How to Design Electronics Circuits

eRddhi Publications

II
Copyright 2015 S Wanni Arachchige

, ,

.

IdedicatethisbooktomyeverlovingnephewsThusitha,
Kavindu,Hashitha,Praveen,andChamod.

................................................................................................................................................1
................................................................................................................................................2
.........................................................................................................................4
Value Series.........................................................................................................................................11
..........................................................................13
(tolerance)....................................................................................................................14
............................................................................................................................14
KVL................................................................................................................17
KCL...........................................................................................................19
..........................................................................................................................................22
Resistor Wattage.................................................................................................................................23
RMS ............................................................................................................................................24
.................................................................................................................................27
(potential divider)............................................................................................................29
......................................................................................................................................33
................................................................................................................................35
..........................................................................................................................................38
/...........................................................................................................................39
.....................................................................................................................................41
................................................................................................................................42
LDR......................................................................................................................................................42
.............................................................................................................................................47
...............................................................................................................................................50
(phase).................................53
..........................................................................................................................56
..........................................................................................67
....................................................................................69
............................................................................................................................69
.....................................................................................................................................76
..............................................................................................................................................78
.....................................................................................................79
(reactance).......................................................................................................................85
............................................................................................................90
........................................................................................................................................91
Q factor...............................................................................................................................................98
....................................................................................................................................100
.............................................................................................................111
(Impedance)....................................................................................................................113
Phasor diagram.................................................................................................................................117
................................................................................................................................................123
..........................................................................................................................................128
............................................................................................................................135
high order filter.................................................................................................................................139
Time delay circuit..............................................................................................................................146
DC AC Analysis Passive Active Devices.............................................................................151
..............................................................................................................................154
...............................................................................................................................156
 ...........................................................................................................169
..................................................................................................................174
...........................................................................................................................178
...................................................................................................................................178
...................................................................................................................................180
..................................................................................................................................181
...................................................................183
Mutually coupled coils......................................................................................................................184
Inductive coupling interference...................................................................................................186
Q factor..........................................................................................................................189
..............................................................................................................................190
..............................................................................................................................190
...........................................................................................................................191
LR circuit...........................................................................................................................................193
Power Factor (PF).............................................................................................................................197
LC Circuits.........................................................................................................................................202
............................................................................................................................................205
.............................................................................................................................208
RLC circuit.........................................................................................................................................214
LRC Q ...................................................................................................................216
Impedance triangle...........................................................................................................................218
Block diagram...................................................................................................................................225
....................................................................................................................................232
SWG AWG ............................................................................................................................233
..........................................................................................................236
..........................................................................................................240
H ().........................................................................................................241
Magnetic circuit ..................................................................................................................243
Hysteresis loop.................................................................................................................................247
.........................................................................................................................................250
...................................................................................................256
Gapped core inductor.......................................................................................................................257
.....................................................................................................................................265
Inductive kick....................................................................................................................................266
..........................................................................................................................................271
(differentiation)...............................................................................................................271
/......................................................................................................................275
..................................................................................................................................278

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, ,
. (I am very much grateful to the
original legal artists/owners of the illustrations and pictures that I have downloaded from the
Internet, and included in my books.)

,
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erddhipub@gmail.com

11, 2015

1

,
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,
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.
, (smart)
. . ,
();
(); ().
(power) .
, electrical .
.
/ / / .
( ).
/ .
(electrical signal) .
, electronics .
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, , , , ,
. .
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,
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,
/
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, . .
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. , ,

?
.
- SMD - (
) . SMD ,
- leaded () . (lead

2
 . .
, , .)

3

(charge) . (
) (static electricity) ,
. , ,
(electric current) ,
. .
(
). 1
.
, ,
(hole) .
(
).
(, / , )
,
. ; ;
. . -
. ( ?)
. , (vacuum)
( (LCD )
). ,

? (
).
(resistance)
. / .
(conductor) , (
) (insulator) .
.
(superconductor)
.
( ) .
.

. ,
. ,
.
(ohm) .
, ,
. , , ,
, . PCB
(prints) . ,
.

4
 ( ).
(resistor) .
.
,
R ( r) . .
.
(schematic symbol) .
.

? ,
.
(current) (electric potential)
( (voltage) ),
( )
. .

V=IR
, = x

,
. .
. ;
. . ,
. ,
/ ( ) ( )
. ,
( ,
) .

5
 . ,
.
, .
.
,
.
.
.
.
. 28 100
68 , 200 .
, .
.
?
70 .
. ,
,
.
(
) , /
. , (
). , /
. ,
/ .

.
, ? .
, , I = V/R
(
, , ).
, , V=IR ,
(
).
.
. ,
...
.
6 6
.
()
. ( .)

6
 ?
.
.
1.
. .
.
,
. , 4 6
.
. (
)
. .
. (
). .
.
2. ,

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,
.
60 .
, .
30 40 ,
?

/ .

. . ,
,
.
.
, . 12
. .
.
(,
). .

7
 6, drop
.
6 ?
. R
.
.
. .
, () .
()
. ()
.
( ,
). 1
. .
6 6 , 1
,
6V = R x 0.001A => R = 6/0.001 => R = 6000 ohms
, 6000 . 6 (6k)
. ,

. LED
? ( ) LED 2V , (12-2=) 10V
R . , LED 30mA
. V=IR
.
(10V) = (0.03A) x (R) ==> R = 10 /0.03 = 333 ohms

. ,
. , ,
. 10,000 (10,000 m)

8
0.000001 (0.000001 m) .
.
. SI multiples (prefixes) .
. .
kilo (k) = 103 1,000 milli (m) = 10-3 0.001
Mega (M) = 106 micro (u) = 10-6
Giga (G) = 109 nano (n) = 10-9
Tera (T) = 1012 pico (p) = 10-12
Peta (P) = 1015 femto (f) = 10-15
1000m 1km . 6000 ohm 6 kilo ohm
.
.
. ,
. . .
. .
.
(voltage source)
.
.
.
? V=IR , ,
. .
.
( ) ,
(short) . ?
( .)
. ,
( )?
.
() / ,
. /
. ,

. (load resistor) , RL
.

.
. ,
.
, ? .
. ,

(resistor series) .
.

9
 .
. ,
(
) ( ,
) .
. ; ,
.
,
. ,
?
? ,
.
. ,
, ,
.
10 ,
10.5 9.5 ,
. .

( ). 10%
.
. , 100
95 105
.


. .
( , 10%
1% tight ). , ,
.

.

testing calibration .
.
. ,
, , ,
. .
.
, ,
?
? , ?
. ,
?
.
. .

10


.

.
.
( ) .
. ,
, ITI .
.
( ).

(
).
. ,
.
()
. , (adjust/fine-
tune) .
(reference). , 5.000v reference
. , 4.654 ,
5.000v .
. , voltage
reference ( ).
.

Value Series
,

.
EIA (Electronic Industries Association)
(E6, E12, E24, E48, E96 ). (6, 12, 24
) ? . E
.

11
 100 1000
. E6
, , 100, 150, 220, 330, 470, 680 . 1,000
10,000 .
1000, 1500, 2200, 3300, 4700, 6800 . 10 100 , 10, 15,
22, 33, 47, 68 . 1-10, 10,000-100,000
?
E6 , .
. , 1900 ,
, 1500 2200
. .
, E12 . E6
12 (100, 120, 150, 180, 220, 270, 330,
390, 470, 560, 680, 820). , 1900
1800 2200 .
?
? ? E12, E24
. ( ). ,
,
( ).
( ).
E3, E6, E12, E24, E48, E96 .

12

. (color code)
. ,
. 4 5 6
. , . 12
. (-
----) ( 7
;
). ( 4 5
6 ).

. E12, E24
. ( E3, E6
?)
--- .
? .
? .
. ,
. . , .
,

13
 . () . ,
- 8
- 2
- 3 000
- 5%

(tolerance)
82000 82k .
.

. 100 10% .
, 100 10% ( 10 )
. , 100 ,
. , 100 100 , (100-5=)
95 (100+5=) 105 . , 82k 5%
. 82k 82000 . 5% 4100 . ,
(8200 (4100/2) = 82000 2050 =) 79950 (82000 + (4100/2) =
82000 + 2050 =) 84050 .
/ (tolerance) E-
. 20%, 10%, 5%, 2%, 1%, 0.5% .
5% . E ,
. , .
. E12 10% . E24
5% , E48 2% , E96 1%
.
. E48, E96, E192
. --
-- . ,
. . ,
5
- 2
- 1
- 0 0 , .
- 1%
521 ohm 1% .
, 1 (5210). ,
2 (52100). .
0 . .

.
. .

14
 (temperature coefficient) .
. 6
, 2 . 2 50 ppm/K
. .

. 10k 50 ppm/K . 10k
( 25 )
. , ,
10k 10,000 , 50
. , (10,000 /1,000,000)x50 = 0.5 ohm .
, 10k 0.5
ohm ( , 0.5ohm
, , 0.5ohm ).
20 , 0.5 x 20 = 2 ohm .

. ( .
, ,
PPM/K PPM/C .)
.
= ( ) x ( ) x ( ) / 1,000,000

.
. , -
, .
1. . , 1000 10
. .
, 10 1000+10 (=1010),
1000-10 (=990) . , /
. 100010 (990 1010 ) .
2. . , 1000 10%
. 1000+10% (=1100)
1000-10% (900) 100010% (900 1100 )
.
3. PPM (parts per million), PPB (parts per billion), PPT (parts per trillion) .
, ppm
.
.
.
/ . , 100
PPM/K . /K
.
, .
.

15
 . .
,

( ). , 273 .
273 27000 ohm = 27k
, 3 ,
() . ,
7992 79900 ohm = 79.9k
, . , k
M R . k ,
M , 1000 R (Resistor) . ,
79.9k 79k9
0.1 ohm 0R1
, .

A B C D F G J K M
0.05% 0.1% 0.25% 0.5% 1% 2% 5% 10% 20%

,
7992 J = 79k9 J = 79.9 kilo ohms (5% )
.
( ppm/K ).

U S R Q P Z M K
250 100 50 25 15 10 5 1

EIA EIA-96
. E96 (
96 ).
. .
.

Z Y/R X/S A B C D E F
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000

. . E96
96 .
. . . 01 96
.

16
Code Value Code Value Code Value Code Value Code Value Code Value
01 100 17 147 33 215 49 316 65 464 81 681
02 102 18 150 34 221 50 324 66 475 82 698
03 105 19 154 35 226 51 332 67 487 83 715
04 107 20 158 36 232 52 340 68 499 84 732
05 110 21 162 37 237 53 348 69 511 85 750
06 113 22 165 38 243 54 357 70 523 86 768
07 115 23 169 39 249 55 365 71 536 87 787
08 118 24 174 40 255 56 374 72 549 88 806
09 121 25 178 41 261 57 383 73 562 89 825
10 124 26 182 42 267 58 392 74 576 90 845
11 127 27 187 43 274 59 402 75 590 91 866
12 130 28 191 44 280 60 412 76 604 92 887
13 133 29 196 45 287 61 422 77 619 93 909
14 137 30 200 46 294 62 432 78 634 94 931
15 140 31 205 47 301 63 442 79 649 95 953
16 143 32 210 48 309 64 453 80 665 96 976

49B 31600 ohm = 31.6k

E96 . 1% . ,
SMD
( ).
.
.
- (series) (parallel).
,
.
,
( ) .
.

KVL
. ,
( ) ,

. .
/ .

17
 ,
. ,

. , 100 10
, 100 . ,

RT = R 1 + R 2 + R 3 +
. ,
.

.

(supply voltage - VS) .
(Kirchoffs Voltage Law KVL) (
Kirchoffs Loop Law ). ,
.

R2 (V2)
. KVL , 100 = 40 + V2 V2 = 100 40 = 60V .

18
 ()
, () .
.

() .
() Kirchoffs Loop Law .
,
.

( rules of thumb ).
, 10%
, . , 100k 5k
, 5k 100k 10%
100k .
( ) 10% 1%
.

( ) .
, . ,
V = V1 + V2 + V3 IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 IR = I(R1+R2+R3) R = R1 + R2 + R3

KCL
( )

, .
.

19
 , /
( ). .
,
.
(Kirchoffs Current Law KCL) . Kirchoffs Node
Law . .
, KCL .
( " ") (node) . ,

.

, KCL .
I1 + I2 = I3 + I4 + I5
, I3 + I4 + I5 - I1 I2 = 0 .
I3 . KCL , I1 = I2 + I3 .
2 = 4 + I3 I3 = 2 4 = -2 . 2 .
I3 . .

1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 +

.
100 10 ,
10 .
.
,
. ,

20
I = I1 + I2 + I3 V/R = V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3 V/R = V(1/R1+1/R2+1/R3) 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
10% ( ) . ,

10% ,
( ).
10%
.
.
.
10% .

10% .
5% , 10%
,
. 10% 5%
. 1% .
.
( / ).
(heat energy) /.
. (heat dissipation)
. . ,
? (
, , .)
,
; ,
.
, ()
(
). , , ,
. .
, .
. .
ideal () . ,
. . .
, ,
.
,
.
. .
.
. ,
. ()
. . ( ).
;
. ,

21

( ).
, ,
.
,
. . ,
(wastage)
.
.
. . .
. .
. .
, ?

, ()
. .
R I
, P .
(power) .
(Js-1) (W) . ( , 40W
, 40 .) (Joules
Law) .

P = I2R
.
, .
, . ,
(unit current) ;

; , ()x() .
.
.
.
P = VI
,
. V
V=IR . ,
P = VI = (IR)(I) = I2R
, P=VI I .
P = VI = (V)(V/I) = V2/I

22
 , .
( , V, I P=VI , I,R ,
P=I2R , V,R , P=V2/R ).
P = VI = I2R = V2/R
, 10k 10mA ,
.
P = I2R (0.01)2 x (10000) = 1W .

Resistor Wattage
.
.
.
. ( 0.25
(), 0.5 (), 0.75, 1, 2, 10 ).
.
. ,
.
.
. ()
.
?
? . ( )
( ) . ,
( I2R ). , R
.
. ,
. R . ,
. , .
. , 1 100
0.5 50 .
, 25 4 .
.
. (steady)
, P=I2R
. ()
( ).

23

. 0 2 .
,
?

, . ,
.
, .
.
. ? (
) , ?
.

RMS
. ,
?

