4 Permutations CycleForm PDF

f a cu lty of science MATH 895-4 Fall 2010
d epa r tm ent of m athema tic s Course Schedule

L ECTURE 4 P ERMUTATIONS : C YCLE N OTATION
Week Date Sections Part/ References Topic/Sections Notes/Speaker

from FS2009
1 Sept 7 I.1, I.2, I.3 Combinatorial Symbolic methods
Lecture 4:
2 14 I.4, I.5, I.6
Structures
FS: Part A.1, A.2
Unlabelled structures
Comtet74
Permutations: Cycle Notation
3 21 II.1, II.2, II.3
Handout #1
(self study)
Labelled structures I
4 28 II.4, II.5, II.6 Labelled structures II
Combinatorial Combinatorial
5 Oct 5 III.1, III.2 Asst #1 Due
parameters Parameters
Contents
6 12 IV.1, IV.2
FS A.III
Multivariable GFs
(self-study)
7 19 IV.3, IV.4 Analytic Methods Complex Analysis

4.1 Permutations: Cycle
FS: Part B: IV, V,Notation
VI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
8 26 Singularity Analysis
Appendix B4
IV.5 V.1
Stanley 99: Ch. 6
4.2Nov 2Products of Permutations: Asymptotic
Revisited . . Asst
. . #2. Due
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
9
Handout #1 methods
(self-study)
10
4.39 Properties
VI.1
of Cycle Form . . . . . . . . . Sophie
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
12 A.3/ C Introduction to Prob. Mariolys
4.4 Order of a Permutation: Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
18 IX.1 Limit Laws and Comb Marni
11
4.520 Inverse
IX.2 of a Random
Permutation:
Structures Revisited
Discrete Limit Laws . . Sophie
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
and Limit Laws
FS: Part C
4.623 Summary
IX.3 of PermutationsCombinatorial
. . . . . . . . Mariolys
(rotating
instances of discrete
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
12
presentations)
4.725 Working
IX.4 with Permutations in SAGE
Continuous . . Marni
Limit Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
13 4.830 Exercises
IX.5 . . . . . . . . . .Quasi-Powers
Gaussian . .and
. . . limit . . . Sophie
laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
14 Dec 10 Presentations Asst #3 Due
In this section we introduce a simple, yet extremely powerful, notation for permutations: cycle form
Well revisit the concepts of products (composition), order, and inverses, and see how our new notation
simplifies calculations.
This lecture corresponds to Section 3.3 of Joyners text.
4.1 Permutations: Cycle Notation

Dr. Marni MISHNA, Department of Mathematics, SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY
Version of: 11-Dec-09
Consider the 5-cycle permutation defined as follows:
(1) = 2, (2) = 3, (3) = 4, (4) = 5, (5) = 1.
The array form of is shown in Figure 1a, and the arrow diagram is shown in Figure 1b.
Another arrow diagram which provides a more visual display of the structure of the permutation is
shown in Figure 1c. This is called the cycle-arrow form.
In this diagram all the information for is still present. What is (3)? To determine this, look at the
diagram and find 3, then see where the arrow takes it. In this case it takes it to 4, so (3) = 4.
There are a couple of nice things about cycle arrow form: (1) it displays more visually the cycle
structure (i.e. we can see the 5 numbers cycling around the circle, which is why we called it a 5-
cycle), and (2) it uses only one set of numbered dots, making the diagram more compact than our
original arrow form.
Jamie Mulholland, Spring 2010 1

Math 302

from FS2009

Structures
2 14 I.4, I.5, I.6 Unlabelled structures
FS: Part A.1, A.2
Comtet74
3 21 II.1, II.2, II.3 Labelled structures I
Handout #1
(self study)
parameters
Parameters
1 2 3 4 5 FS A.III
6 = 12 IV.1, IV.2 (self-study) Multivariable GFs = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
2 3 4 5 1 (b) arrow form (c) cycle-arrow form
7 19 IV.3, IV.4 Analytic Methods Complex Analysis (d) cycle form
(a) array form FS: Part B: IV, V, VI
Appendix B4
IV.5 V.1
Stanley 99: Ch. 6
9 Nov 2 Figure Asymptotic
1: Different Asst #2 Due
Handout #1 methods representations for a 5-cycle.
9 VI.1 (self-study) Sophie
10
Though mathematically satisfactory, the cycle arrow form is cumbersome to draw. However, leaving
out
11 the arrows we can simply write the 5-cycle as:
20 IX.2 Random Structures Discrete Limit Laws Sophie
and Limit Laws
FS: Part C Combinatorial = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
23 IX.3 Mariolys
(rotating instances of discrete
12
presentations)
25 IX.4
This represents Continuous
that fact that maps Limit Laws
each Marni
number to the next one in the list, and maps 5 back
around
13 30
to the
IX.5
start of the list, which is 1. This
Quasi-Powers and representation is shown in Figure 1d.
Sophie
Gaussian limit laws
All
14 representations
Dec 10 in Figure Asst #3 Due but it is the cycle notation that is the most
1 have their own benefits,
Presentations
compact, and this will be the notation we primarily use in this course.
When working with cycle notation, = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5), you should read it as follows:
1 goes to 2, 2 goes to 3, 3 goes to 4, 4 goes to 5, and 5 goes to 1.
We dont need to start at 1 when writing down the cycle form, if we started at 3, for instance, and
constructed the list of numbers we visit by traveling around Figure 1c then we get (3, 4, 5, 1, 2). This is
Version
another of: 11-Dec-09
perfectly acceptable representation of : reading this cycle notation as described above will
tell us exactly how acts as a function. In particular, we can represent by any of the equivalent
cycle forms:
= (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) = (2, 3, 4, 5, 1) = (3, 4, 5, 1, 2) = (4, 5, 1, 2, 3) = (5, 1, 2, 3, 4).
Despite this notation allowing for non-unique representations of permutations, there is an easy fix.
Just writing the cycle so that the first number is the smallest number in the cycle. In this case we
would then write = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) since 1 is the smallest number in this cycle.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Lets look at another permutation: = . The cycle arrow form is:
3 2 7 8 1 4 5 6

