Unit 1 Heat and TemperatureThe Nature of Heat is a programed self-instructional course for refinery operators. This unit, “Heat and Temperature,” intro- duces heat as a form of energy, describes its effects on the phases of matter, introduces the differences between amount of heat and intensity of heat, and describes heat of transformation, Evaporation, pressure considerations, super heat, specific heat, the thermal properties of refinery products, and temperature measurements and expansion are also described.INSTRUCTIONS This is a programed learning course. Programed learning gives information in a series of steps called frames. Each frame gives some information and asks you to make use of it. Here is how it works. First, cover the response column at the right with a mask, Read this frame and use the information it gives to fill in the blank. A micrometer is an instrument designed to measure in thousandths of an inch. A micrometer is a good tool for measuring very differences in size. Move the mask down to uncover the word at the right of the frame. If you have filled the blank with that word or a word that means the same, you are ready to go ahead to the next frame. The drawing of a micrometer provides information that will help you fill in the next blanks. OBJECT TO BE MEASURED ANVIL THIMBLE SPINDLE RATCHET CAP. FRAME Seven major parts are shown in the drawing, but only the_______and the contact the object to be measured, small anvil; spindle‘The next frame calls for a choice. Circle or underline the ap- propriate word. Of the two parts that contact the object, only the (anvil/ spindle) moves. spindle A program is a series of frames that work like the ones you have just done: Read the frame. Use the information to fill in the blanks or make a choice. Move the mask down and check the response column, Go on to the next frame. Remember to cover the response column with a mask before you begin each page. The Exhibit for this program is placed in the center of the book so that it may be removed easily for reference. Please remove it now so that you will have it available when needed.3. 6. SECTION ONE PROPERTIES OF HEAT Heat as Energy Millions of years ago, the plants of the prehistoric forests were storing the energy of the sun in the chemicals they manufactured. ‘The deposits of oil found in the earth today were formed by layer upon layer of dead plants and animals com- pressed for millions of years beneath the surface of the earth. Today, as we burn oil to heat our homes, we are releas- ing this stored energy to do work for us. With heat we can do work. We can bring about all kinds of changes. Heat, like sound, or light, or falling water, has the ability to cause change, the ability to do work. Heat is a changer. Heat can do work. We can transform heat into light, sound, electricity, and mechanical energy. So heat is considered a form of energy. ‘Today it is recognized that heat, like sound, light, and electricity, is a form of —______. Because heat is a form of energy and can be transformed into other forms of energy, it has the ability to cause change, that is, it has the ability to do It takes energy to do work. A bowling ball rolling down the alley can do work on the pins. ‘Therefore, the moving ball must possess Any moving object has the ability to do work. All moving objects possess ____ because they ean do work while they are in motion. ‘This energy possessed by all moving objects is kinetic energy. ‘The word kinetic comes from the Greek word kinetikos, which means caused by motion. Kinetic energy is simply the energy an object has because it is in . The faster an object moves, the greater the amount of work it can do. A fast ball would possess (more/less) kinetic energy than a slow curve ball. energy work energy energy motion more8% 10. ll. 12. 18. Any object in motion has kinetic energy because of its motion. And the faster the object moves, the (greater/smaller) is its kinetic energy. Heat energy, like all other forms of energy, involves a kind of motion. So, the study of energy, specifically heat energy, requires the study of —____. But, when we study heat, the motion that we are inter- ested in is not the motion of an object as a whole, but the motion of molecules (the tiny units that make up the object). Suppose you were able to break down water until you finally arrived at a piece that could no longer be divided and still be water. You would have arrived at a single of water. unit, or a—___ All the matter you see around you is composed of these tiny units called —______.. Of course molecules are too small to be seen, but if you could somehow see the molecules in the air, you would see that they are all in constant motion. They are mov- ing randomly in all directions, running into one another, changing direction, and moving on. Because they are moving, they can do work on anything they run into. Because they are moving, they possess kinetie In the study of basic mechanics, the motion of a whole object and the kinetic energy of the whole object are of primary interest. But, in the study of heat, we are interested in the kinetic energy of the tiny units, or ______, that make up the matter. Oil being pumped through a pipeline has kinetic energy because the whole mass of oil is in Oil standing motionless in a tank also has kinetic energy. But this kinetic energy is due to the constant motion of the tiny units, or ________of oil. greater motion molecule molecules energy molecules motion molecules14. 1. 16. 1. 18. 19. When a barrel of oi] is heated, the molecules of oil move faster, and thus their kinetic energy increases. If the oil is cooled, the molecules will slow down, and their kinetic energy will (decrease/increase). Heat is a measure of the kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance. So, the kind of motion involved in heat energy is the motion of the _____ that compose all matter. Heat energy can be defined as the total ___ energy of the molecules that make up all matter. Even at the lowest temperatures that can be produced, the molecules that compose all matter are always in motion. Thus all matter: (circle one) A. contains some heat energy B. contains the same amount of heat energy C. will have heat energy except when it is at low temperatures Even in an ice cube, the molecules are in motion. Thus, cold as it is, the ice cube contains some States of Matter Heat energy determines the state of matter of a given substance. You are familiar with three states of matter: solid, liquid, and gas. These three states of matter are not permanent, but depend upon the amount of heat energy contained by a given amount of a substance. From everyday examples like melting or freezing ice cubes, you are familiar with how heat influences the state of matter. If enough heat is added to melt an ice cube, it changes from the solid state to water, which is the (solid/liquid/ gas) state. decrease ‘molecules kinetic heat energy liquid20. 