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    CICIND Model Code For Steel Chimneys Commentaries and Appendices PDF

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    CICIND Model Code for Steel Chimneys (Revision 1 —- December 1999) Commentaries and Appendices (December 2000) Copyright CICIND 2000 ISBN 1-902998-11-1 Office of The Secretary, 14 The Chestnuts, Beechwood Park, Hemel Hempstead, Herts., HP3 0DZ, UK ‘Tel: +44 (0)1442 211204 Fax: +44 (01442 256155 e-mail: secretary@cicind org CICIND Model Code for Stee! Chimneys REVISION 1 - DECEMBER 1999 COMMENTARIES AND APPENDICES ‘TABLE OF CONTENTS Foreword 20. ccceeesesceeeeeeeeeeee sees 3 Appendix 2 ~ Insulation, Linings and Protective Coatings. . 30 Commentary 1 - Glossary of commonly used wort wd A21. Insulation Commentary 2 ~ Safety ...... 6 A211 General... 30 Commentary 3 - Wind Load 8 421.2, Insulation Design... 30 C3. Wind Speed... 8 A213. Aluminium Cladding ceeeee 30 C311, BasicWind Speed a A214, Mineral Wool or Foam Insalation ........ 31 (C3.1.2. Wind Maps... Teledu 8 A215. Lined and Mutifive Chimneys .....-.... 31 C313, The Influence of Height «20.2... 8 A22. Linings 31 3.2 The Gust Factor . as A22.1. General cess Sd C33 Vortex Shedding... 7 15 A2.2.2. Design of Separate Liners ...........2...31 C34 Movements in the second mode... A2.2,3, Design of Linings Attached C35 Ovalling see Continuously to the Shell... sees... 32 CASI Static effects .. A23, Recommended Start-up Procedures 2... .20.++ 32 C352. Dynamic effects ADA. Protective and Decorative Tresiments 32 C26 Interference effects 3~ Guyed Chimneys... Commentary 4 ~Fatigue .... cesteseseesss 22 ABA, Gayed Chimney expansion Commentary $—Openings ......ceeeeesceeseesecees A32. Gayed Chimney ealelations .... Commentary 6 ~ Chemical Bffects and Internal Corrosion 26 —A3.3._Guy Ropes C61, Chemie BEC eee eeeeeeeseeeeeee 26 Appendix 4 — Access Ladders C6.1.1, Attack Dve to Sulphur Oxiées 1 ‘AGL. General 26 26 C6.1.2 Effects of Flue Gas Desuphurisation .. A42. Definitions «2... €6.1.3, Attack Due to Chlorine, Chlorides AGS, Materials pees 34 tnd Fluorides. Add, Finish. 34 €6.2, Internal Corrosion 2... AGS. Stringers .. wt C63, Selection of materials... A46. Runes 7 3t Appendix 1~Base Plate Design ... ABT. Safety HOOps «eee 4 ALI Simple base plates... A4.8. Rest Pletforms and Landings .. . 235 AL2 Base plates with gussets 2... ‘A4S, Attachment to Chimney .. 35 AL3- Baseplates with gussets and compression rings, A4.10.Access Hooks... : 35 Al4 Grouting DISCLAIMER ‘This CICIND document is presented to the best ofthe knowledge of its members as a guide only. CICIND is not, nor are any of its ‘members, to be helé responsible for any failure alleged or proved to be due to adherence to recommendations or acceptance of information published by the association in s Model Code ar in any other way. CICIND, Talacker 50, CH-8001, Zurich, Switzerland Copyright by CICIND, Zurich CICIND Modal Code - Commentaries and Appendices page 3 FOREWORD In December 1999 the Second Edition of the Model Code for Steet Chinaneys was publisbed. This is now expanded by the publication af the Commentaries and Appendixes to this Model Code. ‘The Intention of this volume is to explain the reasons behind the principles set out inthe Model Code. Ic is divided inta two parts. The Commentaries cover ihe theoretical derivation of the formule and the principles used in the Model Code. The Appendices relate to ‘more practical considerations. COMMENTARY No. 1 GLOSSARY OF COMMONLY USED TERMS ‘The numbers in brackets are given in figures C.1.1 and C12, showing typical chimney designs. ‘Access door (2.01) ~A door for the entry of personnel or other means of inspection Aerodynamic stabilizer (2.03) ~A device ited to the structural shel. to reduce wind excited oscillations by modifying vortex shedding Anchor bois ~ See Holding down bolts Base cone (204) ~ A truncated cone incorporsed immediately above ihe baseplate of @ chimney. Baseplate (2105) ~ A horizontal plate dixed to the base ofa chimney. Also ealled a bearing plat Base stool @.07) ~A constriction comprising two vorieal pats, welded to tie