Math 302

This reveals from much about the permutation, especially when you imagine taking powers of it: n .
soFS2009
For
1 instance, 1,3,5,7
Sept 7 I.1, I.2, I.3 only get permuted
Combinatorial amongst themselves, so there is no k such that k (1) = 4.
Symbolic methods
Structures
Also,
2 since
14 a 4-cycle
I.4, I.5, I.6 has order 4, then
FS: Part A.1, A.2
4 would
Unlabelled
4
structures leave 1,3,5,7 untouched: (x) = x when x = 1, 3, 5, 7.
Comtet74
To3 construct
21 II.1, II.2, II.3
the cycle form
Handout
#1 of we we look at the arrow form above and notice that 1 goes to 3, 3 goes
(self study)
4 28 II.4, II.5, II.6
to 7, 7 goes to 5 and 5 goes back to 1. Labelled
This structures II
can simply be written as (1, 3, 7, 5). Similarly, 2 goes to 2 so
we5 write
Oct 5 this as
III.1, III.2 (2), and the
Combinatorial 4, 6, 8 triangle
Combinatorial can be written as (4, 8, 6). This means we can write as:
Asst #1 Due
FS A.III
6 12 IV.1, IV.2 (self-study) Multivariable GFs
= (1, 3, 7, 5)(2)(4, 8, 6).
FS: Part B: IV, V, VI
This is a compact
IV.5 V.1
way to represent the permutation , and we havent lost any information. For
Appendix B4
Stanley 99: Ch. 6
9 Nov 2 we can use the cycle formAsymptotic
example, determine Asstby
#2 Due
noticing in (1, 3, 7, 5)(2)(4, 8, 6) the number 3 is
Handout #1 methods (3)
(self-study)
followed
9 byVI.1
7, so (3) = 7. Similarly, (5) = 1 since from 5 we wrap around in the cycle and get back
Sophie
10
to 1. 12 A.3/ C Introduction to Prob. Mariolys
If 11we 18
makeIX.1
one further convention,Limit to Laws
leaveand Comb Marni
off any number that gets mapped to itself, then can be
written in a further and
compact
Limit Laws
form:
FS: Part C Combinatorial
= (1, 3, 7, 5)(4, 8, 6).
23 IX.3 Mariolys
12
presentations)
In this
25 convention,
IX.4 any number notContinuous
present Limitin theMarni
Laws cycle form is assumed to map back to itself.
Quasi-Powers and
An
13 expression
30 an m- cycle.
IX.5 of the form (a1 , a2 , . . . , am ) is calledSophie
Gaussian limit laws
We
14 say 10 is the product ofPresentations
Dec a 3-cycle and a 4-cycle. Asst #3 Due
Example 4.1 To determine the cycle form of the permutation

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
=
5 1 6 8 4 10 7 2 9 3
start with the smallest number in the set, in this case it is 1. Since (1) = 5 we begin the cycle by
writing
Version of: 11-Dec-09 (1, 5, . . .) . . . .
Next, 5 maps to 4, so we continue building the cycle
(1, 5, 4, . . .) . . . .
Continuing in this way we construct (1, 5, 4, 8, 2, . . .) . . ., and since 2 maps back to 1 then we close off
the cycle:
(1, 5, 4, 8, 2) . . . .
Next, we pick the smallest number that doesnt appear in any previously constructed cycle. This is the
number 3 in this case. We now repeat what we just did and construct the cycle involving 3:
(1, 5, 4, 8, 2)(3, 6, 10) . . . .
We now pick the smallest number that doesnt appear in any previously constructed cycle, which is 7,
and construct the cycle to which it belongs. In this case 7 just maps to itself:
(1, 5, 4, 8, 2)(3, 6, 10)(7) . . . .

Math 302

Finally, thefrom FS2009
only number remaining is 9 and it maps back to itself so the cycle for of is
Structures (1, 5, 4, 8, 2)(3, 6, 10)(7)(9)
FS: Part A.1, A.2
Comtet74
3
which21simplifies
II.1, II.2, II.3
to Labelled structures I
Handout #1
(self study)
4 28 II.4, II.5, II.6 = (1, 5, 4, 8, 2)(3, 6, 10)
Labelled structures II
since
5 our
Oct 5 convention
III.1, III.2 is omit 1-cycles.
parameters
Therefore, Asst
Parameters
is the
#1 Dueproduct of a 3-cycle and a 5-cycle.
FS A.III
Exercise
7 19 4.1 Converting
IV.3, IV.4
from array to cycle form. Convert the permutation given in array form:
Complex Analysis
Analytic Methods
1 2 3 4 FS: Part B: IV, V, VI
8 26 to cycle form.
Appendix B4
Singularity Analysis
3 4 1 IV.5
2 V.1 Stanley 99: Ch. 6
9 Nov 2 Asst #2 Due
Handout #1 Asymptotic methods
Exercise
10 4.2 Converting from cycle to array form. For the permutation given in cycle form by
(1, 3, 5, 2)(4,A.3/
12
7)C S8 , express it in array
Introduction to Prob.
form. Mariolys

