‘COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Copyright Regulations 1969 WARNING ‘This material has been reproduced and communicated to ‘you by or on behalf ofthe University of Sydney pursuant {o Part VB of the Copyright Act 1968 (the Act). ‘The material in this communication may be subject to copyright under the Act. Any further reproduction or ‘communication ofthis material by you may be the subject ‘of copyright protection under the Act. Do not remove this notice Author of chapter: Mahboob, A. & Ahmar, N. H. Title of chapter: Pakistani English: phonology Source: A handbook of varieties of English : a multimedia reference tool / edited by Edgar W. Schneider. Berlin ; New York : Mouton de Gruyter, 2004. Vol.4 Ref No: LNGS 7273 Pakista -nglish: phonology Ahmar Mahboob and Nadra Huma Ahmar 1 introduc A study of Pakistani English (PALE) mus bes with an understanding ofits his- toseal and social rots in an undiferentated,pre-pattion “British India-English as fr inroduced in the Indo-Pak subcontinent by the Bish nthe 16° century. W receive official recognition with the passing of Macaulay's minutes of 1835, Throughout the British ers, English kept gaining political and social status. By 1947, when Pakistan and India gained ther independence from the British, the Elis language had become so enenched in the socio-political fabric ofthe ion that twas retained as an oficial language in bath counties (se Ali 1993). English ia Bntsh nia intl spread eauseof economic and social mobility associated with the language. People learned Enlish either by contac or through formal schooling. However, since thee were not enough native English-speaking teachers to met the demand, most English teaches were Indians Ths, he input ‘hat English language lamers received in South Asia was non-native and loca ‘There was relatively litle eantac wth native varieties of English n India, and afer ‘independence, his contact was further redaed, These factors have contributed 12 ‘he nsiutionalization and evolution of South Asian English as distinct variety, During she British ra, as various nationalist and ethoie movements i Sou Asia used language asa syinbo oftheir deity linguistic issues complexed. An ‘xammple of such symbolism isthe division lading to ngustic changes between ing and Urdu which strengthened (and is strengthening) as eslt of gious iliation of hese languages with Hinduism and Islam, respectively Ina regional Setting the tau of Hind vs. Dravidian anguagesof South Indi in post-colonial India, or the role of Urdu vs. Sindhi in Pakistan, has been a cause of strife within each country. AS a result ofthis politicization of local languages, English, because OF its “foreignnes', has been roferred a8 neutral language and gained polit al acceptance in the new countries. These local needs and uses of English and ‘he imied contact with native speakers of English has resulted in what hasbeen calle natvization’of English in the Indian sub-continent. ‘With the polis patton ofthe s-omtinen, the feof nghish fl into the hands ofthe respective political leaders in India and Pakistan, In Pakistan, English ‘vasto goon a olesoaser ie. While i was intially maintained hy the Pakistani leadership, it soon became a symbol of resentment amongst the religious partes, ho felt hat maintaining the status of English symbolized a new form of eooniza10 Ahmar aot and Nada Hams mar tion. There was intense opposition to Englshby these groups. However there were three reasons shy these demands were no ken ino consieration bythe very ment (1) the was inset merlin local languages to seit education and oer domains (lack of corpus planing). (2) there was no other policy neat language tht could replace nglis, and (3) the religious parties did not have suf. Fciem politcal power result, Enis maintained its supremacy in Pakistn an line wis dane change his Howsve. his tats qu changed ith Geral Ziel y's capture of power thiongh a mitary coup in 1977. General Ha justified his ‘coup by implementing rp Islamization and Urdvzaton polices ad decent izing the role of English, His was the ist serious effort by Pakissni goverment to decease the rle of Englah. This change inthe governments atitude towards English was manifest inthe 1978 languge in eduction policy which advised all, English medium school (senols where al classes wer taught in English) site to Urdu. However, elite English medium schools, where chiles ofthe people in power studied, were waved from the new to make these changos. Although these changes