 45.
14. 83 U.S. 130, 141.
15. Tigner v. Texas, 310 U.S.,141, 147.
16. For brief discussions of this, see for example Brown, et al.,
"The Equal ights Amendment,"8']9-880; DeCrow, Sexist Justice,
pp. 38-39; Ginsburg, Constitutional Aspects of Sex-Based Dis
crimination, pp. 62-63, citing appellant's brief in Reed v. Reed; I I
and Kanowitz, Sex Roles, p. 486. The quotations in this para
graph are from key cases discussed in these sources: Korematsu v. 1111
U.S., 323 U.S. 214, 216 (1944), McLaughlin v. Florida, 379 U.S.
184, 186 (1965), and Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1, 11 (1967). I 1:
am grateful to Samuel Krislov for clarifying this issue for me.
17. In White v. Crook, 1966, the U.S. District Court said "jury I
service on the part of the citizens of the United States is con
sidered under our law in this country as one of the basic rights
and obligations of citizenship." 251 F. Supp. 401. In Eisenstadt v.
Baird, a person was held to have a right "to be free from unwar
ranted governmental intrusion into matters so affecting a person
il1
It
as the decision to bear or beget a child." 405 U.S. 438, 453. In
1915, the U.S. Supreme Court asserted that "the right to work for I
a living in the common occupations of the community is of the
1
I
very essence of the personal freedom and opportunity that it was
of the purpose of the (14th) Amendment to secure." Truax v. I
Raich, 239 U.S. 33, 41.
18. 208 U.S. 412.
19. Lochner v. N.Y. 198 U.S. 45 (1905).
20. Women and the Law, p. 153.
21. Quoted in Ginsburg, pp. 12-13,n. 1.
22. The brief was actually to a large extent the work of
Josephine Goldmark.
23. 208 U.S.,412,421.
24. 208 U.S.,412,421.
2 5. 208 U.S.,412,421-422.
26. Frontiero v. Richardson, 411 U.S. 677, 684 (1973).
27. Women and the Law, p. 154.
28. Murray and Eastwood,"Jane Crow and the Law," 237.
29 . Goesaert v. Cleary, 335 U.S. 464,
30. 335 U.S. 464,aq66.
 340 341
NOTES TO 12. CONCLUSIONS
NOTES TO l l. PERSONS, WOMEN AND THE LAW
CHAPTER 12
them so unequally. See "The Supreme Court, 1974 Term," Har
vard Law Review, Vol. 89, No. 1, 96-103, for a critical treatment
I. See Carole Pateman, Participation and Democratic Theory,
of the Court's decisions in the earlier cases.
53. Geduldig v. Aiel!o, 4 17 U.S. 484 (1974). Cambridge, 1970, pp. 31-35, and Dennis F. Thompson, John
54. "Pregnancy and the Constitution: The Uniqueness Trap," Stuart Mill and Representative Government, Princeton, 1976,
pp. 36-43, for discussion of Mill's ideas about political education
1562.
55. Geduldig, at 496, Note 20. through direct participation. ,
56. General Electric Co. v. Gilbert, 429 U.S. 125 (1976) (em 2. The Liberal Theory of Justice, Oxford, 1973, p. 166.
3 . See, e.g., cases referred to in note 52, of Chap. 11, above.
phasis added). See also Nashville Gas Company v. Satty, 434 U.S. 4. An obvious example of this is found in local zoning ordi
136 (1977), in which the Court again decided, citing Gilbert, that
nances, which frequently limit the number of unrelated, though
the exclusion of pregnancy from an otherwise inclusive disability
benefits plan is "not a gender-based discrimination at all," but not the number of related, persons who may live in any housing
unit. For a criticism of the general prejudice of our society in
ruled that, for seniority purposes, pregnancy leave could not be
favor of monogamy, see John McMurtry, "Monogamy: A Critique."
treated differently from other forms of leave. A majority of the
5. Hegel's Philosophy of Right, Pars. 158-181, pp. 110-122.
Court thus appears to be treading a fine line here, which is aptly
Hegel explicitly says that "the family becomes one person" (Re
summarized by Justice Stevens in his (regretfully) concurring
mark to Par. 163, p. 112). He says that "marriage results from
opinion:
the free surrender by both sexes of their personality" (Par. 168,
Although the Gilbert Court was unwilling to hold that dis
p. 115), but the fact that the man manages the family property,
crimination against pregnancy-as compared with other
and is its sole representative in the public sphere, suggests that
physical disabilities-is discrimination on account of sex, it
his surrender of his personality is more symbolic than real. For
may nevertheless be true that discrimination against pregnant
the correspondence of men to animals and of women to plants,
or formerly pregnant employees-as compared with other
see Add. 107 to Par. 166, p. 263.
employees-does constitute sex discrimination (Nashville,
6. See Gordon Schochet, Patriarchalism in Political Thought.
at 155).
57. General Electric, at 162. 7. Elites and Society, Harmondsworth, England, 1964, pp. 121-
122.
58. "Pregnancy and the Constitution," 1563-1564.
59. This mode of reasoning about legal discrimination between 8. "A Theory of Stable Democracy," Appendix B to Division
and Cohesion in Democracy, Princeton, 1966, pp. 232-269. I am
the sexes is, of course, not unique to judges. In a clear ratification
grateful to Peter Stillman, of Vassar College, for pointing out
,.- of such functionalism, Senator Ervin has proposed that the Equal
this example to me.
Rights Amendment be worded so as to allow legal distinctions 9. Division and Cohesion, pp. 262-263 and 265.
between the sexes which are "based on physiological or func
IO. Division and Cohesion, pp. 160-161.
tional differences between them." Women and the "Equal Rights"
I I. Division and Cohesion, p. 237.