11
4.2 Products of and Limit Laws
Permutations:
FS: Part C
Revisited
Combinatorial
23 IX.3 Mariolys
12
presentations)
It is not
25 efficient
IX.4 to convert permutations from
Continuous Limit Lawscycle
Marni form to array from, then compose the permuta-
tions
13
in array
30 IX.5
form, only to convertQuasi-Powers
back toand cycle Sophie
form. Instead, we will work entirely with the cycle
Gaussian limit laws
form but we do so by thinking of their representation in array form.
For example, consider the permutations = (1, 5, 2, 3) and = (1, 5, 4)(2, 3) in S5 . What is the cycle
for of ? Of course, we could just stick the two permutations together, end-to-end, and write
= (1, 5, 2, 3)(1, 5, 4)(2, 3)
but it will be more convenient to express the permutation in disjoint cycle form, that is where the
various cycles have no numbers in common.
We determine the cycle form of by determining exactly how it maps each number, beginning with
1. Keep in mind that permutation composition is done from left-to-right, and each cycle that does not
contain a number fixes that number. We have that: (1, 5, 2, 3) sends 1 to 5, (1, 5, 4) sends 5 to 4, and
(2, 3) fixes 4. So the effect of is it sends 1 to 4.
Thus we begin writing the disjoint cycle form as = (1, 4, . . .) . . . .

Repeating this process with 4, we have, cycle-by-cycle, left-to-right,
(1,5,2,3) (1,5,4) (2,3)

4 4 1 1,
so that (4) = 1, and the cycle form is now = (1, 4) . . . .
Next we pick the smallest number that is not in any previously constructed cycle, this would be 2.
Repeating this process with 2, cycle-by-cycle, left-to-right,
(1,5,2,3) (1,5,4) (2,3)
2 3 3 2,

Math 302

from=
so that (2) FS2009
2, and the cycle for is now = (1, 4)(2) . . . .
1 Sept 7 I.1, I.2, I.3
Combinatorial Symbolic methods
Continuing in this way we find that = (1, 4)(2)(3, 5) = (1, 4)(3, 5).
Structures
FS: Part A.1, A.2
The
3
important
21
thingComtet74
II.1, II.2, II.3
to keep in mind when multiplying cycles is to keep moving from one cycle to the
Handout #1
next
4
from
28
left-to-right.
II.4, II.5, II.6
(self study)
Example 4.2 Let parameters Parameters
= (1, 4, 6, 3, 7)(2,
FS A.III
8) and = (2, 5, 3)(4, 7, 8, 1) be permutations in S8 . Then
7 19 IV.3, IV.4 = (1, 4, 6, 3,Complex

Analytic Methods
7)(2,Analysis
8)(2, 5, 3)(4, 7, 8, 1) = (1, 7, 4, 6, 2)(3, 8, 5)
Appendix B4
and IV.5 V.1
Stanley 99: Ch. 6
9 Nov 2 Asst #2 Due
Handout #1 Asymptotic
= (2, 5, 3)(4, methods
7, 8, 1)(1, 4, 6, 3, 7)(2, 8) = (1, 6, 3, 8, 4)(2, 5, 7).
10
12 A.3/ C Introduction to Prob.
Mariolys happens to 1 under :
Check this yourself. To start you off, lets consider what
11 (1,4,6,3,7) (2,8) (2,5,3) (4,7,8,1)
20 IX.2 Random Structures 1 Discrete
Limit4Laws
Sophie
4 4 7,
and Limit Laws
23 IX.3 Mariolys
so12()(1) = 7. presentations)
25 IX.4 Continuous Limit Laws Marni
Quasi-Powers and
13 30 IX.5 Sophie
4.3 Gaussian limit laws
Properties of Cycle Form
Two basic properties of permutations are: (a) every permutation can be written as a product
of disjoint cycles, and (b) disjoint cycles commute.
The first property was implicit in our discussion of how to construct the cycle form of a permutation.
In particular, when we finished constructing a cycle, the first thing we did was look for a number that
did not appear in an previously constructed cycles. This guarantees that our cycles will be disjoint.
The second property: disjoint cycles commute, is also fairly straightforward consequence of the dis-
joint cycle notation. For example, consider the disjoint cycles = (1, 3, 2) and = (4, 5). When
multiplying these cycles it doesnt matter which order the product is taken: = (1, 3, 2)(4,5) =
1 2 3 4 5
(4, 5)(1, 3, 2) = . Both of these products represent the same permutation: . As
3 1 2 5 4
a former student of mine once said, it is kind of like two games of musical chairs going on in two
different rooms, neither one has any influence on the other.
Even though this property straightforward, it is very important, so we will state it as a theorem.
Theorem 4.1 (Disjoint Permutations Commute) If , Sn and have no numbers in Zn that are
moved by both and then = . In other words, if the disjoint cycle form of has no number in
common with the disjoint cycle form of then and commute.
As a more physical example of disjoint cycles commuting, consider the moves R and L of Rubiks cube.
These moves are disjoint in the sense that their is no common piece that is moved by both R and L.
Notice that RL and LR result in exactly the same position of the cube, so in this sense RL = LR, and
so R and L commute.