were supported hy kaders of certain politcal partis and religous organi zations, they di not find favour among the populace, By 1983, there was recogni ‘ion within General Ha’s government tat the language in evaton policy had been hurriedly passed without the required planning. and, by 1987, it was rebate, Although te Unda-oly polices have boen revised he impact of 00-Faglish ae ‘ation for approximately a desde a ts dismissal fom official use (specially in government) is stil evident Today, the government realizes the valve of English ina global economy and is implementing policies to teach it at primary level in all, schools. This change in palcys supported by mos ofthe people ho prefer eam ‘ng English io thor languages and see it 3 means of economic development LI. Pakistan languages and Pak ‘While work on South Asian English suggests that there ia nee fora desericion fof pan-South Asian model of English, it also recognizes difeences between various sub-vartes of South Asian English (Kachru 1983). These subevatie- jes ate defined in terms of aca nguages, Ths, PakE and Indian English have Unique festures hosel onthe differences inthe vemaculrs ofthe poplation of «each country (aon the diferent politcal, edeationsl and economic pois of ach cour). Similarly, PaKE set's heterogeneous ot only because ofthe s0- ‘o-cconomie, geographic, and cucational background ofthe people who speak it, but aso because ofthe varies first languages of ts speakers. An example of tis isthe diference inthe plasmsnt and quality of the speahetic vowel m Engsh spoken by native speakers of Uda and Panjabi ~ Native speakers of Urdu: fistat] ‘stat ~ Native speakers of Panjati: [Soa] “stan™ Pakistan Em; phonoogy 1005 Another example of vartble influence of fis language on PakE: convents the realization oF 3) Native speakers of Urdu: meyer] measur Native speakers of Panjabi: [meint] or meds] ‘measure In this example, the Ig] 8 ether realized a a fj} o (5) by Panic speakers of PakE The eet dstrnotion of his vara his not heen tae Those examples of differences in POLE suggest hat there may be considerable ‘variation within PakE based on speakets’ fist language. Pakistan is a malting “sountry with at east 69 ving languages (Ethnologue 2002), and speaker ofthese Aitfereat languages may be predicted to speak English differen. Unfortunate at present, there i no ressareh that explores the extent of influence of various ‘mother tongues of PakE(e). A review ofthe small number of sta tha acus 1m Paks presented inthe companion paper on PakE in the syntax volume of his handbook The dominant (numerically and politically) languages of Pakistan inlude (in alphabsical order, Balochi, English, Pash Panjab, Sindhi, Sirk, and Uri “The percentage of mative speaker ofthese languages i givenin Table | below. The urbe (excep for English) provided in Table 1 are based on the CTA Word Fact Book (2002). The estimated percentage for English s based on the literacy rate of 42.7%, and the ratio of English mealum schools. In interpreting the numbers pro- ‘ide in Table th ota estimated population of Pakistan, of approxiately 150 rillion should be kept in mind. Thus seemingly’ tiny 3¥% of Baluchi speakers onesponds to about 45 milion people. Similarly, i English s spoken with some ‘proficiency by 4% ofthe Pakistan: population, he number represented is apprON= ‘natly 6 milion people, more than the total population of New Zealand Table Majo language of Pakistan gaaee Pereenage of mative Pos 0% Sih i ‘Siri (a variant of Pans) 10% Pastas a {Urdu fico and nto anguage) 6 Balch a Otter 1% Engish (fil language; sed a Scud language tl focus on wees ae than ofl emanation) $96 (eo verted)1005. Ahmar Mahboob and Nad Hama Ahmar Ahough this informatica has not boon fully sliced i esearch on PAKE at pres. fen tis hoped that fire research will explore the relationship betwen Paks) and various indigenous languages. It might be useful begin a comprehensive study of PARE with a feeus on Fnglish as used by native speakers ofthe major languages listed here. The present study focuses on naive speakers of Und be- ‘use isthe nina language of Pakistan an one ofthe to offi languages fof Pakistan (the utr oficial language heing English). Reference 1 speakers of ‘other languages s made whore information favs 2. Sounds of Pak: [At preset, there are no detailed sudies of the phonology of PakE. This paper therefore attempts to presenta preliminary descripsion of Pak phonology’ ised ‘on data collected in Kenichi in the summer of 2002. Language