21. ag. 23. 2, 25. 26. 27. If more heat were added to the liquid water, it would boil and thus change state again into steam, which is the (solid/liquid/ gaseous) state. ‘The molecules in a solid move slowly and are very strongly held together by forces acting between each molecule and its neighbor. Heating a solid makes the molecules move (faster/ slower) and thus move farther apart. When enough heat energy is added to a solid, like the ice cube, its molecules have enough energy to partially overcome the forces hélding them together. ‘Then the molecules are able to move more freely and can slide past each other-the solid changes into the (solid/ liquid/ gaseous) state. Now, if more heat energy is added to the liquid, the molecules will have enough energy to completely over- come the forces holding them together. The liquid would change into the (solid/liquid/ gaseous) state. In solids, the molecules are rigidly held together and cannot move around very freely. Thus, solids have a rigid and dejinite shape. Liquids, on the other hand, can flow into any shape because their molecules move more freely and (can/eannot) slide past each other. A liquid poured into a round container will assume the round shape. Liquids have indefinite shapes. Solids (do/do not) assume the shape of the container that holds them. Solids have (definite /indefinite) shapes. Gases are composed of free molecules that are not held together by forces between molecules. So, gases will take on any shape, depending on the shape of the container that holds them, Gases, like liquids, have (definite/indefinite) shapes. Because gases are composed of free molecules, they will completely fill any size container. If a small amount of gas is placed into a large container, the space between the gas molecules will simply increase, and the gas will completely ______ the container. gaseous faster liquid gaseous can do not definite indefinite fill29. 30. 31. 33, Beeause gases completely fill any size container, they are said to have (definite/indefinite) volumes. On the other hand, a gallon of liquid will not fill a 100- gallon tank; nor will asJ-pound ice cube fill a cold storage bin. Unlike gases, both liquids and solids have (definite/ indefinite) volumes. Complete this table for the shape and volume charae- teristics of each of the three states of matter: STATE SHAPE VOLUME SOLID | 1. definite Liquip | 8, —____ GAS 5. 4 6. indefinite Matter can be changed from one state to another by either adding heat or taking heat away. If a glass of ice water is heated very gently, the ice in the water can be melted without increasing the tempera- ture of the water. This is true because the heat energy added to the glass is used to overcome the forces that hold the molecules of the solid ice rigidly together. ‘Thus, the added heat energy is used to change the ice into the (solid/liquid/gas) state, and the temperature of the water (does/does not) increase. Since it does not cause @ measurable or visible tempera- ture change, this added heat is thought of as hidden, or latent heat. Latent heat causes a substance to change (temperature/ state). When you boil water, you know, because the water is boiling, that its temperature is 212° F. If you want the water to continue boiling, you will have to continue adding heat. Will the water temperature tise above 212° F ? (yes/no) indefinite definite 2. definite 8. indefinite 5. indefinite liquid does not state no 4. definite34, 85. 36. 37. 38. 29. 40. 41. As you continue adding heat to the boiling water, its molecules move (faster/slower). And, as the molecules gain enough energy to overcome the binding forees, the water changes state into a called steam. Since the heat energy being added to the boiling water is used to overcome the forces holding the molecules together, the temperature of the boiling water (does/ does not) rise above 212” F. Because the heat added to the boiling water (does/ does not) cause a temperature change, it is called hidden or _’_____heat. If you were to heat a sample of water, and for every quantity of heat added you could sense or measure with a thermometer the rising temperature, this heat would not be called —_ heat. Another name has been given to the heat that causes a temperature change. This heat is called sensible heat because one can ___, or measure, the temperature change it causes. ‘Thus, the heat that changes the temperature of a sub- stance is sensible heat. The heat that changes the state of a substance is ____ heat. Whenever heat is added to an object, it will do one of two things, either : a) change state or b) increase in temperature The heat that changes the state of a substance but does not increase its temperature is called ____ heat. ‘When a liquid changes to a gas, it gains (latent/sensible) heat and its temperature remains the same. faster gas, does not, does not latent latent sense latent latent latent42. 43, 44, 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. When steam begins to condense, that is, when it begins to change state back into water, it loses latent heat. So, its temperature wil (circle one) A. increase B. decrease C. remain the same Steam is a gas and therefore contains (more/less) heat energy than the boiling water. This extra heat energy is _______heat, and the temperature of the boiling water is: (circle one) A. higher than the steam B. lower than the steam C. the same as the steam When a substance changes state by freezing or condens- ing, it loses _____ heat energy; its temperature (does/does not) change. When heat is added to a substance, it will either: a, show an increase in _______ (sensible heat), or b. change from one state to another ( heat) In the same way, the loss of heat from any substance will either cause a decrease in its or a change in its state of matter. For example, enough heat added to tap water will cause the temperature of the water to inerease up to the boiling point. At the boiling point, any additional heat will cause the water to change state, and the temperature (will/will not) increase over 212” F. ‘Temperature change is caused by the heat that can be felt or sensed. When the temperature of a substance changes, it either gains or loses (latent/sensible) heat. A change of state is caused by the ‘hidden heat’ that doesn’t cause a temperature change. When a substance changes state, it either gains or loses (latent/sensible) heat. more latent latent does not temperature latent temperature will not sensible latentHeat and Temperature 50. Suppose one(1) quart of tap water (container A) is heated 61. 