ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING PROGRAM

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABAH

KE07702

FIELDS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

(2-2015/16)

ASSIGNMENT 2

PREPARED BY:

NAME NO.MATRIK
NUR SHARIDAH MICHELLE BINTI BK15110330
AUELINO

PREPARED FOR:

Dr. Bablu Kumar Ghosh

Introduction

Transmission Lines

In communications and electronic engineering, a transmission line is a specialized cable or

other structure designed to carry alternating current of radio frequency, that is, currents with
a frequency high enough that their wave nature must be taken into account. Transmission
lines are used for purposes such as connecting radio transmitters and receivers with their
antennas, distributing cable television signals, trunk lines routing calls between telephone
switching centres, computer network connections and high speed computer data buses. Some
examples of two-conductor transmission line are parallel line (ladder line), coaxial cable, strip
line, and micro strip.

Ordinary electrical cables suffice to carry low frequency alternating current (AC), such as
mains power, which reverses direction 100 to 120 times per seconds, and audio signals.
However, they cannot be used to carry currents in the radio frequency range or higher, which
reverse direction millions to billions of times per second, because the energy tends to radiate
off the cable as radio waves, causing power losses. Radio frequency currents also tend to
reflect from discontinuities in the cable such as connectors and joints, and travel back down
the cable toward the source. These reflections act as bottlenecks, preventing the signal power
from reaching the destination. Transmission lines use specialized construction, and impedance
matching, to carry electromagnetic signals with minimal reflections and power losses. The
distinguishing feature of most transmission lines is that they have uniform cross sectional
dimensions along their length, giving them uniform impedance, called the characteristic
impedance, to prevent reflections. Types of transmission line include parallel line (ladder line,
twisted pair), coaxial cable, strip line, and micro strip. The higher the frequency of
electromagnetic waves moving through a given cable or medium, the shorter the wavelength
of the waves. Transmission lines become necessary when the length of the cable is longer
than a significant fraction of the transmitted frequency's wavelength.

At microwave frequencies and above, power losses in transmission lines become excessive,
and waveguides are used instead, which function as "pipes" to confine and guide the
electromagnetic waves. Some sources define waveguides as a type of transmission line;
however, this article will not include them. At even higher frequencies, in the terahertz,
infrared and light range, waveguides in turn become lossy, and optical methods, (such as
lenses and mirrors), are used to guide electromagnetic waves.

The theory of sound wave propagation is very similar mathematically to that of

electromagnetic waves, so techniques from transmission line theory are also used to build
structures to conduct acoustic waves; and these are called acoustic transmission lines.

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Characteristic Impedance of Transmission Lines

For the purposes of analysis, an electrical transmission line can be modelled as a two-port
network (also called a quadrupole network), as follows:

In the simplest case, the network is assumed to be linear (i.e. the complex voltage across
either port is proportional to the complex current flowing into it when there are no reflections),
and the two ports are assumed to be interchangeable. If the transmission line is uniform along
its length, then its behaviour is largely described by a single parameter called the
characteristic impedance, symbol Z0. This is the ratio of the complex voltage of a given wave
to the complex current of the same wave at any point on the line. Typical values of Z 0 are 50
or 75 ohms for a coaxial cable, about 100 ohms for a twisted pair of wires, and about 300
ohms for a common type of untwisted pair used in radio transmission.

A transmission line is drawn as two black wires. At a distance x into the line, there is current
I(x) travelling through each wire, and there is a voltage difference V(x) between the wires. If
the current and voltage come from a single wave (with no reflection), then V(x) / I(x) = Z0,
where Z0 is the characteristic impedance of the line.
Power Loss in Transmission Lines

When sending power down a transmission line, it is usually desirable that as much power as
possible will be absorbed by the load and as little as possible will be reflected back to the
source. This can be ensured by making the load impedance equal to Z 0, in which case the
transmission line is said to be matched.

Some of the power that is fed into a transmission line is lost because of its resistance. This
effect is called ohmic or resistive loss (see ohmic heating). At high frequencies, another effect
called dielectric loss becomes significant, adding to the losses caused by resistance. Dielectric

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loss is caused when the insulating material inside the transmission line absorbs energy from
the alternating electric field and converts it to heat (see dielectric heating). The transmission
line is modelled with a resistance (R) and inductance (L) in series with a capacitance (C) and
conductance (G) in parallel. The resistance and conductance contribute to the loss in a
transmission line.

