0 MAMMALIAN GAMETES. 1] Spe: It is adapted to its function in the following ways: 1. They have a tail which propels the sperm by its side to side movement in the fluid environment. 2. They have microtubules that produce whip-like movements of the tail to keep the sperm in suspension and heip it to swim 3. They have a mitochondria that provide a sive for respiration to yield for movement. 4. The nucleus contains haploid chromosomes which are highly condensed to reduce the amount of energy needed for transport. The haploid state enables the diploid chromosomal state to be restored at fertilisation. 5. The head contains acrosome that contains hydrolytic enzymes that dig. the layers surrounding the ovum for the sperm head to penetrate. [2] Egg Celi (Ova) Formed by the process of oogenesis in the ovary, In mammals the ovum is smaller in size compared to other species because once the developing embryo has implanted, its supplied with nutrients froin the motner’s blood. = It is adapted to its function in the following ways st 1. The nucleus has haploid number of chroinosomes that enables the dipioid chromosomal state to be restored at fertilisation. 2. The egg cell membrane is surrounded by zona pellucida (a jelly like layer) to stop more than one sperm fertilising the egg cell (polyspermy). 3. The ovum has special vesicles called cortical granules that contain a substance which help to stop polyspermy. 4. The cytoplasm contains food reserves for the nourishment of the developing zygote and embryo. FERTILISATION It is the fusion of the male and female nuclei to form a zygote. Fertilisation in Mammals The ovum released from the ovary has not fully complete meiosis and its called secondary oocyte. It's fully viable only for a few hours after release. A sperm can survive for a day or two days in the female reproductiv tract. Once the sperms are deposited into the female reproductive tract, they move towards the ovurn and the acrosome matures as they move,Once in the oviduct many sperms surround the ovum and once the head touches the surface of the ovum, the across reaction is triggered. Enzymes are released from the acrosome which digest the follicle cells in the zona pellucida and touches the membrane of the secondary oocyte, the secondary oocyte undergoes its second meiotic division to form a haploid egg nucleus. ‘The membrane of the egg fuses with the sperm head enabling the male nucleus to enter the egg cytoplasm. The cortical granules in the cytoplasm move and fuse with the egg cell membrane. They release their contents which cause changes in the egg cell membrane to stop other sperms from entering. The inside of the ovum becomes positively charged while the outside becomes negatively charged. A tough fertilisation membrane forms around the fertilised ovum.The head(nucleus) of the sperm inside the ovum absorbs water, swells and releases its chromosomes to fuse with those of the egg cell to form a diploid zygote. Fertilisation in Plants The male gamete is contained within the pollen grain and the female gamete is contained in the ovary. A mature pollen grain contains 2 nuclei ; a generative nucleus and a tube nucleus. When a pollen grain lands onthe stigma, molecules on the surface of the pollen grain and stigma interact. If they recognise each other as of the same species the pollen grain begins to grow. pollen tube begins to grow out of the tube nucleus through the stigma into the style and towards the ovary. The growth is very fast due to rapid elongation of the cell. The tube nucleus occupies a position behind the tip of the growing pollen tube. As the pollen tube grows the generative nucleus divides by mitosis to form two male nuclei. The tip of the pollen tube enters the ovule through the micropyle and the tube nucleus degenerates. : One male nucleus fuses with the two polar nuclei to form a triploid endosperm nucleus while the other male nucleus while the other male nucleus fuses with the egg cell to form a diploid zygote. This is called double fertilisation. N/B:Formation of gametes in flowering plants involves two phases: © SPOROPHYTE GENERATION - It is diploid and produces spores by mitosis. © GAMETOPHYTE GENERATION - It is haploid and gives rise to gametes by meiosis.STEM CELLS ~ These are undifferentiated cells that can give rise to many different cell types. ~ They can be Totipotent or Piuripotent. [4] Totipotent Stem Cells can ceretap wie ona cout even anstier eran These are stem cells that give rise to ali cell types. They are the very earliest cells in an embryo. In totipotent cells, none of their genes has been permanently switched off, Plant cells remain totipotent throughout life (especially at the root and shoot tips). Animal cells are totipotent for a short time become pluripotent and finally differentiate, [2] Pluripotent Stem Cells ~ These are stem cells that can give rise to most cell types. They are the older cells of an embryo, canst form ov fh emery y Tpmentnd« uv Use of Stem Cells in Medical Therapy Since stem cells can form different kinds of specialised cells, they could be used to treat medical conditions where there is loss, shortage or reduced functioning of certain cell types. 1, Parkinson's Disease ~ This is a brain disorder that results in progressive loss of nerve cells that produce Dopamine. ~type ef nekieo transmitter ~ These célls are Tivolved in muscle control and once. they are lost, an individual develops uncontrollable tremors in their hands and rest of the body. by cronvetted contortion & Fetexaton Of muUselee ~ Stem cells transplants can help replace the lost brain cells and restore dopamine production. myelin < Multiple Sclerosis * Breakdown of the insulating layer surrounding nerve-cells akon 4 Stem Cell Therepy helps replace the lost cell restoring production of the sats oF insulating layer. Raaer Type 1 Diabetes Develops when Islets of Langerhann cells in the pancreas produce less or no insulin. Stem Cell Therapy can help replace the Islets of Langerhann cells restoring insulin production.4. Burns + ~ When the burn results in damage of skin cells such that they cannot be replaced by the body, Stem Cell Therapy can be applied to replace the lost cells. 