52. over a gas flame until it boils, i. e., until it reaches 212° F, 15 minutes If three (3) quarts of tap water (container B) are heated over the same flame, it will take a longer time to boil the three (3) quarts. The larger quantity of water was on the flame longer than the smaller quantity. Which would receive the greater amount of heat? (circle one) A. Container A (1 quart) B. Container B (3 quarts) Both water quantities were heated to the same tempera- ture, ie., up to the boiling point (212° F ). But the larger quantity of water required more heat to reach the boiling point. So, although both quantities of water ended up at the same temperature, they contained (the same/different) amounts of heat. The amount of heat energy that an object contains depends on the amount of matter present. So, ten (10) gallons of oil at 70° F would contain (more/ less) heat than five (5) gallons of oil at the same temperature. different more53. 5B. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. Which of the two quantities of gasoline would contain the most heat? (circle one) A. 1,000 gallons at a temperature of 100° F. B. 750 gallons at a temperature of 100° F. One 5-pound sample of toluene with a temperature of 50° F would contain (more/less/the same) heat as any other 5-pound sample of toluene that had the same tem- perature of 50° F. But, if one 5-pound sample had a higher temperature, it would contain more heat. The sample below which contains the most heat is: (circle one) A. 5 pounds of toluene at 60° F. B. 5 pounds of toluene at 54° F. The amount of heat that an object contains depends upon both its temperature and its mass (amount of matter). So, if two equal amounts of oil had the same temperature they would contain (different/the same) amount(s) of heat. But, if one of the two equal samples had a higher tem- perature, it would contain (more/less) heat than the sample with a lower temperature Which would contain more heat? (circle one) A. 1,000 pounds of water at 90° F. B. 1,000 pounds of water at 120° F. If two objects have the same mass (amount of matter), then the one with the higher ______________ will con- tain more heat. If two objects have the same temperature, then the one that has the greater ______ will contain (less/more) heat. Heat and temperature are not the same. The amount of heat an object contains depends upon: 1. the _______ (amount of matter) of the object, and 2, ________ of the object. the same the same more temperature mass, more mass temperatureThis center page contains the exhibit. It may be pulled out of the book for easy reference without up- setting the frame sequence.EXHIBIT 1 100°C point of water {il torte} 32°F 492°R ore 213°K freezing point of water FAHRENHEIT RANKINE ‘CENTIGRADE KELVIN61. 62. 63. 64. 66. 67. 68. Suppose two equal amounts of water are returned to two cooling towers. Which of the quantities contains the greater amount of heat? (circle one) Tower A. water at 100° F, Tower B. water at 120° F. ‘Two objects that have the same temperature but contain different amounts of heat must contain (the same/ different) amounts of matter. Suppose you found that it took five (5) minutes to boil one (1) quart of water over a gas flame. Then, to bring three (3) quarts of water to the same temperature (the boiling point) over the same flame would take minutes. This is an example of: (circle one) A. two objects with different temperatures, but the same amounts of heat B. two objects with the same temperature, but dif- ferent amounts of heat From these results, you would conclude that to reach the boiling point, the larger amount of water required (more/less) heat than the smaller amount. . The larger amount of water has a (smaller/larger) capacity for heat than the smaller amount of water. So, the amount of heat required to boil a quantity of water depends upon the amount of water present. But you can see that it would also depend upon the temperature of the water. For example, if two equal samples of water are heated to the boiling point, it would take more heat to boil: (circle one) A. the sample with a temperature of 40° F. B. the sample with a temperature of 33° F. ‘Thus, a gallon of water, standing at 50° F, would contain (more/less) heat than a gallon of water at 38° F. If both gallons were boiling, however, they would contain the same amount of heat because they have the same ——________ (212° F) and the same (amount of matter). 10 Tower B different 15 more larger more temperature, mass69. 70. m1. 12. 73. 74. The Bri ish Thermal Unit (BTU) Therefore, to define a unit for measuring heat, both mass and temperature must be specified. If two samples of a substance have the same mass, then the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of each object by a specified amount, say, 1° F should be (the same/ different). Units of heat are defined in this way: as the amount of heat that will cause a specified temperature change in a specific amount of material. ‘The British thermal unit, the BTU, is defined as the amount of heat that will increase the of 1 pound of water by 1° F. In British thermal units, then, it would take 1 BTU to increase the temperature of 1 pound of water from 50° to 51° F. To heat 10 pounds of water from 50° to 51° F, it would take 10 BTU. To heat 100 pounds of water from 50° to 51° F, it would take __ BTU. The addition of 10 BTU of heat to 1 pound of water would result in a temperature increase of _____* F, How many BTU would be required to heat 5 pounds of water from 70° F to 72° F Heat of Fusion When a solid such as ice gains enough latent heat, it melts, Another word forthis melting is fusion. If enough latent heat is added to ice, it will fuse—it will change state and become a liquid. ‘The amount of latent heat required to fuse a substance is called the heat of fusion. One (1) pound of ice at 32° F must gain 144 BTU of heat in order to fuse into liquid water. Remember, heat of fusion involves a change in state from to Therefore, heat of fusion is (latent/sensible) heat. . The heat of fusion of 1 pound of ice is 144 BTU. So, ten (10) pounds of ice would have to gain BTU to change to water. 1 the same temperature 100 10 10 solid, liquid latent 1,44076. 77. 78. 79. 80, 81. 82, 83. 84. 