2/13/2016

BIOLOGICAL CELL
CONCEPTS

BIO149 Prof. UREAH THEA A. SEVILLA

Review of the biological cell

Two types of Biological Cell
The Subcellular Structure and Function

The Biomolecules in the Cell

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Cell Theory

1) Every organism is composed of one or more cells

2) Cell is smallest unit having properties of life
3) Continuity of life arises from growth and division of
single cells

Cell

Smallest unit of life

Can survive on its own or has potential to do so
Is highly organized for metabolism
Senses and responds to environment
Has potential to reproduce

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Structure of Cells

All start out life with:

Plasma membrane
Region where DNA is stored
Cytoplasm

PROKARYOTIC CELLS

bacteria and archaea

simple in structure and doesnt have true nucleus
size range from 1-10m length and 0.7-1.5 m
width
have cell wall but lacks membranous organelles
no compartmentation
various processes occur in the plasma membrane

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Prokaryotes: Bacterial cell

pilus

cytoplasm
with ribosomes
DNA

flagellum capsule
cell plasma
wall membrane

Prokaryotes: Escherichia coli

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EUKARYOTIC CELLS

protozoa, higher plants and animals

specialized packaging and transport mechanisms
larger size than prokaryotes ( < 10m in length)
have true nucleus
have small membrane-bounded organelles each
with a specific structure and function

EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Plant cell Animal cell

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Plant cell and Animal cell

Fig. 4-4b, p. 56

The Nucleoplasm and Nucleolus

Nucleoplasm
Viscousfluid inside the nuclear envelope, similar to
cytoplasm

Nucleolus
A dense region in the nucleus where subunits of
ribosomes are assembled from proteins and RNA

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The Nuclear Envelope

The Chromosomes

Chromatin
All DNA and its associated proteins in the nucleus

Chromosome
A single DNA molecule with its attached proteins
During cell division, chromosomes condense and become
visible in micrographs
Human body cells have 46 chromosomes

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Chromosome Condensation

Animal Cell

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Animal Cell Features

Plasma membrane
Nucleus
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi body
Vesicles
Mitochondria
Cytoskeleton

Plant Cell

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The Chloroplast

The Central Vacuole

Central vacuole
A plant organelle that occupies 50 to 90 percent of a
cells interior
Stores amino acids, sugars, ions, wastes, toxins

Fluid pressure keeps plant cells firm

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Plant Cell Walls

Plant Cell Features

Plasma membrane
Nucleus
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi body
Vesicles
Mitochondria
Cytoskeleton
Cell wall
Central vacuole
Chloroplast

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The Endomembrane System

Endomembrane system
A series of interacting organelles between the nucleus
and the plasma membrane
Makes lipids, enzymes, and proteins for secretion or
insertion into cell membranes
Other specialized cell functions

The Endomembrane System

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The Endoplasmic Reticulum

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

An extension of the nuclear envelope that forms a
continuous, folded compartment

Two kinds of endoplasmic reticulum

Rough ER (with ribosomes) folds polypeptides into their
tertiary form
Smooth ER (no ribosomes) makes lipids, breaks down
carbohydrates and lipids, detoxifies poisons

Vesicles
Vesicles
Small, membrane-enclosed saclike organelles that store
or transport substances

Peroxisomes
Vesicles
containing enzymes that break down hydrogen
peroxide, alcohol, and other toxins

Vacuoles
Vesicles for waste disposal

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Golgi Bodies and Lysosomes

Golgi body
A folded membrane containing enzymes that finish
polypeptides and lipids delivered by the ER
Packages finished products in vesicles that carry them to
the plasma membrane or to lysosomes

Lysosomes
Vesicles containing enzymes that fuse with vacuoles and
digest waste materials

A Nucleus
Inside the nucleus, DNA instructions
for making proteins are transcribed
into RNA, which moves through protein
nuclear pores into the cytoplasm.