24
 . ? ?
() ? , ? RMS
(Root Mean Square) . rms
.
.
(peak
current - IP) 1.414 . ( 0.707 ; 0.707
1.414 (inverse) - , 0.707 = 1/1.414) 1.414 2 ,
2 .
rms (Vrms) . (peak voltage
VP) 1.414 Vrms .
230V rms .
(Vp) 325V ?
40 . Irms .

.
, (peak
value) . IP ,
VP . rms Vrms Irms .
p, rms subscript .
p pk .
peak-to-peak pp
. .

rms
, .
rms .
.

25
/
. ,
? .
rms . rms .

rms .
, ,
.
( V=IR P=VI ). rms
. rms .
. rms
.
.
rms . Peak Watt, PMPO Watt ,
, .
. -
5 ; 30
. rms
; peak power
.
.

26

.
. Carbon composition resistor, Carbon film resistor,
Wirewound resistor, Metal film resistor .
. .

. .
( ) .
. .

( pulse surge )
. .
.
, .
noise . ( .)
, ()
. .
(path) .
.

.
.
( ).
( ; ).
()
. ( )
.
( ).
. .
, ,
( ;
). 0.5pF . ,
() (0.01uH 1uH ).

27

( ).
.
. ,
.

.
.
. (
; 20ppm/K ; ).
(surge/pulse)
.
.
.
,
.
Metal oxide film resistor . ( )
.
.
. (
). .
.
, .
( ). ,
(5ppm/K ). .
(precision resistor) .
. ,
.
.

28
 .
() (power resistor)
. .
, .
. ( )
, 50
.
. (high frequency)
, .
.
, .
.
(stray)
(parasitic) . , stray
capacitance parasitic capacitance , stray inductance
parasitic inductance .

(potential divider)
,
. /KVL
.
. ,
() ( )
/.
. . Vin R1, R2
. , .
0V .
( ) Vout
.

29
 . Vin = 12V , R1=R2=10k , Vout .
. , 12
.
, .
. ( KVL
?)
.
. .
. R1 6V , R2 6V .
, R1=1K R2=2K ,
(1:2) . R1 4V , R2 8V .

.
.
.
.
VR2 = Vin x (R2/(R1+R2))
. ()
. .
.
?
. 36 12 ,
R1, R2 ?
Vout = Vin (R2/(R1+R2)) 12 = 36(R2/(R1+R2)) 12/36 = R1/(R1+R2)
36/12 = (R1+R2)/R2 4 = (R1+R2)/R2 4(R2) = (R1+R2) 3(R2) = (R1)
3(R2) = (R1)
. R2 R1 .
, R2 = 2k , R1 = 3 x 2k = 6k .
. , R1 R2 , R1
.
3:1 ,
R2 12 . 6k 2k
600k 200k 300k 100k .

30
 ?
,
.
. /
.
. Vin = 36V, R1=6k, R2=2k . 36 . ,
. V=IR
.
V = IR Vin = I (R1+R2) 36 = I (6000+2000) = I (8000)
I = 36/8000 = 0.0045 Amp = 4.5 milliAmpere
, 4.5 .
(, R1=600ohm, R2=200ohm),
, 45 (
).
. ,

. 24V 3 6 12
?
. .
.
.
Vin , (, , )
/ , R1, R2
. R2
() / (
) .
. , /
R2 .
10% . , ,
.

?
. .
( )
.

31

.
. ?
(
) . R2
. .
( )
, R2 . R1
R2 , R2
. , ,
. , 1:1 , Vin=12V ,
6 R2 .
R2 , (R2 ) R2
( ,
; 1/Rt = 1/R1 + 1/R2 ). 1:1
1:0.5 2:1 . R2
4 . . 6 6
.

.
.
,
. ,
. R1
R2 . R2
. V=IR , I ,
.
,
( R2 10% ). ,
? ( )
() R2 .
. , R2 10%
. R2 10
?
.
()
. .
/ ,
( ,
; ).
( ). ,
(circuit design) .

32

.
; ()
.
(V), (I), (P) .
P=VI .
/ , / (
).
? , .
, . ?
() , .
(
); ; .
.
( FET transistor).
( BJT transistor). ().
,
. ,

. ,
.
. ,
;
;
. (
) .
.
; .
,
. ,
.
, ,
. ,
(output) .
, .
. ,
( ) ,
(,
) .
. .
. ,
() .

33
 .
, (, )
( ) . 10%
.
. -
10% .
. . R1, R2
. R1 R2
, R2 .
R2 , R1 R2 ? R1=100 ohm
, R2= 1000 ohm . , 11 , 1:10
10 R2 .
? 1:100 (, R1=10, R2=1000 ), . R2
10.9 . .
. , .
? ,
.
(I=V/R ).
.

.
.

( ). R1
R2 . ?
.
. R1 R2
. 10% . R1
10% R2 .
. .
.

/ .
(P=VI).
.
,
; ; .

34
 ?
. (
; ).

. . .
,
. .
.
( ) ? ,
V=IR ( V=I x 0 = 0). ,
P=VI ( 0 )
P = VI P = ( ) x ( ) = 0
.
() . , V=IR ,
. . , P=VI ,
P = VI P = ( ) x ( ) = 0
.
.
(R1 = R2). .
() / (match) .
/
.
, .
,
.
.
.
,
. circuit loading
. .

.
.
.
,
.

(fixed resistor) .
, .
,
. ,

35
 25k, 100k
. (variable resistor)
. . potentiometer ( pot
potmeter) , preset .

. (spindle shaft).
rotary pot .

. .
knob .

, (slide) . slider
.
. .
. fader .

( 270
250 ) . single-turn pot
. 10 20
(multi-turn pot) .

.
, . ,
.
.
.
, ,
resolution .

36
 , . , ,
.
(adjust/fine-tune) .

ganged potentiometer ( dual gang pot) .

,
( 6 ).
. ,
gang slider pot .

concentric pot .
/ .
;
. (
).

( 6
). .

37
 .
, .
.
, . ;
( )
. ( )
wiper .

,
, Rheostat . ,
. , . ,
.
(
, ).

.
.
.
. . 1k () .
LED 2V, 30mA .
? (12-2)/0.03 = 333ohm .

38
 . .
. Vout
.

/
. taper law
. (rotate) (slide)
. (
) . Linear () Log ()
.
.
, .
. 200 , 0 100k
. , , 100k/200 = 0.5k
500 ( ,
).
; , -
, .
,
, .
, .
.
. ()
. , 0.1 , 1 (
), 10 ( ),
100 .
,
. , ,
.
Lin B .
, Log A .
.
.

39
 .
.
.
. , ?
. 10
. 10
? 100 .
( )
?
. .
,
.
.
, .
, antilog (inverse log)
.
( ). (
tone controllers
.
(bass), (treble) .)

.
?
.
. ,
.

40

( ) ,
. . trimmer,
trimpot . .
. .
. .
; .

.

, (aging)
.
.
. , ,
. ,
150 . , 100 100
.
, 100 50 150
. ( ) .
155 ,
150 .
140 ,
.
( ).
150 150 100
. ,
150 , 0 . 155

.
( ) ,

? ()
. .
.

41

,
. ,
.

LDR
. -
(photoresistor) (Light Dependent Resistor LDR)
. .

(CdS),
(PbS), (CdSe) .
( 500k ohm ) . ,
( 500 ). ,
( )
. (
) , / (
) . ,
( ).
latency . LDR .

. .
.
/ .
------ .
.
. , 700
, / 400
( ;
). .
, ( ) .

42
LDR ,
.
( )
.
. , (trigger)
. ,
.
.
LDR (
).

LDR .
10k .
.
15k LDR 30k
(2:1 ). B Vin
. LED .
LDR . ,
300k . 10:1 .
B Vin
. LED .
?
LDR 10k+10k ? ( )
15k 30k .
1:2 . B LDR
. Vin .
(
? ). .
LDR 300k . 1:10
. , LDR ( ) .
. , LDR
. LDR ,
.

43
 (configuration) ;
. ,
?

LDR (non-linear)
. ?
/ / . ,
LDR / / .
(variable) . (
) (independent variable)
, (dependent variable)
. LDR , ,
.
. . ,
(x , y ).
. (function)
( y = x, y = 2x, y = x4, y = 5x2 + 6x, y = 9x4 + 2
). (linear)
. .
Y = mX (m ;
). (
). /
.

44

. ,
(exact) (approximate)
.
,
.
LDR , (
), = 4()2
. ,
.

.
.
LDR ( )
.

, . LDR
.
.
/ .

. . ,
. ,
. , =
4()2 . process
.
1. .
2. .
3. 4 .
.
. .
algorithm () .
.
.
, ,
. (
;
). ,
0 100 , 104 -10
.

. ()
. lookup table .
,
.

45

0 2k
1 2.2k
2 2.25k
3 3k
4 3.1k
5 4k
6 5k
7 5.4k
8 6k
9 6.6k
10 7k

0 10 1
.
.
( 0.1 0.01 )
. mapping
association .
. , 2.25k
2 . , ,
. (
.) ( ).

?
.
.
(
). photodiode, phototransistor
.

46
 . (
).

. thermistor (thermal +
resistor = thermistor). : NTC thermistor, PTC
thermistor . NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient)
; (
). PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient)
; . . -to
+to .

. .
. ,
.
(
) .
. NTC ,
. -90
.
. .
.
,
. , 100 102
. ( ,

.)
PTC . silistor
. , .
, PTC . ,
,
.
(critical temperature Tc) . PTC switching
type . -
.

47

(
).
. sensing mode zero-power mode
.
,
, .
self-heating effect (
) . - .
( ) ,
. ,
,
(PTC ), .
(current regulation) .
,
? self-heated mode
.
(
) . Thermocouple .
. , ()
,
( ). thermoelectric effect ( )
. (
.)

48
 ,
. .

, Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) .

;
. RTD NTC
.

49

. varistor VDR (Voltage Dependent
Resistor) . ,
.
? .
.

.

. ,
. threshold voltage breakdown voltage
( ) clamping voltage .
. .

(characteristic curves/graphs) .
.
(ZnO) , (SiC) . (
) MOV (Metal Oxide Varistor)
. .
.

50

300 . .
. (
) 0 (
; ).
.
300
. . ;
, 200
, . .
.
; (
) 400 .
/ .
;
standby current .
, ;
peak current .
( ).
(
) . pulse (
surge shock) . (
)
.
.

( ).
( ) , .
, .

51
, . ()
( ).
maximum pulse energy joule rating
.
. .
,
.
( ).
( shunt
). Load .

. .
. .

. .
.
( ). , .
.
. .
/
.
,
. , .
? 10%
, . , /
100 , 90 ,
. , ,
. ,
.
,
. .
. ,
. (
) .
? (
; .
,
.) .

52

(phase)
,
. , 100
10 , 0.1 100 .

. (phase) .
.
(steady)
. ,
. , x

. .

100 .
. 5 . ,
? (V=IR) , 5/100 0.05 . ,
. ,
. - ,
.

53
 x y .
x y .
(
). y
.
. . (
y ). ;
.

x . ,
( ) ( ).

( x ) . y .
,
( ).
. ,
.
. ,
?
0 , 0 ;
, ; ;
, ;

54
 (
). (phase
difference) . - (in-phase).
. , -
. , -
. . ,
. -
.
.
?
P = I2R = V2/R = IV .
-
. - . ,
, . ,
P = VI = ( ) x 0 = 0 .
. . ,
?
. . -
.
(). .

55

( )
/ . capacity .
( ) /
. capacitance
( ) . ( )
. capacitor condenser
( ).
.

?
,
.
( ) -
, . ,
.
. .
(
). .
, ,
.
. (Alternating Current) .
, x , ()
x
. x
. / .

. , .
.
.

56
 .
, (steady DC). 5 ,
5 ( ).
.

( )
. , x
( ) , .
. . ,
. x . (x
y 0 ; .)

.
. .
,
?
?

. .
.
.
, sandwich ?

57

.

, . (metal plate)
.
/ dielectric .

.
.

,
(
).
.
C
. , C
. ( )
.
C ,
.
? D . . C
, . ,
. D
(
).
, . D .
.
. C
, D
. , -Q ,

58
 +Q ( ) .
/ .

(polarization) .
(//) ,
(pole) . , .
.
, (electric field) .
,
. (
) ( ).

. , .
( ) ,
. C
. / .
, .
C ,
. C
D ()
. .
,
. .

.
; .
,
( ). -2V , C
-2V . , .
, ,

59
 .
. (,
) ?
.

.

. ,
. (
C , D
) .
.
.
,
.
, . (
, -
- .) C
. ,
.
. discharge .
C -5V . -1V
. , -5V -1V .
0V , 0V ? . 0V
().
.
. ,
.
.
,
. .
.

60
.
,
.
( ) ,
( ,
).
, . (
?)
. , ,
.
. ,
.
? / ,
,
( ).
, Farad (F)
. ,
. ,

. ,
Q = CV , () = ()( )
() ;

.
. , . ,
, .
.

. (mF),
(uF), (nF), (pF) .
,
. .
. ,
() . ,
( ).

61
 ( ).
.
,
(
).

.
. .
, .
(rechargeable battery) ?

(
).
.
.
.
.
( ) .
W = CV2 ( ) = ()()2
, Q=CV .
W = CV2 = Q2/C = QV

.
.
Q = CV
(t) , dQ/dt = C(dV/dt)
dQ/dt . , I = C(dV/dt)

62
P = VI ,
P = (V)(C(dV/dt)) P = CV(dV/dt) P dt = CV dv

,
P dt= CV dv
(W). ,
W = CV2
. .
. , Q
QV . V ,
0 . .
(average voltage) .
, ( + )/2 = (V+0)/2 = V/2 . ,
W = (Q)(V/2) = QV .
, 1 10
?
W = CV2 = (0.000001)(102) = 0.00005 J .
50 . , .
. ( )
. , (
) 10 (
10 ).

. ?
.
10 0.00001 .
, ( 0.00001)/( 0.000001) =
10 10 .
. (AA) 10
; (
). .
. .
50 . 100
. , .
100 50 0.00005 .
, = (0.00005)/(0.0000001) = 500 .
500 500 . ?
500 , , 50 .
50
? . .

. , ,
(

63
 ).
. ,
, (
).

.
.
. ,
?
, ( ,
).
. .
. 100 (100MW) .
100 . 100 x 60 x 60 Mj
360 . .
,
. , 10
, 1000 (100,000,000 x 0.00001).
1000 .

. (frames) 100
.
. ,
. .
.
. , .
.
( ) .
,
.
.
. ( ;
;
.)
( )
. ,
0.1 ,
, (0.001)(0.0001)(5) = 0.0000005 500 .