5. Daimage to Brain and Spinal nerves Nervous cell tissues do not regrow. Permanent damage of the spine can lead to damage or paralysis below the level of damage. Stem cell transplants can help regain control and movement of the limbs that had been paralysed, cerns pectnns. 6. Production of therapeutic/medicinal molecules e.9 factor VII and IX of blood clotting cascade a be used to clone GMOs that produce human proteins and cad. risw * a plastoryst = eninge elrestt Ureplmatincy To Me otores + POTENTIAL SOURCES OF STEM CELLS WE. I. Embryonic Stem cells — ~ All early embryo cells are totipotent. ~ Older cells from the embryo are pluripotent (only the inner cells), Advantages: e They are easy to extract and grow - Disadvantages: » Raises ethical issues. » Possible rejection by patient’s body * Risk of infection when the cells are received by the patient. ° Risk of stem cells becoming cancerous in the body. IL, Umbilical Cord Stem Cells. ~ Blood that drains from the placenta and the umbilical cord after birth is rich in pluripotent stem cells. Advantages: + Raises FEWER ethical issues. * No health risk to the mother or baby. Disadvantages: Risk of infection when the cells are received.bed concer cousin cursor Cells of conditions like leukaemia are already present in blood at * The volume of blood collected is relatively small and therefore the number of stem cells available is small IlL.Adult(Somatic) Stem Cells [ ~ These exist in the form of undifferentiated cells in a tissue or an organ. ~ They can differentiate when needed to produce the type of cells found in that particular tissue or organ, E.G: stem cells in white bone marrow, red bone marrow and the brain (that give rise to some type of brain cells), esc thew tonporeweny at adult ste eins — they remain fo be Muttipotent (qed « Advantages: Raises fewer ethical issues. Rejection risk can be avoided if stern cells are taken from the patient. Disadvantages: Difficult to extract ° Difficult to produce different cell types. ° Risk of infection when extracted and received. Other risks of obtaining and using stem cells includes: » Stem Cell Failure ~ Rarely the transplant cell stems fail to work. » Organ Damage : * Bleeding ~ This is due to the low level of platelets after chemotherapy. ° Other cancers ~ People who have been given bone marrow transplants to help overcome leukaemia are at a higher risk of developing other cancers later. PRO! IBTAIN ST} I. Embryonic Stem Cells - Embryos are produced by IVF, teove" ~ A pipette is used to extract a few cells from the embryo. ~ The cells are then grown in a suitable hormone-laden culture ~ They are also obtained by removing.a nucleus from one of the normal body cells. ~ It’s then transferred to a human ovum where the nucleus has been removed. cloning pocess AP carect oot ae pee co a Pe fo Ther vy ASH remains dem fete 4 davegng the, orgrel ewbyoAfter a mild electric shock is passed through, the new pre-embryo cells start to develop producing a coilection of embryo cells with the same genetic info. ~ These embryo celis are a source of stem cells for medical purposes. ~ The stem cells are also harvested from the embryo cultured in a suitable culture where they differentiate to form varivus tissues and organs. IL. Umbilical Cord Stem Cells 7 ~ Blood is taken from the placenta and umbilical cord during birth. ~ It is then tested, frozen and stored until when a match is found or it can be kept available for the baby throughout its life. IELAdult Stem Cells ro is tee ~ They can be obtained from one’s self or a donor, teed Sar reed bbe hea They are obtained from bone marrow or peripheral bload.. *"Zuy major boot a From the bone marrow, the sample is reMoved from the hip bone. rr Several punctures are made; A special needle attached to a syringe is inserted into the bone marrow. ~ The bone marrow is drawn into the syringe. The process is repeated till enough stem cells are collected. ~ They are purified, tested and then introduced to the patient, From the peripheral blood, a special machine with a large tube is placed in a large vein. Blood is drawn into a special machine which separates and collects stem cells wld ney bE from the blood. pre enwtond ered freee ere ee ee nae es Recipient oF 7 Rave toe! ethiens stom cats SWE uce wenn euppesate dnote a rey ET! (SSUES RELAT: TO STEM CELL TES 1. Use of embryonic tissue or cells is abuse of human rights.It is wrong to use a potential human in this way. 2. Some religions believe that using embryos is killing and therefore it is wrong. 3. If cloning Is allowed for therapeutic purposes, the cloned embryos could be implanted into a uterus to praduce a cloned baby. cleasions REGULATORY/AUTHORITIES RELATING TO HUMAN EMBRYO RESEARCH ~ Final desigeS are made by human fertilisation and embryology authority. They determine the maximum age of an embryo that can be allowed for research. ~ They judge what is the acceptable code of practice. They check if the source of stem cells is acceptable. They also stop cloning of humans. ~ They license and monitor stem cell research. ~ Decisions can be made also by researchers who understand the issues and anyone else who gives alternative paints of view.CELL DIFFERENTIATION ~ Few days after conception celis are predetermined to become different tissues and this is called cell determination. : ~ This is linked to the position of the cells in the embryo. ~ As they differentiate, they produce proteins specific to the cell type and this affects the shape of the cell and the arrangement of the organelles. However, they retain common proteins involved in common structures. It occurs as different genes are switched on and off in response to internal and external stimulus. * One way by which this happens is super coiling parts. of the chromosomes preventing transcription of those genes. Transcription of mRNA is made from the active genes only teading to production of proteins specific to that cell which can permanently alter the structure and function of the cell TER, N BET! GENOTYPE Al IVIRONME! The phenotype of an organism is by the interaction of the genotype and environment. Environmental factors that influence phenotype include © Diet » Temperature * Diseases : Examples: I, Siamese Cat Hair Colour ~ Their genotype has genes that cades for enzyme tyrosinase which helps to make dark fur due to production of melanin However, a mutation in these cats result in a type of tyrosinase that is inactive at normal body