RNA

B Rough ER C Vesicles
Some of the RNA in Vesicles that bud from the
the cytoplasm is rough ER carry some of
translated into the new proteins to Golgi
polypeptide chains bodies. Other proteins
by ribosomes migrate through the
attached to the interior of the rough ER,
rough ER. The and end up in the smooth
chains enter the ER.
rough ER, where ribosome vesicle budding
they are modified attached to ER from ER
into final form.

Fig. 4-18b, p. 66

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F Plasma membrane
Golgi vesicles fuse with
the plasma membrane.
Lipids and proteins of a
D Smooth ER E Golgi body vesicles membrane fuse
Some proteins Proteins with the plasma
from the rough arriving in membrane, and the
ER are packaged vesicles from vesicles contents are
into new vesicles the ER are released to the exterior
and shipped to modified into of the cell.
the Golgi. Others final form and
become enzymes sorted. New
protein in smooth ER
of the ER, which vesicles carry
assemble lipids or them to the
inactivate toxins. plasma
membrane
or to
lysosomes.

Fig. 4-18c, p. 67

Mitochondria
Mitochondrion
Eukaryotic organelle that makes the energy molecule
ATP through aerobic respiration
Contains two membranes, forming inner and outer
compartments; buildup of hydrogen ions in the outer
compartment drives ATP synthesis
Has its own DNA and ribosomes

Resembles bacteria; may have evolved through

endosymbiosis

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Mitochondrion

0.5 m

Summary of some of the many differences

between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

0.2 5 m in diameter Size Most are 10-50 m in

diameter
No Internal Yes, with several
compartmentalization different kinds of
organelles
Free in cytoplasm as Containment of DNA In nucleus, condensed
nucleoid with proteins into
multiple chromosomes
Simple division Mechanisms of cell Mitosis in somatic
following DNA replication cells and meiosis in
replication gametes

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Structures in Prokaryotes

Name Composition Function

Nucleoid contains the DNA, no Storage of genetic
membrane material

Ribosomes Membranous grana Protein synthesis

bounded by two
membranes
Cell wall peptidoglycans Shape of cell

Plasma Lipid bilayer Regulation of movements

membrane of molecules

Structures in Prokaryotes

Name Composition Function

Capsule Polysaccharide Protection, barrier

against phagocytosis

Pili Hair-like structures made of Attachment to cells

protein

Flagellum Long protein appendages motility

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Structures in Eukaryotes
Name Composition Function
Cell wall cellulose fibers support and protection

Plasma phospholipid bilayer cell boundary;

membrane with embeded protein regulation of molecule
passage
Nucleus Surrounded by double Storage of genetic
membrane material & synthesis of
DNA/RNA
Nucleolus Concentrated area of Ribosomal formation
chromatin, RNA, and
proteins

Structures in Eukaryotes
Name Composition Function

Ribosomes Membranous flattened Protein synthesis

channels and tubular
canals
Endoplasmic phospholipid bilayer Synthesis of proteins,
reticulum: with embeded protein transport

Rough ER Studded with ribosomes Protein synthesis

Smooth ER Have no ribosomes Lipid synthesis in some

cells

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Structures in Eukaryotes
Name Composition Function

Golgi apparatus stack of membranous Processing, packaging

saccules and distribution of
proteins and lipids

Vacuole and Membranous sacs Storage of substances

vesicle
Lysosome Membranous vesicle Intracellular digestion
containing digestive
enzymes
Peroxisomes Membranous vesicle Various metabolic
containing specific tasks
enzymes

Viruses
A virus is a small infectious agent that replicates
only inside the living cells of other organisms.
Viruses can infect all types of life forms,
from animals and plants to microorganisms,
including bacteria and archaea.
Viruses are nonliving and are considered as
particles either RNA or DNA viruses.

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DNA Virus

RNA Virus

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Bacteriophages - Virus that infects only

bacteria

Viral Growth Cycles

Lytic Cycle
Itresults in the destruction of the infected cell and its
membrane.
The viral DNA exists as a separate molecule within the
bacterial cell, and replicates separately from the host
bacterial DNA.
Lysogenic Cycle
Itoccurs when the viral genome is integrated into the
host-cell DNA and generally does not lead to death.

