Contents The Transformations and Crystal Structures of Iron The Iron Carbon Equilibrium Diagram Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT) Diagrams Formation of Pearlite: Isothermal Transformation Hardenability Processing Heat Treatments for Steel Spheroidizing Anneal Reeyrstallization Annealing Stress Relief Annealing Full Annealing Normalizing Hardening (Quenching) Methods of Cooling Direct Quenching to Martensite Martempering Austempering Quenching Media Defects in Hardening Tempering Effect of Tempering on the Hardness of Plain Carbon Steels Temper Brittleness/ Embrittlement Surface Hardening of Steel Selective Heating Techniques Using Altered Surface Chemistry The Role of Design in the Heat Treatment of Stee! MetallographyThe Transformations and Crystal Structures of Iron (On heating a piece of pure iron from room temperature to its melting point it undergoes a number of crystalline transformations and exhibits two different allotropic modifications On cooling molten iron to room temperature the transformations takes place in the reverse order and at approximately the same temperatures as on heating. The two allotropic* modifications are termed ferrite and austenite and their ranges of stability and transformations temperatures on heating and cooling are shown in following figure. “Many elements and compounds exist in more than one crystalline form under different conditions of temperatures and pressure. This phenomenon is termed allotropy. oy Figure: Changes in pure iron as it heats from room temperature to molten state and cools from the molten state to room temperature. Ferrite is stable below 911°C as well as between 1392°C and its melting point, under the names a —iron and y iron respectively. Austenite, designated o— iron. is stable between 911°C and 1392°C.Iron is ferromagnetic at room temperature; its magnetism decreases with increasing temperature and vanishes completely at 769°C , the Curie Point. The atoms in metals are arranged in a regular three-dimensional pattern called a crystal structure. In the case of iron it may be pictured as cubes (unit cell) stacked side by side and on top of one another. Ferrite, besides having an atom at each comer of the unit cell, has another atom at the intersection of the cube body diagonals, i.e. a body-centered cubic lattice (BCC). Austenite has a free-centered cubic lattice (FCC), ie. it has an atom at each comer of the unit cell, with an atom inserted in the center of each face. Ferrite Figure: Crystal structure of ferrite and austeniteThe Iron Carbon Equilibrium Diagram The most important alloying element in steel is carbon. Its presence is largely responsible for the wide range of properties that can be obtained. At room temperature the solubility of carbon in a — iron (fertite) is very low and therefore the carbon atoms are to be found only very infrequently in between the individual iron atoms. Instead the carbon is combined with iron carbide, also called cementite, Fe,C . When iron is alloyed with carbon the transformation will take place within a temperature range as shown in the iron-carbon equilibrium phase diagram. It illustrates various microstructures appropriate to that part of the iron-carbon diagram, which applies to steel heat treatment. FERRITE (ALPILA RON) 2600 LIQUID) B47 y+L y. AUSTENITE (Garis RON) 2200 [- ‘Ny utes 1 +e i f Point Fe TRON 1800 | Annie CEMENIITE aty 1400 P Ne utyCoid Nutystoid aT Point 1000 a+Ke 83% 2.00% 130% 667% _% fom oS Yeo HYPER | HYPOEUTECTIC || HYPEREUTECTC | CARBON EuTectow | ae STEEL a CASTIRON cS Figure: Iron-carbon equilibrium diagramTemperature a TAustenite 1) 37 [Cemepite Fes spas P83. Figure: The lower lefi-hand part of the iron-carbon equilibrium diagram Definitions: Austenite: (y phase in Fe-FesC phase diagram) an interstitial solid solution of carbon in FCC iron; the maximum Solid Solubility of carbon in austenite is 2 %. @ (Ferrite) : It is also known as (a) alpha -iron, which is an interstitial solid solution of a small amount of carbon dissolved in iron (the maximum 0,02 %) with a Body Centered Cubic (B.C.C.) crystal structure. It is the softest structure on the iron-iron carbide diagram.‘Cementite: the intermetallic compound Fe;C; a hard and brittle substance. Pearlite: a mixture of ferrite and cementite (Fe3C) phases in parallel plates (lamellar structure) produced by the eutectoid decomposition of austenite. EAL SRRC EE APR OG) ‘The structure of pearlite includes a white matrix (ferritic background) which includes thin plates of cementite Eutectoid steel: a steel with 0.8%C Hypoeutectic steel: a stee| with less than 0.8%C. Hypereutectoid steel: a stee| with 0.8 to 2.0%C Interstitial solid solutions: jn interstitial solid solutions the solute atoms fit in to the spaces between the solvent or parent toms, Interstitial solid solutions can form when one atom is, much larger than another. Om of _ eo“ Ors Figure: (a) Substitutional solid solution. The solute and solvent atoms must have similar bond characteristics. (b) Interstitial solid solution of carbon in FCC y iron (The radius of largest interstitial hole in FCC 7 iron is 0.53 mm. In BCC a iron is only 0.036 mm. Note that the distortion of iron atoms.It is possible that some atoms may fall into interstitial positions or in the spaces of the lattice structure which may not be used by the atoms of a specific unit cell as shown in Figure. o o oy ‘nterst tik SL anor o Figure.: Interstitials tend to push the surrounding atoms farther apart and also produce distortion of the lattice planes. Equilibrium: a system is said to be in equilibrium if no macroscopic changes take place with time. Most processing heat treatments involve rather slow cooling or extended times at elevated temperatures, thus tending to approximate equilibrium conditions. The resulting structures, therefore, can be predicted by the use of equilibrium phase diagrams. The diagram indicates the temperatures that must be attained to achieve desired structure and the change that will occur on subsequent cooling. It shoul be remembered, however, that the diagram is for true equilibrium conditions and departures from equilibrium may lead to substantial different results. Heating @ iron transforms to y iron on being heated to 911°C. This can be seen by looking at the vertical axis of the left hand part of the Fe-FesC diagram. In a steel containing 0.80% Carbon, i.e. a eutectoid steel, the transformation to austenite take place at about 723°C. The temperature at which a iron, 7 iron and cementite are at equilibrium is designated A; (line PK in diagram). Steels with less carbon, which are called hypo-eutectoid steels, begin to transform from pearlite to austenite at the same temperature (723°C). In the equilibrium region between PS and GS there is austenite, formed from pearlite, and unchanged ferrite. The transformation is not complete until a temperature given by the line GS is reached. Above this line there is only one stable phase, i.e. austenite.Temperature *c 1100 1000 | 310 1G E iE x SAR ‘Austenite (7) 200 mee NI Pk ms ™ SZ Ferrite (82) co | Ferrites — pernite | Peariite Gyepite Feae 500 - e 6% < oe eee te ym If the carbon content is more than 0.80 % the steel is said to be hyper-eutectoid. In these steels, too, the pearlite transforms in to austenite at 723°C but the cementite does not go into solution completely until the temperature rises above the equilibrium line SE, designated Asm. At temperatures above G-S-E there is austenite only, all the carbon having been dissolved and evenly distributed through out austenite. Slow Cooling of plain carbon steels Eutectoid plain carbon steels If a sample of a 0.8% plain carbon steel is heated to about 750 °C and held for a sufficient of time, its structure will become homogeneous austenite. This process is called austenitizing. If this steel is then cooled very slowly to just above the eutectoid temperature, its structure will remain austenitic, as indicated in figure (a) at point a. Further cooling to the eutectoid temperature to transform from austenite to lamellar structure of alternate plates of a ferrite and cementite (FesC). Just below the eutoctoid temperature at point b in the figure (a), the lamellar structure will appear as shown in figure (b). This eutectoid structure is called pearlite. Since the solubility of a ferrite and Fe3C changes very little from 723°C to room temperature, the pearlite structure will remain essentially unchanged in this temperature interval@ (b) Figure. (a) Transformation of a eutectoid steel with slow cooling. (b) Microstructure of a slowly cooled eutectoid steel. The dark phase is cementite and the white phase is ferrite. Hypoeutectoid plain carbon steels If a sample of a 0.4% C plain carbon steel is heated to about 900 °C (point a) and held for a sufficient of time. its structure will become homogeneous austenite. Then, if this steel is slowly cooled to temperature b (about 775°C), proeutectoid ferrite will nucleate and grow mostly at the austenite grain boundaries. If this alloy is slowly cooled from temperature b to ¢, the amount of proeutectoid ferrite formed will continue to increase until about 50% of the austenite is transformed. While the steel is cooling from b to ¢, the carbon content of the remaining austenite will be increased from 0.4 to 0.8%. At 723°C, the remaining austenite will transform isothermally into pearlite. Figure. (a) Transformation of a 0.4% C hypoeutectoid steel with slow cooling. (b) Microstructure of a slowly cooled 0.35% C plain carbon steel. The dark phase is pearlite and the white phase is ferriteHypereutectoid plain carbon steels If a sample of a 1.2% C plain carbon steel is heated to about 950 °C (point a) and held for a sufficient of time, its structure will become homogeneous austenite. Then, if this steel is cooled very slowly to temperature b (about 775°C), proeutectoid cementite will begin to nucleate and grow primarily at the austenite grain boundaries, With further slow cooling to point ¢, which is just above 775°C, more proeutectoid cementite will be formed the austenite grain boundaries. If conditions approaching equilibrium are maintained by the slow cooling, the overall carbon content of the austenite remaining in the alloy will change from 1.2 to 0.8% With further slow cooling to 723°C or just slightly below this temperature, the remaining austenite will transform to pearlite as indicated at point d. Figure. (a) Transformation of a 1.2% C hypereutectoid steel with slow cooling. (b) Microstructure of a slowly cooled 1.2% C plain carbon steel. The white constituent formed at at the former austenite grain boundaries is cementite and the rémaining structure is coarse lamellar pearlite.