The total loss of power in a transmission line is often specified in decibels per metre (dB/m),
and usually depends on the frequency of the signal. The manufacturer often supplies a chart
showing the loss in dB/m at a range of frequencies. A loss of 3 dB corresponds approximately
to a halving of the power.

High-frequency Transmission Lines

High-frequency transmission lines can be defined as those designed to carry electromagnetic

waves whose wavelengths are shorter than or comparable to the length of the line. Under
these conditions, the approximations useful for calculations at lower frequencies are no longer
accurate. This often occurs with radio, microwave and optical signals, metal mesh optical
filters, and with the signals found in high-speed digital circuits

Effect of Cable Length in Power Loses of Transmission Lines

In many electric circuits, the length of the wires connecting the components can for the most
part be ignored. That is, the voltage on the wire at a given time can be assumed to be the
same at all points. However, when the voltage changes in a time interval comparable to the
time it takes for the signal to travel down the wire, the length becomes important and the
wire must be treated as a transmission line. Stated another way, the length of the wire is
important when the signal includes frequency components with corresponding wavelengths
comparable to or less than the length of the wire.

A common rule of thumb is that the cable or wire should be treated as a transmission line if
the length is greater than 1/10 of the wavelength. At this length the phase delay and the
interference of any reflections on the line become important and can lead to unpredictable
behaviour in systems which have not been carefully designed using transmission line theory

Transmission Lines and Antenna

How do you connect a receiver or transmitter to an antenna? Simple - a transmission line. You
are no doubt familiar with transmission lines (sometimes abbreviated as tx lines). If you plug
any electric device into a wall outlet, the wires that connect the wall outlet to the device is a
transmission line.

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However, transmission lines behave very oddly at high frequencies. In traditional (low-
frequency) circuit theory, wires connect devices, but have zero resistance. There is no phase
delay across wires; and a short-circuited line always yields zero resistance.

For high-frequency transmission lines, things behave quite differently. For instance, short-
circuits can actually have an infinite impedance; open-circuits can behave like short-circuited
wires. The impedance of some load (ZL=XL+jYL) can be transformed at the terminals of the
transmission line to an impedance much different than ZL.

A sinusoidal voltage source with associated impedance ZS is attached to a load ZA (which

could be an antenna or some other device - in the circuit diagram we simply view it as an
impedance called a load). The load and the source are connected via a transmission line of
length L:

In traditional low-frequency circuit analysis, the transmission line would not matter. As a
result, the current that flows in the circuit would simply be:

However, in the high frequency case, the length L of the transmission line can significantly
affect the results. To determine the current that flows in the circuit, we would need to know
what the input impedance is, Zin, viewed from the terminals of the transmission line:

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The resultant current that flows will simply be:

Since antennas are high-frequency devices (in the sense that their size is on the order of a
half wavlength or more), transmission line effects are often VERY important. That is, if the
length L of the transmission line significantly alters Zin, then the current into the antenna
from the source will be very small. Consequently, we will not be delivering power properly to
the antenna. The same problems hold true in the receiving mode: a transmission line can
skew impedance of the receiver sufficiently that almost no power is transferred from the
antenna.

Hence, a thorough understanding of antenna theory requires an understanding of

transmission lines. A great antenna can be hooked up to a great receiver, but if it is done with
a length of transmission line at high frequencies, the system will not work properly.

Examples of common transmission lines include the coaxial cable, the microstrip line which
commonly feeds patch/microstrip antennas, and the two wire line:

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QUESTION 1

A lossless transmission line of length 0.275 and characteristic impedance 50 is terminated

in an impedance 75+j150 (). Find (a) the voltage reflection coefficient, (b) the standing-
wave radio, (c) the input impedance, and (d) the location of a voltage maximum on the line.
Also find the result using smith chart.