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Lytic Cycle for T4 Bacteriophage

Nonlytic Cycle - Lysogeny

Some bacterial viruses, called temperate phages,
can establish a nonlytic association with their host
cells that does not kill the cell.
For example, when - bacteriophage infects E. coli,
the viral DNA may be integrated into the host-cell
chromosome rather than being replicated.
The integrated viral DNA, called a prophage, is
replicated as part of the cells DNA from one host-
cell generation to the next. This phenomenon is
referred to as lysogeny.

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Retroviruses
Retroviruses are enveloped viruses with two
identical strands of RNA. These RNAs can act as
template for formation of DNA molecule.

HIV structure with two

identical RNA strands.

Lysogeny: Retroviral Life Cycle

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21523/figure/A1437/?report=objectonly

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Cell Division in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Prokaryotic cells divide through simple form of

division called binary fission while eukaryotes
reproduce by the process of cell division.

Cell Division in Prokaryotes

In prokaryotes, there are three
steps in binary fission.
First,the genome is duplicated.
The duplicated genomes move to
opposite side of the cell.
Last step, the cell "pinches" into two
new and identical cells called
"daughter cells".

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Cell Division in Eukaryotes

Chromosomes and Dividing Cells

Individuals have a characteristic number of
chromosomes in each of their cells

The chromosomes differ in length and shape, and they

carry different portions of the cells hereditary
information

Division mechanisms parcel out the information into

descendent cells

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Human Chromosomes

A Chromosome and Sister Chromatids

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Chromosome Structure

B When a chromosome
is at its most condensed,
the DNA is packed into
centromere tightly coiled coils.
multiple levels of
coiling of DNA and
C When the coiled coils
proteins
A Duplicated human unwind, a molecule of
chromosome in its most chromosomal DNA and
condensed form. If this its associated proteins
chromosome were are organized as a
actually the size shown in fiber cylindrical fiber.
the micrograph, its two
DNA strands would
D A loosened fiber
stretch out about 800
shows a beads-on-a-
meters (0.5 miles).
string organization.
beads on The string is the DNA
a string molecule; each bead
is one nucleosome.
DNA
double
helix core of
histones
E A nucleosome
consists of part of a
DNA molecule looped
twice around a core of
histone proteins.
nucleosome

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centromere

A Duplicated human
chromosome in its most
condensed form. If this
chromosome were actually
the size shown in the
micrograph, its two DNA
strands would stretch out
about 800 meters (0.5 miles).

B When a chromosome
is at its most condensed,
the DNA is packed into
tightly coiled coils.
multiple levels of coiling
of DNA and proteins
C When the coiled coils
unwind, a molecule of
chromosomal DNA and
its associated proteins
fiber are organized as a
cylindrical fiber.

D A loosened fiber
shows a beads-on-a-
beads on string organization.
a string The string is the DNA
molecule; each bead
DNA is one nucleosome.
double
helix core of
histones

E A nucleosome
consists of part of a
DNA molecule looped
twice around a core of
nucleosome histone proteins.

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Introducing the Cell Cycle

Cell cycle
A sequence of three stages (interphase, mitosis, and
cytoplasmic division) through which a cell passes
between one cell division and the next

The Cell Cycle

G1 S
Interval of cell growth before Interval of cell growth when
DNA replication (chromosomes the DNA is replicated (all
unduplicated) chromosomes duplicated)

Telophase

Anaphase Metaphase Prophase

G2
Interphase Interval after DNA
ends for replication; the cell
cytoplasmic division; parent cell prepares to divide
each descendant cell
enters interphase

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Interphase
Interphase consists of three stages, during which a
cell increases in size, doubles the number of
cytoplasmic components, and duplicates its DNA
G1: Interval of cell growth and activity
S: Interval of DNA replication (synthesis)

G2: Interval when the cell prepares for division

Interphase and the Life of a Cell

Most cell activities take place during G1

Control mechanisms work at certain points in the cell

cycle; some can keep cells in G1

Loss of control may cause cell death or cancer

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Mitosis and the Chromosome

Number
Mitosis produces two diploid nuclei with the same
number and kind of chromosomes as the parent