temperature but active at lower temperatures, ~ Therefore, the fur over most of the body is pale but at the extreme areas of the ears, paws and nose. ~ Where the temperatures is lower the fur is darker. I. Human Height ~ Expression of gene-for taliness is influenced by environmental factors like diet, diseases, social class, parental education, mother smoking during pregnancy. - An individual might have the gene for taliness-but may not reach the potential height due to environmental factors. ~ Children whose conditions include the above named environment conditions are shorter. ~ Diet affects amino acid intake hence protein synthesis which will result to poor growth. ~ Disease affects activities such as cell division reducing growth rate.ereter_ concer 7 Cerdcel concer ig almast always the result of om Phechon ley hymenpapillomeninus . Presence of he vical Geneme mmabertal AMAR OE et Freq ere leaking tO cance, uncentratle dd Sot) - UN hight CON Conse motetion Im the skin ceils, leocling WO rH Slaronng {eoncer in cetis prceries metewss)~ Parental education affects the feeding habits and type of diet given to the child U1. Monoamine Oxidase A (MAOA) Levels ~ MAOA is an enzyme found in the nervous svstem, liver and the gut.It breaks down mono-amines. 7 The monoamines are eaten in the diet and some are found in the body as neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine, noradrenaline. Once they are released into the synapse they are broken down by MAOA.Levels of MAOA are determined genetically and mutations can cause raised or lower levers. The levels are also determined by environmental factors such as stress.High levels and low levels can cause symptoms of disease. If lower levels are linked to Parkinson's disease, addictive behaviour (dependency on alcohol) and in some cases criminal behaviour. High levels are linked to risk taking and aggressive behaviour, IV. Cancer. Different mutations in the DNA lead to cancer E.G: Mutations that control the cell cycle. @ mutation occurs on proto-oncogenes that code for proteins that stimulate the cell cycle. The proto-oncogenes form oncogenes leading to uncontrolled production of these proteins. The cell cycle is constantly stimulated causing cancer. [An oncogene is a gene that has the potential to cause cancer. A proto-oncogene is a normal gene that could become an oncogene due to mutations or increased expression] Mutations that interfere with the accurate DNA replication decrease DNA repair resulting to cancer. Environmental factors that increase occurrence of these mutations include: « Tar in Cigarette smoke @ Chemicals in alcohols Aus pgs « Ionisation Radiations such as x-rays » Gamma rays and UV rays pay ec inhenbente 216 & coho where crore than ove cyene UF involved eyes ON ronotype ancl the gener Gre loceted oF atiferent tngtwencing tre ECT VENI INHERTTAI NCE Use! Gone chveresome) in polygenic inheritance, a character is determined by a large number of genes at different loci. This results to traits that have continuos, gradual variation between two extremes. Human traits that show continuous variation include weight, height, skin colour. If the character is affected by genes and the environment then there are very many different possibilities. Tt happens when one gene coding for separate phenotypic featu: et expression of the other. E.G: coat colour in cats. icceutceh in duep Coreen s sreac en Botr beely x -chcrerene. eyePitti ttt ttt ee ee ee eer cembnence - genes In save toct PEARS — emesr NEF loci mes are expences o yskeg leek NBi- epustecis cheese Gee clomimence whereby Gps teases eeeucs between Heo genes ceetng for Suporte Brenotjpes ancl one “locus ne. other expeessven of tte Cominance Bec between two alleles cE tle Some ere cooteg fer the come phenotypeBEE eee ee eS Eee Se EEE ee SEE ESE Eee Eee Eee eee eee ae Hee hore wuill howe fore cee colour etre ~ Cats have a number of genesjaffecting coat colour, two of v.nich.code for coat patterns I.B: The agouti/gene and the tabby coat pattern gene. ~ The agouti gene controls whether or not thé tabby coat pattern gene is expressed. ~ ‘The agouti gene catises banding. It has two alleles; A and a. - *AA and Aa gives an agouti coat. Oe $ bending: *aa gives a solid colour (black and grey), 1 =f ., “pure lack mettple alleles TT Tre Tee Tae me ~ The tabby coat pattern gene has three alleles;7,19 ¢®. b preccere| “Land Tt” gives a mesketed tabby coat patterns. a atr8 7878 and 1Bt gives ticked or freckled tabby coat patterns. *beP gives the classic blotched tabby coat pattern. ~ However, none of the tabby coat pattern genes is expressed without at least one dominant agouti allele Gt { eqow' gene, 1b prevents expescion of Many oP fim be PARENTAL PHENOTYPE: Agouti Blotehed Black PARENTAL be GENOTYPE AAtt aaTT > b b b ENOTYPE: AaTt AaTt AaTt AaTt e Preotype = all mactere|- «VARI. There are two types of variation: +» Discontinuous Continuous - 1, Discontinuous Variation cher hove the phretywe er pots ~ They include characteristics like blood group, sex of an individual. They are controlled by one or very few genes and the environment has no effect on them. The features are either present or not. However, there are exemptions such as if an individual is exposed to high levels of sex hormones in the uterus or artificially rare chromosomal mutations may occur making it difficult to determine the sex of an individual 2. Continuous Variation ne ctecr cut betteres clyferent phenotypes ~ They include characteristics such as height, weight and size of leaves*in plants. : They are controlled by a number of.genes (polygenic) and they are affected by the environment. It shows high numbers of intermediates with few extremes of the trait. Their Study involves-large sample sizes and the data is displayed using graphs to show the frequency distribution of the trait. ESD OF UMS 2Cell wall Shape Vacuole Centrioles Chloroplast Plastids Plasma Membrane Lysosomes Cilia |. Chloroplast Sntocrmambeane space Ovter membrane Some (aaveous Buig) {Slack of thylakoids) BioLogy FORM 5 RLEVEL wit FOU Animal Cell Plant Cell Absent Pres tormed of ellulese) Round [xregalar shape} Rectangulas (fixed shape) One, large central vacuole taking up 90% of cell volume Only present in lower plant forms. Anumal cells dow? Plant cells have chloroplasts chloroplasts ‘because they