samples presented land analyze in this pager (unless otherwise stated) were collected from ix edu cuted Pakistanis betwee the ages of 22 and 37. Four ofthese participants were female and two were mule. All ofthe participants were native speakers of Und, Language samples were first elicited using the Sheffield worst (Foulkes and Docherty 1989) and then the "North Wind” reading passage Table 2. Vowel elztion in PKE wing Wl ei ets kar " DRESS . ‘TRAP © lor > saris ee Lori sane NURSE s FLEFCE THoueHT ont pono~0 SQUARE eo-a-ar START @ cuRE isso joo 4 : Pasian English: phonlogs 1007 21, Vowels ‘ovsos collected using the Shot set as listed in Table 2can be Sorted into t¥0 rain groups, The first group contains vowels which were spoken without yan tom by the Pakistan speakers. The second group consists of vowels ha varied in their relieation as spoken by eileen speaker. UL. Group t:isarian vel realisations Pakistan speakers dd not exhibit any vation in thee realization of vowels inthis stoup. Vowels within this group can be futher eaegorized into to sub-groups ‘vis RP. The fis sub-group (Croup 1A) contains vowels that are similar to RP land the second sub-group (Group 1B) includes vowels which ace different. Group 14 “Table 3 provides a list of words that fil in his eategory. Tis list tself has two seotions. The ist setion lists monophihongs and the second sction lists diph- thongs Table 5. Listof vets ith variation aro Pakisa’ spears nd sir RP Lexical tom Puke -RP (based on Oxford Dictionary) Monophihangs xn : . Nownt » * Force = » PALM « « staRT « « TRAP 2 © smmur . s1008 Ahmir Mahboob and Nadu Hama shor [ade 3. (comtaued) Uist wel with no vartion amen Pakistun speakers, nds oP “esial tem PAE [RP hve on Oxford Dictionary) Diphinonex orc « ” “This group isthe ares containing 15 ofthe 29 words inthe Sheil set, These sovels di not vary amg the six Pakistani speakers studied end were also simi- Jaro RR Group 1B “This group consists of vowels which showed no variation within Pakistan speak: rs, but iflered from RP. Tables list ofthese vowel. bles List of vowels with 9 variation among Pakistan speakers ‘ut dierent os RP Lexical tom Patt a reat ‘ 2 NURSE 5 * Lor * ‘The first three words in his proup are bislabie, In RP the second syllable is tustressed nd, aa result of ustessing, the vowel s frequen redveed to 2), For example, RP speaker tres the fist vowel and reduce the second to asx mid central vowel, sham lets} letter or koma] comma. Pakistani speakers did hot reduce the vowel ht rather used fall wwe, eg [lets] eter or :mms] comma. Thus, here were no observed instances of sews inthe data collected us- ing the Shoo set (weve, instarees of! were observed in connected speech and will be discussed Iter. “The NURSE vowel is) and the LOT vowel {3} Their RP equivalents, and [}are not atested inthe somples of PaKF collected fortis study. The tense mid- igh central vowel [3] not atested in Rahman (1990) ~ see section on rhoticity Pakian Eats: phomstogy 909 fora discussion of Rahman’s work on Pak, Nihal. Hosal and Tongue (1989) ‘lo do not list this vowel i their thle of "Educated Indian English’ monoph ‘hong. However, they do list the as low back vowel [3] in words suchas cor ad ‘caught Pakistani speakers in his study substitute [9] with ther tense mid back ‘owe, fan LOT ora tense mi-high back vowel, as in CLOTH (Se group below). is possible o explain the absence af he vowels [=] and [>] by looking atthe Urdu sowel system. Urdu doesnot ue either of these vowels sd ths stay bethe cas that PaKE spcake place these with Urdu vowels 2.12. Group2: vowels exhibiting variation ‘There was some variation in the vowels inthis groups realized by Pakistani speakers. These vowels are again grouped within the char a8 monophthongs and Aiphthongs and are listed in Table S below, While tis paper documents variation Inthe realization ofthese vowels in PaKE (of native speakers of Urdu), the range snd distribution of thes variations within the community has aot Been examined. Tale 3._Listof vores with variation among Pakistan speakers SQUARE eran 2 URE jvanjene~ ex ase ‘he vowel in FOOT varies berween a lax mid-high rounded back vowel, {0}, and «tease high rounded back vowel (Us). The wowel in BATH varies between a fense low back vowel, fa, and a lax. low front vowel, a. The vowel in CLOTH is eal ized a a tense mid back vowel, (2), a tense mid-high back vowel, [od © a ax ‘mig back sawel [3]. In all the doe cases here, i appears thatthe vowels vary1010. shmur Maki and Nara Hama Ahmar