85. The latent heat of fusion of one (1) pound of ice is BTU; the same formula applies to the reverse change of state. To solidify into ice, ten (10) pounds of water at 32° F would have to (gain/lose) ____(how many?) BTU. If one hundred (100) pounds of water at 32° F were to solidify into ice, the water would have to lose 7 BTU of (latent/sensible) heat. ‘To melt (or fuse) the one hundred (100) pounds of ice, you would have to add ______ BTU of latent heat energy to the ice. You can see that, for a given material, the latent heat of solidification (change from liquid to solid) is (smaller than/equal to/greater than) the latent heat of fusion. When you heat water up to the boiling point, you are adding heat to the water, which is causing the tem- perature of the water to increase. This is called (latent/ sensible) heat. Water does not change automatically to steam when it reaches 212° F. It takes energy to overcome the inter- molecular forces of the liquid. And this energy that changes the state of a substance is (latent/sensible) heat energy. Heat of Vaporization To change one (1) pound of boiling water into the gas, steam, we have to add 970 BTU of heat energy. ‘This (latent/sensible) heat that causes a change in state from liquid to gas is called the heat of vaporization. If one (1) pound of water at 212° F must gain 970 BTU of heat to vaporize into steam, how many BTU of heat would one (1) pound of steam have to lose to condense into the liquid state? ‘As it condenses into water, ten (10) pounds of steam will (gain/lose) _______ BTU of heat energy. 12 144 lose, 1,440 14,400 latent 14,400 equal to sensible latent latent 970 lose, 9,70086. 87. 88. 89. Suppose you have one (1) pound of water at 82° F. Let’s see how much energy is required to change all the water to steam, Before we can begin to change the water to steam, we must heat it up to its boiling point—212° F. So, our first step will be to figure out the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of the water to 212° F. This will be (latent/sensible) heat since it causes a temperature increase. First, you will be heating the water 180° F (from 32° F to 212° F), It takes one (1) BTU to heat one (1) pound of water 1° F. So, to heat one (1) pound of water 180° F, it will take BTU. To vaporize one (1) pound of boiling water, it takes BTU, So, by adding that figure to the sensible heat required to bring the water to the boiling point (180 BTU) you get the total heat energy required to change one (1) pound of water at 32° F. to steam. That total is BTU. How much heat energy is required to melt ten (10) pounds of ice, raise the temperature of the resulting liquid to 212° F, and evaporate (vaporize) the liquid completely? a. First the heat of fusion to change ten (10) pounds of ice to water = _____ BTU. b. Second, the heat required to raise the temperature of ten (10) pounds of water by 180° F = (10 x 180) or ______ BTU. ¢. Third, the heat of vaporization for ten (10) pounds of water at 212° F =____ BTU. a TOTAL = ____ BTU. sensible 180 970 1,150 a. 1,440 b. 1,800 ¢. 9,700 d. 12,94090. 91. 92. 93. 94, 95. 96. SECTION TWO WHAT HEAT DOES Evaporation ‘The molecules in a stream of water are in constant motion, moving randomly in all directions and with different speeds. At room temperature, some water mole- cules hardly move at all, while others move very rapidly. Even at room temperature, some of the molecules move so fast that they escape from the liquid. These molecules leave the liquid state as gas. Water left in an uncovered vessel will gradually decrease in quantity. This observation supports the fact that: (circle one) A. Water will vaporize (change state into vapor) only when at its boiling point. B. Water does not have to be boiling for some of its molecules to vaporize. Alcohol will evaporate (vaporize) rapidly when rubbed on the skin, Because the molecules that evaporate take heat energy away from the skin, alcohol has a (heating/cooling) effect on the skin. As any liquid evaporates, the molecules that manage to escape from the liquid are the ones that are moving the (Lastest /slowest). ‘Therefore, the molecules that escape an evaporating liquid are the ones with the (most/least) energy. ‘The molecules that escape an evaporating liquid are the ones with the most energy. Therefore, the liquid will be constantly losing energy, so its temperature will (increase/decrease) . Liquids can vaporize at all temperatures. During the evaporation, the liquid (gains/loses) energy as the mole- cules escape as gas. ‘Thus, evaporation causes the temperature of the liquid to (decrease/increase). When the temperature of a liquid is increased, the kine- tic energy of its molecules is increased, so the speed of it molecules will (increase/decrease). 14 cooling fastest most decrease loses decrease increase97. So, an increase in the temperature of the liquid will mean that a (greater/smaller) proportion of the molecules will greater have enough energy to escape from the liquid. 98. When the temperature of a liquid is increased, its rate of evaporation will (decrease/increase) . increase 99. When water is placed in a closed container, the molecules that evaporate cannot get far away from the liquid. The evaporating molecules moye randomly in all directions, running into one another and into the sides of the container. Eventually, some of the molecules slow down and return to the liquid. Finally a point will be reached where the number of mole- cules that are returning to the water equals the number that are evaporating. At this point, the liquid and its vapor (the gas molecules) are said to be in equilibrium. At the equilibrium point, the rate of evaporation is (less than/equal to/greater than) the rate of conden- equal to sation. 100. In a closed container, the liquid and the gas will even- tually come to equilibrium at all temperatures. Would the amount of liquid be decreasing when the liquid and gas are in equilibrium in a closed container? no 101. If the temperature of the liquid in a closed container is inereased, its molecules will move faster. And because they will be moving faster, there will be (more/fewer) molecules evaporating. more 102. When the temperature of the liquid is increased, the rate of evaporation becomes momentarily (greater/smaller) greater than the rate of condensation. 103. But eventually the liquid and the vapor would come to anew point for this higher temperature. 