(a) Reflection Coefficient

Z L Z O
= Z L + ZO

75150 j50
= 75+150 j+50

25+ j 150
= 25 j 150

= 0.78 e j 30.34

(b) S-parameter

1
S = 1+

1+0.78
= 10.78

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 8.1

(c) Input Impedence

Z L + j Z 0 tanl
Z =Z0
Z 0 + j Z L tanl

75+ j150+ j50 tan30.34

50
= 50+ j ( 75+150 ) tan 30.34

75+ j200
50
= 100+ j 75

24 j 82
=

(d )Vmax

In radian,

r=30.34 0.53 rad
180

0.53rad l
V max =
4

0.042

Smiths chart:

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8
QUESTION 2

Using TLDetail or any other software, find the line parameter values for 3 and 300 MHz for
the following transmission line.

i) Andrew Braided CNT -240

ii) Radio wave (RG-58)

iii) Wireman 552LL(ice-snow)

a. The transmission seems to be lossy for the Zi = Z L= (25 + j75) of line length l= 30 m and
input power is 10 W. Please compare the data with ideal or loss less line given in the software
and explain why those are lossy line.

b. Plot Zo for different lines and explain why different type losses are varying for using same
impedance as load and as input impedance for different tr. lines? Find return loss.

Before Simulation

line length 30 m
Nom ZO 50
Prime Centre 50
R 25
X 75
Power 10 W

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 Results:

Variable Value
SWR (true) 7.281 dB
SWR (50) 6.854 dB
Rho (true) 0.7585 dB
Rho (50) 0.7454 dB
R.L (true) 2.401 dB
R.L (50) 2.553 dB
Power at Load 7.604 W
Total Power loss 2.369 W
True ZO 51.120- j1.107
Matched Loss 0.44 dB/100ft

Power loss:

Figure 1a: SWR for Andrew Braided CNT 240 at 3MHz. Powe Value Percent
r loss age (%)
(dB) (W)
Condu 0.4 0.8 37
ctor 37 80
Dielec 0.0 0.0 1
tric 00 00
Reflect 0.7 1.5 63
ion 53 16

Figure 1b: Rho for Andrew Braided CNT 240 at 3MHz

Figure 1c: Return loss for Andrew Braided CNT 240 at

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3MHz.

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Andrew Braided CNT 240 at frequency of 3MHz:

Andrew Braided CNT 240 Graphical Results:

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 Results:

Variable Value
SWR (true) 6.896 dB
SWR (50) 6.854 dB
Rho (true) 0.7467 dB
Rho (50) 0.7454 dB
R.L (true) 2.637 dB
R.L (50) 2.553 dB
Power at Load 1.731 W
Total Power loss 8.269 W
True ZO 50.113-j0,112
Matched Loss 4.507
dB/100ft

Power loss:
Figure 2a: SWR for Andrew Braided CNT 240 at 3MHz.
Powe Value Percent
r loss age (%)
(dB) (W)
Condu 4.4 4.8 58
ctor 36 15
Dielec 0.0 0.0 1
tric 00 00
Reflect 3.1 3.4 42
ion 81 53

Figure 2b: Rho for Andrew Braided CNT 240 at 3MHz

Figure 2c: Return loss for Andrew Braided CNT 240 at

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3MHz.

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Andrew Braided CNT 240 at frequency of 300MHz:

Andrew Braided CNT 240 Graphical Results:

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 Results:

Variable Value
SWR (true) 7.359 dB
SWR (50) 6.854 dB
Rho (true) 0.7607 dB
Rho (50) 0.7454 dB
R.L (true) 2.375 dB
R.L (50) 2.553 dB
Power at Load 6.324 W
Total Power loss 3.676 W
True ZO 51.375-j1.308
Matched Loss 0.713
dB/100ft

Power loss:
Figure 3a: SWR for Radiowave RG-58 at 3MHz.
Powe Value Percent
r loss age (%)
(dB) (W)
Condu 0.6 1.2 34
ctor 75 48
Dielec 0.0 0.0 1
tric 26 49
Reflect 1.2 2.3 45
ion 88 80

Figure 3b: Rho for Radiowave RG-58 at 3MHz

Figure 3c: Return loss for Radiowave RG-58 at 3MHz.