malke their owva food, Absent Prosont Only cett membrane Cell wall anda cell membeane Lysosomes oceur in extoplasm. Lsosomies usually not evident. Present His very rare PLANT CELL STRI RES Shucture of Chloroplast Inner membrane Gramm Tryiokoid lumen Cnside of tylekoid} tomate Page 1 of 10Topi BIOLOGY FORM 5 ALEVEL Structural features include: e + Double membrane present + Many intemal (thylakoids) membranes; some are arranged as stacks called grana + Chlorophyll found on the thylakoid membranes + fluid filled interior called stroma in which a loop of DNA is found + Starch brains may also be found They are disc shaped and contain a green pigment called chlorophyll; which traps sunlight energy. They contain their own DNA and ribosomes. Each is surrounded by a double membrane calied chloroplast envelope enclosing the stroma. Inside the stroma is a system of flatiened membrane sacs called lamella or thylakoids. These are arranged into stacks at regular intervats to form the grana (granum), Chlorophyll is found in the thylakoid and thus light dependent stage occur in the thylakoid Stroma contains the enzymes necessary for the light independent stage in which carbon dioxide is converted to carbohydrates. The stroma also contains circular DNA, ribosomes starch grains and lipid droplets. They are formed from plant stem cells called Leucoplasts. They are formed in large numbers of palisade tissue i. Amyloplasts These are structures that store starch in plant cells. Each is surrounded by a double membrane. They are colourless and store starch mainly in the form of amylopectin. The amylopectin sometimes shows concentric rings. Page 2 of 10ToMIG 4 BioLoGy FORM 5 RILEVEL FIG ABOVE: Concentric layers of the starch granule.Light microscopy of iodine-stained sections of pea seed starch. Iodine reacts primarily with the amylose component due to its open structure. (From Ridout et al. 2003.) ~ They also develop from leucopiasts. 1. Vacuole: ~ It isa fluid filled space inside the cytoplasm. It’s surrounded by a membrane called tonoplasts and filled with a fluid called cell sap Functions Of Vacuoles: 1._Maintaining the shape of the plant ceil ~ The cell sap is a solution of various substances which causes water to move into the call by osmosis. This keeps the cell turgid and holds the plant upright. 2. Storage of pigments 3. Storage of proteins in seed and fruits -E.G betacyanin in beetroots. 4. (Some) Contain lytic enzyme s. (Some) Store waste products E.G plants like foxgloves store a waste product known as digitalis, which is poisonous. but can be used as a drug. NB: An example of plants that store lytic enzymes are the insectivorous plants which contain lytic enzymes in the vacuoles but are released to digest the trapped insect. In animal cells, vacuoles are temporary and are formed and destroyed when needed. Iv, Cell Walt ~ It is non-living. Functions Of Cell Wall 1. It prevents osmotic bursting of the cel 2. Provides mechanical support to the cells and the plant Page 8 of 10Pie 4 Biology FORM 5 ALEVEL, 3. Provides definite shape and rigidity to the cell 4. Protects the cell contents from mechanical injury Plant cell walls are mpage, up of cellulose. Cellulose is a polymer of beta glucose monomers jéinéd by beta 1,4 glycosidic bonds. : ~ It consists of straight unbranched chains with hydroxyl groups (Ot!) projecting out all round. ~ Hydrogen bonding occurs between hyde forming cross-[inks. ‘coe "Xi q q - The cross-links hold the chains together and up to 2000 chains consisting of 10-100,000 cellulose molecules form a microfibril. ~ Microfibrils have great tensile strength that enable the cell wall to resist pulling forces. The microfibrils are laid down in layers; they are held, in pgsition by a matrix of hemiceliulose and other short chair ig PSR Be a which act as a glue binding them together. - This gives strength and flexibility to plant cell walls while allowing them to be fully permeable to water. ; “Tensile > aintiy fo with dana sheers] Cor S yl groups on adjacent chains gen ise ler el ese erY wl ow = ow for, we " > 4H capt cell In a clei of every other ‘3 tg wwerted eenotece Page 4 of 10were 4 BIOLOGY FORM 5 RILEVEL ~ Most animals lack the enzyme to break the beta 1,4 glycosidic bonds hence can’t digest cellulose. It is hydrolyses in the lab by treatment with concentrated acids. mation of Plan: Ht - When a plant cell divides, the first cell wall to be iaid down is called a primary cell wall. It consists of cellulose microfibrils embedded into a matrix of hemiceliulose. ~ Ina primary cell wall, the microfibrils run in all directions allowing growth During formation of the primary cell wall, the first layer to form is the middle lamella. Tt helps hold adjacent ceils together. It’s made largely of pectin which has carboxy! groups that combine with caicium ions to form calcium pectate. It can also combine with magnesium to form magnesium pectate. eet well ie (ler iele of When maximum growth is reached, additional microfibrils are laid down girst /precery 5 building a secondary wail. Veet wat } - In a secondary cell wall, the layers of microfibrils orientate at a slightly different angle to the one below and hamicelluiose harden it further. - Normally a cell wall is fully permeable tower. However, the cell wall can be impregnated with Suberin in cork cells or lignin to form wood. > Therefore within the plant structures, there are long cell walls with cellulose cell walls which are heavily lignified to form plant fibres. ~ Fibres occur in bundles which are much stronger than individual cells 2) Plasmodesmata Prot - These are special cytoplasmic connections between the*cells. They are produced during cell division. During cytokinesis some remaining spindle fibres quide Golgi vesicles to the equator of the cell. - The vesicles fuse to form a cell plate, These vesicles do nat completely do not completely fuse but leave gaps called plasmodesmata. - They provide a connection between adjacent cells for cell to cell transport and allowing communication between the cells. 