104. The vapor molecules moving around inside the container exert a force on the sides of the container and on the liquid below. ‘This force exerted by the vapor molecules is called vapor pressure. ‘The greater the energy possessed by the vapor molecules, the greater is the vapor pressure. So, by heating a liquid, we would (increase/decrease) its vapor pressure. increase 15105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110, i. 112. ‘The vapor pressure of a liquid depends upon the —_—________of the liquid. The higher the tem- perature, the (greater/smaller) the vapor pressure. Water, like all liquids, has a certain vapor pressure for each temperature. Its vapor pressure at 70° F would be (lower/higher) than its vapor pressure at 210° F. If exposed to the air, water would evaporate more rapidly: (circle one) A. at a temperature of 70° F. B. at a temperature of 210° F. Increasing the temperature of a liquid increases its vapor If the vapor is constantly removed from above the liquid, the rate of evaporation will (increase/ decrease). ‘When any liquid is allowed to evaporate, the temperature of the liquid will (decrease/increase) as molecules escape as gas. If a liquid is confined in a closed container, the molecules that escape will eventually equal those that slow down and return to the liquid; the point will be reached. The Cooling Tower The refinery cooling tower is designed to vaporize water. Its purpose is, of course, to cool water. But to do this, some of the water must be evaporated. The water mole- cules that leave the tower as gas take energy away from the remaining liquid water and thus reduce its tem- perature. Ina closed container the vapor cannot escape from above the liquid. Therefore, the liquid and its vapor eventually reach a point of where the number of mole- cules leaving the liquid as gas equals the number of gas molecules that return to the liquid. To accomplish the most cooling in a cooling tower, a (high/low) rate of evaporation is desired. 16 temperature greater lower pressure increase decrease equilibrium equilibrium high118. The more water that can be evaporated in a cooling tower, the (greater/smaller) is the amount of cooling greater that the tower can accomplish. 114. Look at the drawing. The lattice construction (or fill) in the cooling tower is designed to increase the evapora- tion rate by breaking up the water into a spray or into droplets, thus increasing the exposed surface area. If the exposed surface is increased, the evaporation rate “of a liquid will (increase/decrease). inerease 115. The fans in a mechanical draft cooling tower provide a constant circulation of air to remove the vapor from the water. So, by exposing maximum water surface to the air, and by constant removal of water , the cooling vapor tower evaporates water rapidly, which thus lowers the ______ of the remaining liquid. temperature 116. The heat of vaporization of water is 970 BTU per pound. For each pound of water that evaporates, the remaining liquid will (lose/gain) ____ BTU of heat. lose, 970 117, ,The removal of 970 BTU of heat from 970 pounds of water would result in a temperature decrease of °F. 1 118. How much would the temperature of 970 pounds of water decrease if one (1) pound of water were evaporated? °F 1 17119, 120. 121. 122, 123, To cool one (1) pound of water by 10° F, the one pound of water would have to lose __ BTU. So, to cool 9,700 pounds of water by 10° F, 97,000 BTU of heat would have to be removed. ‘The cooling tower works on the principle of evaporation, and each pound that evaporates removes 970 BTU. ‘Therefore, to remove 97,000 BTU of heat from the water, the cooling tower would have to evaporate pounds of water. Each 10° F. decrease in water temperature in a cooling tower represents an evaporation loss of approximately 1% of the water entering the tower. Water entering a tower at 120° F would normally be cooled to 90° F. ‘This temperature reduction of 30° F would require three times as much evaporation, or about (1% ; 3% ; 80%) of the water entering the tower. Absolute Pressure and Superheat Water, like all other substances, is always under the pressure of the atmosphere. Normal atmospheric pres- sure is about 14.7 pounds per square inch. This is usually written as 14.7 psia (pounds per square inch absolute). The refinery cooling tower utilizes the principle that water will vaporize at all temperatures. In the cooling tower, the rate of evaporation is increased by (inereasing/deereasing) the exposed surface of the water and by the constant removal of water from the tower. Increasing the temperature of a liquid also increases the rate of evaporation, because the temperature increase causes the liquid molecules to move (faster/slower) and thus the vapor pressure of the liquid (increases/ decreases) . ‘When water at normal atmospheric pressure is heated to 212° F, its vapor pressure is 14.7 psia. Normal atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia. So, water boils when its temperature is such that the vapor pressure is (less than/equal to) the external pressure on it. 18 10 100 3% increasing vapor faster increases equal to125, Water under a pressure of 20 psia begins to boil when its temperature is such that its ____—___ pressure reaches (14.7/20/40) 126. Water at a pressure of 20 psia begins to boil at a (higher/ lower) temperature than water at normal atmospheric pressure (14.7 psia). 127. The temperature at which a liquid boils depends upon the external pressure exerted on the liquid. ‘The boiling point of a liquid can be defined as the tem- perature at which its ________is equal to the external pressure on the liquid. 128. Water at normal pressure of 14.7 psia boils at a tem- perature of 212° F. If the pressure were increased to 300 psia, the water (would/would not) boil at a temperature of 212° F. 129. At 417.5 ° F the vapor pressure of water is about 300 psia. ‘Therefore, if water were heated in a boiler under a pres- sure of 300 psia, it would not begin to boil until it reached a temperature of ______. 130. Water in a refinery boiler operating under a pressure of 300 psia will boil at 417.5° F. The steam produced in such a boiler will have a tem- perature of 131. The heat of vaporization of water is 970 BTU per pound. Itwould take 970 BTU of (latent/ sensible) heat to change one pound of boiling water into steam. So, if 970 BTU of heat were removed from the steam at this pressure, __________ pound(s) of the steam would condense. 132, If the steam produced by water boiling at 417.5° F were heated further until its temperature reached 467.5° F, it would be 50° hotter than the water that produced it ‘The steam would contain 8 F of superheat. 19 vapor higher vapor pressure would not A17.5° F 417.5° F latent one 50133. 