(ideal capacitor) .
.
/ .
.
. .
.
?

64
 ?
. (stray)
.
.
, .
.
( )
/ .
.
?
.
.
. (
/ ).
/, .

. .
,
.
.
( )
(
). ,
. ,
.

, . ,

. .

.
(d) . ,
. , .
, (A) ,
.

65
; ()
. ,
.
. ,
( ) (,
),

(overlap) . ,
. .
(permittivity) .
.
.
= ( )( )/( )

. . 100
, .

.
. ,
. ,
()
. .
. 8.85 x 10-12 Farad/meter .
.
E ,
. 0 .
() .
(absolute permittivity) . ,
,
. (relative permittivity) .

. , r
.
. = ( . )/( . )
r = /0 . ,
r0 ?
.
.
.

66
 . ,
(dielectric) / .
?
?

.
. .

1/CT = 1/C1 + 1/C2 +

, .
, 100 ,
10 , 100 x 10 = 1000
. ,
1000 , 500 ,
?
.
1000 1u . 1000
; 500 .
1u . 500v, 2u
? , 100 10u
.
.

67
 . , (
),
. ,
, . ,
, 1000 9
. , (1000/9=) 111 ( (111-
100=) 11 ). 100
. .
.
, 75% 50%
. ,
100 , 50
. , 1000 20
(10 ) . ,
( 100
50 ). ,
, (
(50/19=) 2.5 ). ,
( 50 , 100
).
2.5 52.5 .
100
.

? (proof) ? .
. KVL . ,
.
Q=CV .
() . ? .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

? . ,
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 +
(Q=CV V=Q/C) , Q/CT = Q/C1 + Q/C2 + Q/C3 +
1/CT = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3 +
, 10% .
.

68


. ,
. .
, .
.
,
(
).
.

CT = C1 + C2 +
?
. .
, .
, .
,
. ,
. ,
. Q=CV
. ,
QT = Q 1 + Q 2 + Q 3 +
(Q = CV ) CTV = C1V + C2V + C3V +
CT = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...

. .
. . ,
. .
p .
n , u . ,
. , 4.7u 4u7 .

69
 , .
. 5
. .
. ,
.
. ,
,
.
.
. , ,
. .
( ).
8 , ,
0.01 . , 9 ,
9 0.1 .
/ .
.
() . 10
, 10
.
, . (bands)
(dots) .
, .
.
.
.

70
71
72

. , ,
, () .

73
 .
, .
. (
). , , ()
8 , 8 ,
0.01 . , 9 ,
0.1 . .
.
.
.
, .
. , , p, n, u
.
.

74

132 numeric code , XYS
letter/alphabetic code , 132F
alphanumeric code .
,
. SMD .
, ()
.

75
 .
.
, , . ,
.
( , , , ,
; SMD
.)
.
. E12
. 10% . 20%
E6 5% E24 .
.
.
.
.
. .
,
.
( ).
. .

, (variable capacitor) .
(fixed capacitor) .

.
tuning capacitor .
.

(spindle)
. .
. .
. ,
.

.
. , (

76
 ). ,
. ,
.
, , .
( ,
.
.)

, .
? .
.
; .
,
. . . 10
. ( ) .
30mm . ,
?

( - )
. , , .
(ganged capacitors) .
. -
.
.

77

, .
.
. trimmer trimming capacitor
. ,
. ,
, .
, ,
.
.

/ ?
/ .
. /
.
. .

.
.
.
? (,
.)
( ). ,

. , ( )

( ).

78
 , padder padding capacitor .

/ ?
.
. , . varicap
.
. .

. ,
, /
. .
.
.
. .
.

.
( 3 ).

1. .

.
, .

2. ( ) .

.
; .
(continuously) .
x x ,
( ) , x
, ()
. x
x (pulsating DC) .
x
, .

79
 (perfect) /
. /
.
Fourier transformation/analysis
.

,
(distortion) .
.

, , / .
/ .
; .
.

.
(alteration) . . , (
) . (
). (amplification)
. , .
. attenuation de-amplification
.
. .

80
 .
,
.

?
. ( ) .
.
.
.
.

. .
.
, .

. , ,
? .

81
 .
// . ,

. .
(
). //
. ,
.

.
, ( )
. ,
(noise) .
/
.

.
.
, . ,
.
. ,
, , .
.
,
?

82
 .
,
-.
. (
? .) ( )
- .
.

- . 90 .
/ .
(voltage lags current) . ,

83
 (Current leads voltage) .
. (
?)

.
. A . B
.
90 .
, , 90 ?
90 .
. 90
.

?
. .
.
.
.
() . .
, ,
. , .
.
.
.
?
. ,
. ( )
.
. ( ) /
. ,
. .

84

.
, .
90 .
. .
( ).
,
.
.
. . x
/
. x
-
? . x
. .

. x
.
. .

(reactance)
, . , (ideal)
.
, .
;
. (reactance Xc) .
R , X .

85
 . .
X c (capacitor )
. X
L .

. ,
,
/ . V=IR (V=IX) .
.

3.1416 . f
C . , 50
1 ,
? , 1/(2 x 3.1416 x 50 x 0.000001) = 3200 ohms .
, 3.2
. , ,
. 90
.

. (differentiation)
.
( ) ,
.
.

( ) ( /
). (y ) +1 -1
( y = sin(x) ). +1 -1 ,

. , y = Asin(x) (A
). .

, Q = CV .
(t) , (dQ/dt) = C(dV/dt) .
(dQ/dt) / (I). , I = C(dV/dt) . (a)
, V = Vosin() = Vosin(wt) . (w = /t )
, (dV/dt) = wVocos(wt) .

86
 (a) (dV/dt) , I = C(wVocos(wt)) .

sin(wt) cos(wt) .
.
. ,
.
V
I = wCV I =
1
( )
wC

I = V/R ? (1/wC)
? (
, .) ,
w ( ) = 2 f (f ).
, = (1/wC) = 1/( 2 f C) . ,
. ,

, X = 1/( 2fC) .

(dQ/dt) = I = C(dV/dt) ,
.
. . , (dV/dt)
.
. , ,
, . , .
; .
0
. (dV/dt) .
.

V = Vosin(wt) I = CwVocos(wt) ,
.
. ,
. ,
90 (, cos(x) = sin(90+x) ).
.
.
, 90 .

, I = C(dV/dt) , (dV/dt)
, ,
? .

87
 .
() .
.

.
.
, ,
( ).

. 100 (
/) 10
1 .
. 1/(2 x 3.1416 x 100 000 x 0.000000001) = 1600 ohm . V=IR V=IX
, . I=V/X = (12Volt)/(1600ohm) =
0.0075A 7.5 .

3.

.
.
( ) .
?
() A B, C, D, E
(
(superposition) ).
.

/ ,
.
.

88
 ( ) ( )
( ) . .
.

? .
. (
). .
()
.

. a 100 1/(2 x 3.1416 x
100 x 0.000000001) = 1600 1.6 . b
1/(2 x 3.1416 x 200 x 0.000000001) = 800 . , c

89
 200 d 50 .

. ,
1600 ,
. , 200 ,
.
.
?
, ? (
; .)

(, , ) ,
. ,
, .
(P=VI ) .


,
.
.
()
. ,
() .

? (
.)

(
). .
. .
.

90
 . ( )

. ,
.

, .
.
.
10 ,
5 . (
).
. . .

. ?
, .
.
. ; , ;
, ?
. , .

( )
. (
) (time
constant t) . ,

t = RC

.
.

91
 (exponential function) .
. ,
63%
. 9 .
9 63% 5.67 (9x63% =
9x63100=5.67). ,
63% . 0 5.67 .
, 9 37%
3.33 . 3.33 63% (3.33
63% 2.1 ). 2.1
5.67 . ,
5.67+2.1 = 7.77 .
(9 - 7.77= 1.3 ). 1.3 63%
0.82 .
7.77+0.82=8.59 . (9-
8.59=0.41 ) . 63%
8.83 . ,
(9-8.83=0.17) .
(
)?

. 10
.

92
 . ... .
.
? .
. 10
. 5 .
5 . ...
2.5 . , 2.5 .
. , 1.25 .
(, , ) ,
? . 0
. .

.

.
(63% ). 5
. . 5
99% .

, 4
( 98%
). 5 , 4
. ;
.
95% . .
. ( ) ,

93
 ?
(
). 60% .
.
.

1. ( 50% )
0.7( ) (0.7RC).

2. 10% 90% 2.2(

) . .
.
( .)

3. 5 .

. .
.
( ) 37% .
, 0
. 5 ( 4
) . 1 3
. , 100%
37% . 13.7% ,
5% , 1.9% , 0.7%
.

, ?

94
 (
). .

.
e / ( ex )
. A . (
; (VS)
.) R C . t ( )
, V ( ).
. (
.
, .
.)

V = Ae-t/(RC) (A = VS)
RC t ? -t/(RC) = -1 . e-1 .
1/e ( ). e 2.7183 . , 1/2.7183 = 0.37 .
37% . 37% .
. VS .
. ,
. VS .

V = VS(1 - e-t/(RC))
1 0.37 = 0.63 . 63% . 63%
. Q=CV
.
.
. /
.

( )
.
-
.

(
). , /
, / .

.
; .

95
. .
.
, (
).

/ .
? .
,
.

( )
.
. .
.

, .
dielectric strength . breakdown voltage .
(V/m) . , ()
3,000,000 3 (3MV/m) .
(mica)
120MV/m . ,
120,000,000 .

( ) . ,
( ).

.
.

96
 .
. , ,

.
.

(spark) .

. 10
/ . , 120,000,000 , 10
0.00001 ? 120,000,000 x 0.00001 =1200 Volt .
(
).
1200 . 1um ,
120V .
240 ?
.
. ; . 10um
, 30 ?

, .

. ;
/ . ,
.

. ,
(polarization)
. (
); . (
).
( ).
, .
.
.
.
. ?
. .
(
).
( ). ,
. , .

97
 . ,
. .

. (
)? ,
.
dielectric loss . (
) .

/ . .
, .
. ,
.
.
.
,
( ). ,
.
(skin effect) .
/ ,
.
.
.
.
.
(
).

Q factor
, Q factor
. Quality factor Q
. . Xc
, Rc ( ) .
ESR (Equivalent Series Resistance) (
). .
. Xc , Rc
. Rc
. Rc Q . Q Xc
Rc . Xc

98
 .
. (
) . Rc
. ,
. Rc ,
. . smd
(
).

Q = Xc/Rc

, Xc = 1/( 2fC) , .

Q = 1 / 2fCRc

, , ,
, ?
,
?
1000 Q .

(
). ,
,
(, x , Q y )
.

. 10u Q (1KHz) 16000 . 10000

10,000,000 .
Rc . , Rc = 0.001 Ohm ( ).
Rc ,
Q , .
10000, 50000, 100000, 500000, 1000000, 5000000, 10000000 .

.

99

.
. .
50 (1KHz) . 50
2% . (Xc 50 Rc 1
, Xc 100 , Rc 2 . 2% .)
.
( ); (MLCC) .

Dissipation Factor (DF) , Q Factor

. DF loss tangent . ,

DF = 1/Q

. ,
, () . ,
.
,
? ,
.

, ,
. .
(, , ) .
.

100
 . ,
;
; ;
( ) .
. ,
. .
( ).
( ).
. .

,
. Film capacitors .
()
( ).
,
() .
film/foil , metalized . /
. /

. (polymer)
. .
. ,
.
.

. , /
.
power capacitors ( ) . - 200
(200 VA) ( -
).

, .
.
(low noise) .
. /
( ) .

.
( ).

.
.

101
 .
.

self-healing .

.
.
. -
( ).

. polypropylene (PP), Polyester
(PET), Polyphenylene Sulfide (PPS), Polyethylene Naphthalate (PEN)
. .
, smd
( smd
).
smd .

50%
. .
, (
).
.
smd . Class 1, Class 2
/. 1 .
2 .
2 .

. ,
, , ()
. .
EIA IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission)
.
.

EIA , .
2 EIA . / 3 .
,
.
. / .

102

X = 55 C (67 F) 4 = +65 C (+149 F) P = 10%
Y = 30 C (22 F) 5 = +85 C (+185 F) R = 15%
Z = +10 C (+50 F) 6 = +105 C (+221 F) S = 22%
7 = +125 C (+257 F) T = +22/33%
8 = +150 C (+302 F) U = +22/56%
9 = +200 C (+392 F) V = +22/82%

X7S 2 ,
-55 +125 ,
22% .
.

2 , 1
.
. ,
. , , . ,
, . , . (
.)
2 1 .
/ (stability)
. , 2 1 .
1 ( ) 2
.
1 .

1 2
. ( )
1 .

103
 1 2
. 1 ()
.

, 2 microphony ( microphonics)
. piezo-electricity
.
, .
/ (,
). ,
,
,
. () (
,
, ).
, .
; . ,

104
 .
; , / .
. (
). 1
; 1
.

IEC 2 3 .
. ,
.

2B = +10/15% 1 = 55 +125 C
2C = +20/30% 2 = 55 +85 C
2D = +20/40% 3 = 40 +85 C
2E = +22/70% 4 = 25 +85 C
2F = +30/90% 5= (-10 +70) C
2R = +15/-15% 6 = +10 +85 C
2X = +15/25% -

2E6 , +10
+85 , +22/-70% .
. /
( ) 22% ,
70% . 100 ,
30 122 . .
EIA . EIA Z5U
IEC 2E6 .

1 (, , , ,
). ;
. 2 , 2
. EIA
. ppm/C .
.
25 85
(
).

105
 25 85

106/K
C = 0.0 0 = -1 G = 30
B = 0.3 1 = -10 H = 60
L = 0.8 2 = -100 J = 120
A = 0.9 3 = -1000 K = 250
M = 1.0 4 = +1 L = 500
P = 1.5 6 = +10 M = 1000
R = 2.2 7 = +100 N = 2500
S = 3.3 8 = +1000
T = 4.7
V = 5.6
U = 7.5

, P3K . P 1.5
, 3 -1000 . ,
-1500 ( ,
). K 250 . C0G
(, 0.0 x -1 = 0) , 30 .

1 IEC .
1 .
N P . N , (negative) ;
P (positive) .
. , N32
-32 (-32ppm/K) . NP0 .
; ; N, P
.

SMD . ()
, (layer) . (
,
?)
. , . MLCC
(multi-layer ceramic capacitor) .
MLCC .