3) pits ‘These are depressions in the secondary cell wall. They are involved in cell to cell transport. They are either simple or bordered. They form as the cell grows in size. The primary cell wall stretches during growth and develops pores called pit fields. The secondary cel! wail forms on other parts of the primary cell wall except the pit fields leaving depressions called pits. eth cent ie Cigna acct neatorsjiogit] en ey twee Gmegnet Serer Renee plemt eel wedls compencentect bey net 4 Gs Page 8 of 10 having pieumoutePeace cece cnceonee TOPIC 4 Biology FORM 5 RLEVEL, STRUCTURE OF THE PLANT STEMS = It’s an organ whose functions are: 7 2 yo offer mechanical support to the whole plant.(sore o° *> 2. Support and hold the leaves in position to obtain sunlight for photosynthesis. chenees of 3. Support flowers in position to increaseypollination 4. Provide pathway for movement of materials in the plants 3 frengport wced OF @) Store fool sr Sugarcane ~ Tissues that make up the stem: —°) prowele gtemiete tuppert Foe pet 8 ;. Epidermis-protective tissue wsittrctenet erviorment gorers as SEN 2. Parenchyma-packing tissUe =} arcen -cleme thet conta crieopyitl 3. Collenchyma-supports tissue “eerry out protagyntte sts 4. Sclerenchyma-supports tissue < 5. Xylem-vascular conducting tissue 6. Phloem-vascular conducting tissue 1. Epidermis ssome bait proctite It is the outer layer of the stem. It’s made of closely packed cells with 0 lerdent ehenien|S gaps. Petect weternel ow dsubera for protection, Secrete a waxy substance called cutingwhich forms the cuticle. eg Shing: = They help to reduce water loss fram the plant surface and prevent entry of we pathogens. _arancpemrent Ae citkew Waht ateneet cet ce Cetus proms cme thaneed injury especies PET 2, Gollenchyma S272 FNE Few Shien era wmtvlate and restuce wonton (eas It’s a mechanical tissue made up of living cells. [t's characterised by deposition of extra cellulose at the corners of the cell. The cells also elongate parallel to the longitudinal axis of the stem it is the first of the strengthening tissue to develop in the primary plant body. It is found just below the epiderm: 3. Sclerenchyma It’s a mechanical tissue that develops as-the plant grows bigger to support the increasing weight - They are made up of dead cells. «elt It’s found around the vascular bundles. Their cells have secondary‘walls made of cellulose microfibrils, !aid down at right angles. Some form fibres. Lignin is deposited on the cell walls of the fibres and the strength of the fibre depends on the length and amount of lignin. Once lignified the cell content dies leaving a hollow tube. This is because lignin is impermeable to water and dissolves substances. Page 6 of 10 Ouveenye = maent of ASUTwPIC + Biology FORM 5 R'LEVEL - When they become completely impregnated with lignin they form sclereids 7 which occur in groups or individually. 4, Parenchyma ~ This is a packing tissue consisting of common plant cells. They are unspecialised. In some plants they can/are modified for storage of photosynthesis products onlcometimnes between vaseuiew lovnelles » - They are found at the center of the stemeThey offer support when turgid especially in young woody plants and herbaceous plants. + They owe eetest Packaging Mesves 5. Phloem % 1 = It is the living tissue made of phloem cells. food is proctuted | ~ They are different types of phloem cells namely: QTE, HO sige ‘1. Sieve tube elements lock oseleus cote Preven piven 2. Phloem Parenchyma ed stared og teres 3. Companion Cells ~ When plants lack nitrates ,the older leaves turn yellow and dic; and growth is stunted. catego rmietion 4 Ot Fires well = Calcium ions in the middle of the lamella of plant cells"combine with pectin to form the calcium pectate which holds plant cells together. > Calcium ions also play a role In the permeability of membranes. ~ When plants lack calcium, the growing golnts die back and the young leaves are yellow and crinkly. a a 4 Toot g mat eventually, plert ct Ll, MAGNESIUM: Magnesium ions are needed to produce the green pigment chlorophyll ~ Magnesium is also needed for the activation of some plant enzymes and the *) synthesis of nucleic acids. - Without magnesium, yellow areas develop on the older leaves and growth slows down. IV. PHOSPHATE: ~ Phosphate ions are needed for the phosphate groups in ADP, which are involved in sooroy net fers in cells ~ They are also inte§ray Eo'Some of the structural molecules that offer support in plant cells and to the nucleic acids, termatier of nurteie oerels Plants tacking phosphates have very dark green leaves with purple veins and their growth LE: stunted Page 9 of 10Advantage Sf Synthetic fires 5 7 Telniwely cheng 2D do net creace compered to naturel fileres gheacontog og — ES. Y meh etercr bent « a) net susteunebte eee derived gow eevee er The se leeing Faprly © ctl ops a) De not etiow Free eireutediom ef air secteumelgle tinre ples SIM Le enptmened 6) ore aucortsent 2) Browsing 9 pienks bel fo S5erl eg, Poem cuneupiere Bieoclvanteges ) tx penne sy They crease coreporecl te tyvtbete pube 3) Mey may tenet te ; trertncie ws feod Repply when wore esinevtturel tome os etligeel fer gecctuctien atptrete Gilore ¢ nek Pe otTOP BioLloGy FORM 5 RILEVEL, PLANT FIBRES: - Fibres are very jong and tough sclerenchyma cells and xylem tissue. They have great tensile strength but they are flexible - They occur in bundles making them stronger. - Their cellulose and lignified wall are not easily broken down by chemicals or enzymes but thevpectates and hemicellulose can be dissolved. Marri ond peeted ess peching 4 eateurn)e Sources of Fibres: ~ Include plants like Hemp, Jute, Manilla, Sisal, Flax, Cotton, etc. ~ Uses include making of ropes, paper, clothes, etc: How Are Fibres Processed? Fibres from wood, are extracted by soaking the wood in very strong alkalis e.G, caustic $604 fo produce a pulp consisting of cellulose and lignified cellulose fibres in water.Thin layers are then pressed onto frames where they dry to produce various products such as paper. - Fibre from flax is extracted by xetting, This involves natural action of decomposers to break down the material around the fibres. However chemicals and enzymes are also used to treat flax much more quickly ~ Cotton fibre is produced in almost pure form around the seed. Therefore it doesn't need retting or rather treatment.However cotton fibres are not long enough hence they arespinned to pull and twist them to form long continuous threads. The threads are then woven together. Synthetic fibres are made of chemicals derived from crude oil. They are cheap, last