134, 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. To condense the superheated steam, its temperature would first have to be lowered to__-___° F, the boil- ing point of the water that produced it (at 300 psia pressure). Before the condensation of one pound of the —______ steam could begin, the 50° of superheat would have to be removed. ‘The specific heat of superheated steam varies with the absolute pressure and the degrees of superheat. For our purposes, we can use an average value of 0.5 for the specific heat of superheated steam. Thus, to remove 50° of superheat from one pound of superheated steam, we would have to remove (50/25/10) BTU of heat. Therefore, before it would condense, the one (1) pound of steam would have to lose a total of: (circle one) A. 970 + 50(superheat) = 1020 BTU B. 970 ~ 50(superheat) = 920 BTU C. 970 + 25(superheat) = 995 BTU Suppose it is known that 1,000 BTU of heat will be lost from 40 pounds of steam during its transmission from the boiler to the process unit. If the steam is not superheated, this means that about (2/1/19) pound(s) of the steam will condense on the way to the unit and thus be lost as a useful heating medium. If the steam is produced at 417.5° F and superheated to 467.5° F before transmission, each pound of the steam will contain (100/1/50) degrees of superheat that will have to be removed before any steam is lost through condensation. If, during transmission, the steam loses 1,000 BTU, the temperature of the 40 pounds of steam will decrease by 50°. ‘This comes about in the following way: 1000 BTU divided by 0.5 (average specific heat of superheated steam) = 2000. Then, 2000 divided by 40 pounds = 50° ‘Thus, its temperature will be lowered to 417.5° F and (some/none) of the steam will be lost by condensation. 20 4175 superheated 25 50 none140. Superheated steam is vitally important to the refinery operation because it results in (more/less) condensation in steam transmission from the boiler house to the process units. 141. Steam is important as a heating medium in refinery processes because of its high latent heat of vaporization and condensation. ‘The heat of condensation of steam is 6.9 times as great as that of gasoline. This means that the heat from one (1) pound of steam as it condenses will vaporize (10/6.9/140) pounds of gasoline. 142. Butane has a heat of vaporization of 156 BTU per pound. ‘The heat of condensation of steam is about 6.2 times as great. ‘Therefore, the condensation of one pound of steam would release enough heat to vaporize about pounds of butane, Specific Heat 143. As you know from your own experience, different sub- stances heat up at different rates. A substance which requires only a small amount of heat to raise its tem- perature 1° F has a low specific heat. On the other hand, a substance which requires a large amount of heat to raise its temperature by 1° has a specific heat. 144, An aluminum pan will heat up very quickly. Aluminum requires only a small amount of heat to raise its tem- perature 1° F. ‘The specific heat of aluminum is (high/low). 145. The wooden handle on the aluminum pan heats up very slowly. It requires a large amount of heat to change the temperature 1° F. Therefore, it has a (high/low) specific heat. 146. The greater the amount of heat a substance will absorb before its temperature changes by 1° F, the (greater/ smaller) is its specific heat. 21 6.9 62 low high greater147. 148. 149, 150. 151. 152, 158, 154, So, if you were to choose a material for a handle on a piece of equipment to be used in a furnace, you would want one that heats up very slowly. Therefore, you'd choose one with (high/low) specific heat. Water has a specific heat of 1 (one). Thus, if one BTU of heat is added to one pound of water, the temperature of the water will increase by ____* F. So, to increase the temperature of 10 pounds of water by 1° F, ____ BTU of heat would have to be added, It takes only one-half (0.5) a BTU of heat to raise the temperature of one (1) pound of gasoline by 1° F. So the specific heat of gasoline is (1/0.5/2). The specific heat of gasoline is only 0.5. So, if 0.5 BTU of heat is added to one pound of gasoline, its temperature will increase by (1/0.5/2) degree (s). Therefore, if 1 (one) BTU is added to one pound of gasoline, its temperature will increase by (1/0.5/2) degree (s). It would take 100 BTU of heat to raise the temperature of ten (10) pounds of water by 10° F. ‘The specific heat of gasoline is only 0.5, How many BTU would be required to do the same to ten (10) pounds of gasoline? ‘There are two easy steps to follow to figure out how much heat is gained or lost when the temperature of a sub- stance increases or decreases. 1, Figure out how much heat would be required if the substance were water. 2. ‘Then multiply this result by the ______ heat of the substance, ‘Suppose you wanted to figure out how much heat would have to be removed from eight (8) pounds of erude oil to lower its temperature from 80° F to 60° F. This is a temperature reduction of _____°F. So, if the substance were water, you would have to remove (8 x 20) = _____ BTU of heat. 22 10 05 50 specific 160 Now turn th turn the boob155. But you are dealing with crude oil which has a different 156. 157. 158. specific heat than water, s BTU by the specific heat of © you must multiply the 160 crude oil. SUBSTANCE SPECIFIC HEAT water 1.000 gasoline 0.500 toluene 0.400 kerosene 0.500 crude oil 0.500 sulfuric acid 0.336 hydrochloric acid 0.600 coke 0.203 aluminum 0.224 carbon 0.165 copper 0.092 iron 0.122 lead 0.080 ‘mercury 0.033 sulfur 0.175 ‘The specific heat of crude oil is So the amount of heat you would have to remove from eight (8) pounds of crude oil to bring it from 80° F to 60° F is wee '5180 BEY How much heat must be removed to lower the tempera- ture of seven hundred (700) pounds of kerosene from 68° F to 65° F? aos BTU. Step 1—temperature change x weight of sample: ——— lbs. =. Step 2—Answer above x specific heat of kerosene. — Determine how much heat must be added to one thousand (1000) pounds of toluene to raise its temperature by °F. First, this 5° temperature many BTU in the standard ( So, for toluene, with a specific heat of temperature increase can BTU of heat. BTU change would require how water) ? be accomplished by adding 0.5 0.5, 80 3 x 700 = 2100 2100 x 0.5 = 1050 5,000 04 2000159. 