between & tense and la fom. tn ation, another eonsmonality Between the pronunciations of tose tree word shat, wile some speakers of PSKE use the same viel asin RP ators have a slighty raise variant The diphuborgs in EACE, GOAT, and GOAL in PaKE vary between a diphthong and 2 monophthong. Whereas Rahiran (1990: 25-26 and 90) soggest that ‘monophthongiscion is a general characterise (especially mn cae f [et - [ep lf Pak. data mere shows that there is varitam atos8 spears all he eases, ‘vo speakers (the same ones) uso a iphthong wile te other Four se enonoph- shone ‘The diphthongs and tephtnongs in SQUARE and CURE respectively vary be- tween being centring and closing, The centring diphihong in NEAR Vases ints point of origin. One of them arts fromm a mid-high vowel, i, nt he othe rom Amidlow vowel, e} 2.2. Consonants 221. Rhosiciy ‘Pak, based on the language samples collected, ay be labeled a roti variety of English [ris pronouncee i al contents, including after a vowel, by most speakers, Examples ofthis wee found in both the Sheed set and nthe passage: [ts] “orce" and [wore] war Postvocli is produced variably individual speakers did mot pronounce it all the time, However, the presence or absence off] was not categorical for any siven speaker. For example. he same speaker was observed to use|] instar cure and enter, but 0 deop tin force. The ues and tribution fr such varaion need tobe explored, Rati (1990) states that th degree of thot in Pak vatos based on soe linguistic factors. He claims that speakers ofan actolectal varity of PakE may’ oF ‘may not pronaunoe instances of postwocalie [However the exact istibution of tity within arolectal speakers of PaKE is noc discussed. He further sates hat rmesolctal and silos varies of Pak ae shoe ard speakers of thane viet. jes pronounce [rin all contexts. While it may be posible to Went subvarieties ‘of PakE using this terminology (a has been dove for other varieties of Enlish, {2g Singapofea}, we have avoided doing so, To dat, there ivory limited docu ‘meniation of the linguistic fesures of PakF (in any cil context) and therefore ‘ve fel that it isto carly to sab-catepotize PakE and atempr deserptions of pos sible sub-categories. Rahman's work s based on only 10 spake (fom various backgrounds), anc his datawascoifeted (rates anomalously) frm Pakistanis Tiving in the United Kingdom His study hs accordingly been severely enticized fra numberof reasons. PatictantEnlih: phonology 1011 2.22. Retmfleion of lt) and fd) PoE uses retroflex sons. The alveolar stops of other English dalets ae realize as [tf and ie), This use of retofer stops instead of RP alveolar stops is listed as ‘a example of series substitution’ by Kachru (1992: 62) and is este of South Asian English, Examples of use of rtrfex stops [and fn PakE ae: [stra “seu ad (pes) ress 224 [p}and fd} (demalizationy Pakistani sposkers used dente stops instead of the RP dental frcaivs, This change inthe manner of aiulaion i also cited as a feature of South Asian Eng- lish (Kacheu 1992-62). Examples of (and (g) in PakE are [ait] “north and {en} ther’ 224 Wand iw! Urdu doesnot have a phonemic dsintin between ‘and Ww! A pone dis- sinction hetween {¥} and [w] was not evident in PakE either. The (vo sounds wore realized as allophonss of fw An example of vation herween these sounds ‘was observed in the pronunciation of the word wind which was citer realized as [znd] or as (wn. Examples ofthe variation in use of V7} and [6] ate also foun in Rahman (1990). The use of [x] for {w] appears tobe a feature of South Asian English and is also discussed by Bhat (1998) and Sahgal and Agnibott (1988) among odes. Rahman (1990: 33) also discusses this feature in reference to Pusbto speakers Ie states that Pashto speakers do not ariulute[v] in ward final postions and ives the example of [uo] lov’ Rahman ites that this san intuence of Pashto, which also deletes (vin these ‘contexts, The realization of x} nd [in wer contents not discussed. 