longer and do not allow free air circulation, However they are not absorbent and are made from chemicals derived from crude oil which is not a sustainable resource. —netured fibres are ote ed prem plants + They ore broclegeclebic bot releacer methane thet lecels te gtoeal warning: — Return| plover are Alsoriset = Ok che ghen where 6 10 of 10 vty Suse Tay Sve gucteunetete | plonteal «0 BF require mare oo utiured Vena ~ Neturel ploreg ISO ponpy ere cet lew tone porsimd ine ws FO, -sere dover Many patients got better but some died. He discovered, the rig} plank pycdus Q aetage of chemicals got duce. Pe ae -peneiington © Season & 4 6 time He lo aioogy FoRM S ALEVEL ant Q re chemidl tan tt Cseel for chug clevelepment HISTORIC DRUG TESTING PROTOCOLS It involved guessing of the plant that contained active ingredients. It was demonstrated by William Withering (1749-1799). He discovered a remedy for treating a heart condition called dropsy. He guessed that foxglove plants contained agtiye ingredients which he isolated. He tested different doses on, patients to find the most effective dose sete effects for the drug, mode of admihistration as well as the side effects." eg newsen. poking He discovered that the mode of administration was to give a patient ‘Aiecat (2 Made from the dried and powdered leaves but the leaves should aied not be boiled as it reduced the effect of the drug ~ He carefully recorded all his findings and called his remedy William Withering’s digitalis soup. media of excretion, —> Herod, urine: CONTEMPORARY DRUG TESTING PROTOCOLS Most drugs are developed from plant chemicals.The active ingredient is extracted and purified to make it possible to give non-repeatable doses.Sometimes the original plant product is modified to make it more effective. Modern drugs should meet the following qualities: 1. Safe, non-toxic and without unacceptable side effects. 2. Effective to cure. Prevent the disease or relieve the symptoms. 3, Stable to be uged and stored for sometime under normal conditions. (mest stenle iq padclerect fom 4, Easily absorbed ym the body,-> mede of |excredsiaq 5. Capable of being made on a large scale in'a pure form, large quantities and relatively cheap. TESTING PROMISING NEW MEDICINES The chemicals that bind to the protein receptor or active site of the enzymes are investigated. Once the compound is found the scientists patent it (the inventor seeks the right to be the only producer of the new invention for a 20 year period) The new compound is first tested on ceil cultures, tissue cultures and and then organs in the lab. Those that succeeded more to research and development. Page“ of 6 4DISADVENTAGES — Sanimncl fecteng IS EXPERENE eg Feeling Hen SD time consuming. TorIe 4 BoLoGy FORM 5 LEVEL DRUG RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT AND TE: iS The mode of administration e.g as tablets, liquid, through injection or nasal spray is developed The scientist has to ensure that the drug is stable. This ensures no risk to the drug breaking to a toxic or inactive form before it works. The potential drug is then tested on animals. This is to show how the drug is taken in, how it works, how it is changed chemically in the body and how it is extracted. During testing mammals are used, E.G: Mice and Rats. This is because: metentoetive Seystem Similar to hunccahs + Rodénts provide valid models. + Their genetic make up is well known _... ., "They are small and relatively easy to keep ~ “p ratces Petter ottweed tecvel flan hommard Once successful, the potential drug is tested on humans (clinical trials) i D_Enowles dentate ot Sle effects 1 lume ernest a eee en he woke: @ excrdedes meee TRICAL TRIALS This is authorised by Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA). They involve 3 phases (1) Phase 1 Trials ‘The new drug is given to a. small number of healthy volunteers. A range of doseg/s given. This is to check how the drug works in the human body, It is safe and doesn’t cause side effects, Ddevble bimet- ‘The potential drug is given to patients with the target disease. Between 100 and 300 volunteer patients are given the new drug. This is to check how the new drug affects the disease in a patientye ye to check the ideal dose, the effectiveness of the se and any ace! side-effects. Fy BP Zs 3) Phase 3 Trials pened they er being Over 8000 volunteer patients are used. It er jouble gwen trials. This is to confirm the effectiveness and safety of the new drug. The number of patients involved are large and this gives a better chance to show any unexpected adverse side effects. However, it is difficult to achieve a complete set of results because many patients stop taking the drug or don't take it regularly.As the clinical trials are done, the animal trials continue in the lab to check any Jong term side-effects, Page 2 of 8§ oPIe 4 Biology FORM 5 RLEVEL ~ Phase 2 and 3 trials are carried out as double blind trials. ~ In double blind trials, both the doctor and the patient do not know if the patient is receiving new medicine or placebo. To prevest tieakness N/B:- ™ Applacebo is something that looks like a drug but has no aetive ingredients. > Some patients often appear to respond to a treatment because they believe that the treatment will help them. This is known as the Placebo Effect. = In some cases, a control medicine (best available medicine) is used instead of a placebo to avoid any patient being denied treatment as they take part in the trial Piatto tar Uses td See pr eMeNZEC HE: stole ep Rnd AS The pegeretaieel ginte also APFSES bow Ke immed sysien wories TRANSPIRATION ~ Refers to the loss of water in the form of vapour from the surface of the plant mainly through the leaves. ~ Water is absorbed by the root hair cell. MOVEMENT. OF WATER FROM THE ROOT HAIR CELL TO THE XYLEM VESSELS 1) Vacuolar Pathway: ~ Water moves by osmosis across the vacuoles of the cells of the root, It moves down the concentration gradient. 2) Symplast Pathway ~ Water moves down the concentration gradient through the plasmodesmata, eres: cxfiepincms 3) Apoplast Pathway ~ This is where water molecules attract one another and are pulled across adjacent cell walls. Cell walls are fully permeable and as water is drawn into the xylem, more water is pulled across the adjacent cell wall. N/ Mineralions dissolved in water are also drawn through the apoplast pathway. Explain how conier moves theevdh tle xYlen page 3 of 6Toric 4 Brotoay FoRM 5 RLEVEL MOVEMENT OF WATER UP THE PLANT THROUGH THE XYLEM - Water moves up the xylem due to: 1) Root Pressure ~ The osmotic pressure of the cells of the roots helps to drive fluids upwards into the xylem. - The osmotic pressure is due to the salts in the root cells. 