‘Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT) Diagrams ‘The iron-carbon equilibrium diagram is questionable of fundamental importance to heat treatment processing. However, it only describes the situation when equilibrium has been established between the components carbon and iron. In the great majority of heat treatments the time parameter is one of the deterministic factors. The influence of time is shown by so- called time-temperature-transformation diagrams. From these diagrams it is possible to follow the effect of both time and temperature on the progress of transformation. Transformation start “hustente ) | Transformation end Furnace | Coarse pearlte = , cool (Fine pearite | £50 Sir cool $40 E| ==am\ Marterper —ivbrtensite start to 10 01 1 10 100 10 1 10 ‘Time (seconds) Figure . The TIT diagram for AISI 1080 steel (0.79%C, 0.76%MIn) austenitised at 900°C Heating ‘The iron-carbon diagram (a) shows that 0.80% carbon steel transforms to austenite at 723°C. However, the diagram tells us nothing about how long this transformation will take. From figure (b), which applies to the 0.80% carbon steel only, it can be predicted that when the temperature is maintained at 723°C the transformation will be initiated in about 30 seconds (in logarithmic time scale). 10Temperature, e 700 600 ‘00, @ G2 04 08 as 1 hE a 1 10 WF 409 10 108s (b) Time A = austenite, B= bainite, C = cementite, F = ferrite, P = pearlite Figure: Structural transformations on heating steel (0.80% C). If instead the steel is rapidly heated to 750°C the transformation will begin in 10 seconds and if heated to 810°C, in slightly over 1 second, i.e., practically at once on reaching this temperature. The transformation of pearlite to austenite and cementite is completed in about 6 seconds at 810°C. If steel is to be fully austenitic it must be held at this temperature for about 5 hours, In actual practice, ie., when heating for hardening, the cementite is seldom brought in to complete solution. Cooling The general appearance of the structure created during cooing is dependent on the temperature of transformation and the time taken for the transformation to start. Temperature ° oF O02 04 08 08 10 12%C as 1 10 10 10° 10% 10% Time Figure: Structural transformations resulting from various cooling programmes for a eutectoid steel. MlFormation of Pearlite: When eutectoid steel is cooled from an austenitizing temperature of say 850°C to 750°C then according to the iron-carbon equilibrium diagram no transformation will take place. If the temperature is lowered to 650°C pearlite will start to form afier 1 second and the transformation will be completed in 10 seconds. As the temperature of pearlite formation is lowered the pearlite lamellae become increasingly finer, and the whole structure becomes harder. Formation of Bainite: At temperature below about 550°C another constituent, Bainite, starts to separate along with the pearlite. (A structure intermediate between pearlite and martensite). Formation of Martensite: \f cooling takes place as represented by curve V, ie., very rapidly, austenite will start to transform to ferrite on reaching lime M,. As the cooling continues below M, there is very little carbon migration while the austenite is transforming. Thus the carbon atoms remain in solid solution of @ iron. Since the space available for the carbon atoms is less in @ iron than iron, the carbon atoms will expand the lattice. The resulting state of stress increases the hardness of the steel. We say that the stee! has been hardened. at 1 10 10" 10°10" 10's Time ‘The amount of martensite formed in cooling is a function of the lowest temperature encountered and not the time at that temperature. The untransformed (retained) austenite can remain within the structure if the temperature is not low enough to cause 100% martensite. The Mr temperature, hence the amount of retained austenite, depends on the 12carbon content. Increasing carbon reduces the Ms and Mf temperatures in plain-carbon steels. The retained austenite can cause loss of strength or hardness. The cooling rates A and B indicate two rapid cooling processes. In this case curve A will cause a higher distortion and a higher internal stresses than the cooling rate B. The end product of both cooling rates will be martensite. Cooling rate B is also known as the Critical Cooling Rate, which is represented by a cooling curve that is tangent to the nose of the TIT diagram. Critical Cooling Rate is defined as the lowest cooling rate which produces 100% Martensite while minimizing the internal stresses and distortions. ‘TEMPERATURE i [__sanrensire PRODe CL OF COOLING CURVES() AND OD) MURTENSTTE Isothermal transformation erp for 1 oF oF 0? 08 A: Auustenite, P: Peatlite, B: bainite, M: Martensite Figure: Isothermal transformation diagram of a eutectoid steel. 13Example: Small thin pieces of 0.25 mm-thick hot-rolled strips of 1080 steel are heated for 1 hour at 850°C and then given the heat treatments listed below. Using the isothermal transformation diagram, determine the microstructures of the samples after each heat treatment, (a) Water-quench to room temperature. (b) Hot-quench in molten salt to 690°C and hold 2 hours; water-quench (©) Hot-quench to 610°C and hold 3 min; water-quench. (@) Hot-quench to 580°C and hold 2 s; water-quench (©) Hot-quench to 450°C and hold 1 h; water-quench ( Hot-quench to 300°C and hold 30 min; water-quench (g) Hot-quench to 300°C and hold 5 h; water-quench Solution: The cooling paths are indicated on following figure. 1 10 1 10 1 108 Time, Figure: Isothermal transformation diagram for an eutectoid plain carbon steel indicating various cooling paths. (a) All martensite (b) All coarse pearlite (©) All fine pearlite (@) Approximately 50% fine pearlite and 50% martensite (©) All upper bainite (f) Approximately 50% lower bainite and 50% martensite (g) All lower bainite. 14Hardenability When one is attempting to understand the heat treatment of steel, several key effects must be understood; the effect of carbon content, the effect of alloy additions, and the effect of various quenching conditions. The first two relate to the material and the third to the process. Hardness is a mechanical property related to strength and is strong function of the carbon content of a metal. The maximum hardness that can be obtained in completely hardened low- alloy and plain carbon structural steels depends primarily on the carbon content. The relationship of maximum hardness to carbon content is shown in the following figure. Carbon controls the hardness of the martensite. Increasing the carbon content increases the hardness of steels up to about 0.6wi%. At higher carbon levels, the formation of martensite is depressed to lower temperatures and the transformation from austenite to martensite may be incomplete, leading to retained austenite. Hardness Martensite Retained Austenite 0204 08 % Carbon Figure: Effect of carbon content (wt%) on hardness Carbon also increases the hardenability of steels by retarding the formation of pearlite and ferrite. However, the effect is too small be be commonly used for control of hardenability. High carbon steels are prone to distortion and cracking during heat treatment, and can be difficult to machine in the annealed condition before heat treatment. It is more common to control hardenability with other elements, and to use carbon levels of less than 0.4wt%, Hardenability, on the other hand, is a measure of the depth to which full hardness can be attained under a normal hardening cycle and is related primarily to the accounts and types of alloying elements. The main alloying elements which affect hardenability are boron and a group of elements including Cr, Mn, Mo, Si and b 1sBoron is a very potent alloying element, typically requiring 0.002 to 0.003wi% to have an equivalent effect as 0.5w% Mo. The effect of boron is also independent of the amount of boron, provided sufficient is added, and the effect of boron is greatest at lower carbon contents, It is typically used with lower carbon steels. The elements Cr, Mo, Mn, Si, Ni and V all retard the phase transformation from austenite to ferrite and pearlite. The most commonly used elements are Cr, Mo and Mn. Grain size: Increasing the austenite grain size increases the hardenability of steels. This, method of increasing the hardenability is rarely used since substantial increases in hardenability require large austenite grain size, obtained through high austenitisation temperatures. The resultant microstructure is quite coarse, with reduced toughness and ductility. When the danger of quench cracking is remote (no abrupt changes in section thickness) and engineering considerations permit, it may sometimes appear to be more practical to use a coarser grained steel than a fine-grained on more expensive alloy steel to obtain hardenability, However, this is not recommended, because the use of coarser-grained steels usually involves a serious sacrifice in notch toughness and may lead to other difficulties. In the following figure, all of the steels have the same carbon content, but they differ in type and amount of alloy elements. Maximum hardness is the same in all cases, but the depth of hardening varies considerably. peeeessce Figure: (a) Jominy hardness curves for steels with the same carbon content and varying types and amounts of alloying elements 16The primary reason for adding alloy elements to commercial steels is to increase hardenability, not to increase strength properties. Steels with greater hardenability need not be cooled as rapidly to achieve a desired level of strength and hardness and they can be completely hardened in thicker sections. Knowledge about the hardenability of steels is necessary to be able to select the appropriate combination of alloy steel and heat treatment to manufacture components of different size to minimize thermal stresses and distortion. Steels with high hardenability are needed for large high strength components, such as large extruder screws for injection moulding of polymers, pistons for rock breakers, mine shaft supports, aircraft undercarriages, and also for small high precision components such as die- casting moulds, drills and presses for stamping coins. High hardenability allows slower quenches to be used (e.g, oil quench), which reduces the distortion and residual stress from thermal gradients. Steels with low hardenability may be used for smaller components, such as chisels and shears, or for surface hardened components such as gears. Jominy Hardenability Test: In industry, hardenability is most commonly measured by the Jominy hardenability test. In the Jominy end-quench test, shown in the above figure, an effort is made to reproduce the entire spectrum of cooling rates on a single specimen by quenching a heated (austenized) bar from one end. After cooling, two parallel flat surfaces are ground on the opposite sides of the test bar, and Rockwell C hardness measurements are taken every 1.6 mm along these surfaces. The resulting data are then plotted as shown in the following figure. 