Chromosome number
The sum of all chromosomes in a type of cell
Human cells have 46 chromosomes paired in 23 sets
(diploid number)
Pairs have the same shape and information about the
same traits (except sex chromosomes XY)

Mitosis and the Chromosome

Number
Bipolar spindle
A dynamic network of microtubules that forms during
nuclear division
Grows into the cytoplasm from opposite poles of the
cell and attaches to duplicated chromosomes
Microtubules from opposite poles attach to different
sister chromatids and separate them

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Bipolar Spindle
Separates Sister Chromatids

Where Mitosis Fits in the Cell Cycle

A cell cycle starts when a new cell forms by division
of a parent cell, and ends when the cell completes its
own division

A typical cell proceeds through intervals of

interphase, mitosis, and cytoplasmic division

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Mitosis
Mitosis in Onion root tip cells

Mitosis in Whitefish blastula

A Closer Look at Mitosis

When a nucleus divides by mitosis, each new nucleus
has the same chromosome number as the parent cell

There are four main stages of mitosis: prophase,

metaphase, anaphase, and telophase

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Prophase
Prophase
Chromosomes condense
Microtubules form a bipolar spindle

Nuclear envelope breaks up

Microtubules attach to the chromosomes

Onion root tip cells Whitefish blastula

Metaphase and Anaphase

Metaphase
All duplicated chromosomes line up midway between
the spindle poles

Onion root tip cells

Whitefish blastula

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Metaphase and Anaphase

Anaphase
Microtubules
separate the sister chromatids of each
chromosome and pull them to opposite spindle poles

Onion root tip cells Whitefish blastula

Telophase
Telophase
Two clusters of chromosomes reach the spindle poles
A new nuclear envelope forms around each cluster

Two new nuclei are formed, each with the same

chromosome number as the parent cell

Onion root tip cells

Whitefish blastula

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Key Concepts: Stages of Mitosis

Mitosis divides the nucleus, not the cytoplasm

Mitosis has four sequential stages: prophase,

metaphase, anaphase, and telophase

A bipolar spindle forms; it moves the cells duplicated

chromosomes into two parcels, which end up in two
genetically identical nuclei

Cytoplasmic Division Mechanisms

In most kinds of eukaryotes, the cell cytoplasm

divides between late anaphase and the end of
telophase, but the mechanism of division differs

Cytokinesis
The process of cytoplasmic division

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Cytoplasmic Division in Animal and Plant

Cells

Animal cells
A contractile ring partitions the cytoplasm
A band of actin filaments rings the cell midsection,
contracts, and pinches the cytoplasm in two

Plant cells
A cell plate forms midway between the spindle poles; it
partitions the cytoplasm when it reaches and connects to
the parent cell wall

Cytoplasmic Division in Animal Cells

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Cytoplasmic Division in Plant Cells

A Contractile Ring Formation

1 Mitosis is completed, 2 At the former spindle 3 This contractile ring pulls 4 The contractile ring
and the bipolar spindle equator, a ring of actin the cell surface inward as it contracts until the
is starting to filaments attached to the continues to contract. cytoplasm is partitioned and
disassemble. plasma membrane the cell pinches in two.
contracts.
B Cell Plate Formation

1 The plane of division 2 The vesicles fuse with 3 The cell plate expands 4 The cell plate matures as
(and of the future each other and with outward along the plane of two new primary cell walls
cross-wall) was endocytic vesicles bringing division until it reaches the surrounding middle lamella
established by cell wall components and plasma membrane. When material. The new walls join
microtubules and actin plasma membrane proteins the cell plate attaches to with the parent cell wall, so
filaments that formed from the cell surface. The the plasma membrane, it each daughter cell becomes
and broke up before fused materials form a cell partitions the cytoplasm. enclosed by its own wall.
mitosis began. Vesicles plate along the plane of
cluster here when division.
mitosis ends.