Math 302

4.4 Order
fromof a Permutation: Revisited
FS2009

Structures m = . To
Recall
2 14 the order Zstructures
I.4, I.5, I.6 of a permutationUnlabelled
FS: Part A.1, A.2 n is the smallest positive integer m such that
determine the order Comtet74
of a given permutation our
3 21 II.1, II.2, II.3 Labelled structures I only technique so far was to just continue computing
Handout #1
powers
4 28
until we hit
II.4, II.5, II.6
the identity. This
(self study) is a very
inefficient way to compute orders.
The
5 disjoint
Oct 5 cycle
III.1, III.2 form has the enormous
Combinatorial advantage
Combinatorial ofDueallowing us to eyeball the order of a permu-
Asst #1
tation. FS A.III
For7
example
19
the 5-cycle (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)Complex
IV.3, IV.4
has Analysis
order 5. In general, an m-cycle has order m. (You are asked
Analytic Methods
to 8show
26
this in Exercise
FS: Part9.)
B: IV,The
V, VI order of a product of disjoint cycles is given by the next theorem.
Singularity Analysis
Appendix B4
IV.5 V.1
Stanley 99: Ch. 6
9 Nov 2 Asst #2 Due
Theorem 9
4.2
VI.1
(Order of a Permutation) The order
(self-study) Sophie
of a permutation written in disjoint cycle form
is10the 12least A.3/
common
C
multiple of the lengths of the
Introduction to Prob.
cycles.
Mariolys

11
Before
20
we prove
IX.2
this Random
theorem lets see
Structures why it should
Discrete Limit Laws
be true. Consider the permutation = (1, 3, 7, 5)(4, 8, 6),
Sophie
which is the productandof Limit
a Laws of length 3 and a cycle of length 4. The arrow diagram is as follows.
cycle
23 IX.3 Mariolys
12
presentations)
Quasi-Powers and
13 30 IX.5 Sophie
Gaussian limit laws
We want to determine the smallest power k so that k is the identity. Every application of moves the
numbers around the square (4-cycle) one position, so in order to have numbers return to their original
position must be applied 4, or a multiple of 4, times. This means 4 | k. 1 Similarly, considering the
triangle (3-cycle) would need to be applied a multiple of 3 times to move numbers back to their
original positions. This means 3 | k. Since we require both 3 and 4 to divide k, and we want k to
11-Dec-09 as possible, this means k is the least common multiple or 3 and 4, that is ord() = k =
be asof:small
Version
lcm(3, 4) = 12. Sure enough, if we check we can see 12 = .
An easy way to see 12 = is to do the following:
12 = [(1, 3, 7, 5)(4, 8, 6)]12 = (1, 3, 7, 5)12 (4, 8, 6)12 = [(1, 3, 7, 5)4 ]3 [(4, 8, 6)3 ]4 = 3 4 = .
Here we used the fact that an m-cycle has order m, and (1 2 )k = 1k 2k , for disjoint cycles 1 and 2
(recall that disjoint cycles commute by Theorem 4.1).
This is precisely the idea that we use to give a general proof of the theorem.
Proof: (Theorem 4.2)
One cycle: As we noted above, a cycle of length m has order m. (See Exercise 9.)
Two disjoint cycles: Now suppose and are disjoint cycles of lengths a and b. Let k be the least
common multiple of a and b, that is, k is the smallest positive integer which is divisible by both a and
b. Since and commute then ()k = k k = (here we used that fact that a|k implies k = and
b|k implies k = ). It follows from Theorem 3.4 that the order of , call it t, divides k. We now wish
to show t = k. From = ()t = t t it follows that t = t . However, and have no symbol in
1
For integers, the vertical bar | means divides, so a | b is read a divides b and means b = ak for some integer k.

Math 302

common, and FS2009 raising a cycle to a power does not introduce new symbols, t and t also have
from since
no1 symbol inI.2,common.

Sept 7 I.1, I.3 Since t =
Combinatorial t and
Symbolic methodshave no commons symbols then they both must be the
t t Structures
identity:
2 14 I.4, I.5,=I.6 =FS:.PartIfA.1,follows
A.2
from Theorem
Unlabelled structures 3.4 that t is divisible by a and b. This means that
k= lcm(a, b) must Comtet74
also divide t. Therefore t = k, as desired.
Handout #1
(self study)
4
More 28thanII.4,two
II.5, II.6disjoint cycle: The
Labelled structures II case involving more than two cycles is handled in an
general
analogous
5 Oct 5 way.
III.1, III.2
Asst #1 Due
FS A.III
Example 4.3 (a) The order of = (1, 3, 4)(2, 5) is lcm(3, 2) = 6. Observe that
8 26
IV.5 V.1
Appendix B4 = [(1, 3, 4)(2, 5)]6 = (1, 3, 4)6 (2, 5)6 = .
6Singularity Analysis
Stanley 99: Ch. 6
9 Nov 2 Asst #2 Due
(b)
10
The permutation = (1, 7, 4, 10, 3)(2, 5, 6, 9)(8, 11) has order lcm(5, 4, 2) = 20. Notice how quickly
we were able to compute this order. If we tried to do it by successively computing powers of we
would
18 need to compute 20 powers,
IX.1 and
Limit Laws this assumes
and Comb Marni we didnt make any mistakes in the tedious
11
calculations.
20 IX.2 This shows the
Random Structures power of Theorem
Discrete Limit Laws 4.2.
Sophie
and Limit Laws
23 IX.3 Mariolys
12
Exercise 4.3 Find the order of each of the following permutations:
presentations)
(a) (1,253) (b)
IX.4
(1, 5, 2, 3) (c) (1, 5, 3,Continuous
7)(2, 6,Limit
8)Laws Marni
Quasi-Powers and
13 30 IX.5 Sophie
Gaussian limit laws
14 Dec 10 Presentations
4.5 Inverse of a Permutation: RevisitedAsst #3 Due
Every permutation can be written as a product of disjoint cycles: = 1 2 k . We have already