106
 . 1 2
. 1
.

electrolytic capacitor (
) .
.
.
.
, .
/ .

. e-cap () .

. ,
. ,
. .
polarized capacitor .
non-polarized capacitor (
). .

.
.
, ,
.

107
 ,
. , / (electrolysis)

(oxide film) . ,
.
.
. .

( ).
.
. /
. electrolyte
. , wet electrolytic cap
. .
(
).
solid electrolytic cap .

(anode) ,
(cathode) .
. ,
. - .
, / (smd)
(
, ). /
.
.

108

( ).
1 .
, 1
, .

. . .
,
. 1
.

/ .
,
. ,
. .
.

109
 .
.
. .
( ). DC leak current .

. .
.
/ .
.
( ).

.
. ,
( ).

, .
.
.
/ , .
. , ,
.

110


.
. Resistor Capacitor
RC circuit CR circuit .
.

.
. ( )
. .

,
o
.
.

.
.
C1= 1u C2=1u , 1000 ,
. C1 , X = 1/( 2fC) , = 1/(2 x
3.1416 x 0.000001 x 1000) = 160 ohm . C2 X =
160 ohm .

. ?

? /
o .

111
 ; 160:160 1:1
. .

? .
. .
1000 10000 . X1 = X2 = 16
ohm . 16:16 1:1 .

? ,
( ). /
. ,
, . ,
90 .

, ?
.
, ()
,
.

, 1/C1 + 1/C2
; ,
, X1 + X2
. (

.) ,

X = X1 + X2

1/X = 1/X1 + 1/X2

. ( ,
.)

.
.
.

.
(RC circuit ).
. .
.
.

112
 ,
. ;
. C1=1u, R1=1.6k
1000 . , 160 1.6
. , 160:1600 1:10 .
10000 , 16 ,
. 16:1600 1:100 .
, .
?
, .

.
.

. ,
.
.
. ,
, .
.

(Impedance)
, .
. Z
. ?
. /

113
 , .
.

Z2 = R2 + X2

, ?
.

()
. . Z (impedance)
. .

. ,
. ? ,
. , Z2 = R2 + X2 Z2 = 0 + X2 Z = X .
, (Z = R).
.
, ,
.

, .
,

114
 .
.
,
.
, .
.

. .
, .
. , ;
. , ,
. , ;
. , ,
.
. ,
.

.
.
. . parallel RC circuit
.

.
.
. .
, . ,

. . ,
( ).

.
.
, 90
. ?

115
.
V
(I R = ) ,
R
V
( I C = j ) (j ;
X
V/X 90 ; j
). j Ic = V/X
.
. j , , 90 .

j .
. j ,
V V
. j , parallel RC +j
R X
. ,

(
V 2 V 2
R
) +( ) .
X

, j , ,
V V
+ . , V/R V/X
R X
.
j .
; . j
. ,
.

. (j
). .
.

? .
.
.
. 90
. 90
.
. .
.

116
Phasor diagram
.
/ phasor diagram ( )
. .
.
. reference line .
.
. rms
( rms
).
, .

.
(IR)
(VR)
( ). (VC)
. VR, IR . (IC)
90 () ; 90
. .
?
,
.
90 ?

.
.
.
. ( ,
, 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 .

117
 ;
.) ,
. (complex number)
( /
; ; ;
).
(notation)
(j ;
).
1 1 1
= +j
Z R X

?
j . j
. .
(, / .)
.

. j
() . (
). .
1 1 1 1 1 1
= = +
Z R jX Z R jX

R X (j ). 1/R 1/X
. .
((1/Z)2 = (1/X)2 + (1/R)2). 1/Z .
1/Z ; Z . Z
Z . ( ,
( )
Z .) j
. j (
). j ;
. 1/Z

118
 magnitude ()
. . | |
(absolute value)
.
1 1 1
|
= +j
Z R X |
, ,
. j .
. j
. X R
.

1 2 1 2 1 2
( ) =( ) +( )
Z R X
Z , Z
. I = V/Z . ( . R
Z .)

.
. 0 90 .
? .
. a
.

V V
. , +j
R X
. argument
. ,
V V
= Arg(I R + jI C )= Arg ( +j )
R X

119
 , = tan-1(IC/IR)
.
.
. a , IC IR .
, tan(a) = / , tan(a) = IC/IR , a = tan-1 (IC/IR) .
.

, IC = V/XC IR = V/R , IC/IR = (V/XC)/(V/R) = R/XC . , tan-1 (IC/IR) = tan-1 (R/XC)

. . .

1K . , , IR = 10/1000
= 0.01 A 10mA .

, X = 160 ohm . , IC =
j(10/160) = j0.0625A j62.5mA . j
90 .

, 1/Z = 1/R + j(1/X) , 1/Z = 1/1000 + j(1/160) .

( ) . ,

(1/Z)2 = (1/1000)2 + (1/160)2 (1/Z)2 = 0.000040062 1/Z = 0.006329494 . ,

Z = 1/0.006329494 = 158 ohm.

, V/Z = 10/158 = 0.0633A 63mA .

= Arg(IR + jIC) = Arg(0.01+ j0.0625) = tan-1 (0.0625/0.01) = tan-1(1000/160) =

80.9O

120
 , .
. ,
. RC circuit
. ( RL circuit
.)

. Series RC
circuit .

.
/ .
.

,
.
. 90
. , 90
.
. IC IR .
. VR . 90
, VC (
).

? Parallel RC
. ,
. ,
,

121
 .
90 (
). . (
,
, R = R1 + R2 .
.) ,

Z = R + jX .

j , .

Z , Z .
.
.

. 160 . .

Z2 = R2 + X2 Z2 = 10002 + 1602 Z = 1013 ohm

, V/Z = 10/1013 = 0.0099A 9.9mA .

, VR = R x I = 1000 x 0.0099 = 9.9V VC = X x I = 160 x 0.0099 = 1.6V .

.
( )
. . .
( )
, . .

122
VS2 = VR2 + VC2 ( VS = VR - jVC)

(VS2 =
(9.9)2 + (1.6)2 VS = 9.972; 10 ).
. tan-1(-XC/R) .
-9.2 . x 9.2
. 9.2 .
X R . X R ,
. ,

tan-1(-XC/R) = tan-1(-VC/VR) (VC/VR = IXC/IR = XC/R ).

. ,
( ). , , ,
.

,
. , ,
. ,

Z = Z1 + Z2

1/Z = 1/Z1 + 1/Z2

filter .
RC circuit ( CR circuit) .
. ? ()

() .

.
. , ,
. / .
,
. , , ,
.

123
 ( )
? , .
.
. ;
.

. ,
.
. 20 20,000
/ . audible sound
( ) . 20,000 ultrasound ()
, 20 infrasound () .

. , , .
. .
, , (
).
, .
. ,
. ,
.
. , .
/ .
,
? . ,
. ,
.

.
, .
(ultrasound scan) , /
, / ,
(ultrasound cleaning) .
.
.

.
.
.
, ,
(combined) (

124
 ) .
100 1000 500
.
.

2 .

1.
. . Low Pass
Filter (LPF) . cut-off frequency corner
frequency (fC) . passband
, stopband . LPF
fC , fC
.

2. (cut-off frequency)
. .
High Pass Filter (HPF) .

.
2 .

1. (frequency band)
.
. Band Pass Filter (BPF) . -
lower cut-off frequency , upper cut-off
frequency . -
bandwidth .

125
2. ( - - )
,
. Notch Filter . Band Notch Filter, Band Rejection Filter, Band
Elimination Filter, Band Stop Filter (notch, rejection, elimination,
stop ).

,
.

. ? .
() .
.

126
 .

. , . ,
100 1600 .
100
1600:100 16:1 . 100
(1/(16+1) =) 1/17 (
0.059 ) (0.059 x 100% =) 5.9% .
( ) (100-5.9=) 94.1%
() .
( 100% ,
). 10000 .
16 . 16:100 4:25
. (25/
(25+4) =) 25/29 86%. 14%
.
? 100000 .
, .

.
,
. 100 10000 100
1
.

. ,
100% . ,
.

127
.

( ) 50%
.

,
.
.
( 1600 ; 1600Hz )
. ,
.
( ).

. .
.
/ .
.

. y 50%
. high pass filter 50%
,
. .

/
(deciBel). .
.
?
. . ,
, ,
,
.

(Bel) .

= 10( / )
, ,
,
,
. , 1

128
 10 , 10W/0.001W =
10000 . ; (
). ""
. /
, / "" ,
. , .
,

= 10(10W/0.001W) = 10 (10000) = 4 Bel .

Bel
. Bel B . 4Bel
4B .

,
. ( deci
kilo 1000 ).

10 = 1

40 . /
,
.
, .

= 10 10 (1/10) = 10 10(10-1) = 10(-1) = -10 .

-10dB . /
. " " . 10:1
("10 1 ).
( 10 1 ) .
0.001:10 1:10000
.
/ .

/ ,
. ,
. 3 ;
3 .

.
, -6dB ,
. +3dB ,
.

129
 .
( ) ( )
. () .
,
. " " (power ratio).

Power ratio (dB) = 10 log10(POUT/PIN)

.
, .
.
.
.
() () ?
.
. = ()2/ ,
?

V 2O
RO
Power(dB)=10 log 10
V 2I
RI

RO output resistance . RI input resistance

. .
. , = ,
.

power (dB) = 10log10 (VO2/VI2) 10log10(VO/VI)2 20log10(VO/VI)

.
;
. , .
, .
.

(, =
).
. . .

.
.
.
. . ,

130
, , , , .

?

Voltage ratio (dB) = 10log10(voltageIN/voltageOUT)

. .
.
. .
, .
.
; .
.

( ). 10 20
( ).

.

power (dB) = 20log10(VO/VI) -

Voltage ratio (dB) = 10log10(VO/VI) -

, .
;
; ; .
. .
, . 30 ; 2.3
23 . /
.

(1) 0 , (10) 1 . 1 10 /
. 1 10 .
(
).

1 0 0 6 0.78 7.8
2 0.30 3 7 0.85 8.5
3 0.48 4.8 8 0.90 9
4 0.60 6 9 0.95 9.5
5 0.7 7 10 1.00 10

131
 2 3 . ,
3 ,
, 3 . 3
.

/
(, ).
.
" " (reference value) .
. .
, " "
. , dB
dB . dBV, dBuV, dBmV, dBm, dBJ, dBi, dBW
. , dBW 1
. ,

(wattageW )
dBW =10 log 10 .
(1 W )

, dBm 1 . ,

(wattage mW )
dBm=10 log 10 .
(1 mW )

( voltage V )
dBV =10 log 10
(1 V )

(voltage mV )
dBmV =10 log 10 ; 75 ohm
(1mV )

,
.

?
.
. .
.
. ,
;
.

132
 - .
. fc . -
. ,
X = 1/( 2fC) . C = 1/ X ( 2fc) . , X (
) , . X
?

X .
X (
).
.
( - input section) ,
( - output section) .
,
. ,

( , 10
).
100 100 , (100
ohm x 10 ) 1 (100k/10 ) 10
.

. 4 .
4 . X
4 ? . 4
. - .
4 . 2 X .

. - 1 .
100 ,
100 .
.

1. 1000
10

133
.

2. 1k-10k 4 .

3. 2
. (, 2 ).

4. X = 1/( 2fC) , C .
,
C = 1/(2000)x(2)x(3.1416)x(1000) = 0.8uF .

.
HPF .
. LPF . .
.
.

HPF . -
. . . -
1 , 10
10 , . .

1. / 100 1000 .
800 .

2. , 400 .

3. X = 1/( 2fC) , ,
C = 1/( 2fX) = 1/(2 x 3.1416 x 1000 x 400) = 4uF .

LPF .
(output) frequency response curve bode
plot . x ,
y (, ) .

134
HPF . , -
(fC) .
. .
. ,
(

).
0dB . 0dB (attenuation)
.

- . roll-off
. - ( ) . -

( ). .
-3dB ( ).

,
. .
. (slope) .
. " " (decibels per
decade dB/decade) " " (decibels per octave dB/octave)
.

, ,

135
 . , 200 .
200 200 2000 .
4 4-40Hz . (
) , ( ) . ,
1000 1000 10,000 ,
100 1000 .

. 200 .
200 400 . 4
4 8 .
. , 1000 1000-2000 ,
500-1000 .

/ dec ""
. decade 10 .
.
. oct "" .
? .

. 7
. , , , , , ,
C, D, E, F, G, A, B ( C
). . C (middle
C C4) 261Hz .
. A (middle A A4) 440Hz .
C . C .
C C . C5 (
C C4 ). C 7
C .
( ) ( C5, D5, E5
).
. A 440Hz ,
A 880Hz . (C)
8 (octave) . C5
C . C6 . C6 C5
. . C4
8 C ; C C3
. C4 C3 .
( 4 .

136
 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 .) 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6 .
.
. "" 8
.
.

. -20dB/decade
. ,
20 ( )
/ (). , 20
. ,
20 ().
RC filter . .
20dB/decade
RC filter .
.

.
. -6dB/octave . ,
(
) 6 .
(
).

( 3
, ).
. ,
, 3 6 . ( ;
10 20 ?
.) ,
6 .

dB/decade dB/octave
. .

1dB/decade = 3.2dB/octave
, 6dB/octave .

6dB/octave (3.2 x 6) dB/decade = 20dB/decade ( )

/
.

137
 .
. .
(-20dB/decade
-6dB/octave). Y
. . -
-3dB " "
, -6dB
, -3dB .
.

-
.
. -
? (
?) . ,
-3dB -6dB
. . ,

. , R C
,
.
.
() . , LPF
,
XC
VI .
R +X C

, -
(Xc = R )? ,
,
XC
VI .
(X 2
C +R 2)

(Z). -
. ,
Xc=R=100 ohm . , 0.707VI .
70% (50%
).
() . , XC=R
0.707 . RC

138
. ,
.
.

(f) , "
() . " " (angular frequency) "
" (angular velocity) .
.
.

= 2f

XC = 1/2fC XC = 1/C . , -
. , -
.

R = XC R = 1/2fCC fC = 1/2RC

2fC = 1/RC = 1/RC .

.

.

high order filter

RC ,
1 20 .
.
( ).
reactive . ,
, . (,
) , -20dB/decade
. HPF LPF -20dB/decade
. .
first-order filter (1st order filter) single-
pole filter . ,
second-order filter (2nd order filter) two-pole filter . ,
(, /- ). ,
(-40dB/decade). third-order, fourth-

139
order . -20dB/decade
. .
.