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Radiowave RG-58 at frequency of 3MHz:

Radiowave RG-58 Graphical Results:

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 Results:

Variable Value
SWR (true) 6.883 dB
SWR (50) 6.854 dB
Rho (true) 0.7463 dB
Rho (50) 0.7454 dB
R.L (true) 2.542 dB
R.L (50) 2.553 dB
Power at Load 0.512 W
Total Power loss 9.488 W
True ZO 50.139-j0.087
Matched Loss 9.580
dB/100ft

Power loss:
Figure 4a: SWR for Radiowave RG-58 at 300MHz.
Powe Value Percent
r loss age (%)
(dB) (W)
Condu 6.8 5.0 53
ctor 62 44
Dielec 2.5 1.8 20
tric 66 86
Reflect 3.4 2.5 27
ion 81 58

Figure 4b: Rho for Radiowave RG-58 at 300MHz

Figure 4c: Return loss for Radiowave RG-58 at 3MHz.

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Radiowave RG-58 at frequency of 300MHz:

Radiowave RG-58 Graphical Results:

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 Results:

Variable Value
SWR (true) 7.013 dB
SWR (50) 6.854 dB
Rho (true) 0.7504 dB
Rho (50) 0.7454 dB
R.L (true) 2.494 dB
R.L (50) 2.553 dB
Power at Load 6.821 W
Total Power loss 3.179 W
True ZO 50.050-j0.369
Matched Loss 0.602
dB/100ft

Power loss:
Figure 5a: SWR for Wireman 552LL(ice-snow) at 3MHz.
Powe Value Percent
r loss age (%)
(dB) (W)
Condu 0.3 0.6 22
ctor 64 97
Dielec 0.2 0.4 14
tric 28 36
Reflect 1.0 3.1 64
ion 69 79

Figure 5b: Rho for Wireman 552LL(ice-snow) at 3MHz

Figure 5c: Return loss for Wireman 552LL(ice-snow) at

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3MHz.

Wireman 552LL(ice-snow) at frequency of 3MHz:

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Radiowave RG-58 Graphical Results:

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 Results:

Variable Value
SWR (true) 6.608 dB
SWR (50) 6.854 dB
Rho (true) 0.7371dB
Rho (50) 0.7454 dB
R.L (true) 2.649 dB
R.L (50) 2.553 dB
Power at Load 0.010 W
Total Power loss 9.990 W
True ZO 365.055-4.322
Matched Loss 23.906
dB/100ft

Power loss:
Figure 6a: SWR for Wireman 552LL(ice-snow) at
300MHz. Powe Value Percen
r loss tage
(dB) (W) (%)
Condu 0.7 0.2 3
ctor 76 86
Dielec 22. 8.3 84
tric 753 84
Reflec 3.5 1.3 13
tion 55 10

Figure 6b: Rho for Wireman 552LL(ice-snow) at 300MHz

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Figure 6c: Return loss for Wireman 552LL(ice-snow) at
3MHz.

Wireman 552LL(ice-snow) at frequency of 300MHz:

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Radiowave RG-58 Graphical Results:

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Figure 7a: Andrew BraidedCNT-240 and Radioware RG-58

Figure 7b: Wireman 552LL (ice/snow) and Radioware RG-58

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Figure 7c: Wireman 552LL (ice/snow) and Andrew BraidedCNT-240

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Z0 of transmission line at different frequency

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 Matched
Line Loss
of

Figure 8a: Andrew BraidedCNT-240 and Radioware RG-58

Figure 8b: Wireman 552LL (ice/snow) and Radioware RG-58

Figure 8c: Wireman 552LL (ice/snow) and Andrew BraidedCNT-240

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transmission line at different frequency:

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Overall Results

Type of Transmission wire SWR Reflective Return Loss Total Power

coefficient Loss
3MHz 6.854 0.7454 2.553 dB 0.007 W

Ideal case 300MHz 6.854 0.7454 2.553 dB 0.007 W

(50)
3MHz 7.281 0.7585 2.401 dB 2.369 W

Andrew 300MHz 6.896 0.7487 2.637 dB 1.731 W

Braided
CNT-240
3MHz 7.359 0.7607 2.542 dB 3.676 W

Radiowave 300MHz 6.883 0.7463 2.542 dB 9.486 W

RG-58
3MHz 7.013 0.7504 2.494 dB 3.179 W

Wireman 300MHz 6.608 6.854 2.649 dB 9.990 W

553 LL
(ice/snow)

When Frequency increases, the Zo and Power Loss decrease while the Power at Load
increases.