6 a sol Hardness tests: : F qr) be rate 2 2 50 Quenched end s Fs] 40s 607 a0): 700 mm. ” Distonce from quenched end Figure: (a) Schematic diagram of the Jominy hardenability test. (b) Typical hardness distribution in Jominy bars. 7Application of the test assumes that identical results will be obtained if the same material undergoes identical cooling histories. If the cooling rate is known for a given location within a part, the properties at that location can be predicted as those at the equivalent cooling-rate location on the Jominy test bar. Likewise, if specific properties are required, the necessary cooling rate can be determined for a selected material. If the cooling rates are restricted, various materials can be compared and satisfactory alloy selected. Determi ing the Hardenability of a Material In the Jominy test the quenching medium is eliminated from consideration by standardizing the effect of the quenching medium on a steel sample regardless of the medium, This is designated by the ratio of the heat transfer factor F to the thermal conductivity K of the material, This ratio is called H-factor which indicates the severity of a cooling rate. As H -factor increases the severity of the cooling rate also increases. Table . H-Factors ‘actor Quench Conditions Agitation 0.20 Poor oil quench None 0.70 ‘Strong oil quench Violent 1.00 Poor water quench None 1.50 Very good water Strong quench 2.00 Brine quench None 5.00 Brine quench Violent Figure a indicates the hardenability property of a certain type of steel regardless of the quenching medium. In order to find the effect of a certain type of quenching on the hardenability of a steel, additional graphs (Figure b) that relate the size and the quenching medium must accompany the Jominy hardenability curves (Figure a). Figure b represents the case where the hardness at the center of a bar with a specific size is to be calculated. 18pe eecca ceca: 4340 STEEL « SS “ 3140 STEEL aie | i I ~ 1040 STEEL | ROCKWELL HARDNESS (C-SCALE) TS 8b own Bi eh i DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END. (1/16 IN.) Figure.a H-FACTOR DIAMETER (IN) DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END (IN) Figure b. Ifa specific hardness is required for the center of a round par, first define the type of quench and the diameter of the part. Using Figure b draw a horizontal line from the diameter axis and intersect it with the H-Factor curve, Then, draw a vertical line from the intersection point and read the distance from the quenched end. Use this distance in Figure a to determine the hardness at the center of the part, 19Example: a 1.5 in diameter steel part is quenched in oil with no agitation. ( 20). If we use a 3140 steel, what would be the hardness number at the center of the part ? First go to Figure b and draw a horizontal line from 1.5 in, diamater and intersect it with H=0.20 . Draw a vertical line from the intersection point and read distance from quenched end, which is 3/4 in, ee eae = H=0.20 5 18 ® § owl a 05 Wa 12 34 Distance from quenched end (in} Figure Part of figure b 3/4 in is the same as 12/16 in. Go to Figure a and locate 12/16 in. Draw a vertical line from 12/16 in distance from quenched end until it intersects the hardenability curve for 3140 Steel. Read the hardness (34 RC). 2 3 3 4 3140 Stee! = © 34 3 g & $ 8 a 12 Distance from quenched end (1/16 in) Figure . Part of figure a. 20Following curves can be used to find the hardness value at different locations (at different 1/R ratios) of the bar with a specific size. r/R=0 graph is used to find hardness at the center and r/R=1 graph is used to find hardness at the surface of the bar. ‘SEVERITY OF QUENCH GROSSMAN’ HALE ieee cre recut a W NEST ) DISTANCE FROM WATER-COOLED END-INCHES 80 10 60 50 40 oz 30 BAR DIAMETER ~ INCHES 20 ROUND BARS 10 Ve 1 Me DISTANCE FROM WATER-COOLEO ENO” INCHES 21ao pros < 20 70 10 ted Or & 2 so 7 03s 40 o2 5 30 20 ROUND BARS Lo T Ve 1 v7 2 OISTANCE FROM WATER-COOLED END-INCHES 80 So 20 ts Lo aro 3 8 g e Bs0 7 03s 7 geo Z oz 35 s & 3S SEVERITY OF QUENCH GROSSMANN'S H VALUE Ve Y We 2 DISTANCE FROM WATER-COOLED END-INCHES 22Severity of quench, A 151 07 OS” 035 10.0 FR Severity of quench, =a 4 i R10 4 a 1 1, Distance from water-cooled end, in, naExample: 3 in diameter steel part is quenched in water with no agitation. (H=1). What ‘would be the hardness numbers at points 1,2 3, if we use a steel of jominy curve given in following figure. 60 Jominy Curve os | i aa zg a * za 7 ' ° Distance ie eet 24Hardness (Rockwell C) 60 Jominy Curve of a sol Distance 60 co 3 ia z 3 40 & T 3 E20 = ° € surta Bar gamete. ‘sevetty of quench, H ote ely? im ta PA 2 ‘isiance om wale-cceled enn. 109 Sseverty of quanch, Oy tm 2 ‘Dance om waler-cooled end in 25Question: Design a quenching process to produce a minimum hardness of HRC 40 at the . diameter 4320 steel bar by using the following figures. Question: A gear made from 9310 steel, which has an as-quenched hardness at a critical location of HRC 40, wears at an excessive rate, Tests have shown that an as-quenched hardness of at least HRC 50 is required at that critical location. Select a steel from the following figure that would be appropriate. 70 6o| 50 x0 20 1050 : cue RE RaRSESenESEEEnnny ° 10 20 30 ce (jk,th of an inch) Jominy dita aeHEAT TREATMENT Many engineering materials can posses not just one set of properties. Heat treatment is the mechanism by which these properties can be altered without a concurrent change in the product shape. By definition, heat treatment is the controlled heating and cooling of metals for the purpose of altering their properties. Because both mechanical and physical properties can be altered by heat treatment, itis one of the most important and widely used manufacturing processes. However, if heat treatment is performed improperly, more harm than good can result, Although the term heat treatment applies only to processes in which the heating and cooling are done for the specific purpose of altering properties, heating and cooling often occur in most of the manufacturing processes. Obvious examples are processes such as hot forming and welding. Hence, the properties are altered in a beneficial or harmful manner. Therefore, the designer who selects material and the engineer who determines its processing must be aware of the possible changes in properties. Processing Heat Treatments for Steel Because most processing heat treatments are applied to plain carbon and low-alloy steels, they will be represented with the simplified iron-carbon equilibrium diagram, which serves as a reference guide. ‘A number of process heat-treating operations are classified under the general term annealing. These may be employed to reduce hardness, to remove residual stresses, to improve thoughness, to restore ductility, to refine grain size or to alter the mechanical, electrical or magnetic properties of the material. By producing a certain desired structure, characteristics can be imparted that are favorable to the subsequent operations or application. The temperature, the cooling rate and the specific details of the process are determined by the material being treated and the objectives of the treatment. 27° ra w s carbon wt Figure: Iron-equilibrium diagram showing temperature regions for various heat treatment operations Spheroidizing Anneal When high-carbon steels must be prepared for machining or forming, a process known as spheroidizing is employed. The goal is to produce a structure in which all cementite is in the form of small, well-dispersed spheroids or globules in a ferrite matri This can be accomplished by the variety of techniques, including > Prolonged heating at a temperature just below the A, followed by relatively slow cooling; Furnace Cooling Slow) 28> Prolonged cycling between temperatures slightly above and slightly below the Aj; Ler - Oe ferrite + Figure. The spheroidization of pearlitic cementite For the majority of steels the annealing time is between 2 and 6 hours. > In the case of tool steels or higher alloy steels, heating to 750-800°C or higher and holding at this temperature for several hours, followed by slow cooling. Reeyrstallization Annealing Where cold working has severely strain-hardened a metal, it is often desirable to restore ductility, either for service or to permit further processing without danger of fracture. Cold Work A material is considered to be cold worked if its grains are in a distorted condition after plastic deformation is completed. All the properties of a metal that are dependent 29on the lattice structure are affected by plastic deformation or cold working, The {following properties are affected by cold work significantly: Tensile Strength B Hardness Yield Strength @ Ductility Figure: Effect of cold work on mechanical properties Distortion of the lattice structure hinders the passage of electrons and decreases electrical conductivity in alloys, The increase in internal energy, particularly at the grain boundaries, makes the material more susceptible 10 inter granular corrosion, thereby reducing its corrosion resistance. Known as stress corrosion, this is an acceleration of corrosion in certain environments due to residual stresses resulting from cold working. One of the ways to avoid stress corrosion cracking is to relieve the internal stresses by suitable heat treatment after cold working and before placing the material in service. Reeyrstallization annealing can be used for this purpose. Such cold worked materials must be heated to a temperature above the minimum that will cause recyrstallization to take place. The recyrstallization temperature varies according to the amount of previous cold work that the material has received (see following figure), but is usually about 550-600°C,Since austenite is not formed, the existing phases simply change their morphology, that is, their size, shape, and distribution. The metal is held at that temperature long enough to achieve softening and is then cooled at any desired rate (usually in air). A holding time of % - 1 hour at the reeyrstallization temperature is normal, If continuos annealing is used the time may be shortened considerably. | § rc Figure. (a) Annealing of cold-worked mild steel causes recyrstallization of the distorted ferrite; so producing new ferrite crystals, which can again be cold-worked. (b) The relationship between prior cold work, recrystalization temperature and grain size The following generalizations can be made about recrystallization process: > The smaller the degree of deformation, the higher the temperature needed to cause recrystallization, > Increasing the temperature for recrystallization decreases the time necessary to complete it > The greater the degree of deformation, the lower the annealing temperature for recrystallization and smaller the recystallized grain size. Recovery: This is primarily a low temperature process, and the property changes produced do not cause appreciable change in microstructure or the properties, such as tensile strength, yield strength, hardness and ductility. The principal effect of recovery is the relief 31of internal stresses due to cold working. When the load which causes plastic deformation is released, all the elastic deformation does not disappear. This is due to the different orientation of crystals, which will not allow some of them to move back when the load is released. As the temperature is increased, there is some spring back of these elastically displaced atoms which relieve most of