225. Clear fp Allreaizations of! were ‘lear’. Kasha (1992: 62) lists this asa eatre of South Asian English as well InP there i an allophonie distribution between clear and 2 dack [I] Vis realize as “dark’ or velrised [3] when itis in a word final position for when is followed by 2 consonant, is eared as [la “cea” ot alveolar (0, inal othe contexts. The following examples show tht Pakistan speakers do not exhibit his allophonic variation: [gol “goa” and (lv) ot “The absence ofthis allophonic vation in PakE-may be explined by looking a ‘Unda, wick doss not make a disintion between s dark and clear1012 thar Mokbved and adr Huma Anna A rumber of phonological features were observed in the data collected. While ‘we have desribed some of he key features bolow, these shouldbe considered preliminary findings and penealizations should be asotded. The ext distibu- tion ofthese features in PAKE and the contexts in which they operate need to be studied 3.1 Spelling pronunciation gemination ake: ends to use spelling aa uide to pronunciation, One manifestation ofthis ‘is inthe gemination of consonants based on spelling. For example, ll the speak- rs geminted the [] an the tin [cpp] happy’ an leat] Ker. Gemiation ‘was also tied in connected speech, For example, al speakers gemizated the {6 corsonant ns mmeditc (mu etl} However, exceptions to gersination ‘were also served in hs laguage samples, For example, obe regular exception ‘vas the word vray 3.2. Vowel reduction “Tho only instances of observed were in connected speech, In our analysis of ‘the passage, a6 read by the sx speakers, here were certain words in which an un- sessed vowel was systematically reduced 1 a schwa. Examples ofthese words include: () the indefinite atl (the dinitrile he (6) the past singular [RE form was; and (2) words with iil alike artempr. These words were predict ably pronounced ss [9 (Js, [s2] an [xtemp] respectively Based on the Tanguage samples, it appews that vowel reduction in PakE is limited to cern (erammatical) words an environments fst speech, rather than being a come late of uasessed syllables Its possible to explain this non-zeduction of unstressed vowels in terms of spelling pronunciation of PakE. A good example ofthis isthe pronunciation of (of RP speakers realize this word a fo) by reducing the vowel this word 8 ‘Schwa ana voieing the labiedenalfeatve. However, in PakE this word is eal ized as ff] based on the way iis spe 3.3, Bpenthesis (One of the most predictable coments where epenthess as observed was in & ‘consonant clases where the Fst consonant was voeeess sibilant and he see- fond consonant was a stop. Thus, soonger was pronounced [tstrxngar] and start was realized as [stat]. ess predictable context for epehesis was Between 1 voiced bilabial stop and an alveolar lateral appronimant. Thus, Blue was re- Pakistan English: phonology 1013 sourced bio} y sme ofthe speskers. Bath these cases of epee may be ‘splashy looking at Ur, which doesnot permit these consunant lasts aha (195031 gives examples rm spears of PaKE who speak Panjab 2 it anguage Such speakers fresh the consonant csr by serng a sort “al beracen the slant andthe Slop He gives the examples of [spi] “speak ssh ‘schoo (st) stl! coast, Paso speakers of Fish no ave ay problems with his com sonant ste ease Pus peat tee elses alan 1990: 33) 34. Aspiration Pakistan speakers donot aspirate stops in word intial position when they occur before a vowel Thus, the word Ai was realize as Tht, without an aspiration on [kj unlike RP (kt. Thisnom-eealeation of en allophonie dissibuton of voiceless Stops in Pek can be explained by looking at Urdu. Ur, ke many osher South Asan anguages, has a four-way phonemic contrast between voiced and voiceless Stops, and aspired and unaspirated stops. This phonemic comasis represented fn the orthography ofthe language. Ther is therefore 2 good cause for L1 infu- tence in English, with speakers testing sops in all positon as unaspirated, For furber discussion sce Keebra (1983: 29), 4. Prosodle features XKachru (1983) states tha it the non-segmental features of South Asin English (GASE) suchas sess and rhythm, rater than segmental features, that mark its tigueness le argues that while the segmental features of SAsE ar heavily aa- enced by mother tongues and may therefore be diferent between vacious speakers, ‘on-scgmenta features are shred. One othe primary examples given by him and other lingiss working on SASE ists stress pattern. Variation in sress betcen RP and SAsh (and lack of vowel reduction in SASE) also causes differences i the thm ofthe two vaietics. Research shows that the stress pattems of various subsvareties of SASE are comparable and that they do not soem to be influenced by the various fist lan- guages of ts speakers (Pickering and Wilshire 2000, In ther study, Pickering tind Wiltshire looked at SASE spoken by native speakers of Mindi/Urda, Bengal ‘and Tamil and found that there was no significant ference inthe Lexical stress ptr in the English spoken by speaker a these ce fanguages. This supports Kachru's claim hat