Zo Zo. 3MHz > Zo.300MHz

Power PLOSS.3MHz > PLOSS.300MHz
Loss
Power PLOAD.3MHz < PLOAD.300MHz
at Load

Andrew Braided CNT has lower power loss than Radio Wave (RG-58) followed by
Wireman 552LL (ice/snow) at the same frequency

Power PLOAD.ANDREW < PLOAD.RADIOWAVE < PLOAD.WIREMAN

Loss

In Andrew Braided CNT, 100% of power loss through to conductor.

In Radio Wave (RG-58) and Wireman 552LL (ice/snow) there were power lost due to
conductor, dielectric and reflection, however only power loss to conductor is affected by
frequency.

Discussions and Reasoning

Loses in transmission line decreases with frequency, at higher frequency or lower

period, the same transmission line exhibits less power loses. This is probably due to the
decrease fraction of energy lost to resistance or impedance.

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 Factors that affect the resistance, and thus loss, of conductors used in transmission and
distribution lines include temperature, spiraling, and the skin effect. The resistance of a
conductor increases with its temperature. Temperature changes in electric power lines can
have a significant effect on power losses in the line. Spiraling, which refers to the increase in
conductor resistance due to the way stranded conductors spiral about the center, also
contributes to increases in conductor resistance. The skin effect causes the effective
resistance of a conductor to increase at higher alternating current frequencies.

Thus in this particular cases, we deduce that the main reason is due to skin effect, this
frequency dependent behaviour as the implied basis for all kinds of claims regarding the
sounds of different types of cables.

In engineering textbooks, the consequences of finite conductivity and wire size are
treated in terms of an Internal Impedance. This term is probably more useful that skin
effect as it acts as a reminder that the effects arise due to the fields internal to the conductor.
The internal impedance per unit length of a wire is considered in Ramo et al. From this was
may draw the following results as
a starting point.

The d.c. (i.e. very low frequency) impedance of a wire which has a circular cross-section and is
uniform may be said to consist of a resistance per unit length of

where is the bulk conductivity value appropriate for the material used to manufacture

the wire, and is the radius of the wire. The resistance is in Ohms/metre if we are using S.I.
units (which will be assumed from now on).

The wire will also exhibit an effective inductance per unit length at very low frequency due to
its internal fields. At very low frequencies this has the value

where is the permeability of the material. In general we can assume that this equals
the value for free space

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 The detailed analysis in Ramo leads to the following expressions which can be used to
determine the relevant wire resistance and inductance per unit length for a conductive wire of
circular cross section at frequencies above d.c.

where

and is the skin depth value which may be calculated via

where is the signal frequency (as opposed to the signals angular frequency).

In fact, using the above expressions we can show that

and specifying this factor in terms of and may be more convenient when
performing calculations.

Now, , etc are Bessel functions. We can find numerical expressions for evaluating these
in a text like Abramowitz and Stegun. Using these we can compute values. For the sake of

clarity is is useful to plot values normalised in terms of . Some results of doing this are

illustrated in figure 1. These are plotted versus so that the relevant nominal skin
thickness is also normalised in terms of the wire radius. The solid lines plotted show the
relevant values calculated from the above expressions.

In a good conductor, skin depth is proportional to square root of the resistivity. This
means that better conductors have a reduced skin depth. The overall resistance of the better
conductor remains lower even with the reduced skin depth.
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 At the same frequency, Andrew Braided CNT has lower power loss than Radio Wave
(RG-58) followed by Wireman 552LL (ice/snow). This is probably due to the materials
properties such as resistance and attenuation of the cable. Since Andrew Braided CNT has
lowest attenuation thus its power lost is the lowest followed by Radio Wave (RG-58) and
then Wireman 552LL (ice/snow). The impedance of the wire also contributed to the power
lost. As Wireman 552LL (ice/snow) has higher resistance and lower conductivity than Radio
Wave (RG-58) followed by Andrew Braided CNT at the same frequency, thus it has higher
loss of energy.

Conclusion

Andrew Braided CNT-240 is a low loss, low attenuation cable. This means that there is no
power transmitted to the antenna, thus it should be mainly used as conducting wire

Suitable Conducting Wire, Cable Connector,

Coaxial Cable
Not Suitable Antenna Wire.

Wireman 552 LL (ice/snow) has high loss of power, high attenuation. This means that there is
power transmitted to the antenna, thus it may used for antenna wire.

Suitable Antenna Wire

Not Suitable Conducting Wire

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