seen that the inverse of a product is the product of the inverses in the reverse order, so
1 = k1 21 11 .
This means, in order to determine 1 directly from its cycle form we just need to know how to find
the inverse of a cycle.
Consider the 5-cycle = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5). Wed like to come up with a simple method for determining the
inverse 1 directly from the cycle form, and without having to change representation to array form,
or arrow form.

1 2 3 4 5
We already know that if we have in array form: = then it is easy to write
2 3 4 5 1

1 2 3 4 5
down the inverse: 1 = . If we express this back in cycle form we have 1 =
5 1 2 3 1
(1, 5, 4, 3, 2). An alternative way to write this cycle is (5, 4, 3, 2, 1). This gives us a very simple method
for computing an inverse of a cycle: just write the cycle backwards!
1 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)1 = (5, 4, 3, 2, 1) = (1, 5, 4, 3, 2)
The last equality follows from our convention that we start the cycle with the smallest number in the
cycle. See Figure 2 on page 8 for the various representation of and 1 .
To make sure we nail this down, consider another example. The inverse of the permutation =
(1, 5, 3)(2, 4) is 1 = (2, 4)1 (1, 5, 3)1 = (4, 2)(3, 5, 1) = (2, 4)(1, 3, 5).
To summarize:

Math 302

from FS2009

Structures
FS: Part A.1, A.2
Comtet74
Handout #1
(self study)

5
1 2 3 Combinatorial
4 5 Combinatorial
Oct=5 III.1, III.2
Asst #1 Due = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
2 3 4 FS5 A.III1 (b) arrow notation (c) cycle arrow no-
6 12 IV.1, IV.2 (self-study) Multivariable GFs (d) cycle notation
(a) array notation tation for for
Appendix B4
IV.5 V.1
Stanley 99: Ch. 6
9 Nov 2 Asst #2 Due
10
18
IX.1 Limit Laws and Comb Marni
11 1
1 2 3 4 5
20= IX.2 1 = (1, 5, 4, 3, 2)
5 1 2 Random
3 4 Structures
and Limit Laws
Discrete Limit Laws
(f) arrow notation
Sophie
(g) cycle arrow no- (h) cycle notation
23 (e) array
IX.3 notation
Mariolys tation
12
presentations)
Figure 2: Different representations for and 1 .
Quasi-Powers and
13 30 IX.5 Sophie
Gaussian limit laws
14 Dec 10
To get from the cyclePresentations Due1 , just write the representation for
Asst #3of
form of to the cycle form
down in the reverse order.
This means, reverse the order in which the numbers are written in each individual cycle, as well as
reverse the order in which the cycles are written.
Example 4.4 (a) The inverse of the permutation = (1, 6, 3, 4, 5) is 1 = (5, 4, 3, 6, 1) = (1, 5, 4, 3, 6).
(b) The inverse of a 2-cycle is itself. For example, (1, 2)1 = (2, 1) = (1, 2).
(c) The inverse of the permutation = (1, 4, 3, 5)(3, 7, 6)(2, 5, 7, 3, 1)(6, 4)(2, 3, 5, 4)(4, 5, 3) is
1 = [(1, 4, 3, 5)(3, 7, 6)(2, 5, 7, 3, 1)(6, 4)(2, 3, 5, 4)(4, 5, 3)]1

= (4, 5, 3)1 (2, 3, 5, 4)1 (6, 4)1 (2, 5, 7, 3, 1)1 (3, 7, 6)1 (1, 4, 3, 5)1
= (4, 3, 5)(2, 4, 5, 3)(6, 4)(2, 1, 3, 7, 5)(3, 6, 7)(1, 5, 3, 4)
Since 1 is not in disjoint cycle form (due to the fact that itself was not), then we should
probably put it in this form.
1 = (1, 6)(2, 7, 3, 4, 5).
Exercise 4.4 Let = (1, 2)(4, 5) and = (1, 6, 5, 3, 2). Compute (a) 1 , (b) 1 , (c) ()1 .
4.6 Summary of Permutations
Lets continue with our summary of what we know about Sn .