SASE shares non-segmental features. Thus, the following de- sition of stress, based on studies of other South Asian dices of English, may ‘be used to describe PakE as well, since no independent reliable studies oF ses of| the lamer are curently availableVOLS Ana Maso and Nad Ham Amar Four dimensions of sts in SASE have heen sued: sylluble-sime, frequency, pitch nd ampli, 4.1, Syllable timing vs. sess imine 'SAsE, inca Paks descrihed 2 sslable-timed variety (Nelson 1982; Kae ‘hu 1983), Syllbls in Pak cur at regular intervals. Ths is ifferent fom ERP hich ie sres-imed with vation inthe lent of ables. The ational explanation fr this difference between RP and PakE is given in terms ofthe fst Janguage. Most South Asan languages, incloding Urdu, ae syllabletimed and therefore i conluded ht tis patter is adopted by Urdu speakers of English he sylable-timed rhyti of PaKE poes hand-in-hand with lik of reduction 42. Frequency, pitch nd amptinde Pickering and Wiltshire 2000) found that accented sylables were marked by @ lower frequorey as compared to unaccentod syllables in speakers of Indian Eng- lish, inching those of Hind’Urds. They find tis in contrast with American English and state (2000: 177), “compared to Afmercan) Flash, in which ac cented syllables have inseased frequency in these contents, {indian} English] Shows a distinct ase of «decrease in Fequency in accented slabs in similar contexts. This use of low frequency on accented sales can lso be found in Tndian languages, suggesing possible source”. Based on the use of Frequency to mark sues, Pickering and Willshze label South Asian English us “pitch ac- sent language, They use ne distinction beween pitchoaceen and astress-acent Jupguage and tate that the major marker of acent in South Asian English is pitch Pickering and Wiltshire aso find that unlike speakers of American Fnglish, Sout Asian speakers do not use amplitude to mark sess In conclusion, they ste (2000: 181) that “there are go difewnces between Ind and AmE inthe phonetic realization of word acct. First, AME isa stress accent language, and uses eues such as amplitude and duration as well a5 fe ‘queney, while End uses piteh-acent, and eles primarily onthe frequency to Indicate an accented syllable. Second, AmE indicates an accented syllable with & high trequeney, while Inde marks i with Tow" 5. Conclusion In this paper we have atompted 0 provide a bre overview of the history and phonology of PakE. However, the description of PakE phonology’ fr frm be- ig thorough. This is parly because no detailed studies of PakE phonology are ccarently avaiable. tn arer to compensate for this pap, this paper provides = Pakistan English: phonons VOLS ‘phonological analysis based ona sal language sample: Reseurch io World Eng lishes in gorerl and indian and Singaporean Enghsh in panicular hs shown 3 richness of sociological markings within sarites of English, PaKE, a6 living language isplays sich variations aswell. However, these variations have rot yet ben investigated. We hope that this paper wil motivate ings to explore these ‘rations an sty Pak in more dt Selected references Pease consul the Genera references for tiles mentioned in the text but ot in cluded in the references below. Foe Tl bibliography see the accompanying CD- ROM. Ai Ahmed {093 Eoplish in Sou Asia: A Wisovclpespective, In: Robot J. Bamgarper (o. The English Langage te Palcon, +12. Karat Onrd Univer Pr, Beumgander Robert 3. (od) WHS The Engh Language sn Potton. Kerth, Onfot: Oxford University rs, Baumgarer, Robor J 10951 The migration of English Pakistan I Rober J. Baumgarinc 6), The English Lannage tv Patan, I-54. Kircher Universi Pres, 29935 —_Unzing Pakistan newspaper Ergsh teat prarima. a: Bauru (oa). 285273, 1995. Prescripivism, Creativity, and World Englishes, World Kmglisher 14: 267. om. 2002 CH The wurdfocthook CIA. Rercved Decemher10, 200, om the Woe ‘Wide Web hp spice pubeton ebook 2OI2 Fiblogu: Languages of he worl SL Sbograghy: Remeved December 15,20, fom he Works Wide Wed hipoweplogus come sp ache, Beal 1992 The Other Tongues English Arne Cultures, bans: University of Mois Pro Nets, Ci 1083 nlighiiy and no-sative vases f English: Kae (S73, Pckoring, Lucy and Caraine Wasi "XK Pic accel Ina ghih caching scour Bnglhes 19 173- 1990" Patan plik: The Lingle Deron of « Now-atve Harey of English slab. National Isat of Pakistan Seaies Qi Aram Universi.O16 Ahmar Maktoob and Nada Hama Aimar Suhel, Anju and RK. Agni 1988 Indian Sel phonology: Asocilingus ppectve. English Mord. ide ost,