160. Thermal Properties of Refinery Products A major goal in refinery operation is the economic and efficient use of heat energy. To attain this goal, the operating people must understand the basic thermal properties of the materials involved in refinery processes. The use of water as a cooling medium is a good example of this, Water is used because it has a high specific heat. ‘The basic thermal principle behind its use is the fact that the higher the specific heat of a substance, the more heat it takes to increase its temperature. In the case of water, this means that more heat can be removed from product streams before the water coolant becomes too hot for use. SPECIFIC MELTING — HOMLING SUBSTANCE HEAT: OINT water 970BTU/Ib. 1.000 32°F 212°F kerosene 108 0.50 425° F gasoline 140 0.50 220° F toluene 151 040 139° F 231° F benzene 172 0.450 4F 176° F decane 110 0486 © -22°F 345° F octane 128, 0.420 —70°F 258° F heptane 133 0415 -131° F 209° F hexane 156 0406-140" F 156° F pentane 158 0402-202 F 97 F butane 156 0396-217 F 31°F Distillation utilizes a basic thermal property—the boiling point. Differences in boiling points are used in distilla- tion to separate compounds into their components. If a selection had to be made between kerosene and toluene for use as a cooling medium, neglecting cost, the best choice would be (Kerosene/toluene) because it has the (highest/lowest) specific heat. s ‘The heat of vaporization of water is 970 BTU per pound. So, one (1) pound of steam would have to lose 970 BTU before it would condense. Pentane has a heat of vaporization of only ——___ BTU perpound. Therefore, the loss of _ BTU of heat from a sample of pentane vapor would cause one pound to condense. 24 kerosene highest 158 158161. 162. 163. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168, If the water used to condense gasoline is heated from 90° F to 120° F, each pound of water will remove BTU of heat from the gasoline. ‘The heat of vaporization and condensation of gasoline is 140 BTU per pound. One pound of cooling water will remove 30 BTU, so 4.67 pounds will remove about 140 BTU. Therefore, for every 4.67 pounds of cooling water, about pound(s) of gasoline will condense. Remember, the heat that is removed in condensing the gasoline is latent heat. So, the temperature of the con- densed gasoline will be (lower than/equal to/higher than) its boiling point, 220° F. To cool the gasoline to 100° F after it has condensed, some of the sensible heat would have to be removed. ‘The temperature reduction ftom 220° F to 100° F is a reduction of 120°. If the substance were water, this would require the removal of _________ BTU of heat for each pound. But the specific heat of gasoline is only 0.5. ‘Therefore, to lower the temperature of one (1) pound of gasoline by 120° F, only 0.5 X 120 BTU, or BTU of heat would have to be removed. ‘The specific heat of water is one (1). This means that the addition of one BTU of heat to one (1) pound of water will result in a temperature increase of. oF ‘The specific heat of gasoline is 0.5. This means that the addition of 0.5 BTU of heat to one (1) pound of gasoline will result in a temperature increase of ____* F, ‘The addition of one (1) BTU of heat to one (1) pound of gasoline would result in a temperature increase of (1/0.5/2)° F. 25 30 one equal to 120 60169, 170. 17h. 172. 173. 174. Gasoline is a mixture of several hydrocarbons, each of which has its own thermal characteristics, such as boiling point. For this reason, the boiling point of gasoline is dependent upon the relative proportions of the components, and thus gasoline: (cirele one) A. has a definite boiling point. B. has a boiling range rather than a definite boiling point. ‘The boiling points of orthoxylene, paraxylene, and meta- xylene are 292° F, 281° F, and 282.4° F, respectively. Because the boiling points are so nearly the same, sepa- ration by the process of _______ would be quite difficult. So, in order to separate a mixture of these components, another thermal property must be utilized—that of crystallization. The crystallization points are: paraxylene, +55.9° F orthoxylene, -13.3° F metaxylene, ~54.2° F ‘These different crystallization points would suggest that the best way to separate these components would be by (heating/chilling). Crystallization points: paraxylene, +55.9° F orthoxylene, —18.3° F metaxylene, —54.2° F If a mixture of orthoxylene, paraxylene, and metaxylene were chilled, the first component to crystallize would be the_________. The other two components would remain in solution. The process in which substances are separated by erys- tallization is based on the differences in the —_ points of their components. ‘The principle of crystallization is utilized in the process of dewaxing. Oil is diluted with a solvent, such as methyl- ethyl ketone (MEK), and (heated/chilled) to a specific temperature. At this temperature the wax is crystallized and, by filtering in a filter press can be from the oil. 26 distillation chilling paraxylene crystallization chilled separated115. The temperature to which the oil and solvent are lowered depends upon the desired pour point for the finished oil. More of the wax will be removed at lower temperatures. So, if an oil with a low pour point (low wax content) were desired, the temperature of the dewaxing process would be (lowered/increased) . 176. After oil has been dewaxed, the MEK solvent must be 17. 178. removed. Since there is a large enough difference between the boiling points of MEK and oil, the separation can be carried out by the process of SECTION 3 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE AND EXPANSION Thermometers Control of heat processes in the refinery requires accurate measurement of temperature. Temperature measurement depends upon detecting and measuring certain changes in a substance that occur when its temperature changes. The size of an object may change when its temperature changes; or its electrical properties may change; or its optical behavior may hange. Any one of these changes can be used to detect id measure temperature. Temperature measuring devices work because heat flows, Heat flows from objects of higher temperature to objects of lower temperature. ‘Thermometers work on the principle that a substance will contract when its temperature decreases and expand when its temperature (increases /decreases). ‘The liquid-filled expansion thermometer consists of a capillary tube filled with the expanding liquid. ‘Thus, when the liquid expands, it can move only upward in the tube. When its temperature is lowered, the liquid (expands/ contracts), and the level of the liquid column falls downward. 27 lowered distillation ‘increases contracts179. 180, 181. The two most common liquid-filled thermometers are the mercury thermometer and the alcohol thermometer. The liquid thermometer must, of course, be accurately scaled. This is done by marking the thermometer at two known temperature points and then dividing the distance between these points into units, or degrees. Water is commonly used as the standard for temperature calibration, and the two known points are the freezing point and the _____ point. When a mercury thermometer is placed in hot water, heat will flow from the (water/thermometer) to the (water/ thermometer). The heat flowing to the thermometer will cause the mercury column to______, and thus it will indicate a higher temperature. The mercury and aleohol thermometers are very accurate but fragile instruments and are used mainly in laboratory work. 250'F ——1,000°F =a taal at room temperature 2F 32°F 100° 30°F ALCOHOL MERCURY ‘The range of the mercury thermometer is —30° F to 1,000° F The alcohol thermometer has a range of —100° F to 250° F, The obvious choice for laboratory measurements of a series of very low temperature samples would be the thermometer. 