? ,
,
.
; , . RC (
RL RCL) passive filter (
; ).

. .
.

. (
?) , R2 = 10R1, C2 = 10C1, R3 = 10R2, C3 = 10C2 .
.

. ,
. .
active filter . (higher order)
.

. -
RC
70.7% . 70.7%
. ,
70.7% x 70.7% ( 0.707 x 0.707 = 0.499) . , 49.9% (
, 50%) . ,
-
. (0.707)n (n ).

140
 RC 3 (0.707)3 = 70.7% x 70.7% x 70.7% = 35% .

RC
. , . R C
- ,
.
. R C -
.
.
.
R C R C
? ( .) ,
-
- . R, C
, - .
- , " -
" . - -
. -
.
- .
1
f C=
2 ( R1 C 1 R2 C 2 )

RC -
. .
R1, R2 , C1, C2
. , , "
" . (
.)
R C .

.
. , ,
, .
. .
n , n
. . -
.
. .

141
 1
f C= n n
2 ( R1 R2 ... Rn ) (C 1 C 2 ... Cn )

.
. . ,
R C , -
. , - ( ) .

LPF RC HPF
. . HPF
.

HPF LPF (
). . -
. - -
, - -
.

142
,
.
() .
. , 20dB/decade
? -
.

. 20 20
. .
20 HPF ,
20,000 LPF . .

C1, R1 HPF
. - 20 . /
.
R1 = 1000 ohm R2 = 10000 ohm . ,
. C2, R2 LPF . - 20,000

143
. . C1= 8u C2= 0.8n
?

.
() .
( ) .

, , ,
. hiss filter, pop filter, treble-cut
filter, bass-cut filter, hum filter . ,
.
( treble ).
(bass )
.

(mains electricity) 50
( 60 ). 50
" " (20Hz 20kHz) . ; (
50 60 ;
CoolEdit/Audition /
).
.
( 100 120) .
50/100 ( 60/120) ""
(hum) . ""
.
(, 50/100 60/120 ).
- 1
.

20 20,000
. 20 infrasound () , 20000
ultrasound () .
. , . (
. , 65
40 18000 ).
(, , ).

" " , (acoustics)

pitch () . (high pitch)
treble ( ) , (low pitch)
bass ( ) .

144
 . 200 (, 20 200
) , 4000 (, 4000 20000 )
. , 200 4000 midrange
.

.

. 3 . tweeter
. .
. . woofer
. .
. midrange
. .
. , ,
" " .
.
" " crossover network .

,
. . .
1 100 1 10000
. () .
10000 .
. .
.
,
. . sound mixing
"" .

. . ,
, .
.
. /
.
/ .
, (a set of filters) .

( )
. , , ""

145
(multiples) . ( )
. ( ) - (sub-multiples)
. , 100 . () 200 ;
300 , 1200 . () 50
; 25 .

"" (multiple) , ""

(overtone) ( ). , 200
400 , 600 . "
" (fundamental frequency) .

? .
.
. 1000 , 2000, 3000,
.
( , , ).
, 1 1
. .
.

Time delay circuit

.
delay circuit .
,
.
. ( ).

.

( "") . T = RC
. IN
, " " ( ).

146
 . (
). OUT
.
( ).

IN .
( ). ,
, .
. , .
( ) .
,
.

.
. ,

. .
, .
. . ,
, . ,
.
.

.
RC
. .
.
. 120 .
120 . 5
. 8 .
(time delay) RC 3
. 3 , 5
. 3 83%
. 3 5
. , VS ?
.

3 = 5V
3 = 83%
83% 0.83 5V , 100% 1.0 =
5 5
x 100 %= x 1.0 . 6.024 . 6V .
83 % 0.83

147
 6 . 8
. .
5V . 5 5 .
3 5 .
. 3
, . 120 .
120 , RC 120/3 = 40 .
,

R (ohm) x C (Farad) = 0.04 (Second) .

R C . 10u
. , = 0.04/0.00001 = 4000 . ,
5/4000 = 1.25 . .
R . C
. , 5 . ,
, 5/0.005 = 1000 . ,
, 0.04/1000 = 40 . ,
5 , "" (
).
. , (
). .
.
. .
.
. 1000 , 40
.

.
(/).
. . .
?
.
. .
.
. .
. ,
(/)
. ""
. .

. ,

148
 ( ) / .
/ (
/ ). ""
( ).
(
;
). .
.
.
.

. ?
.
? (
) . .
.
"" . , A B
A () B
. A
; ;
.
?

. (
).
, ()
. .
(A X ).
.

149
 , A Y .
? A-X A-Y . A-X
1000 ( 1 ).
A-Y 10 A-Y .
A-Y . A-X
10% (A-X 1000 A-Y 10
). A-Y 90%. 10%
. 10% .
( ) A-Y ?

.

R2
( V O=V I ).
R1 + R2

,
. (KCL ).
.
. ,
( ). .
(It) I1 I2 . ?
. R1 R2
, R2 R1
. It = I1 + I2 It = I1 + 100I1 (R1:R2
100:1 ).

150
 ,
,
. .
R2 .
() .
(
) . R2 , R1
.

R1
I 2 =I t
R1 + R 2

DC AC Analysis Passive Active Devices

. .
. .
. .
. ()
.
.

.
. , ,
. passive
. ,

. .
.
.
(
).
active .
. ,
. (

151
 ).

. ,
.
( )
(
). , (
) .
.
.
/ . .
()
/ (
) .
.
/ .
? ?
. (
; ).

A-B . ,

(, A 5 B 5 ).
. , R1 R2 ,
. 10 , R2 5
( A 5 ). R3 R4
, . R4 5
(B 5 ).
, . IN

152
. , R1-R2 1:1 .
A-B
(
).
. .
R3-R4 .
. ? .
?

A R3-R4 .
.
A B , R3 R4 .
R3-R4 . .
,
(, 50 ). R3-R4 50
(Rx) ( ). Rx R2
? 100 R1
R2-Rx
. 33 . , 100:33 .
33
A 10( ) 2.5 .
33+100
? A 5
.

.
/ . .
1 . , 1:1
. 0.5 . 0.5
1:1 . ,

153
 0.25 . , 1/4
. .
.
100 33 .
1 , 100:33 . ,
(33/(100+33) =) 0.25 .
. .

DC ( ) AC (
) .
. . DC
Analysis ( ) . AC
Analysis . , ,
( ).

;
. ,
. , (V)
, (v) . , I (), P
(), R () , , i (), p (), r () .
/ Large Signal / / Small Signal
/ Incremental / .

,
, / (
).
, .
.

. ,
.
. ,
, .
.
(,
).
.
( ).
100 ( 1000 1/10 ).

154
 10000 . , ,

C = 1/(2fR) = 1/(2 x 3.14 x 10000 x 100) = 160nF .

(
) , coupling capacitor
.
. .
.
.
.
.
. ( ) (VP)
. .

.
.
(
).
(stage) . .

. "" (couple
" " ) ,
? . ,
DC-blocking cap .

. .
( ). (hissing )
. (humming, popping )
. ,

155
 . ,
.

. , ".

decoupling cap (
;
decouple ).
? ?
. .
. .
. .
(
).
(
). bypass cap (
" " ).
. . .
.
.

(power supply).
.
, , .
, .
, , ,
.

156
 .
. .
.
( ). .
(rectification) .

.
, /
. .

. ""
pulsating DC .
. .
.
. () .
.

(, (+ - )
) ( ). .
.

157
 .
?
. .

, .
,
" "
. . ,
. ,
. ,
" ". ,
.

, ,
.
.
. .
. , .
/ .

" " (smoothing) .

smoothing cap reservoir cap .
. (ripple) .
.
(
RMS ).

158
, () ,
. , RC .
( )x( )
(1/ ) . RLC >> 1/f
. .
.
?
.
.

( ) .
. bleeder resistor
. .
.
( ).
.
. (
). . /
. .

.
. R .

?
. (T=RC ?) ,

. ,
.

159
 .
. 30 .
5 . 4 3 .

.
( ),
( ).
(

).

. ,
.
. .
. , .
. .
.
, .
.
= /, . , 0.1 ,
230 10
? Q=CV , =
(0.00001)(230) = 0.0023 . , (0.0001A) = (0.0023C)/ =
(0.0023)/(0.00001) = 230 4 .
. , (
) . , T=RC
, 5
.

, ?
. .
( R ).
half-wave rectification ( )
. .
. 230
15 , 20 (
).

160
 . ,
(- ).

. ()
50 . 50 ; -
50 . 50
( ) -
. . .
.

.
. ( + + )
.

. ( 50).
= 1/50 20 .
( 12 ).
.
. .

161
 . 10 .
, 10 .
10 12 .
(12-10) 2 . ,
(
, ).
. Q=CV
. V= 2 Q = ()() = (0.5)(0.02) = 0.01 .
.

C = Q/V = 0.01/2 =0.005Farad 5 .

5 . .
- (full wave rectification)
. 4
.
, . -
( ; ).

( ).
.
. - " " .
;

. .
100 ( ). 100
1/100 10 .
. = ()() = (0.5)(0.01) = 0.005 .
= Q/V = 0.005/2 = 2.5 .

162
 . ?
. . /
. ,
. ( )
. , .
. -- 10 .
.

, , / ""
(superposition) . .
.
. .
? . .
. ( ).
( ) ,
.
, .

163
 x
, ; (
). .
(in-phase) .

x ,
, .
, (
).
180 .

, ,
, , .
.
.
, .
.

164

. x y
. ,
. ,
.
.

165
 ?
50 .
0 . ( 50
0 ).
. "" .
.
,
/ ,
.

,
? .
. . /
" " (
). .
( ) .

( ), , .
.
.
( ).

166
 .
supercapacitors . ultracapacitor, double-layer capacitor
. "" . 12,000
( 1 ;
12 ).

. 3
( 2.7 ). ,
. , .
(0.5C2V). 37,000 .
. 3.7V 950mAh 3.6Wh
. 3.7 ,
950 . (3.7V x 0.950Ah =) 3.6Wh .
3600 , (3.6 x
3600 = ) 12,900 .
? .
.

() .
.
. ,
.
. . /
.

167
 high voltage capacitor ,
power capacitor , Low ESR capacitor
( Q ), Low Inductance capacitor
( ) .
.

(ideal).
"" . . ,
,
. , "
" . " " (stray)
. ,
. ;
( " " ).
.
.
? ,
. .
.
. " " .
.
.
"" (
).
.
. ,
.
?
( ) (model)
. .

, RES
, RLEAK
. LES .
.
.
( ).

168

.
.
. ,
. 700
. . /
; .

.
.
. .

?
. .
. .
/ .
; ;
.
. .
.

.
, . (
) .
0
=
d
ln( )
r

169
 .
( = /).
.

.
a , b . ""
(concentric) ( ).
.
4 0 ab
C=
(ba)

. , ( a b
; b ), /
. isolated sphere . ,
.
C=4 0 a

,
. co-axial .
. .
.

170
 .
;
.

. .
. .
.
. 6378 . isolated
sphere .

C = 4 x 3.14 x (8.85x10-12) x (6378000) = 709uF

.

. .
.
( ). ,
(
).
. , 0.1
100 16 / .
(, 10 ). ,
160 .
.

.
. " "
. 0/ln(d/r) 10

171
. ( . , d
, r 0.05 .)
; 10 0.1
. 0.1p
.

100 . ,
16 .
1 .

. 16000
( 16 1 ).

. .
10% . (10%
) . 1/16000 0.0062%.

.

. .
interference .

( ;
) .

100 . ,
16 . ,
1:16 ( 1:160000
). .
. ( 10% .
10% 1% .
.)
.
.
.
. .

172
 ; .

/
.
.
. , (
) ,
.
. .

.
.

173

(
" "). (inductance)
(inductor) .
Henry (H) . ( ) .
.

"" (induction) . "

" . ,
. .
. ()
.
. A
. B .
.
. ,
.
, A B , A
.

(electromagnet) .
(magnet) .
(pole) (North) (South) .
, .
(magnetic field) ( ).
.

. ,
.

" " .
.
" " (Right-hand rule) .

174
 .

. .

,
/ (loop/ring) .
; .

/
.

. 2
. , . 4 . ,
; .
. 1 . . .

175
 / ,
.

(
) .
.

. ,
.
, .

A B
? A B . B A .
.
. ,
. .
; .

;
, .
.
; .

.
coil 1 ,
, coil 2
. ( .)

/ ( )
/.

176
 .
. .

. (
).
. .
.
. .
.
.
.
.
(,
, ).

. (
), / .
.

.
(
).

,
.
. .
.
.

177

. ,
, /
.
" " (mutual induction) .
.
" " " " (primary coil)
. " " (secondary coil)
. .

. . (
( ).
( ).)
( ).
.

,
( ).

/ Faraday .
.

= ( )x(
)
d
, e=N ( ) .
dt

()
. ,

178
 (d/dt)
. N .
(4 ) ?

. N

.
. N ( ) ;
.
d
, e=N ( ) ( ) .
dt
. ,
.
,
( ).
,
(
). .

( )
. / (
) .
(coil) . solenoid ()
, toroid () .

. , 100
, 100 .

179
 , ( ).
- (
, 180 ).
( )
( ,
).
.

, ( )
, , ( ).

. (
).

. (induced current)
? Lenz's Law ( ) .
. .
. ,
. , .
( ).
, .
.
. .

180
 . ?

.
. . .
?
(
; ).
, .
, .
.
.
. (
).
.
. .

. .

.
.
. .
.
.
.
. .
, .

. .
.
. , .

. ,
, ,
. .
, .
; ( ) .

.
" " (self induction) . (

181
 ) .
.
. () .
.
. .
(
).
. back EMF counter EMF (CEMF)
. (EMF electromotive force .
" " . .
"/" .
/ .) ,
. , ; -
.
.

. ,
(
). (mutual induction)
,
( ) . ,
(magnetic flux).
(constant) . " " (mutual
inductance) .

I ( )
= MI (M )

.
( (/)
). .
=MI
d d (MI )
=
dt dt
dI
e=M
dt

( ) .
. ,
, ,
(1 = M (1/1) M = 1 Henry).

- . -

182
 ,
.

I ( )
= LI (L -)

.
dI
=LI e=L
dt

, ,
, - . -
.

// , .
. . , ,
, , -
.
. .
( )
( ).
.
.
.

.
. , ,

183
 , ,
.