the internal stresses. Electrical conduetivity is also increased appreciably during the recovery stage. As the temperature of the recovery range is reached, minute new crystals appear in the microstructure. The new crystals generally appear at the most drastically deformed portions of the grain, usually the grain boundaries and slip planes. Reerystallization: During recrystallization stage, there is a significant drop in tensile strength, hardness and a large increase in the ductility of the material . Grain Growth: In this stage the tensilestrength and hardness continue to decrease but at a much less rate than the recrystallization stage. The major change observed during this stage is the growth of the grain boundaries and reaching the original grain size 32Stress Relief Annealing Causes of Residual Stresses: 1. Thermal factors (e.g., thermal stresses caused by temperature gradients within the workpiece during heating or cooling) 2. Mechanical factors (¢.g., cold-working) 3. Metallurgical factors (e.g,, transformation of the microstructure) How to Remove Residual Stresses? R.S. can be reduced only by a plastic deformation in the microstructure This requires that the yield strength of the material be lowered below the value of the residual stresses. The more the yield strength is lowered, the greater the plastic deformation and correspondingly the greater the possibility or reducing the residual stresses, The yield strength and the ultimate tensile strength of the steel both decrease with increasing temperature A stress relief anneal may be employed to remove residual stresses in large steel castings and welded structures. Parts are heated to temperature below Aj, are held for 1-2 hours, and are then slow cooled. Times and temperatures vary with the condition of component. For plain carbon and low-alloy steels a temperature of 550 — 650°C. and is for hot-worked and high speed steels a temperature of 600 — 750°C is required. | Reduction ot eedual sess, te i 8 0 9, S 00 200 499 sm 500 30 Tempeaive.¢ Figure: Higher temperatures and longer times of annealing may reduce residual stresses to lower levelsThis treatment will not cause any phase changes but recyrstallization may take place. In order that thermal stresses are not induced during cooling, it is good practice to allow the parts to cool slowly in the furnace approximately 500°C after which they may be taken out and allowed to cool freely in air. If the greatest possible freedom from internal stresses is required, the annealing treatment should be carried near the upper limit of the approximate temperature range indicated above. Unfortunately, this might not always be practicable, since a high temperature may give rise an unacceptably large amount of superficial oxidation. Full Annealing Full annealing is essentially a softening process of heat treatment; its purpose is to relieve intemal stresses, reduce brittleness and improve machinability. In full annealing, hypoeutectoid steels are heated to 30 - 60°C above the As temperature to convert the structure to homogeneous single-phase austenite of uniform composition and temperature, are held at this temperature for a period of time, and are then slowly cooled at a controlled rate to below the A; temperature. A general rule is to provide 1 hour at elevated temperature per inch of thickness of the largest section but energy savings have Motivated a reduction of this time. Cooling from the elevated temperature is usually done in the furnace, with the temperature decreasing at a rate of 10-30 °C per hour to at least 30 °C below A; temperature, followed by air cooling to room temperature, The resulting structure is coarse pearlite (widely spaced lamellae) with excess ferrite. The material is quite soft and ductile, The procedure for hypereutectoid steels is basically the same, except the original heating is only into the austenite ~ plus - cementite region (30-60 °C above the A, line). If the material is slow-cooled from the pure austenite region, a continuous network of cementite ‘may form on the grain boundaries and make the material brittle. When the material is properly annealed, the structure of hypereutectoid steel is coarse pearlite plus excess cementite in dispersed spheroidal form, 34AUsHiNtF wd Ts Figure: Cooling curve C represents a slow cooling process, such as furnace cooling. An example for this type of cooling is full annealing process where all the Austenite is allowed to transform to coarse Pearlite as a result of slow cooling. Normalizing Full anneals are time consuming, and considerable energy is needed to maintain the elevated temperatures required during soaking and furnace cooling. When extreme softness is not required and cost savings are desired, normalizing may be employed. Austenite (y- iron) TEMPERATURE —~> i 0.83 2.00 \ HYPO. HYPEREUTECTOID | EUTECTOID STEEL i STEEL 0 Cee Here the steel is heated to 60 °C above the As (hypoeutectoid) is held (10-20 min) to produce uniform austenite, and is then removed from the furnace and allowed to cool in 35still air, The resultant structures and properties depend on the subsequent cooling rate. Although wide variations are possible, depending on the size and geometry of the metal, fine pearlite with excess ferrite or cementite is generally produced, One should note a key difference between full annealing and normalizing. In the full anneal, the furnace imposes identical cooling conditions at all locations within the metal, which produce identical properties. With normalizing, the cooling is different at different locations. Properties will vary between surface and interior, and different thickness regions will have different properties. When subsequent processing involves automated machining, the added cost of a full anneal may be justified since it produces a product with uniform machinability at all locations. ‘The purposes for normalizing vary. Some of these are: > To refine the grain size of a steel that has become coarse grained as a result of its having been heated to a high temperature, for example for forging or welding, > To increase the strength of the steel (compared to annealed steel) > To reduce compositional segregation in castings or forgings and thus to provide a more uniform structure, Effect of full annealing and normalizing on mechanical properties As indicated in the following Figure, annealing and normalizing do not present a significant difference on the ductility of low carbon steels. As the carbon content increases, annealing maintains the % elongation around 20%. On the other hand, the ductility of the normalized high carbon steels drop to 1 to 2 % level. zg gs 22 Annealing 38 *e ° os ‘ 18 CARBON CONTENT (4.6) 36Following figures show that the tensile strength and the yield point of the normalized steels are higher than the annealed steels. Normalizing and annealing do not show a significant difference on the tensile strength and yield point of the low carbon steels. However, normalized high carbon steels present much higher tensile strength and yield point than those that are annealed. ‘eve powr (.acorsi As seen in the following Figure, low and medium carbon steels can maintain similar hardness levels when normalized or annealed. However, when high carbon steels are normalized they maintain higher levels of hardness than those that are 300 Normalizing 200 Annealing BRINELL HARDNESS NUMBER (BHN) ° os 1 4 CARBON CONTENT (= C) 37Hardening (Quenching) Steels can be heat treated to high hardness and strength levels. The reasons for doing this are obvious. Structural components subjected to high operating stress need the high strength of a hardened structure. Similarly, tools such as dies, knives, cutting devices, and forming devices need a hardened structure to resist wear and deformation. Hardening is process in which steel is heated to a temperature above the critical point, held at this temperature and quenched (rapidly cooled) in water, oil or molten salt baths. The rapid cooling necessary to harden a steel is known as qenching, The liquid into which the steel is immersed to promote this rapid cooling is calleed the quenching bath. Steel is quenched in water or brine for the most rapid cooling, in oil for some alloy steels, and in air for certain higher alloy steels, The result of hardening depends on several factors, each of which may be decisive importance. Heating Media During the heating-up stage it is necessary to prevent any unintetional carburization or decarburization. Should this happen the hardness measured after hardening will be misleading, which may result in the choice of an incorrect tempering temperature. Variations in the carbon content of the surface layers may cause the steel to crack during hardening. If the surface oxidation is too severe it may not be possible to obtain the tolerances set after descaling and grinding. To protect the tool surface the necessary precautions to be observed depend on the type of the furnace used. © Salt-bath furnaces: These offer good protection against variations in the superficial carbon content, owing to the short heating time required and the neutral character of the bath. Compositions and working temperatures for neutral salt baths: 1.5% NaCl +55% KCI 675-900 °C 20% NaCl + 80% BaCl: 675-1060 °C 100% BaCl; 1025-1325 °CDuring use the bath takes up iron from the material being heat treated. This iron is oxidized since the bath is in contact with the atmosphere. The iron oxide thus formed has a decarburizing action on the steel charge and hence the bath must be regenerated. ° Gi ired muffle furnaces: These allow the amount of air of combustion to be oi controlled. hence the atmosphere inside the muffle can be adjusted so that for the treatment temperature and grade of steel concerned the superficial carbon content of the charge will not be appreciable affected, © Electrically- heated muffle furnaces: These, if not operated with controlled ‘atmospheres, should be used with annealing boxes in which the steel charge is packed with some protective material, which should be as neutral as possible. Unfortunately there is no general purpose substance so versatile that is suitable as packing material for all grades of steel since these materials are only neutral towards steels of a definite carbon content and at a definite temperature. One purpose of the packing material is to prevent the ingress of air to steel. For this purpose cast-iron chips are very suitable since the air that is sucked into the box on account of temperature variations preferentially oxidizes the chips. Cast iron chips are inerts towards plain carbon steel and low alloy stee! containing carbon between 0.6 and 1%, When steel is exposed to an oxidizing atmosphere, because of the presence of water vapor or oxygen in the furnace, a layer of iron oxide called (scale) is formed. Thin layer of scale has very little effect on cooling rate, but that a thick layer of oxide (0.005 in. deep) retord the actual cooling rate. Rate of Heating ‘The heating rate depend on the form and size of the part to be hardened, the more the intricate and large