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Meiosis: Two Divisions

Two consecutive nuclear divisions

Meiosis I
Meiosis II
DNA is not duplicated between divisions
Four haploid nuclei form

Chromosome Number

Sum total of chromosomes in a cell

Germ cells are diploid (2n)

Gametes are haploid (n)

Meiosis halves chromosome number

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Meiosis I - Stages

Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I

Meiosis II - Stages

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Prophase I

Each duplicated chromosome

pairs with homologue
Homologues swap segments
Each chromosome becomes
attached to spindle

Metaphase I

Chromosomes are
pushed and pulled into
the middle of cell
The spindle is fully
formed

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Anaphase I

Homologous
chromosomes
segregate
The sister chromatids
remain attached

Telophase I

The chromosomes
arrive at opposite
poles
Usually followed by
cytoplasmic division

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Prophase II

Microtubules attach to
the kinetochores of the
duplicated
chromosomes

Metaphase II

Duplicated
chromosomes line up
at the spindle equator,
midway between the
poles

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Anaphase II

Sister chromatids
separate to become
independent
chromosomes

Telophase II

The chromosomes
arrive at opposite
ends of the cell
A nuclear envelope
forms around each set
of chromosomes
Four haploid cells

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Comparison of Cell Division Mechanisms

When Control is Lost

Sometimes, controls over cell division are lost
Cancer may be the outcome

http://www.origene.com/assets/images/UltraMAB/UM500049-86-H.jpg

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Cell Cycle Controls

Checkpoints in the cell cycle allow problems to be

corrected before the cycle advances

Proteins produced by checkpoint genes interact to

advance, delay, or stop the cell cycle
Kinases can activate other molecules to stop the cell
cycle or cause cells to die
Growth factors can activate kinases to start mitosis

Cell Cycle Checkpoints

G1: Is the cell ready to divide again?
Is the cell big enough?

Is the DNA damage?

Is the environment favorable?

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Cell Cycle Checkpoints

G2: Is the cell ready to enter mitosis?
DNA replicated only once?

Is the DNA damaged?

Cell size and nutritional state?

Cell Cycle Checkpoints

M phase: Is the cell ready to exit mitosis?
Chromosome attached to opposite poles?

Is the cell ready to exit mitosis

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Checkpoint Failure and Tumors

When all checkpoint mechanisms fail, a cell loses

control over its cell cycle and may form a tumor
(abnormal mass) in surrounding tissue

Usually one or more checkpoint gene products are

missing in tumor cells
Tumor suppressor gene products inhibit mitosis
Protooncogene products stimulate mitosis

Neoplasms
NEOPLASM
Abnormal masses of cells that lack control over how
they grow and divide
Some neoplasms do not form a tumor; these
include leukemia and most forms of carcinoma in situ.
Benign neoplasms (such as ordinary skin moles) stay in
one place and are not cancerous
Malignant neoplasms are cancerous

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Tumor
TUMOR - abnormal mass of tissue resulting from
excessive cell division

May be benign or malignant:

Benign cells remain in a single mass

Malignant invade surrounding tissue; spread via

bloodstream or lymphatic metastasis

Cancer
Cancer is malignant tumor or malignant neoplasm
It is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell
growth with the potential to invade or spread to
other parts of the body.

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Stages of Cancer
Genetically altered cell
Hyperplasia
Dysplasia
In-situ cancer
Invasive cancer

https://science.education.nih.gov/supplements/nih1/cancer/images/guide/fig3.gif

Distinct phenotypes of cancer cells

Immortality indefinite proliferative lifespan

Transformation loss of response to normal
regulators of cell growth
Metastasis ability to break off from a tumor and
invade tissue in another location in the body

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Tissue Culture Characteristics

Normal cells Cancer cells
Flattened Rounded

Anchorage dependent Anchorage

Contact inhibition independent

Serum dependent No contact inhibition

Serum independent

Differences between Normal cells and

Cancer cells

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Skin Cancers

References:
Voet and Voet, Biochemistry 2nd ed. Wiley Publication
(2004).
Starr and Taggart (2004). Biology. The Unity and
Diversity of Life, 10th edition, Wadsworth Group, Thomson
Learning, Inc., California

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