28 boiling water thermometer expand, or rise alcohol182. 183. 184. 185. When mercury thermometers are used in industry out- side of the laboratory, they usually have a metal guard over the bulb to protect them from breakage. A disadvantage of this metal guard is that it might interfere with heat flow from sample to thermometer. For this reason, the guard is often filled with a heat- transferring medium to make the heat transfer (slower/ more=rapid). Solids also expand when their temperature is increased. All metals do not expand the same amount when heated. This phenomenon is used in the bimetallic strip, or dif- ferential expansion thermometers. If a one (1) foot iron bar is heated from 32° F to 212° F,, its length will increase by about one-seventieth (1/70) of an inch. ‘The expansion of a liquid in all directions is called volume expansion. But this kind of expansion of metal strips is mostly expansion of the length so it would be called (volume/linear) expansion. If the temperature of a one (1) foot brass bar is increased from 32° F to 212° F, its length will increase about 11 times as much as did the length of the iron bar. For a given temperature change, the rate of expansion of various metals is (the same/different) . Look at the drawing. Suppose an iron strip is riveted side by side to a brass strip. IRON BRASS: If heated, the brass strip will lengthen (more/less) than the iron strip, and the whole strip will have to bend. 29 more rapid linear linear different more186. 187. 188, 189. 190. 191. So, when a bimetallic strip (two metals) is heated, the difference in the linear expansions will be indicated by the fact that the strip will ‘This bending is used in thermostats as a switch to make or break electrical contacts. When heated, the strip bends until the switch circuit is open. When the temperature drops, the strips cools and closes the electrical contact by: A. bending further in the same direction. B. bending back the opposite way and straightening. ‘The bimetallic strip can be coiled into a spiral or used as a straight strip. The bending motion can be used to move a pointer over a scale calibrated in degrees. Used in this way, the bimetallic strip would become a thermometer used to measure ‘The bimetallic strip thermometer of different expansion rates of it is often called the differential thermometer. rks on the principle ‘lar metals. Thus, Which metal in the bimetallic strip in frame 185 has the greatest expansion rate? A. The metal shown by the shaded strip. B. The metal shown in white. The Thermoelectric Pyrometer The most important temperature measuring device in refinery operations is not the volume expansion type or the differential expansion type of thermometer, but the thermoelectric pyrometer, or thermocouple, illustrated on the next page. The thermocouple is dependent on the electrical current changes that occur in metals with temperature changes. ‘The principle behind the thermocouple is that a low- voltage current will flow when two dissimilar metal wires are attached in a loop, or closed circuit. Most of the temperature measurements in the plant can be handled by the iron-constantan couple that measures temperatures up to 1,400° F or the chromel-alumel couples that are good for temperatures up to 1,800° F. For higher temperatures up to 2,930° F, a platinum- rhodium couple would be used. 30 bend temperature expansion192. = (ea) [a If one end of the thermocouple is heated and the other end is kept at a known temperature, the voltage (electro- motive force, emf) will increase. If the hot junction is heated hotter and hotter, the emf will become greater and greater in a regular manner. The emf generated will vary with the temperature difference between the hot and cold junctions. Now, if a millivoltmeter is installed between the cold and the hot junctions, the voltage changes can be observed on the meter. ‘These voltage changes are an indirect measure of the difference in between the hot and cold junetions. The millivoltmeter is installed between the hot junction and the cold junction to measure changes in ___ that occur when the temperature of the hot junction changes. 31 temperature voltage198. If the temperature of the hot junction is increased, the voltage will increase, and a higher reading will appear on the millivoltmeter. If the voltage reading on the meter decreases, this means that the temperature at the hot junetion has (inereased/ decreased). decreased 194. By measuring the voltage changes that result from changes in the temperature of the hot junction, the millivoltmeter indirectly measures the —__ of the hot junction. temperature 195, The millivoltmeter can be calibrated to a known tem- perature scale. ‘Then, the reading from the millivoltmeter would be in degrees rather than voltage. Thus, it becomes a direct measure of —____. temperature 196. The hot junction of the thermocouple can be quite a long distance away from the millivoltmeter. ‘Thus, very hot furnace temperatures can be read from a comfortable distance away. This (would/would not) would not be true of the direct-reading expansion types of ther- mometers. 197. The thermocouple has another advantage in that many separate temperature couples can be fed into one ___, and temperatures of a great many different millivoltmeter points can be read at one location. 198. The principle of all thermoelectric temperature-measur- ing devices is this: The voltage generated will vary with the differences in _ between the hot and temperature cold junctions of the wires. 199. The greater the temperature difference between the hot and the cold junetions, the (greater smaller) the voltage. greater 200. Since the refinery thermocouple is used to measure the temperature at the (hot/cold) junction, the temperature hot of the other junction is kept at a known temperature. 201. Thus, by keeping the cold junction at a certain tem- perature, any increase in voltage means that the tem- perature of the hot junetion has (increased/decreased). increased In the absence of a fixed-temperature cold junction, a cold junction compensation coil may be used to produce the same effect.