the part being hardened, the slower it should be heated to avoid stresses due to temperature differences between the internal and external layers of the metal, warping, and even cracking. If the rate of heating to the hardening temperature is very fast the tool may crack or wrap, since sections having different dimensions heat up at different speeds. These differences may be diminished by preheating the tool to a ‘temperature usually lying close below the transformation temperature of the steel. When heating for hardening in a muffle furnace, preheating is not so necessary as when salt bath is used. 39Hardening Temperature For each grade of steel, a range of temperatures has been established to which the steel is to be heated for hardening. This temperature range is chosen so as to give maximum hardness and at the same time maintain a fine-grained structure in the steel. A lower hardening temperature would give rise to the formation of pearlite and bainite and the hardness at the surface would be inadequate. On the other hand by raising the hardening temperature the hardenability of steel can be increased. This increase is due to the greater amount of carbide going into solution and to increased grain size. Further increase in hardening temperature result in lower hardness again due to increase in the amount of retained austenite Steel: 125 Cr Si 5, Holding time: 20 min Hardening Temperatures [800 °C 825 Ce 850 °C Hardness (HRC) 55 61.5 66 Holding time at temperature When the steel has reached the hardening temperature it is austenite provided that the temperature has been correctly chosen. The time of holding at the hardening temperature depends on the desired degree of carbide is different types of steel the time of holding is also dependent on the grade of steel, Plain-carbon and low alloy steels which contain easily dissolved carbides require only a few minutes holding time after they have reached the hardening temperature. In order to make certain that there has been sufficient carbide dissolution a holding time of 5-15 min is quite sufficient. For medium alloy steels, a holding time of 15-25 min is recommended irrespective of dimension. For low alloy tool steels, on the other hand, a definite holding time is necessary to ensure that the required hardness will be attained. A suggested figure for the holding time is 0.5 min Per mm of section thickness; the minimum and maximum time, however, should be 5 min and 1 hour respectively. 40The heating time for carbon tool steels and medium-alloy structural steels should be from 25 10 30% more than for carbon structural steels, The heating time for high-alloy structural and tool steels should be from 50 to 100% higher. High alloy chrome steels require the longest holding time of all the tool steels. The holding time for these steels is dependent on the hardening temperature, see following figure. Each hardening temperature requires a definite holding tsme in order to obtain maximum hardness. Too short a time results in a lower hardness because of insufficient amount of carbide going into solution; too long a time also results in a lower hardness due to the presence of retained austenite. Hargnoss ARE . % ae0% 1000 70 ™ ty 85 60 to ry a oon oa 80 an Holding time 020% 1040% : | “HEH ssL ss o 0 2 0 7 0 mh Halding time Figure: Dependence of hardness on hardening temperature and holding time (Tool steel : X16SCrMoV12) Methods of Cooling The cooling methods used for hardening depend on: > the grade of steel, > the shape of the part and > the properties to be imparted to the steel. 41Direct Quenching to Martensite Direct quenching was the original hardening method and it is still the commonest form. According to this method the steel is cooled or quenched straight from the hardening temperature to room temperature to the slightly higher temperature of the cooling medium being used. This medium may be water, oil or air. Figure: Direct quenching to martensite. Martempering In this hardening treatment the cooling takes place in two stages, First the tool is quenched in a molten salt bath, kept at a temperature somewhat above that at which the austenitic structure of the steel starts to transform to martensite (i.e. the Ms temperature), The steel is held there unt temperature equalization is complete. Next, the tool is allowed to cool freely in air, which results in the formation of martensite. Due to this method the temperature difference between the surface and the centre during the martensite formation is much smaller than it is in conventional hardening Consequently, the austenite transforms to martensite practically simultaneously throughout the various parts of the tool even if the latter has widely different section thicknesses. As a result there is less residual stress and a minimum of distortion, The final structure and properties and properties obtained by martempering the steel are, in principle, the same as those obtained from conventional hardening but the amount of retained austenite is generally larger after martempering 42In order to carry out martempering succesfully, the composition of the steel must be such that the steel obtains a martensitic structure when it has been quenched in the martempering bath and air cooled. Therefore, this heat treatment process is confined mainly to oil hardening and air hardening grades. ‘Temperature Log time Figure: Schematic representation of the martempering process. Austempering Austempering is an isothermal heat treatment which produces a bainite structure in some plain carbon steels. The process provides an alternative procedure to quenching and tempering for increasing the thoughness and ductility of some steels. As in the case of martempering, the parts to be hardened are quenched in a salt-bath, the temperature of which is kept above that of the martensite formation, The holding time in the bath, however, is so long that the austenite is practically completely transformed to bainite. All steels and dimensions that are capable of being martempered can also be austempered. In addition, it is common practice to austemper certain low alloy structural steels, ¢.g. spring steel, up to 10 mm section and plain carbon steel up to a maximum diameter of 5 mm. The length of time necessary for complete transformation restricts the application of the austempering treatment to high alloy steels, since the time needed will often be uneconomically long. Cooling from the austempering temperature takes place freely in air. No tempering is requiredLog time Figure: Schematic representation of the austempering process. Austempering usually improves ductility and impact resistance of certain steels over those values obtained by direct quenching and tempering (see following Table). It also causes decreased distortion of the quenched material. Table : Mechanical properties of 1095 steel heat treated by three methods Specimen No. Heat treatment 1 Water quenched and tempered | 2 Water quenched and tempered 3 Martempered and tempered 4 Martempered and tempered ‘Austempered 6 Austempered Hardness, HRC 530 528 530 528 20 25 Impact strength Elongation in 3 16 38 3 6 54 feotbe 2 “4 28 4 4s 40 in 25 mm, oF 1 ina, % 44Quenching Media When hardening tool steel the heat treater generally aims at obtaining a martensitic structure, at least in the surface layers of the steel. Hence the rate of cooling must be controlled so that pearlite or bainite formation is avoided. Since the dimensions of the tool are usually decided in advance, the required depth of hardening must be controlled by a correct choice of steel and cooling medium, For plain carbon steels, the cooling medium is practically always water. The more highly alloyed the steel, the milder is the cooling medium required, and the milder the medium, the smaller is the distortion that will occur. Water : Water quenching can be done by plunging the hot steel in water. The water adjacent to the hot steel vaporizes, and there is no direct contact of the water with the steel This slows down cooling until the bubbles break and allow water contact with the hot steel As the water contacts and boils, a great amount of heat is removed from the steel. With good agitation, bubbles can be prevented from sticking to the steel, and thereby prevent soft spots Water is fairly good quenching medium. It is cheap, readily available, easily stored, nontoxic, nonflammable, smokeless and easy to filer and pump. However, with water quench, the formation of bubbles may cause soft spots in the metal. Agitation is recommended with the use of water quench. Still other problems with water quench include its oxidizing nature, its corrosivity and the tendeney to excessive distortion and possible cracking. Brine (salt water) : Brine is a more severe quench medium than water. Unfortunately, it tends to accelerate corrosion problems unless completely removed. Sodium or potasium hydroxide can be used when very severe quenching is desired and one wishes to obtain g00d hardiness in low-carbon steels. Qil: When a slower cooling rate is desired, oil quenches can be employed. The slower cooling through the Ms to Mf temperature range leads to a milder temperaure gradient and a reduced likelyhood of cracking. Problems associated with quenchants include water 45contamination, smoke, and fire hazards. In addition, quench oils tend to be somewhat expensive. Polymer quench: Polymer quenches that will produce a cooling rate in between water and oil. The cooling rate can be altered by varying the components in the mixture-as these are composed of water and some glycol polymers. Polymer quenches are capable of producing repeatable results with less corrosion than water and less of a fire hazard than oil. But, these repeatable results are possible only with constant monitoring of the chemistry Cryogenic Quench: Cryogenics or deep freezing is done to make sure there is no retained Austenite during quenching. The amount of Martensite formed at quenching is a function of the lowest temperature encountered. At any given temperature of quenching there is a certain amount of Martensite and the balance is untransformed Austenite. This untransformed Austenite is very brittle and can cause loss of strength or hardness, dimensional instability, or cracking. Quenches are usually done to room temperature. Most medium carbon steels and low alloy steels undergo transformation to 100% Martensite at room temperature, However, high carbon and high alloy steels have retained Austenite at room temperature. To eliminate retained Austenite, the quench temperature has to be lowered. This is the reason to use cryogenic quenching. Air: Low alloy steels in light sections and high alloy steels may be succesfully hardened by means of compressed air or still air. The advantages of using air are that distortion is negligible and that the steel can easily be straightened during cooling process, One drawback here is that the surface may be oxidized during the cooling, 46QUENCHANT ivereneal 0 = - O O ®O) Oberon rie GB vrwsmnernin O 7 © Oo Figure: Specimens of different diameter have been quenched in different media, and the depth of hardening obtained in each case steel: low-alloy steel containing 0.25%C, 0.6%MIn, 0.2%N and 0.2Mo. Defects in Hardening Uneven heating is the cause of most of the defects in hardening. Cracks of a circular form, from the comers or edges of a tool, indicate uneven heating in hardening. Cracks of a vertical nature and dark-colored fissures indicate that the steel has been burned and should be put on the scrap heap. Tools which have hard and soft places have been either unevenly heated, unevenly cooled, or "soaked", a term used to indicate prolonged heating. A tool not thoroughly moved about in the hardening fluid will show hard and soft places, and have a tendency to crack. Tools which are hardened simply by dropping them to the bottom of the tank, sometimes have soft places, owing to contact with the floor or sides of the tank. They should be thoroughly quenched before dropping. when a tool appears soft and will not harden, it probably has been decarbonised on the surface by too much heat or by soaking too long. ‘The surface must be removed before the too! will harden properly. Tools are sometimes soft because the cooling bath is not large enough for the tools being hardened, and becomes too warm after a few pieces have been quenched. 