Math 302

from
Sn , the FS2009
symmetric group of degree n, is the set of all permutation of Zn = {1, 2, . . . , n}:
2 14 I.4, I.5, I.6

Structures Sn = { | : Zn Zn and is a bijection }.
Unlabelled structures
FS: Part A.1, A.2
Comtet74
Handout #1
|Sn | = n! (self study)
5 Two
Oct 5 elements
III.1, III.2 Sn can beCombinatorial
Combinatorial
, composed (multiplied)
Asst #1 Due to give another element Zn .2
FS A.III
6 The
12 identity
IV.1, IV.2 permutation = Multivariable
(self-study) (1)(2)(3)GFs (n) has the property that = = for all Sn . If
7 we
19 follow
IV.3, IV.4our convention
Analytic Methods
of omitting 1-cycles, then when writing the cycle form for we cannot
Complex Analysis
omit FS: Part B:
all of them! In this case, IV, V, VI we usually write just one 1-cycle. For example, = (1). Just
Appendix B4
IV.5 V.1
9
remember
Nov 2
missing elements
Stanley 99: Ch. 6 are mapped to themselves.
Asst #2 Due
10
Every Sn has an inverse denoted by 1 . The defining property of an inverse is 1 =
121 A.3/
= . C Introduction to Prob. Mariolys

11 Inverse
20 IX.2
of a product: k )1
(1 2 Discrete
Random Structures
= 1 Sophie
Limit Lawsk
21 11 .
and Limit Laws
Inverse FS: Part C Combinatorial 1 = (a , a
23 IX.3 of an m-cycle: (a1 , a2 , . . . , am1 , am ) Mariolys m m1 , . . . , a2 , a1 ).
12
presentations)
25 IX.4
Permutation Continuous Limit LawsisMarni
composition (multiplication) associative: () = () = .
Quasi-Powers and
13 30 IX.5 Sophie
Gaussian limit laws
Permutation composition (multiplication) is not necessarily commutative. However, disjoint
14 permutations commute.
Dec 10 Presentations Asst #3 Due
Cancelation Property: = implies = , and = implies = .
For every Sn the is a smallest number m, called the order of , denoted by ord(), such
that m = . If a permutation is written in disjoint cycle form then ord() is the least common
multiple of the lengths of the cycles.
Weve seen 5 ways to represent a permutation: (1) listing out all the values, (2) array form,
(3) arrow form, (4) cycle-arrow form, and (5) cycle form. We will most frequently use cycle
form since it is not only the most compact form, it also allows for easy calculations of products,
inverses, and orders. We will see very soon that there are many more benefits to this notation.
4.7 Working with Permutations in SAGE
SAGE uses disjoint cycle notation for permutations, and permutation composition occurs left-to-right,
which agrees with our convention. There are two ways to write the permutation = (13)(254):
1. As a text string (include quotes): (1,3)(2,5,4)
2. As a list of tuples: [(1,3), (2,5,4)]
SAGE
sage: S5=SymmetricGroup(5) # symmetric group on 5 objects, and names it S5
sage: a=S5("(2,3)(1,4)") # constructs the permutation (2,3)(1,4) in S5
sage: b=S5("") # constructs the identity permutation in S5
sage: c=S5("(2,5,3)") # constructs the 3-cycle (2,5,3) in S5
sage: print a, b, c,
(1,4)(2,3)
()
2
the convention of these notes is to compose permutations from left-to-right,

Math 302

(2,5,3) from FS2009
sage:
1 Septa7*cI.1, I.2, I.3 Combinatorial
# compose permutations
Symbolic methods by using multiplication sign
(1,4)(3,5) Structures
sage: c.inverse()FS: Part A.1, A.2
Comtet74
# computes inverse
(2,3,5) Handout #1
(self study)
4 28 II.4,
sage: c.order() II.5, II.6 Labelled structures
# computes order II
3 5 Oct 5 III.1, III.2 Combinatorial Combinatorial
Asst #1 Due
FS A.III
Try
7 these
19 examples
IV.3, IV.4 in SAGE,
Analytic Methods thenComplex
change things and see what happens. Dont be afraid to experi-
Analysis
ment, FS: Part B: IV, V, VI

8 26this is how you learn. You wont break
Singularity Analysisanything (at least it is unlikely you will).
Appendix B4
IV.5 V.1
Stanley 99: Ch. 6
9 Nov 2 Asst #2 Due
4.8
10 Exercises
1. Converting
18 IX.1 from array to cycle Limit Lawsnotation.
and Comb Convert each of the following permutations given
Marni
11
in
20 array
IX.2 form to cycle
Random form Discrete Limit Laws Sophie
Structures
and Limit Laws
FS: PartC Combinatorial
23 IX.31 Mariolys

12
2 3 (rotating
4 instances of discrete
(a) presentations)
25 IX.42 4 3 1 Continuous Limit Laws Marni

13 30 IX.51 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Quasi-Powers 9 10and Sophie
(b) Gaussian limit laws
8 5 4 7 1 3 6 2 10 9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
(c)
10 11 9 4 8 15 5 2 7 3 6 1 12 13 14
2. Converting from cycle to array notation. For each of the following permutation in S8
convert from cycle form to array form.
(a) (1, 5, 2)(3, 4)(7, 8) (b) (1, 7, 4, 6)(3, 5, 8)

3. Reducing cycle notation to disjoint cycles.
When multiplying permutations we will most likely end up with a product of cycles which are
not necessarily disjoint, and our goal will be to find a representation in disjoint cycle form. To
practice this, write the following permutations in disjoint cycle form.
(a) = (1, 4, 3, 5)(3, 7, 6)(2, 5, 7, 3, 1)(6, 4)(2, 3, 5, 4)(4, 5, 3)

(b) = (1, 2, 3)(1, 4, 5)(1, 6, 7)(1, 8, 9)
(c) = (9, 3, 5, 6)(4, 5, 2, 3, 7)(3, 7, 8, 2)(1, 4)(7, 4)
4. Products and Inverses of permutations.