2) Transpiration Pull ~ This is the force that results from the evaporation of water from the leafsurface. As tte (eevg lose unter, tle cone Grodrent is lew Hercpere Contes exes by esmeses vprwerrels 3) Cohesive Forces - ~ Water Molecules are attracted to one another, This creates a. continuous flow of water through the xylem vessels. 4) Capillarity ~ Xylem Vessels have a narrow lumen. This enhances upward movement of water due to the capillary. ena ~ The narrower the lumen, the higher the movement of water, (cohesve 97) exnline: ge forces are a ie Sietanit -ugeiped SSG 5) Pdhesne forces ae btmm waker molecules yA celulece cell well Page 4 of 8Topic 4 BioLogy FORM 5 ALEVEL SPECIES AND EVOLUTION BIODIVERSITY ~ It's a measure of the variety of living organisms and their genetic differences. Naming of Organisms ~ They are named according to various classification methods. They are then placed in various groups. 1 Traditional Method ~ It was based on observation of outer and sometimes inner appearance of the organism. ~ The phenotype characters were used to group organisms. This classification was artificial, since organisms were placed into groups based on a few observable characteristics. IMITATIONS ~ The appearance of an organism can be affected by many different Fectorsthings resulting to a wide variation within a group of closely related organisms I. Modern Method of Classification caaic, ~ Organisms are classified according to their common ariessury. The organisms are classified to identify them by showing how they relate to each other and to identify their common origin. ~ In this method an organism is given two Latin names; the Genus name and the species name. > ‘Ts was founded by Carolus Linnaeus. N/B:- ~ Today scientists use more complex way of comparing organisms, They use chemicals of life such as DNA,RNA and proteins, The chemicals are broken down and their structures are analysed to identity inter relationships between organisms. The differences are used to build up molecular phylo eny. THs leeets 10 crouping of efarinag in feetene » Brenner, Gukary ote We Mrensen ere more elorety retateel to te Eukaryota (rove Gest suget srefereners) 2 corres t= (Pq 230’) Page 8 of 8ToPIC 4 Biology FoRM 5 ALEVEL ECOLOGY AND ADAPTATIONS Definite U 1. Ecology- 7 Itis a study of living organisms, their inter-relationships and their relationship to the surrounding. I. Ecological Niche- Refers to the specific place an organism occupies and the role it plays in the community. Aspects of niche include: + Food + Habitat UI. Habitat ‘This is a place where an organism lives e.g: a pond, forest. Syst Refers to an environment that includes all living organisms interacting together consisting of a network of habitats, E.G: A habitat of a pond can have different sea weeds, small fish and large fish that interact with a habitat on terrestrial land with different large animals that feed on the fish in the pond. V. Population- A group of organisms of the same apecies living and breeding together in a certain niche in a habitat ) Erocwecsty — premier qe Riche wshere en ercpornns tues Page 6 of 6ADAPTATIONS TO NICHES TThese cre cotnptedtions of ay orgpnssiny TO EE MEE Im ercler fe inere ace SE SYRIAN Ch reprectictter , pass jremeterites to the newt gener ) Anetonnical ocdaptation Repers te a athe. Cherces steer BIN Strecture loeteuse of A chemage in cmurennnent Gmiecat or externa) a 8) Physiologica! actyptaten Repers fo charges IN tamel bio-chenwenl pathos SON |erpgan IA respense re cree ys et WA eaMtrOAmentel, snmuins: Chenges con be tern 2 Winter (enc temp.) 3) Renesioucal Adaptation Refers to a cy Ag pect In berewiose |f ew Anes bot MES Surv NAL. vx Og: SK ed hewe Keer of pet gor tascleting purpascs NATURAL SELECTION, MUTATION, ADAPTATION q EvowuTiON TRarorl Scie etre 6 the xeuruel = feremse they Keer caution MENTE IS population wjyeeus Rutetee: =F entetian Z TAME Neecls to oy PRONGE 1m Genes ond Hus acts SS Source af Umatian : - We fhege may be cclontns OME OT Agnctvantegeons or Revtrest teehee subjected 40 4 se oriventegeous ismellenteg eo: Lee Mielec are . XA presscre, Inckinicivedls Gerth, eotedl for ee tare Sty sowie te ves eS Reet qenern tien (eppnp > LO sUbsecquent Feproctuct oe tire Sewmotngrend stele to te ys)" generalens, SF RA mew apeciex AAS pray lenel to evelotion NBE Evowhen ss the Jen FrEQverny SF certamn alieics WR Gere POOl Over Fine cle TO neatirn| seleoHon Hew- pg oH0 ~ Gene pect is the tered RUMber oF Genes 1A pepyictics ~ Mele frequency EF the numicer og emer an alleice sppeees IN oe Fee pect:wRIC 4 BIOLOGY FORM 5 ALEVEL, NATURAL SELECTION AT GENE LEVEL tew _ Fy 24O ~ Natural selection results in organisms that are adapted to fit 3 particular niche.It leads to adaptations which gives individuals or advantages in that particular niche. ~ If conditions change those adaptions may nat be as successful and this results in selection pressure change. MUTATIONS AND NATURAL SELECTION Mutations can change genes and this is a source of variation on which natural selection acts. The relative frequency with which a particular allele is found in a population is called the allele frequency. A mutation may result in a change in the physical appearance, physiology and behaviour of an organism. If the mutation is neutral, it will remain in the gene pool by chance. If the change is advantageous the individual will survive and reproduce and the frequency of the advantageous alleles will increase. EESECT OF NATURAL SELECTION ON POPULATIONS Large populations populations have large gene pools. This is because the chance of losing an allele from the gene pool is less. There is a bigger chance of useful alleles being maintained in a larger population. ~ In small populations, the gene pool is smaller and chances of useful alleles being maintained is lower. ~ Therefore, a large population of genetically diverse individuals is needed to maintain bio-diversity. - In small populations, genetic