47Tempering A fully hardened carbon steel is relatively brittle, and the presence of quenching stresses makes its use in this condition inadvisable unless extreme hardness is required. For these reasons, it is usual to reheat, or temper, the quenched component; so that stresses are relieved and at the same time, brittleness and extreme hardness are reduced. ‘Tempering is the process of heating a martensitic steel at a temperature below the eutectoid transformation temperature to make it softer and more ductile Tempering should be carried out in close proximity to the quenching operation as soon as the steel has cooled to 50-75 °C. If itis allowed to coo! to room temperature before being ‘tempered the steel may crack. Following figure schematically illustrates the customary quenching and tempering process for a plain carbon steel. As shown in this figure, the steel is first austenized and then quenched at a rapid rate to produce martensite and avoid the transformation of austenite to ferrite and cementite. The steel is then subsequently reheated at a temperature below the eutectoid temperature to soften the martensite by transforming it to a structure of iron in a matrix ferrite. a Figure: Schematic diagram illustrating the customary quenching and tempering process for aplain-carbon steel. 48Effect of Tempering on the Hardness of Plain Carbon Steels The following figure shows the effect of increasing tempering temperature on the hardness of a martensitic plain-carbon steel. Above about 200 °C, the hardness gradually decreases as the temperature is increased up to 700 °C. This gradual decrease in hardness of the martensite with increasing temperature is due mainly to the diffusion of the carbon atoms from their stressed interstital lattice sites to form second-phase iron carbide precipitates. © Tempering time should be 2.5-5.0 min for each mm of section thickness. © Tempering for 1h at 600 °C results in a hardness of 49 HRC. If the time increased to 3h the hardness falls to 46 HRC. This latter hardness is also obtained by tempering at 625 °C for Ih, (Tool steel, oil quenched from 1025 °C) Figure: Hardness of iron-carbon martensite, tempered I h at indicated temperatures. ‘Temper Brittleness/ Embrittlement ‘Temper brittleness/embrittlement results when certain steels are held within or cooled slowly through a certain range of temperature below the transformation range. The brittleness is revealed by notched-bar impact tests at room temperature or lower temperatures. The state of temper brittleness has practically no effect on other mechanical properties at room temperature. 49Carbon steels with less than 0.5% Mn are not prone to temper embrittlement. The phenomenon can only appear in alloy steels. The most widely used alloying elements, such as chromium, nickel, and manganese, promote temper embrittlement. The highest embritting effect is “observed in Cr-Ni and Cr-Mn steels. Small additions of molybdenum (0.2-0.3%) can diminish temper embrittlement. Figure: The hardness of 4140 steel following tempering. With the low strain rates of a hardness test the curve drops smoothly with increasing tempering temperature Figure . The notch toughness of 4140 steel following tempering. We see the dramatic loss in toughness accompanying tempering in the range spanning 180- 500°C. (Metals Handbook, ASM, 9th ed, vol. 1) 50Sample Questions Question: Outline the purposes of heat treatment Answer: Heat treatment is often used to increase the strength of material, however it can also be used to alter certain manufacturing objectives such as improved machinability, improved formability and restored ductility following a cold working operation. Question: Describe how the process of normalising is undertaken and indicate a reason why this process is more commonly used in industry than full annealing, Answer: Normalising is the process of raising the temperature to over 60°C into the austenite range. It is held at this temperature to fully convert the structure into austenite, and then removed form the furnace and cooled at room temperature under natural convection. This results in a grain structure of fine pearlite with excess of ferrite or cementite. The resulting material is soft; the degree of softness depends on the actual ambient conditions of cooling. Normalising is more commonly used than annealing, as it is considerably cheaper than full annealing since there is not the added cost of controlled furnace cooling. 31Questio : Design following figure,to obtain following properties on a 1050 steel. Yield strength: 145000 psi Percent elongation: 15/5 700 600 500 400 Brinell hardness number 100 350/- area — 300 — Tensile ay? i strength get ngation and % Reduction i é 2 2 3 b 7 > * jC 200 300 «400 S00 600 700 Tempering temperature (°C) Heat to 50-60 °C above the upper critical temperature (i.e. 825 °C) a heat treatment (ie. hardening and tempering) processes, by using the Hold at this temperature for a sufficient time 10 obtain fully austenitic structure (recommended time: 1 hour/25 mm thickness) Cool rapidly (water cooling) f0 the room temperature to obtain martensitic structure. Temper at about 440 °C for about I hour and cool it to the room temperature 52Surface Hardening of Steel Many products (e.g. cams and gears) require different properties at different locations. Quite frequently, this variation takes the form of a hard, wear-resistant surface coupled with a tough, fracture resistant core. In ordinary carbon steels, these two different sets of properties are found only in materials of different carbon content. Thus, a steel with about 0.1% carbon will be tough, whilist one with 0.9% carbon will be very hard when suitably heat treated. The problem can be overcome by using one of the following methods; > Selective heating of the surface (i.e. by using a steel of uniform composition throughout, but containing at least 0.3% carbon, and heat treating the surface differently from the core, either by flame or induction hardening.) > Altered surface chemistry (i.e. by employing a tough, low carbon steel, and altering the composition of its surface, either by case hardening or by nitriding.) > Deposition of additional surface layer. Selective Heating If a steel has sufficient carbon content to attain the deisred surface hardness, the different properties can be obtained by simply varying the thermal histories of the various regions. selective heating for surafce hardness generally requires steels of at least 0.3% carbon. ‘Maximum hardness depends on the carbon content, whereas the depth of hardness depends on the materials hardenability. Flame Hardening employs a high-intensity oxyacetylene flame to raise the surface temperature high enough to reform austenite, which is then quenched and tempered to the desired surface properties. Heat input is quite rapid and is concentrated on the surface, Slow heat transfer and short times leave the interior at low temperature and therefore free from any significant changes. Flame hardening is often used on large objects and symmetrical components such as gears and spindles. Equipment varies from hand-held torches to fully automated and computerized units.Figure: The principle of flame-hardening. Induction Hardening This process is similar in principle to flame hardening, except that the component is usually held stationary whilst the whole circumference is heated simultaneously by means of induetion-coil ‘The sheet part is placed inside a wound coil, which is then subjected to alternating current. ‘The changing magnetic fields induces a current in the steel that flows through the surface layers and heats by electrical resistance. Heating rates are extremely rapid and efficiency is high, The process can be adapted to special shapes and offers the benefits of excellent reprodueibility, good quality control and the possibility of automation. The depth to which heating occurs varie inversely as the square root of frequency; so that the higher the frequency used, the shallower the depth of heating Figure: Types of coils used for induction hardening, Laser beam hardening Mt has been used to produce hardened surfaces on uneven geometries, An absorptive coating, such as zinc or manganese phosphate, is first applied to the steel to improve the efficiency of converting light energy into heat. The surface is then scanned with the laser beam size, beam intensity, and scanning speed have been selected to obtain the desired hardness. It can be used to harden selected surface areas. 