LT = L1 + L2 + L3 +

. Q = CV , e =
L(dI/dt) .
. ,
.
,

Vs = e1 + e2 +
LT(dI/dt) = L1(dI/dt) + L2(dI/dt) +
LT = L1 + L2 + ...

1/LT = 1/L1 + 1/L2 + 1/L3 +

,
. ,

IT = I1 + I2 +
e/(LT) = e/(L1) + e/(L2) +
1/LT = 1/L1 + 1/L2 + ...

Mutually coupled coils

.
. . , A

184
 B .
.
.

. .

( )
, .
.

LT = (L1 + M) + (L2 + M) = L1 + L2 + 2M

LT = (L1 - M) + (L2 M) = L1 + L2 - 2M

? (
) .
(, ) (-
) . ,
- .
( B ).
,
( A ).
.

185
 :

1/LT = 1/(L1 - M) + 1/(L2 M)

1/LT = 1/(L1+M) + 1/(L2 + M)

,
.
,
.

Inductive coupling interference

, . ,
. interference
( ).
.
. inductive
coupling .

.
.

. . .
( ). ,
90
. (
?

.) A
. B
. C .

186
 ,
(orientation) .
, ,
, .
.
M1 , M2
. M
( M1, M2 ) .

M = M 1 x M 2

() -
.
"" .

M =K L1 L2

K coefficient of coupling .
. K
1 0 . K = 1 ,
"" (
). K = 0 ,
. ,
. ( . ,
1 .) .
.

,
.
. , , GPS
inductive charging
. (

187
) . .

. ,
,
.

.
. Nicholas Tesla
.

,
inductive heating .
induction cooker . RFID (Radio
Frequency Identification) .
.

188
 ?
( ). ,
( , , ,
). ,
-. (
.) ? .

- ( ) ,
. .
.

" / / ;
.

?
; . choke (
" " ) .
" " () .

, ( ) ,
"" .
,
.
.
. (, )
/ .
( ).
(
) . ,
"" .

Q factor
quality factor .
.
XL
Q Factor =
R
2f L
Q= X L =2 fL
R

. .

189
 . ,
.
. (
.)

, . ,
.
, .
" " (inductive reactance) .
. ,
(Capacitive Reactance XC) ,
(Inductive Reactance XL) .

. f
, L .
.
X L=2 f L X L = L

, () 90 .
90 . (
? 90 .)
,
.

,
, . .

190

( ).
?
. .
, . ,
.
( ).
( ) .
P=VI
dI
P=( L )( I )
dt
P dt=LI dI
1 1

P dt= LI dt
0 0

1 2
Energy = LI
2
. ,
. ,
(
).

.
.

, T = L/R
?
. 5
"" .
( ) .
( ) . ,
, .
.
,
.
( ).

191

63% ( ). ,
.
,
. , ( 90
). ,
() , .
, .
.

.
( ).
.
( ).

.
.
.
.

192
 .
. ,
.
.

LR circuit
. LR
circuit RL circuit .
. RL .

IN . ,
0 (,
).
.

.
( ) . ,
.
/ (
).
, (

).

193
. 50 ( 60) .
( 629 ; 100
). .
.
. .

.
"" ( ).
.

. ( "
". .
( ) .
.) ,
.
" " " ".
. / .

100%
.

194
. .

, LR
. ,
. .
.

L = 20mH R = 1000 ohm , 20

. 2fL , 2.5 .
2.5:1000 1:400 . 20000
. 2500 .
2500:1000 5:2 . ? , (LPF).
- -3dB .
CR filter LPF . - () -6db/octave
( ). CR filter LR filter .

LR .
.

195
 , .
. 90 .
( ).

Z2 = XL2 + R2

, .
. ,
/
; , VR = R x I VL = XL x I . ,
tan-1(XL/R) tan-1(VL/VR) .

, (HPF)
. .

LR .
. .
,
,
. ,
. . ,

( )2 = ( )2 + ( )2

, (1/Z)2 = (1/XL)2 + (1/R)2 .

,
.

(Resistance) (1/) "

(conductance) . G ,
(Siemens) (mho) . ohm
.

1 = 1 = 1/( 1)

196
 R G .
G ,
( ) . ,
.
1 1 1
= + +...GT =G1 +G2+ ...
R T R 1 R2
1
RT =
GT

. susceptance ,
B . .
1
inductive susceptance , BL =
XL
1
capacitive susceptance , B C =
XC

/ ( ).
admittance (Y) . /
.
.

LR . .
, .
( )
. ,
,
, RL filter RC filter .

Power Factor (PF)

RL ( RC )
.
. . RL
.

197
 (I) (VR)
90 (VL) .
()
() () .
.
(a) .

?
( ) , = x
. , V x I .
. apparent power ("
") . .

Apparent Power (VA) = V x I

(W) . "-
" (VA) (
). ? ,
.
?
, . RL (
RC) .
.
true power (W) ( ) .
.
.

.
?

. .

, .

. ( )
. , , , , , /,
,
. ,
(
). (
) .
? (
.) ?

198
 ( )
.
(true wattmeter) . ,
.
.

RL . RC
.

RL . ()
.
. RC .
, RL (Z) R XL , RC R XC
.

= ()2 x () VA = I2Z

= ()2 x ( ) W = I2R

RC RL ,
. RL RC .
RL , RC .
.
. RC , (
) RL .

.

. .
. . 1200VA ,
1000W .
1000 . , (1200-1000=) 200 ?
,

199
. .
(
).

. .
. .
? (
.) ?
.

. 200
. .
. ?
. ;
. .
. ()
.

; .
( ) .
; / .
.

.
. ( )
( ) .
.
.

.
. ,
.
.
(
).
. .
. Power Factor
Correction Capacitors (PFC caps) .
capacitor bank ( ) .
.

200
 ( ).
.
. .

.
, ,
(
/ ).

.
.
.
: ( ) (projection) ( )
, ".

= ( ) x ( )

W = (VA)cos(a)

(cos(a)) ( ) .
1 .
. . 0
( 0) = 1 , 0 . ,

201
 .

W
PF=cos(a)=
VA
2
I R R
PF=cos(a)= 2 =
I Z Z

, , ,
RLC circuit .
.
( ) . ,
.
.

LC Circuits

? . LC circuit resonant circuit tuning circuit tuned
circuit tank circuit . (,
) .

LC . ,
. .
, . ,
.

?
.

.

1 1 ,
10 .
16000 , 0.063 .
16000:0.063 16000000:63 .

202
 . 100
. 1.6 , 630 .
1.6:630 4:1575 .
. .

,
.

. -
() 12dB/octave .

. .
90 ,
90 .
180 .

. LC .
, ;
.
( ) ? .
( ) 5 ,
, ,
5
.

,
. . .
( 180 ) .
+ -
. , + ,
- . .
.
180 . ,

203
 ; ;
(XL ~ XC).

; .
.
.
. (
V = IR ( V = IX) , I
(: VL > VC IXL > IXC XL > XC) ).

1. XL > XC ( VL > VC) inductive

2. XL < XC ( VL < VC) capacitive

3. XL = XC ( VL = VC) zero impedance = resonant

,
.
. 180
, .

( 0 )
.
.
. 0 (, ) 0 ,
, (
).

.
(, )
. ,
.

204

( )
50% . " "
(resonance) .
. (resonant frequency)
.

.
. .
, , / .
.

(
") .
.

, (natural
frequency) . , , ,
.
. ( )
,
,
. .
. ,
.
.
, .
( )
?

. .
.

, .
( , ),
. ( ,
)
.

205
 .
.
. .

. ; . ,
( ).
. ,
( ).
. ,
.
? .
?
.
.

. .

. . ,
.
( )
/ .

. ?

,
() .

,
, . ,
, .
(
, ).

.
. .
(
) , . ,
.
. ( ;
) ,
(
).

206
 .

.
. . ,
.
, , ,
.
.

. (
(resonant frequency) LC ),
. . LC

. V=IR , V , R I .
.

. (
) ( ),
( ) .
. y
.

( , ,
). ?
. ,

207
 X C= X L
1
=2 fL
2 fC
1=22 2 f 2 LC
1
f 2= 2 2
2 LC
1
f=
2 LC

.

( , ,
; ),
, , ?
( ). LC .

.

, , ,
( ) .

(oscillation)
.

. .
.
(potential energy)
. ,
(kinetic energy) . .
, ,
. ; .
.

208
 .
. , ,
. .
.

.

. .
.
.
, .
,
.

? .
. , , .
.
, .
, ,
( ).
" " (damped oscillation) .
, .
,
.

209
 . .
,
. LC .

.
(oscillator) .
( ).
. , . ,
.
/ . ,
. ( )
. ( )
.

1. monostable oscillator - / A B (A B
), A
. Stable "" .
(mono ""
). ( ) ; .
.

2. bistable oscillator - (bi ""

). / .
( ) . ,
.
. .
.

3. astable/unstable oscillator - . multi-

vibrator . .
.
. , .
.

210
 .
. , ,
.

.
. ,
. .
, (
/ )
. , .
. , ,
.
; .
. .

(
; ). .
.

. ,
.
. .
. .
. (
).

LC . (
). .
. ,
. .
-3dB half-power point .
(-3dB ). -
. .
. . -
() .

211
 LC .

(,
). .

,

?

. .

. 180 ,
. ,

1/Z = 1/XC ~ 1/XL Y = BC ~ BX

212
( ~ .
.
.)

(mode) .
. ,
.
. .
.
.

1. 1/XC > 1/XL ( IC > IL) capacitive

2. 1/XL > 1/XC ( IL > IC) inductive

3. 1/XL = 1/XC XL = XC ( IL = IC) resonant

,

. ( )
. , 180 ,
; .

, ,
.

LC .
.
.
. ,
.
.

213
 LC .
(, ) . , .
? ,
.
1 1 1
=
Z XL XC
X L =X C = X
1 1 1 11 0
= = =
Z X X X X
X
Z =
0

RLC circuit

. RLC circuit .

LC ,

. , RLC (LC
). LC ,
LC RLC . LC resonant circuit, tank circuit
RLC . (

.)

(
resistive ),
.

,
LC . ,
.
7 .

214
 (f = 1/2(LC) )
,
. anti-
resonance . ,
LC . ,
. .

7 .
RLC ( a
).

. ,
.
180 (
).
(
).
.
X T =X L ~ X C
Z 2= X 2T + R2

, , XT 0
, (Z) (R) . ,

Z2 = XT2 + R2 Z2 = 0 + R2 Z2 = R2 Z = R

, RLC resistive .
( ) . LC
,
.
.

. tan-1(XT/R)
.

XT = 0 , 0 .
.
(Z = R).
( ).
(Imax). ,
; , .
.

215
 .
, .

LRC Q
Q ? RLC Q factor

216
 . RLC ,
(voltage magnification/amplification)
. .
,
( ).
.
.
.

(Imax) = ( , V)/(, R)

(VC) = ( , XC)x(, Imax)

(VL) = ( , XL)x(, Imax)

.
VL V
Q factor = or Q factor= C
VR VR
I . XL I . XC
Q factor= or Q factor =
I .R I .R
X X
Q factor= L or Q factor = C
R R
2 fL 1
Q factor = or Q factor=
R 2 fCR
1
f= f ,
2 LC
1 L
Q factor = (
R C
)

, ;
; .

, .
.
.

?
/ (stations) .
()
/ .

. RLC Acceptor circuit
(" ") .
selectivity ( ) .

217
 , .

RLC
?

.
. .

.
.

= ( ( ))/(Q factor)
RLC ,
. RLC
.
.
, R-L .

(branch) IC , - IT
. ;
. RLC .
XT2 = R2 + XL2
.

Impedance triangle
.

// impedance triangle
( ) . .
//
; .

218
 .

. ,
.
( ) .

? (
).
, , ,
( ).

. 90
. ,
.
.

//
( , ;
,
).

.
( ). ,
.
.
90 .
. .

RLC .
,
.

( ).
- (IT)
. IT
( ),
90 .
. .

219


. .
.
,
. ,
(). .
.

, //
. () ;
. "
" (
).
,
.
. 500 ,
30 .
.
. "
" .
. ( )
.
.
.

, , //
. ,

. (
) , / .

.
,
. ( )
/ ,
.

LR, CR, LC, LRC , Z2 = X12 +

X22 ( ) , 1/Z2 = 1/X12 + 1/X22
.
.

220
 . . ,

V2 = V12 + V22

I2Z2 = I2X12 + I2X22 Z2 = X12 + X22

. .
,

I2 = I12 + I22

V2/Z2 = V2/X12 + V2/X22 1/Z2 = 1/X12 + 1/X22

(IC) .

RLC
, RLC
. ,
, .
IT IC 180 .
IC = IL 180 .
, ITsin(a) .
, ITsin(a) . IT x y
(IT ).

IC = ITsin(a)

, IT = V/XT , Ic = V/XC , ( ) sin(a) = XL/XT . ,

221
 I C =I L sin (a)
V XL V
. =
X T XT XC
(X L ).( X C )=X 2T
1
(2 fL ).( )=X T2
2 fC
L
=X 2T
C
L 2 2
=R + X L
C
L
=R2 +(2 f O L)2
C

2
1 R
2 f O= 2
LC L

f O=
1
2 1 R2
2
LC L

,
. .
, .
. ,
R2/L2 , ?

RLC .

, ? IC =
ITsin(a) , ITcos(a) . RLC
, ITcos(a) .

Imin = ITcos(a) = (V/XT).(R/XT) = RV/XT2 (IT = V/XT cos(a) = R/XT )

VR 2
I min= ( Z =L/C )
L
( )
C
VRC
I min =
L
RCL .
( ), ( ).
.

rejector circuit (
) .

RLC ,
( ) .

222
 ( )
.

.
, .
IC
Q factor=
I min
V
( )
XC
Q factor=
VCR
( )
L
2 fO L X
Q factor= (= L )
R R
2 L 1
Q factor= .
R 2 LC

Q factor=
1 L
R C
? ,
.
.

RLC .

,
selector
RLC . tuning circuit .
( )

223
 , RLC R . , RLC
. ,
( ).

.
.
. ,
. "" (pick up)
. .

. .
. (
) . .
, .
. "
" .

audio equalizer .
. 20 200,
200 2000, 2000 20000 3 .
( ) 100, 1000, 10000
RLC 3 (
). R RLC
. . , (
) .
100 .
3 . (5, 8, 10
), .

224


Block diagram
(block diagram) .
/ .
() //
. .
. / (inputs)
/ (outputs) .
.
. ,
. ,
. / .
.
, .