Consider the following permutations in S10 :
= (1, 5, 2, 7)(3, 4)(8, 10, 9), = (1, 10, 9, 7, 6, 5, 2, 4, 8),
= (1, 2, 3, 4)(6, 10, 8, 7, 9), = (1, 5, 8, 4)(2, 9, 10, 7)(3, 6).

Compute the disjoint cycle form of each of the following:

Math 302

from FS2009
(a) (c) (e) (g) 1 1
1 Sept 7 I.1, I.2, I.3
(b) Combinatorial (d) Symbolic
4 methods
(f) 1 (h) ()1
Structures
FS: Part A.1, A.2
Comtet74
3 21 II.1, II.2, II.3
5. For each of the permutations Labelled
below,
Handout #1
structures I
determine its order.
(self study)

5
(a) III.1,
Oct 5
=III.2
(3, 7, 4)
Asst #1 Due
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
parameters Parameters (d) =
FS A.III 2 7 1 5 4 3 6
6 12 (b) IV.1,
=IV.2
(1, 5, 8, 4)(2, 9, 10, 7)(3, 6)
Multivariable
(self-study) GFs
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
7 19 IV.3, IV.4
(c) = (2, 6, 8,Analytic
3, 10, Methods
9, 7, 4)
Complex Analysis (e) =
2 3 4 1 5 10 9 7 6 8
Appendix B4
IV.5 V.1
Stanley 99: Ch. 6
9 Nov 2 Asst #2 Due
6. For each of the permutations Asymptotic
below, methods
Handout #1
express the inverse in disjoint cycle form.
10
12 (a) A.3/=C (1, 5, 8, 4)(2, 9, 10, 7)(3, 6)
Introduction to Prob. Mariolys
18
(b) IX.1= (2, 6, 8, 3, 10, 9, 7, 4) Limit Laws and Comb Marni
11
20 IX.2
1 2Random 3 Structures
4 5 6 Discrete
Limit Laws Sophie
and Limit Laws 7
(c) =
23 IX.3 2 7FS: Part
1 C 5 4 3 Combinatorial
(rotating
6
instances of discrete
Mariolys
12 presentations)
25 1 2 3 4 5 6 Continuous 7 8 Limit 9 Laws
10 Marni
(d) IX.4
=
2 3 4 1 5 10 Quasi-Powers 9 7 6and 8
13 30 IX.5 Sophie
Gaussian limit laws
7. Let
14 and = (1, 4, 5, 2). Compute
Dec 10 = (1, 3, 6)(2, 4)Presentations each of the following.
Asst #3 Due
(a) 1 (b) 1 (c) (d)
8. Let = (1, 2)(4, 5) and = (1, 6, 5, 3, 2). Compute 1 .
9. Show that the order of a m-cycle (a1 , a2 , . . . , am ) is m?
10. What is the order of a pair of disjoint cycles of length 5 and 3? 4 and 6? 22 and 18?
11. What is the order of the product of three disjoint cycles of lengths 3, 5, and 7? 6, 12 and 26?
12. Show S5 contains no element of order 7?
13. What is the maximum order of any element in S10 ?
14. Let , Sn , show that and 1 have the same order.
15. Let = (1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 8, 6)(2, 4, 10). What is the smallest positive integer n for which n = 7 ?
16. Let = (1, 7, 4, 5, 9)(3, 8)(10, 6, 2). If m is a 5-cycle, what can you say about m?
17. In S3 , find permutations and so that ord() = 2, ord() = 2, and ord() = 3.
18. Find permutations and so that ord() = 3, ord() = 3, and ord() = 5.
19. (a) If Sn has order k, show that 1 = k1 .

(b) Use part (a) to find 11 for = (1, 3, 6, 2)(4, 7, 5).
20. How many permutations of order 5 are there in S6 ?
21. Suppose is a 10 cycle. For which integers i between 2 and 10 is i also a 10-cycle?

Math 302

22. Splicing and dicing cycles.3 What happens to the cycle structure of a permutation when
from FS2009
1 you
Sept 7 follow
I.1, I.2, I.3 by a transposition?
Combinatorial Symbolic The
methodsanswer is you either splice two of the cycles of into
Structures
2 one
14 bigger
I.4, I.5, I.6 cycle, you cut one Unlabelled
FS: Part A.1, A.2
of the structures
cycles of into two smaller cycles, you extend one cycle by
on element, or Comtet74
you add a new transposition to the cycle structure. Verify the special cases of
Handout #1
4
this
28
statement
II.4, II.5, II.6
below,
(self study) and then make an argument
that the claim follows in general from these
special cases. Combinatorial Combinatorial
6 12
= (a1 ,FSa2A.III
(a) IfIV.1,IV.2 , . . . , ar )(b1 , bMultivariable ) where these two cycles are disjoint, then
2 , . . . , bsGFs
(self-study)

(a1 , b1 ) = (a1 , . . . , ar , b1 , . . . , bs ).
Appendix B4
IV.5 V.1
Stanley 99: Ch. 6
9 Nov 2 2
Handout 1i<
(b) If = (a1 , a , . . . , a ) andAsymptotic
#1 r j r, Asst
methods then #2 Due

10
12 A.3/ C
(ai , aj )Introduction
= (a1 , .to.Prob.
. , ai1Mariolys
, aj , aj+1 , . . . , ar )(ai , ai+1 , . . . , aj1 ).
11 (c) If = (a1 , a2 , . . . , ar ) and b 6= ai for all i, then
and Limit Laws
FS: Part C Combinatorial(a , b)Mariolys
= (a1 , a2 , . . . , ar , b).
23 IX.3 1
12
presentations)
(d) If = (a1 , a2 , . . . , ar ) and if (b1 , b2 ) is disjoint from , then
Quasi-Powers and
13 30 IX.5 Sophie
Gaussian limit laws
(b1 , b2 ) = (a1 , a2 , . . . , ar )(b1 , b2 ).