34Electron beam hardening \t is very similar to laser beam hardening, Here the heat source is a beam of high-energy electrons, rather than a beam of light. Electron can not travel in air, however, so the entire operation must be performed in vacuum, and this requirement provides the major limitation Techniques Using Altered Surface Chemistry When steels contain insufficient carbon to attain the desired surface properties by selective heating, an alternative approach is to alter the surface chemistry. Carburising Carburising is the most common technique within this category, This process makes use of the fact that carbon will dissolve in appreciable amounts in solid iron, provided that the iron is in the FCC crystal form. This is due to the fact that carbon dissolves interstitially in iron, the carbon atoms are small enough to infiltrate between the larger iron atoms; so solid iron can absorb in much the same way that water is soaked up by a sponge. Since only FCC iron will dissolve carbon, it follows that steel must be carburised at a temperature above the upper critical temperature. Thus carburising consist of surrounding mild steel components with some carbon reach material, and heating them above their upper critical temperature for long enough to produce a carbon rich surface layer of sufficient depth. Solid, liquid and gaseous carburising materials are used as a carburising medium. solid media), components are packed in a In the pack earburising process (carburisin; high carbon solid medium, enclosed in a gas tight box, and heated in a furnace for 6 to 72 hours (according to the depth of case required) at roughly 900-950°C. The hot carburising compound produces CO gas, which react with the metal, releasing carbon. In gas carburising the solid carburising compound is replaced with a carbon providing gas, usually containing an excess of CO. Although the mechanism and processing are the same, the operation is faster and more easily controlled. Gas carburising is becoming increasingly popular, particularly for the mass production of thin cases.In liquid carburising or cyaniding, the carbon is supplied by immersing the part in a molten carbon containing bath. The cyanide rich mixture is heated in iron parts to a temperature of 900 to 950°C, and the work is immersed for periods of about five minutes upwards, according to the depth of case required. Most applications involve the production of thin cases (0.1 to 0.25 mm) on small parts. Steels for Casehardening The percentage of carbon in steels ordinarily used for parts to be casehardened varies, as a general rule, from 0.15 to 0.20 per cent. If the carbon exceeds 0.20 per cent, it tends to give a hard instead of a soft core. If the carbon content is too low, the steel may be difficult to machine; hence, steels containing as much as 0.20 to 0.25 per cent carbon are often used for casehardening. For general work, stee! of the following composition will be found satisfactory: Carbon, 0.16 to 0.20 per cent; manganese, less than 0.35 per cent; silicon, not over 0.30 per cent. The sulphur and phosphorus should be as low as possible, not exceeding 0.1 per cent. Degree and Depth of Hardened Surface The percentage of carbon contained in the casehardened surface should vary according to requirements, A high-carbon case containing 1.1 per cent carbon gives a very hard wearing surface suitable for work that must withstand a fairly constant pressure, as shafts running bearings, etc., but for parts which must withstand repeated shocks, this amount of carbon would render them too brittle, and in such cases it is advisable not to exceed 0.90 to 1 per cent carbon. For most purposes, 0.90 per cent carbon is preferable. Recent investigations indicate that the percentage of carbon in the hardened crust varies with the depth of the latter; the deeper the penetration, the higher the carbon content. The following figure serves as an aid to heat treatment operators who handle steel parts of various grades and dimensions. The curves are based on a large number of case-hardening tests and are sufficiently accurate for practical carburizing work when using a solid compound, a salt bath or a gas. The penetration of the carbon increases with the ‘temperature and with the time of exposure, but not in direct proportion to these two factors. 36[Farearn Tene fal Ouraton of Cmbuns on Figure: Case depth versus duration and temperature of carburization Nitriding Nitriding produces hardening by the production of alloy nitrides in the surface layer of special steels-nitralloy steels- that contain nitride forming elements such as aluminum, chromium, molybdenum or vanadium. Ordinary plain carbon steels can not be nitreded, since any compounds of iron and nitrogen which form will diffuse into the core, so that the increase in hardness of the surface is lost. The hard compounds formed by aluminum, chromium, and vanadium, however, remain near the surface, providing an extremely hard skin. ‘The parts are heat treated and tempered at 525-675°C before nitriding. After cleaning and removal of the any decarburised surface material, they are heated in a medium which contains gaseous nitrogen and hydrogen for 10-40 hours at 500-600°C. Nitrogen diffusing into the steel then forms alloy nitrides, hardening the metal to a depth of about 0.65 mm. > Very hard cases are formed and distortion is low. > No subsequent thermal processing is required. In fact, it should be avoided because the differential thermal expansions and contractions will crack the nitrided case. > Finish grinding should also be avoided, if possible, because of exceptionally thin case. 37‘Thus, although the surface hardness is higher than for other hardening methods, the long times at elevated temperature, coupled with the thin case, restrict the application of nitriding to the production of high quality cases. ‘Advantages of nitriding over case-hardening are as follows: > Cracking or distortion is unlikely, and component can be machine finished before treatment > Resistance to corrosion is good, if the nitrided surface is left unpolished > Hardness is retained up to 500°C; where as a case hardened component begins soften at about 200°C > The process is clean and simply to operate I It is cheap if large number of components are to be treated Disadvantages of nitriding as compared with case hardening are as follows: > The initial cost of nitriding plant is higher. so nitriding is only economical when large numbers of components are to be treated. v If a nitrided component is accidentally over-heated, the loss of surface hardness is permanent, unless the component can be nitrided again. A case hardened steel would need only to be heat treated if it had not been over heated as to decarburise it. Carbonitriding Carbonitriding process is most suitable for low carbon and low carbon alloy steels. In this process, both Carbon and Nitrogen are diffused into the surface. The parts are heated in an atmosphere of hydrocarbon (such as methane or propane) mixed with Ammonia (NH3). ‘The process is a mix of Carburizing and Nitriding, Carburizing involves high temperatures (around 900 °C) and Nitriding involves much lower temperatures (around 600 °C). Carbonitriding is done at temperatures of 760 - 870 °C, which is higher than the transformati ‘n temperatures of steel that is the region of the face-centered Austenite. It is then quenched in a natural gas (Oxygen free) atmosphere. ‘This quench is less drastic than water or oil-thus less distortion. 58However this process is not suitable for high precision parts due to the distortions that are inherent, The hardness achieved is similar to carburizing (60 - 65 RC) but not as high as Nitriding (70 RC). The case depth is from 0.1 to 0,75 mm. The ease is rich in Nitrides as ‘well as Martensite. Tempering is necessary to reduce the brittleness Boronizing /Boriding Boriding, or Boronizing, is a thermo-chemical surface hardening process used 10 improve the life and performance of metal components, The process is used {0 strengthen resistance to corrosion and abrasive wear, decrease coefficient of friction, and, of course, greatly increase surface hardness. The Boriding process involves the use of specially formulated boron-yielding material heated to temperatures between 840°C ile 1050°C, During the boronizing process, boron atoms diffuse into the metal surface and form metal borides. With ferrous materials, the boride layers attain a hardness of between 1500HV to 2300HV The thickness of the boride layers varies with respect to temperature, treating time, and material. Materials that can be processed: Ferrous materials ( irons, plain carbon, alloy, stainless, and tool steels are all Possible). This is because the boride compound formed is an iron boride so we only need iron to be present in the material to do this. Nickel-based alloys, Cobalt-based alloys, Molybdenum, Sintered carbides. How to Select the Right Surface Hardening Method () Carburizing is the best method for low carbon steels. (2) Nitriding is a lower distortion process than carburizing but it can be used for certain pe of steels such as chromium-molybdenum alloy steels or Nitralloy-type steels. (3) Flame hardening is preferred for heavy cases or selective hardening of large machine components. (4) Induction hardening works best on parts small enough and suitable in shape to be compatible with the induction coil. (5) Electron beam and laser hardening are limited to the low alloy steels and plain carbon steels only.Question: Design the materials and heat treatments for an automobile axle and drive gear Gear SOLUTION ‘Axle: The axle might be made from a forged 1050 steel containing a matrix of ferrite and pearlite. The axle could be surface-hardened, perhaps by moving the axle through an induction coil to selectively heat the surface of the steel above the A3 temperature (about 7700C). After the coil passes any particular location of the axle, the cold interior quenches the surface to martensite, Tempering then softens the martensite to improve ductility. Gear: Carburize a 1010 steel for the gear. By performing a gas carburizing process above the A3 temperature (about 8600C), we introduce about 1.0% C in a very thin case at the surface of the gear teeth. This high-carbon case, which transforms to martensite during quenching, is tempered to control the hardness. This high-carbon case, which transforms to ‘martensite during quenching, is tempered to control the hardness. 60The Role of Design in the Heat Treatment of Steel Design details and material selection play important roles in the satisfactory and economical heat treatment of parts, Proper consideration of these factors usually leads to more simple, more economical and more reliable products. Failure to relate design and materials to heat treatment procedure usually produces disappointing or variable results and often results in service failure. Undesirable design features are > Non uniform sections or thickness; > Sharp interior comers; and > Sharp exterior corners. Undesirable results may include > non-uniform structure and properties, undesirable residual stresses, V cracking, warping and dimensional changes. vvv Heat can only be extracted from a piece of metal through its exposed surface. Thus, if a piece to be hardened has a non-uniform cross section, the thin portion will cool rapidly and fully harden, where as the thick region may not harden, except on the surface. This surface may even be tempered somewhat by the heat retained in the center of heavy section. The shape that might be closed to ideal form the viewpoint of quenching would be doughnut, having a uniform cross section with maximum exposed surface and no sharp corners. Residual Stresses are the often complex results of the various dimensional changes that ‘occurs during heat treatment. The various phases and structures that may form are often characterized by different densities, and therefore, a volume expansion or contraction accompanies the phase transformations. When austenite transform to martensite, there is a volume expansion of up to 4%. Austenite transform to pearlite also experiences a volume expansion, but it is of smaller magnitude. If all temperature changes occurred uniformly 61throughout the part, all changes in dimension would occur simultaneously and the result would be a component free of residual stresses. However, most parts being heat