(flow chart) (
;
).

(system) .
"
/" .
, , ,
. .

" "
(mechanical system) . ,
(electrical system) ,
, .
.
, , , .
.
(subsystem) .

,
.
.

, (black box)
. ( ) ()

. , .

225
 . ,
.
. .
, , , .
.

.
. ,
.
.
. ,
.

, .
.
. , .
( ) .
.

( )
. .
,
. .
.
.

.
, " "
. library .
(
). ( sub-circuit .)
.

226
 .
/ .
, .

- . -
( )
.
; "" (baffle) speaker box .
, ,
. - (
).
( ).

.
.

.
.

.
.
.

227

.
. ;
. , ,
. 8 ,
16 . ,
, .
. 8 ,
4 . (
() .)

, ,
,
.
?

... . ()
. .

( ) (
) (a). ,

228
.
/ . , ""
( ). ? ,
.

. ,
( ) .
. , ( )
/ ( )
. . (b) .

( ) .
8
. .

. (c) .
. ,
. .
.
. (c)
.

(
). .
.

229
 6 . ;
, (
).

(a) ,
. 6dB/octave .
,
. 12dB/octave . (b) . L1
, C1
.
.

- . ,
,
- .
. () .

ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Loop)

DSL splitter
. ( )
, (
, ADSL ).

LC .
.
.
( 300 4400 ) voiceband signal ,
50 ( 1 ) .
.
, /
.

.
.

230
 .
.
/ .

, .

( ) . ,
;
. .
.
.
. ( / )
( ) " (qualitative
analysis). "
" (quantitative analysis).

, .
, .
.
( ). , /
. RLC ?
. . (f
= 1/(2 (LC)) ). self-capacitance (-
) .

(, )

231
 ESR (Equivalent Series Resistance)
. , .
ESR .
ESR ( ).

,
ESL (Equivalent Series Inductance) . /
ESL .

.
. . (
?)

.
. 20% .
.

232
 .
.
- .
. ,
(turns) .
.

.
. ,
() .
. ,
.

.
.
. .

" " magnet wire

.

"" (gauge ) . (
/ ) ( ).
(
).

SWG AWG
. SWG
(Standard Wire Gauge) , AWG
(American Wire Gauge) . .
. (12, 30
), ( ),
, ( )
.

233
 Maximum
frequency for
100% skin
Conductor Conductor depth for solid
AWG Diameter Diameter Ohms per Ohms per Maximum conductor
Gauge (Inches) (mm) km 1000ft Amp copper
0000 0.46 11.684 0.049 0.16072 380 125 Hz
000 0.4096 10.40384 0.0618 0.202704 328 160 Hz
00 0.3648 9.26592 0.0779 0.255512 283 200 Hz
0 0.3249 8.25246 0.0983 0.322424 245 250 Hz
1 0.2893 7.34822 0.1239 0.406392 211 325 Hz
2 0.2576 6.54304 0.1563 0.512664 181 410 Hz
3 0.2294 5.82676 0.197 0.64616 158 500 Hz
4 0.2043 5.18922 0.2485 0.81508 135 650 Hz
5 0.1819 4.62026 0.3133 1.027624 118 810 Hz
6 0.162 4.1148 0.3951 1.295928 101 1100 Hz
7 0.1443 3.66522 0.4982 1.634096 89 1300 Hz
8 0.1285 3.2639 0.6282 2.060496 73 1650 Hz
9 0.1144 2.90576 0.7921 2.598088 64 2050 Hz
10 0.1019 2.58826 0.9989 3.276392 55 2600 Hz
11 0.0907 2.30378 1.26 4.1328 47 3200 Hz
12 0.0808 2.05232 1.588 5.20864 41 4150 Hz
13 0.072 1.8288 2.003 6.56984 35 5300 Hz
14 0.0641 1.62814 2.525 8.282 32 6700 Hz
15 0.0571 1.45034 3.184 10.44352 28 8250 Hz
16 0.0508 1.29032 4.016 13.17248 22 11 k Hz
17 0.0453 1.15062 5.064 16.60992 19 13 k Hz
18 0.0403 1.02362 6.385 20.9428 16 17 kHz
19 0.0359 0.91186 8.051 26.40728 14 21 kHz
20 0.032 0.8128 10.15 33.292 11 27 kHz
21 0.0285 0.7239 12.8 41.984 9 33 kHz
22 0.0254 0.64516 16.14 52.9392 7 42 kHz
23 0.0226 0.57404 20.36 66.7808 4.7 53 kHz
24 0.0201 0.51054 25.67 84.1976 3.5 68 kHz
25 0.0179 0.45466 32.37 106.1736 2.7 85 kHz
26 0.0159 0.40386 40.81 133.8568 2.2 107 kH
27 0.0142 0.36068 51.47 168.8216 1.7 130 kHz
28 0.0126 0.32004 64.9 212.872 1.4 170 kHz
29 0.0113 0.28702 81.83 268.4024 1.2 210 kHz
30 0.01 0.254 103.2 338.496 0.86 270 kHz
31 0.0089 0.22606 130.1 426.728 0.7 340 kHz
32 0.008 0.2032 164.1 538.248 0.53 430 kHz
33 0.0071 0.18034 206.9 678.632 0.43 540 kHz
34 0.0063 0.16002 260.9 855.752 0.33 690 kHz
35 0.0056 0.14224 329 1079.12 0.27 870 kHz
36 0.005 0.127 414.8 1360 0.21 1100 kHz
37 0.0045 0.1143 523.1 1715 0.17 1350 kHz
38 0.004 0.1016 659.6 2163 0.13 1750 kHz
39 0.0035 0.0889 831.8 2728 0.11 2250 kHz
40 0.0031 0.07874 1049 3440 0.09 2900 kHz

234
 SWG Diameter Diameter Max
Gauge (inch) (mm) /km /kft Max Amp Frequency
0000000 (7/0) 0.5 12.7 0.136 0.447 333 108 Hz
000000 (6/0) 0.464 11.8 0.158 0.519 287 125 Hz
00000 (5/0) 0.432 11 0.182 0.598 249 144 Hz
0000 (4/0) 0.4 10.2 0.213 0.698 213 168 Hz
000 (3/0) 0.372 9.45 0.246 0.807 185 195 Hz
00 (2/0) 0.348 8.84 0.281 0.922 161 223 Hz
0 (1/0) 0.324 8.23 0.324 1.06 140 258 Hz
1 0.3 7.62 0.378 1.24 120 300 Hz
2 0.276 7.01 0.447 1.47 102 355 Hz
3 0.252 6.4 0.536 1.76 84.7 436 Hz
4 0.232 5.89 0.632 2.07 71.8 503 Hz
5 0.212 5.38 0.757 2.48 59.9 603 Hz
6 0.192 4.88 0.923 3.03 49.2 733 Hz
7 0.176 4.47 1.1 3.6 41.3 873 Hz
8 0.16 4.06 1.33 4.36 34.1 1 K Hz
9 0.144 3.66 1.64 5.38 27.6 1.3 K Hz
10 0.128 3.25 2.08 6.81 21.8 1.7 K Hz
11 0.116 2.95 2.53 8.3 17.9 2 K Hz
12 0.104 2.64 3.15 10.3 14.4 2.5 K Hz
13 0.092 2.34 4.02 13.2 11.3 3.2 K Hz
14 0.08 2.03 5.32 17.4 8.53 4.2 K Hz
15 0.072 1.83 6.56 21.5 6.91 5.2 K Hz
16 0.064 1.63 8.31 27.3 5.46 6.6 K Hz
17 0.056 1.42 10.9 35.6 4.18 8.7 K Hz
18 0.048 1.22 14.8 48.5 3.07 12 K Hz
19 0.04 1.02 21.3 69.8 2.13 17 K Hz
20 0.036 0.914 26.3 86.1 1.73 20 K Hz
21 0.032 0.813 33.2 109 1.37 26 K Hz
22 0.028 0.711 43.4 142 1.05 35 K Hz
23 0.024 0.61 59.1 194 0.768 47 K Hz
24 0.022 0.559 70.3 231 0.645 56 K Hz
25 0.02 0.508 85.1 279 0.533 68 K Hz
26 0.018 0.457 105 345 0.432 84 K Hz
27 0.0164 0.417 127 415 0.359 100 K Hz
28 0.0148 0.376 155 510 0.292 123 K Hz
29 0.0136 0.345 184 604 0.247 147 K Hz
30 0.0124 0.315 221 726 0.205 178 K Hz
31 0.0116 0.295 253 830 0.179 200 K Hz
32 0.0108 0.274 292 957 0.156 232 K Hz
33 0.01 0.254 340 1120 0.133 270 K Hz
34 0.0092 0.234 402 1320 0.113 319 K Hz
35 0.0084 0.213 482 1580 0.0941 385 K Hz
36 0.0076 0.193 589 1930 0.077 468 K Hz
37 0.0068 0.173 736 2410 0.0617 583 K Hz
38 0.006 0.152 945 3100 0.048 755 K Hz
39 0.0052 0.132 1260 4130 0.0361 1 M Hz
40 0.0048 0.122 1480 4850 0.0307 1.2 M Hz
41 0.0044 0.112 1760 5770 0.0258 1.4 M Hz
42 0.004 0.102 2130 6980 0.0213 1.7 M Hz
43 0.0036 0.0914 2630 8610 0.0173 2 M Hz
44 0.0032 0.0813 3320 10900 0.0137 2.6 M Hz
45 0.0028 0.0711 4340 14200 0.0105 3.4 M Hz
46 0.0024 0.061 5910 19400 0.00768 4.7 M Hz
47 0.002 0.0508 8510 27900 0.00533 6.8 M Hz
48 0.0016 0.0406 13300 43600 0.00341 10.6 M Hz
49 0.0012 0.0305 23600 77500 0.00192 18.8 M Hz
50 0.001 0.0254 34000 112000 0.00133 27 M Hz

235
 (inches) (mm) .
,
.
1000 , .
. .
,
. (
).

. 1.72 x 10-8 .
,
. . R
, , l , A
( r2 x
).
l
R=
A

( ) ,
. AWG 22 .
0.64516 ( 2 , 1000
).
,

1.72 x 108 x 1000

R=
0.64516/2 2
( )
1000
R=16.74 ohm

.
() ,
. , . ,
.
(effective sectional area) . ,
skin depth ( ) .
.
.
(
).

236

. . 10
, 1
, () 9
. . 1
( ) ,
.
? 4
. ,
.

.
. () ,
( ) .
() . d
. d
. , (
, ). ,
. ( ).

. ,
100 10
, 1000 100
.
.

R = l/A .
, (
1000 ).
.
. .

237

S=
f

S (
) ( ). (,
). u . f
. p (-).

.
. ,
( ).
.
, (1 S) (,
).
. ,
.
"" . ,
() .

,
. , SWG 23
AWG 23 . ,
SWG AWG .
, . (
) .
( ).
,

.
. (
).
. ,
.

( ) ( ).
, . .
.
,
.
.

238
 .
(
1000 ) R= pl/A
( ).
(
) ;
(, ,
;
).
. .
.
.
, .
(
) , ,
. .

. Ohm meter
.
Silver () - 1.59x10-8 Copper () 1.72x10-8
Aluminium 2.8x10-8 Gold () - 2.4x10-8
Iron () 1x10-7 Zinc 5.5x10-8
Tin 1.1x10-7 Lead () - 1.7x10-7
Nickel 7x10-7 Tungsten 5.6x10-8
Nichrome 1x10-6 Carbon (graphite) 1x10-5

.
(1.72x10-8)/(2.8x10-8) = 0.61 .
0.61 .
. (
, .)

61% (0.61). ,
AWG ,
, 2
. , AWG 20 AWG 18
. (rule of thumb).

.
.

. ,

239
 . ,
,
.

.

.
" " (magnetic flux) . ( () (Weber)
. (Mx) .)

1 Wb = 108 Mx

"
" (flux density) (
B ).
. ( )
() (
)

240
 . B
, (Tesla T) "
" (Wb/m2) ( (Gauss) (G) ).

1 T = 104 G

B .
(
). 0.5 .

H ()
, (, ) "" .
. (
/ ) " "
. H ( magnetic field
strength, magnetizing force, H-field ).

(
). .
,
; .
.
. .
. ;

? ( .) .

( )
. .
.
, , .
,

241
, ? ?

"
" , ( )
. . (
.)
, . . .

.
, .
.
(, ). ,
.

( H I )

.
. .
( )
. (I)
(N) .
.
H N . I

? ,
. ,
.
.

N . I ( )
H=
l( )

.
. . (
) H.
, . H
.

B = uH

u (permeability) .
? .
.

242
 / .

4 x 10-7 (uO
). () .
.

,
(relative permeability, ur) . ,

= ( )/( )

( ur = u/u0)

1 magnetic susceptibility
. .

= ur - 1

(magnetomotive force mmf) .

(electromotive force emf) . ,
emf mmf .
mmf .

mmf = Hl (H - , l ( ) - )

H = NI/l , ?

mmf = Hl () = NI ()

Magnetic circuit
,
() . , ()
, .

(,
). , ,
" " (reluctance R) .
(1/R) permeance (P) .

,
/ . ,
.
. ?
Hopkinson's Law .

mmf = (Magnetic flux)(Reluctance) mmf = R

243
 .
( ) .
( )
.

.
R =pl/A (p
). R = l/A ( ).
( = 1/p).
. .
,
.

mmf
R=

Hl
R= (mmf =Hl =BA )
BA
Hl
R= ( B=uH )
uHA
l
R=
uA

.
,
d
emf =N
dt
d (BA ) dB
emf =N =NA (B= )
dt dt A
d (uH )
emf =NA
dt
d (N I /l)
emf =uNA
dt
uN 2 A dI
emf = ( )
l dt
,
dI
emf =L
dt
2
uN A
L=
l
. (l) (A)
. ,
( ). ,

244
 . " " (single-layer coil)
.

( l ) .
.
,
.

. .

.
. ,
( ).
, , .

, .
(parameter) . , u
(), N ( ), A ( ), l ( ) .
.

? .
(
), .
.

, .
.
,
, ?
,
( ).
.

,
, . , .
, , ,

245
 .

u uru0 . .
, .

, . ()
.

.
. (ferrite) (soft iron) .
"" ( ). (core)
. .
(, 1 ).
.
.

(
). .

246
 , , , , , , , ,
; (ur) . 99.8%
5000 , 99.95% 200,000 ,
2000 , .
.
, .

. .