3
This exercise is from J. Kiltinens book Oval Track and Other Permutation Puzzles.

Math 302

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f a cu lty of science MATH 895-4 Fall 2010

d epa r tm ent of m athema tic s Course Schedule

Week Date Sections Part/ References Topic/Sections Notes/Speaker

1 Sept 7 I.1, I.2, I.3 Combinatorial Symbolic methods

4 28 II.4, II.5, II.6 Labelled structures II

7 19 IV.3, IV.4 Analytic Methods Complex Analysis

4.1 Permutations: Cycle Notation

Consider the 5-cycle permutation defined as follows:

(1) = 2, (2) = 3, (3) = 4, (4) = 5, (5) = 1.

Jamie Mulholland, Spring 2010 1

Week Date Sections Part/ References Topic/Sections Notes/Speaker

1 Sept 7 I.1, I.2, I.3 Combinatorial Symbolic methods

1 goes to 2, 2 goes to 3, 3 goes to 4, 4 goes to 5, and 5 goes to 1.

= (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) = (2, 3, 4, 5, 1) = (3, 4, 5, 1, 2) = (4, 5, 1, 2, 3) = (5, 1, 2, 3, 4).

Jamie Mulholland, Spring 2010 2

Week Date Sections Part/ References Topic/Sections Notes/Speaker

Example 4.1 To determine the cycle form of the permutation

(1, 5, 4, 8, 2)(3, 6, 10) . . . .

(1, 5, 4, 8, 2)(3, 6, 10)(7) . . . .

Jamie Mulholland, Spring 2010 3

Week Date Sections Part/ References Topic/Sections Notes/Speaker

18 IX.1 Limit Laws and Comb Marni

= (1, 5, 2, 3)(1, 5, 4)(2, 3)

Thus we begin writing the disjoint cycle form as = (1, 4, . . .) . . . .

(1,5,2,3) (1,5,4) (2,3)

Jamie Mulholland, Spring 2010 4

Week Date Sections Part/ References Topic/Sections Notes/Speaker

7 19 IV.3, IV.4 = (1, 4, 6, 3,Complex

Jamie Mulholland, Spring 2010 5

Week Date Sections Part/ References Topic/Sections Notes/Speaker

1 Sept 7 I.1, I.2, I.3 Combinatorial Symbolic methods

18 IX.1 Limit Laws and Comb Marni

14 Dec 10 Presentations Asst #3 Due

Jamie Mulholland, Spring 2010 6

Week Date Sections Part/ References Topic/Sections Notes/Speaker

no1 symbol inI.2,common.

Every permutation can be written as a product of disjoint cycles: = 1 2 k . We have already

1 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)1 = (5, 4, 3, 2, 1) = (1, 5, 4, 3, 2)

Jamie Mulholland, Spring 2010 7

Week Date Sections Part/ References Topic/Sections Notes/Speaker

1 Sept 7 I.1, I.2, I.3 Combinatorial Symbolic methods

1 = [(1, 4, 3, 5)(3, 7, 6)(2, 5, 7, 3, 1)(6, 4)(2, 3, 5, 4)(4, 5, 3)]1

4.6 Summary of Permutations

Lets continue with our summary of what we know about Sn .

Jamie Mulholland, Spring 2010 8

Week Date Sections Part/ References Topic/Sections Notes/Speaker

2 14 I.4, I.5, I.6

18 IX.1 Limit Laws and Comb Marni

Cancelation Property: = implies = , and = implies = .

4.7 Working with Permutations in SAGE

Jamie Mulholland, Spring 2010 9

Week Date Sections Part/ References Topic/Sections Notes/Speaker

ment, FS: Part B: IV, V, VI

(a) (1, 5, 2)(3, 4)(7, 8) (b) (1, 7, 4, 6)(3, 5, 8)

Dr. Marni MISHNA, Department of Mathematics, SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY

(a) = (1, 4, 3, 5)(3, 7, 6)(2, 5, 7, 3, 1)(6, 4)(2, 3, 5, 4)(4, 5, 3)

4. Products and Inverses of permutations.

= (1, 5, 2, 7)(3, 4)(8, 10, 9), = (1, 10, 9, 7, 6, 5, 2, 4, 8),

= (1, 2, 3, 4)(6, 10, 8, 7, 9), = (1, 5, 8, 4)(2, 9, 10, 7)(3, 6).

Jamie Mulholland, Spring 2010 10

Week Date Sections Part/ References Topic/Sections Notes/Speaker

8. Let = (1, 2)(4, 5) and = (1, 6, 5, 3, 2). Compute 1 .

9. Show that the order of a m-cycle (a1 , a2 , . . . , am ) is m?