treated experience non-uniform temperatures during the cooling or quenching process. Niue Quench bene wos Hew Own bed Quenaet Os mn Figure: Formation of quench cracks caused by residual stresses produced during quenching, The figure illustrates the development of stresses as the austenite transforms to martensite during cooling. Cross sections should be designed so that temperature differences are as low as possible and are not concentrated. If this is not possible, slower cooling and material that will harden in an oil or air quench may be required. Because materials having greater hardenability are invariable, more expensive, the design alternatives clearly has advantages. Figure: (a) Shape containing non-uniform sections joined by a sharp interior comer that may crack during quenching. (b) Improved design using a large radius to join sections and to avoid cracking in heat treatment. When temperature differences and resultant residual stresses become severe or localized, additional problems, such as cracking or distortion, can result. Following figure shows an 62example in which a sharp interior comer was placed at a change of cross section. Upon quenching, stresses concentrate along line AB, and crack is almost certain to result, When changes in cross section or other transition must be made, they should be gradual as in the redesigned figure b. Generous fillet at interior comers, radiused external comers and smooth transitions all reduce problems. Use of more hardenable material or less severe quench will also aid in preventing unnecessary problems. Following figure shows the cross section of a die that consistently cracked during hardening, Eliminating the sharp corners and adding holes to provide a more uniform cross section during quenching, as in figure b, eliminated the difficulty. Figure: (a) Original design. (b) Improved design to produce more uniform sections. One of the dangerous features of improperly designed heat-treated parts is the fact that the residual stresses may not produce immediate failure but may contribute to failure at a later time. Applied stresses, well with in the “safe” designed limit, may couple with residual stresses to produce loads sufficient to cause failure. Dimensions may change or warping may result during subsequent machining or grinding operations, Corrosion reaetions may be significantly accelerated in the presence of residual stresses. Time and money are lost that could be saved if proper design practices were employed. The principles of good design for heat treatment are (1) that the properties required in the heat-treated part be obtained without the part’s being distorted beyond acceptable limits and (2) that the heat-treated part withstand external stresses during service without failure. 63‘The fundamental rule is to make it as simple as possible, keep it symmetrical, have uniform cross sections, and balance the weight: The ideal design would be a shape that when heated (or cooled) would have the same temperature at every point within the part. > Abrupt changes in section sizes must be avoided by making the change as gradual v ‘as possible. > Long, thin parts (such as connecting rods) should have symmetrical, rounded cross sections to reduce stresses. > Holes should be centered so that the mass of metal surrounding them is equally balanced. > The location of holes or cutouts is important. They should not be located closer to the edge in order to avoid unequal mass distribution. } All intemal comers should be rounded. > Keyways, whether external or internal, should have generous radii and be located symmetrically. > Parts with through holes concentric with the axis do not present a serious distortion problem, but blind holes that are deep cause distortion owing to unequal mass and additional difficulty if the intemal surface must be hard. IncoRRECT WMPROVED, Bored Emoveh Undercut se, Unvfoom Section fused properly, heat treatment is an important manufacturing process that enables better results to be obtained with less costly materials. The designer, however, must take into account all the facts and conditions when he or she designs a part, selects a material and specifies, directly or indirectly the heat treatment for it 64METALLOGRAPHY Metallography is a method of observing the structure of metal through its surface. The purpose of metallographic examinations is to obtain information for determining characteristics of that pa Jlar material. Metallographic observations could be carried out on plain surfaces to study the micro-structural details or on fractured surfaces to study the mode of cracking and failure methods. Factors which affect the accuracy of these examinations are sampling, preparation and microscopy. Sample Preparation © Preparation of metallographic specimens generally requires five major operations: sectioning, © mounting (which is optional), © grinding, polishing and © etching. A well-prepared metallographic specimen represent sample: @ Sectioned, ground and polished so as to minimize disturbed or flowed surface metal caused by mechanical deformation. © Free from polishing scratches and pits and liquid staining. © Polished so that inclusions are preserved intact. © Flat enough to permit examination at high magnification. Sectioning Many metallographic specimens are used for process control. Separate test pieces or coupons attached to castings or forgings should be designed so that a minimum of sectioning is required for producing metallographic specimens. [Abrasive-Wheel Cutting and saw cutting are the most widely used sectioning devices in ‘metallographic laboratories. An ample flow of water or water soluble oil coolant should be directed onto cut, Wet cutting will produce a smooth surface finish and, most important, will guard against excessive surface damage caused by overheating, Mounting of Specimens ‘The primary purpose of mounting specimens is for convenience in handling specimens of difficult shapes or sizes during the subsequent steps of preparation and examination. A 65secondary purpose is to protect and preserve extreme edges or surfaces defects during preparation. Specimens also may require mounting to accommodate various types of automatic devices used in laboratories or to facilitate placement on the microscope stage. G inding Grinding is a most important operation in specimen preparation. Grinding is accomplished by abrading the specimen surface through a sequence of operations using progressively finer abrasive grit. Grit sizes from 40 mesh through 150 mesh are usually regarded as coarse abrasives and grit sizes from 180 mesh through 600 mesh as fine abrasives. The abrasive used for each succeeding grinding operation should be one or two grit size smaller than that used in the preceding operation. A satisfactory grinding sequence might involve grit sizes of 180, 240, 400 and 600 mesh. {As in abrasive-wheel sectioning, all grinding should be done wet, provided water has no adverse effects on any constituents of the microstructure. Wet grinding minimizes loading of the abrasive with metal removed from the specimen being prepared. Water flushes away most of the surface removal products before they become embedded between adjacent abrasive particles. Another advantage of the wet grinding is the cooling effect of the water. Considerable frictional heat can develop at the surface of a specimen during grinding and can cause alterations of the true microstructure - for example, tempering of martensite in steel - that cannot be removed during polishing. Wet grinding provides effective control of overheating, The abraded surface of a specimen may become embedded with loose abrasive particles during grinding. These particles may persist in the surface and appear to be nonmetallic inclusions in the polished specimen. The flushing action of the water removes many of loose particles that might otherwise become embedded. Polishing Polishing is the final step in production a surface that is flat, scratch free, and mirror like in appearance. Such a surface is necessary for subsequent accurate metallographic interpretation, both qualitative and quantitative. 66Washing and Drying The specimen is preferably washed and swabbed in worm running water, rinsed with methanol or any other alcohol that does not leave a residue, and dried in a stream of warm air. Alcohol can usually be employed for washing when the abrasive carrier is not soluble in water. Etching Although certain information may be obtained from as-polished specimens, the microstructure is usually visible only after etching. Cracks, pores, pits, and nonmetallic inclusions may be observed in the as-polished condition. A wide variety of etchants is available, including acid, bases, neutral solutions, mixtures of solutions, molten salts and gases. Etching times range from several seconds to some hours. When no instructions are given, progress is judged by the appearance of the surface during etching, Usually, the surface will become less reflective as etching proceeds. On completion of any chemical or electrochemical etching process, the specimen should be rinsed in clean water to remove the chemicals and stop any reactions from proceeding further. After specimens are water rinsed, they should be rinsed in alcohol and dried in a stream of warm air. The use of alcohol speeds up the drying action and prevents the formation of water spots. Table. Etching reagents for some steels Metal Etchant ‘Composition Remarks Tron and carbon Nital 25% nitric acid in methyl Time: 5-60 secons steels alcohol For pearlite, ferrite and martensite Pioral 4g picric acid ,100 mi Time: 5-120 seconds For methyl alcohol annealed and hardened steels HCL and pierie 5g HCl. Tg pierie acid, 100 Time:5-90 seconds Reveals acid ml methyl alcohol austenite in qunched steels. Alloy and stainless Ferric chloride 5g ferricchoride, 20mi HCI, Time: 15-120 secons steels and HCL 100 ml methyl alcohol For stainless and austenitic steels High speed steels HClandnitric SmI HCI, 9minitric acid, Time:15 seconds-15 minutes. acid 100m! alcohol For hardened HSS steels 67References 1. Steel and its Heat Treatment by Karl-Erik Thelning 2. Materials and Processes in Manufacturing by E. Paul Degarmo, J.Temple Black and Ronald A. Kohser. 3. Principles of Material Science and Engineering by William F. Smith 4, The Science and Design of Engineering Materials by J. P. Schaffer, A. Saxena, S.D. Antolovich, T. H. Sanders and S. B. Wamer 5. The Science and Engineering of Materials, 4th ed, Donald R. Askeland — Pradeep P. Phulé. hittp://\vww.doitpoms.ac.uk/tIplib/jominy/jominy.php http://induction-heating.com.cn/uploadfile/20111 126/201 11126131423924.pdf http://www.eng.uokufa.edu.iq/staff/mwahids/lic/3Hardening pdf http://www.efunda,com/processes/heat_treat/hardening/direct.cfin 10. hitp://www.zianet,com/ebeat/metal/heattreat3.html 11. http://www.asminternational.org/content/ASM/StoreFiles/ACF180B.pdf 12, http://www. mslab.boun.edu.tr/Heat_treatment.doc 13. Design For Manufacturability Handbook by Donald A. Adams 14, http://info.lu.farmingdale.edu/depts/met/met205/index.html 68