,
. .
.

( );
.

. ,
( ,
; ,
).
, ,
. .

.
. / .
; . ,
, ? ,
.
. .
.

, .
B=uH . B H .
(H B) ,
. . u
. , (B)
. .

Hysteresis loop
( ) . (H) . , B
. (saturation
point) .

247
 . , H B . .

. (H)
. , .
. . H
" " (,
H (align)).
. H
" "; B .
. H ()
. , B = uH , B H
u
.

magnetic hysteresis .
. .
. H . H
, B ( O a
). (
). H .

. , H . , B
. B (o a )
, . a b .

248
 b H , B ? (
H B .) ?
(B) .
(residual magnetism ).

, .
( ,
).

, . ( H)
(b c ).
(c ).
, B
(c d ). ,
. H B
. H
.

(d e). ,
. ( )
.
(e a) B .

249
a-b-c-d-e-f-a hysteresis loop magnetization curve
.
( a-b-c-d a-f-e-d
).

B .
.

, . ,
. , .
. .
(residual magnetism) . ,

.
(H) (
coercive force, magnetic coercivity ).

.
. ,
.
. , ,
, ( )
.
. hysteresis loss .
.
() .

;
. .
B (, B
) .

, eddy current ( ) .
, Foucault
() current . ,
(
).
(eddy loss ). .

()
. .

250
 () . ,
, (
).

, .
, ,
/ ( ) ()
.

.
.
.
( ). .

(
) .
. (

.
.)
( ),
? ( ;
.)

251

.

.
? (I) .
. .
(R) , I2R
.
.

. ,
( ;
). , () ;
. ( )
. ""
, (lamination)
.

(A). , .
, .
.
. .

?
B ,
. . .
C
.
( ).
, .
, ( ).

252
 ,
. .
.

,
(P = V2/R). .
, (
). , .
(
). .
.

8 .
. 8 (
).
. 8 64 . (
).
64 .

4 . , 4
. 8/4 = 2 .
( ) 2 .
. 22 = 4 . 4
4x4 = 16 . 16 ;
64 .

? 64/16 = 4 .
4 4 .
. (
) .

.
,
.
( .)
. Silicon Steel transformer iron electrical iron
armature iron . ,
.

(eddy
loss is proportional to B2f2).
() . /
, .

253

1 . Curie temperature .
. ,
1040 .
, , .
, .

,
.

( ).
.

() .

254
 .

spiral coil ( ) r, w .
W , r
( , w/2
).

255


(a) (r)
. , , .
. r a ,
. ,
.

L0.0126 u r N 2( r r 2a2) (uH .)

.
, .
.

.
. rated current maximum current .

256
 .
.
.

rated ,
, "" .

, ; ;
; .
. ,
. , ,
, .

( ),
.

, ,
.

Gapped core inductor

.
(gap) ( ).

?
.
. (saturation),
. H
, B (non-linear) .

257
 H B .
. H B . H
B ( ).

H (H
,
; ;
). , ()
( B ) .
.

. (
) , (
). , H B .
. ;
.

. ,
(air gap) ,
. H-B
.
. , .

. , , (

258
 ).

. H B (
H B
). B .
B . H B
. , .
/ (
).

B
( B
; ). H
.
(H ).
(
/ ).

() ( 50
). H .
. H
( ).
. ;
.
. ,
, H

259
( ) .
( ).
H () .
H , ,
.

( ) .
( ;

). ,
,

= 1 + 2

.
, . (A) . 4
( Volt/Amp
; R = V/I ). 2
. .
2 , 4 ,
2x4 = 8 . 12 8 = 4
4/2 = 2 ohm . (B) .

260
 (

; ). (A)
. mmf
- (At) 12 .
. " " (At/Wb)
4 . (magnetic circuit) () 3
(mmf = x R ). ,
2 . ,
, .
.

2 , ,

261
(2 x 4 =) 8 . , 12-8=4
.

.
4/2 = 2 .
.

,
. " "
. .
.

- .
.
reluctance = l/uA
. . ,

= ( ) + ( )
= lc/(uru0A) + lg(u0A) = (lc/ur + lg)/u0A

( ) ,
. . lc/ur
. lc/ur << lg .

.
.
. ,

.

ur u 0
uT =
l
(1+ur ( g ))
le

,
.
. uT
. uT
.

lg , uT .
.

262
 ,
.
. Rgap >> Rcore ,
.

0.5LI2
.
.

= 0.5( )( )2

W = 0.5R2

.
,
.
. .
, .
() . ,
. (
,
.)

= 0.5( )( )2

0.5( )( )2

. ,

W = 0.5LI2 = 0.5Rgap2 + 0.5Rferrite2

? , ,
RI2 ,
.

Rgap >> Rcore , ( ) >> ( ) . ,

.
. ?
.

263
 . .

reluctance = l/uA (lg)

(). ( 2 ).
. ;
(
).
( , ).
( lg )
( a ).
. ,
. . 4 x 10-7 ,
(a) 0.000025 ( 5
).

2 = l/((4 x 10-7)x(0.000025)) l = 6.283110

.
.
, .

,
. , .
, .
H ;

264
 . , (lg)
?

.
(
) . flux fringing .
.

(
. .)

.
(
). ,
. , ,
,
.

.
(fixed inductor) .
(variable inductor) .

.
(, / ) . ,
(,
- ). .

,
(
).

265
 .

( ).

Inductive kick
. , ,
, . inductive kickback
. ,
. ? .

. (A B
). .
.
, . (
, L/R 5 ) (, ).

. , . ,

266
 .
.

.
, .
.
.

.
; .
.
; .

, , .
.
, .

/ .
; . ,

( ; ).
.
.

V = L(di/dt) .
;
di/dt . .
() 10 ,
10 ( 0.01) .
( ,
). , .
5 0 . di = 5 0 = 5mA = 0.005A
, dt = 1uS = 0.000001S . ,
(0.01)(0.005)/(0.000001) = 50 .
1 0.01 , 5000 .

, .
, . ,
( )
. ?

? .
. ,
. ,

267
 . . ( () ,
;
.
( ) ).
.
.
. .
, ,
. .
.
.
.

. .
. ,
. , ,
. ( ).

. ,
( ) .
.

,
. , .
?
. .
(
).

268
 .
,
. , , .
.
. ,
. .

. ,
.
.
() . . (
). ,
. ;
.
. .
, . ""
( ) . ,
.

269
 .
.

.
, . (
,
.
.)

.
,
. " " ,
( ). /
snubber circuit (snub " " ).
.

,
. () .
- (electric spark)
. .
. ,
.
. .
.

, ,
.
.

270

(differentiation)
.

. ,
.
.

.
. - , -
. (integration) .
(calculus) .

. .

; .
. ( .)

. x () y ()
( - ). / .

x A B 1 . A B 4
5 ; 5 4 = 1 .
, y . 16 20 .
20 16 = 4 . y
x
( ). , / 4/1 = 4 .
, . ,
4 .

B C . .
9 5 = 4 . 36 20 = 16 . , 16/4 = 4 .
4 .

271
 .
.

(,
).
.
.

= / = ()() d = (s)(t)

().
x y (x y
). , x, y t, d . t x
d y . y f(x)
.

d = st y = sx f(x) = sx

; . 8
. .
.

.
.
2 .

( ). y
() x () , y

272
 x . "" (")
( ) ( ) . ,

y y
= =
x x

/
. , x /
. / (,
1 ). x , y
.
(
).

y dy
lim = =
x0 x dx

( )

.

. dy/dx
. dy/dx x y " (
). " "
. .
.

dy d f (x)
= =f ' ( x)
dx dx

.
( ) , (
) .

, / ds/dt ( ),
dv/dt ( ),
dQ/dt (
), dI/dt,
dV/dt,
d/dt, /
.

. .
f(x)=4x2 .

273
( ). y x
. x y .

x 0 5 . y
0 100 .
.

y/x = (100-0)/(5-0) = 100/5 = 20

.
.

y/x = (200-0)/(7-0) = 200/7 = 28.57

. ? .

.
.
. .

10 10
. 100 100
. ,
.

. x
. x .
dy/dx ( ).

274
 .

()
.
.
.
y=4x2 dy/dx=8x . x
dy/dx
?

.
. , /
. ,
(
).

/
dx n
1. =nx n1
dx
dcf (x ) c df ( x )
2. = c
dx dx
dc
3. =0
dx
d ( f (x )g(x )) df ( x ) dg ( x)
4. = sum/difference rule
dx dx dx
d ( f (x) . g (x))
5. =f ' ( x ). g( x )+ f (x ). g ' (x ) product rule
dx
d f (x) f ' ( x). g ( x)f (x ). g ' (x )
6. ( )= quotient rule
dx g( x ) (g ( x))2
de x
7. =e x
dx
da x
8. =a x . ln (a)
dx
d ln (x ) 1
9. =
dx x
d log a ( x) 1
10. =
dx x . ln (a)
d sin( x )
11. =cos ( x)
dx
d cos(x )
12. =sin( x )
dx

275
 d tan (x ) 2
13. =sec ( x)
dx
dy dy du
14. = . chain rule .
dx du dx

1. t4 t . 1
. , dt4/dt = 4t4-1 = 4t3 .

2. x-5 1/x5 x .
, 1 . , dx-5/dx = -5x-5-1 = -5x-6 -5/x6 .

3. 4n3 n . 1 2 /
. ,
. , d(4n3)/dn = 4 (dn3/dn) = 4x3n2 = 12n2 .

4. x4 - 5x2 + 3x + 5 x . 1, 2, 3, 4
.
( 3 ).

3 1 .

dx0/dx = 0 x d (x0-1)/dx = 0 x d (x-1)/dx = 0

d (x4 5x2 + 3x + 5)/dx = dx4/dx d(5x2)/dx + d(3x)/dx + d(5)/dx

= 4x3 10x + 3 + 0 = 4x3 10x + 3

5. (x4)(x3+2x) x . .
, ( x7+2x5 ) .
5 ( )
. . x4 x3+2x
. ,

d ((x4)(x3+2x))/dx = 4x3(x3+2x) + x4(3x2+2) = 4x6+8x4+3x6+2x4 = 7x6+10x4 .

ex x ex ( e
2.7183 / ).
. ex
ex . ax ex . ln(a)
(a ;
).

276
 .
, u, v x . f(x), g(x) ,
u,v .
.
. ,

dy/dx = (dy/dw).(dw/dz).(dz/dt).(dt/dn).(dn/dx)

. /
,
.
.
( ).
.
.

(x4+3x)5 x . x4+3x . t
. , t t5 ? t5
.
. . .

dy/dx = (dy/dt).(dt/dx)

.
() (dy/dt ).
(dt/dx ).
. .

y = (x4+3x)5 y = t5 (x4+3x t )

t5 t , x4+3x x
. ,

dy/dt = 5t4 dt/dx = 4x3+3 . (dy/dt).(dt/dx) ,

(5t4)(4x3+3) . t . . ,

(5(x4+3x)4)(4x3+3) .

. .
. ,

dx5/dx = 5x4 . 5x4 ? x

277
. 2
( 2 d 2 ). ,

dx 5
=5 x 4
dx
d 2( x5 ) d (5 x 4)
2
= =20 x 3
dx dx

. .
5
dx
=5 x 4 first differentiation
dx
d 2 (x 5) d (5 x 4 )
2
= =20 x 3 second differentiation
dx dx
d 3 (x 5) d (20 x 3)
3
= =60 x 2 third differentiation
dx dx
d 4 (x 5 ) d (60 x2 )
= =120 x fourth differentiation
dx 4 dx
5 5
d (x ) d (120 x)
= =120 fifth differentiation
dx 5 dx
6 5
d (x ) d (120)
= =0 sixth differentiation
dx
6
dx
.

(complex number) ,
( ) . . , , , ,
, .
. .

(real) . (real)
" " . , 4 ,
4 .
. () .
(number line) .
real number line .

278
 (imaginary) .
" " "" .
.
.
() .
i ( j) (
) . , 5i, 13.45i

i (imaginary ). /
j
.

i . . ,

i = (-1)

. .
( , (-2)(-
2) = +4; (2)(2) = +4). .
( ,
). ,
.

, ,
. .

. .
-5 . -5 = (-1)(5) .
.

(-5) = (-1 x 5) = (-1) x (5)

5 . -1 .
-1
.

? . -1
i " "
. -5 5 i . .
. .
/ , .

. .

279

. .
?

,
. imaginary
number line . 0 . 0i 0
. ,
0 .

4i + 3i = 7i

5i 6i = -1i

.
. .

4i x 3i = 12i2 = 12 x -1 = -12 (i = (-1) , i2 = ((-1))2 = -1 )

280
4i/2i = 2 ( )

3i x 0 = 0

.
.

/ .
x + yi . x yi
(
).

. (composite
number) .
. , 6 6 =
2x3. ( ""
).

,
.
.

(4 + 3i) + (5 + 9i) = 9 + 12i

5 + (3 + 2i) = 8 + 2i
(3 + 3i) 5 = -2 + 3i
(9 + 4i) (2 + 3i) = 7 + I

( )
.
( , (x+y)(a+b) = xa+xb+ya+yb ).

(4 + 3i)(2+i) = 4x2 + 4xi + 3ix2 + 3ixi = 8+4i+6i+3i2 = 8+10i-3 = 5+10i

5(3 - 2i) = 15 10i
(5)(2i) = 10i

(+ -)
complex conjugate () .
4 + 2i 4 2i . 2 9i
2 + 9i .

. . / ,
.
( ).
(x+yi)(x-yi) . x2 y2i2 = x2 + y2 .

281
 i . . .

(4 + 8i)/(2 + 2i) = (4+8i)(2-2i)/(2+2i)(2-2i) = (24+8i)/(22-22i2) = (24+8i)/(4+4) = 3+i

.
.
.
, .
0 . 0
(
).

Argand plane/diagram .
. x ,
y .

282
 . .
magnitude/amplitude . r
. ,

amplitude2 = (real number)2 + (imaginary number)2

4+3i ( |
4+3i| ) , (42 + 32) = 25 = 5 .

, x ( )
. argument . ,

argument = tan-1(imaginary number/real number)

, 4+3i (
arg(4+3i) ) , tan-1(3/4) = 36.9O .

,
? 4+3i
. ( r ) x y
() . ,

x = rcos(a)
y = i rsin(a)

, rcos(a) + i rsin(a) (
). .

rcos(a)+irsin(a) = r(cos(a) + isin(a)) rcis ( " )

283


OOP

C C++

284