Amendment, ed. Catherine Stimpson, Bowker/CIS Congressional

12. Letter to d'Alembert, p. 98.

Document Series, N.Y. and London, 1972, p. xiii, see also pp. 521-
13. Statement of Mabel Vernon, Executive Secretary of the Na
532. Recognizing as we now do how radical and pervasive are
tional Women's Party, Hearings on H. R. J. Res. 75 before the
the inequalities that can be justified by the "functional" differ
House Committee on the Judiciary, 68th Congress, 2d Sess. 2,
ences between the sexes, as defined and elaborated by male
1925; quoted in Ginsburg, Constitutional Aspects of Sex-based
philosophers and a male-dominated judical system, we can see
Discrimination, pp. 9-10.
the futility of such an "Equal Rights" Amendment. Hoyt,
14. For a concise statement of evidence on this subject, see
Goesaert, Muller, even Bradwell-all the famous cases confirm
Dean Knudsen, "The Declining Status of Women."
ing the legal inequality of women could stand unaffected by it.
 342
NOTES TO 12. CONCLUSIONS
15. "Employment in Perspective: Working' ,Vomen," U.S. De
partment of Labor, Employment Standards Administration, Wom
en's Bureau, 1978, p. 1; "Women Workers Tay," U.S. Depart
ment of Labor, Women's Bureau, 1976, p. 1.
16. "Why Women Work," U.S. Department of Labor, Women's
Bureau, 1976, p. 1.
17. Kahn v. Shevin, 416 U.S. 351 (1974) at 353.
18. "The Earnings Gap Between Women and Men," U.S. De
partment of Labor, Women's Bureau, 1976, p. 1.
19. "The Earnings Gap," pp. 2-3, 8.
20. See, for example, Eli Zaretsky, "Capitalism, the Family
and Personal Life" Parts 1 and 2; Juliet Mitchell, Woman's
Estate; Margaret Benston, "The Political Economy of Women's
Liberation"; Charnie Guettel, Marxism and Feminism.
21. The following paragraph relies heavily on evidence and
analysis presented in Smith and Miller, "The Importance of
Being Marginal."
22. Dean Knudsen, "The Declining Status of Women," p. 190.
23. Alice S. Rossi, "Equality Between the Sexes," p. 111.
24. Woman's Work, pp. 234, 236.
25. The Dialectic of Sex, Conclusion, passim.
26. Dialectic of Sex, pp. 212, 221.
27. Dialectic of Sex, p. 205.
28. Dialectic of Sex, pp. 198, 206, 225-226, 241.
29. For example, Mitchell, Woman's Estate, p. 149; Row
botham, Woman's Consciousness, Man's World, pp. 59-60; Rossi,
"A Bio-Social Perspective on Parenting."
30. Woman's Estate, pp. 99-100 and 106. See also Christine
Pierce, "Natural Law Language and Women," for an interesting
discussion of the usage of "Nature" to oppress women.
31. Women: The Longest Revolution; Woman's Estate, Chaps.
5-8, especially pp. 107, 150.
32. See above, Introduction; also Simone de Beauvoir, The
Second Sex, Conclusion, especially pp. 449, 463-464; Benjamin
R. Barber, Liberating Feminism, especially Chap. 3.
33. New York, 1973; New York, 1974.
34. Quoted in De Crow, Sexist Justice, p. 60.
343
NOTES TO APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 2
APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 2
I. "Equality: Republic v," 10.
2. "Interpretive Essay," p. 380.
3. "Interpretive Essay," p. 380.
4. "Interpretive Essay," p. 380. For some recent and sensible
objections to Bloom's comic interpretation of Book v, see Dale
Hall's "The Republic and the 'Limits of Politics,' " Political
Theory, Vol. 5, No. 3, 1977, 295-298. Nothing that Bloom says
in his "Response to Hall" (315-330 of the same issue) substanti
ates his claim that Plato's proposals in Book v are intended to be
ridiculous. By suggesting that Hall has failed to see the clear
signs of connection between Book v and Aristophanes' Ecclesia
zusae, Bloom has missed Hall's point, which is not that there
is no connection between the two works, but that Plato's pro
posals can be more plausibly read as a response to Aristophanes
than as a parallel satire on female equality (Bloom, 325; Hall,
295-296).
5. Republic, 472a; "Interpretive Essay," p. 390.
6. "Interpretive Essay," p. 382. Even within Plato's dialogues,
there is ample evidence that the practice of men and boys ex
ercising together naked acted as a stimulus to homosexual eroti
cism. See, e.g., Phaedrus, 255b, Symposium, 217e, Laws, 636b-e.
Other commentators on the ancient world, such as Aristophanes
and Cicero, agreed with this impression. See Symonds, A Problem
in Greek Ethics, pp. 37 and 41. Modern,students of Greek sexual
practices also agree, e.g., Symonds, pp. 61-62: "The nakedness
which Greek custom permitted in gymnastic games and some reli
gious rites no doubt contributed to the erotic force of masculine
passion." In his "Response to Hall,'' Bloom qualifies his state
ment. What he meant, he says, was that homosexual relations and
connected attractions can be consistently forbidden by a legis
lator, but heterosexual ones cannot (p. 324). Plato, however,
argues that in his city it is both necessary and possible to regu
late both strictly, though not to outlaw either.
7. "Interpretive Essay," p. 382.
8. Republic, 458d-e.
9. Republic, 499d.
10. "Interpretive Essay," p. 383; "Equality: Republic v," 9.
11. Republic, 434b; p. 10.