diversity is easily lost. N/. - In some cases of small populations, unusual genes in the founder members may become amplified as the population grows. This is known as the founder effect. SELECTION FOR CHANGE ~ Selection can resuit into evolution ~ Depending on how different the individuals are, they may be considered as a new species. Page T of 6Selechen anal avolution Selector thet leads 4 Holston can be : Pret pagewre 4 BioLogy FoRM 5 RLEVEL ~ Examples of this type of evolution in process are 1) Directional Selection ~ Ifresults to a trend in one parti the phenotype of a population. ~ The change makes them better suited to the environment. ~ It occurs when environmental pressure is applied to a Oo" MF reece ts ore population. E.G:-in insects, and plants that are spread with Aereeel wotion insecticides of herbicides. Tee aera SL ~ Directional selection leads to resistant individuals within generations. ular direction lead to a change in fesolt ng 40 . wehbe Net ie cetected for 2) Diversifying Selection €g when bras mgy wc He results to an increase in diversity of the population rather than 43a rew mobitt yey 2 trend is one particular direction. prey clesstop nto ugp IL occurs when conditions are diverse in an environment Few “3 po at 2 Sptrres de to expotadidividuals evolve differently resulting to different phenotypes. it St etite food niches ceuttnn The bepatat 3) Balancing Selection ~ It takes place when a varisty is maintained by maintaining the allele within the population. > The allele might seem disadvantageous but it remains of high frequency within the population E.G:- Thalassaemia allele C heterozygous) is lethal but offers protection against malaria, This is known as hybrid vigour ( heterozygote advantage). 4) Sexual Selection ~ This is selection for features that give reproductive success.It results to anatomical adaptations that help attract mates. selection pressures.This increases bio-diversity. E.G:-14 different species of bird known as finches evolved from one ancestral species due to adapting to different feeding niches. ISOLATING MECHANISMS ~ For evolution to take place ,different populations of a species have to become isolated from each other so that mating and therefore gene flow is restricted between them. This occurs through: 1) Geographical Isolation 2) Ecological Isolation Page 6 of 8) Geagra pce toledo BR metedten Sceuet ancl inctividuals ere separatect toy physcal laren eq rwers , formst, 8) cectegvenl isctatior. Dipteret inaivictuabe bee 19 clippers Parts of tHe herortats hence they clenet mcet ort wate a ye chores 3) season | isolation - mR mgtahon leads to gies TO EY Catt Biecewe | qwerna 7 FO aeng of sexta! recephvensss OF # “J Ln Some iawidvels 1 GYOPP’ erences A) Benevioral aiator Ae a rast of METENST, ite 7 mating pattenas anal motntcivels cle cot recegy Seo" einer as mates. jecats ES 9) Mecheneal isclahan ~A meteor Occurs ghost ‘= . Changes the sex vas Of Wretercmts ENTS ShEpESH TO Rete. ITWPI + Biology FORM 5 A'LEVEL 3) Seasonal Isolation 4) 8ehavioural Isolation 5) Mechanical Isolation ENDEMISM ~ This is a situation where species of an organism is found only in a particular area. The organism is said to be endemic. - It happens because the organism evolved within that region and has not migrated. This is probably due to: a) Geographical barrier such as rivers and mountains b) Availability of favourable conditions such as food and the animals do not need more Examples of regions with endemic species include: 1. Madagascar Endemic species include the giant baobab tree, the ring tailed lemur, the elephants’ foot plant, the yellow streaked tenres. 2. \slands Of Hawaii Endemic species include various native flowers, insects and birds. 3. Australia Endemic Species include the marsupials, the egg-laying mammals ( monotremes) Places where endemism is common have reached bio- diversity in terms of species numbers but low genetic diversity in terms of alleles. Therefore these places are vulnerable to introduction of diseases. IMPORTANCE OF BIO-DIVERSITY. 1. Healthy biodiversity allows large-scale ecosystems to function and self-regulate. 2. Provides genetic diversity that allows genetic development in production of crops, livestock, fisheries and forest trees through cross-breeding and genetic engineering.roles ef coos Melvele : |) Selueahon- creating Gwarences OA Importance St the onimals: 3) screntigie Ceseareh- corny oot researen SA aspects HE : teapoung bree Q dweascs apgectect 3) congyng Set coptve breeating o) eewirouketion PRTSMMES releare to eas Secd wants Tas are tnvelvediin storage of seeds tH a dormant slege. sei Neeteoe teh cere eacee creer ) requires [ESS space + 3) sess castty: % Seeds ore cottected prom chprerent PIAS te alow dwers THY STE TED, Saf TS Rieck He embye: This ences ent iabie Seas Yo be srercat. Tey ore dinect to remove Water to increase stor petioct. me Tey are tere ondler esial teny BSS Thar Tey rene Bade OP 7 4 7 Mile a ere Hen Pome Ay FrmuIN to chece Mrestoniny‘ToRIc 4 BloLloGy FORM 5 AULEVEL. 3. It provides the potential of plants to produce important chemicals in human life e.g nutritional and medicinal chemicals. 5 © 6 > 4 SPECIES RICHNESS ~ It refers to the number of species in an area. ~ Biodiversity varies in terms of numbers of species. Wet areas have highest biodiversity with high number of species and are referred to as areas of high species richness. The Waeer te Abe bygter He verg wedi"'S MEASURING BIODIVERSITY It measured by species richness. To measure biodiversity scientists use: + Indicator species( bio indicators) « The number of different species and size of their population also give an idea of the biodiversity in an area CONSERVATION OF ENDANGERED SPECIES CONSERVATION OF ENDANGERED SPECIES Endangered species are conserved through methods such as zoos, seed banks (for endangered plants). 700s ~ These are inuaived tm ronceryatiOn Refer to pages 74 and 75 We ceo tor abies for E wepie tinuieg bake crotergnad spreins captoed Ghd bred wtri the PETER RY Ve Res te op arene mor ie Waren qyenb ore aaturet loreeding + EOP GE COE SYLLABUS ANP EORO) 5 BLOLOGY... Genetic drersitys toh etn Pre area ee eee Tindieneoe epee ove chewed wn Alem VAattete fo eb hte ey € diversity com alse be eecanmed bb mensoring eyenene dive: LTH watever firehe Powe of allelay om Te BRA