chimngy shell and to the baseplate, supporting a compression sing (2.14) through which a holding down bot pases. Blanking off plate (2.08) - An imperforate plate Stad iumedistely ‘beneath the inlet of chimney to prevent the wast gases rescking the lower portion of the chimney Also known as a fale bottom. Boiler mounted chimney ~ A chimney supported by a boiler and its oundation. Bracket (2.10) — A consiniction providing resistance to lateral Aisplacement of the chimney andlor supporting part or al ofthe ‘weight ofthe chimney. Bracketed chimney (2.1) —A chimney in whieh not all extemal applied loads (@g. wind) are cavied exclusively by the structural shell and for which brackets, auacked to an adjacent structure, are provided t ensure stil Also known asa braced chinney. Breeching ~ ses inlet 0.28) Cap plate (2-12) —A stoping or convex plate fited tothe top of he SSructural shell, covering the asa between it and the liners and incorporiting caval throogh which the liners protuds. Cleaning door (2.13) ~A door, normally at the base of the chimney, to permit the removal af fue dist. Compression ring (2.14) —A ste plate welded to the shell which transfers the forces acting upon the chimney to the helding down bolts. Also known asa base ring Cope band (2.15)—A see secon attached othe top of the ehimey sound its perimeter to give added strength and corrosion resistance at this Tevel, Cope hood (2.16) — A hood fitted externally to the top ofa line, covering the tpsiand of the cap plat, to prevent the ingress of rain water. Corrosion test piece (2.17) ~A fxed or removable steel plate inser, generally of lesser thickness thn te shell of the chimney, in contact ‘with the waste gases aod fited at strategic points where maximum corrosion is expected to occur Cow (2.18)— A coniza or dished cap fined 1 the top ofthe chimney to redice the ingress of rin water. so Enown as @ rain cap. (Cravat (2.19) — An upstand fixed to the roof, oofplats or eap plate to prevent the ingress of rain water (see cope hood). Also Inown as counter flashing. Cross-section ~The section ofthe load bearing stel shel including the corrosion allowance, Damping device (2.20) ~ A device fited to the structural shell 10 increase its structural damping. Doubling plate (2.21) ~ A plate fixed to the shell to reinforce it here increased stresses occas, Double skin chimney (2.22) — A chimney consisting of an outer load-bearing steel shell and an inner liner which carries the flue gases, Also known as a dual wall chimney. Drag coefficient ~ see wind force coefficient Drain pipe (2.23) — A pipe which connects a tundish to a point ‘outside the structural shell and used to remove condensate. Flue ~ see tiner Guy (2.24) — A wire rope attached st one end to a chimney and anchored at the other s0 as to provide tensile resistance to the lateral isplacement of the chimney Guy band (2.25) — A steel section fired aroand the outside of chimney with provision for the atachmest of guys Guyed chimney (2.26) ~ A chimney in which not all externally applied loads (@g. wind) ere cared exclusively by the structural shell and for which guys ae provided to ensure sabity. Holding down bolts (2.27) - Bolts built into a concrete foundation, brik base or supporting framework provide anchorage atthe bass ofthe chimney. ‘Hoops ~ Horizontal rings forming a cage around ladders. Tnlet (2.28)—A short duct fixedo the shel or beseplate of chimney for the entry of ve gases. Intermediate cone (2.29) ~ A truncated cone incorporated in the chimney shell at an intermediate level Jointing flange (2.30)~A steel section fitted to the end of a chimney Section to enable sections to be connected together, Ladder boss — A boss welded tothe chimney shell nto whicl an access hook or eye can be screwed to provide fixing for temporary ladders. Lateral supports (2.31) ~ Supports positioned at appropriate levels Within the structural shell to locate the liners, allowing independent expansion of the shell, Lightning protection system — System to provide electrical continuity between the chimney and ear Liners (2.32) — Flue gas ducts contained within the structural shel Liner base (2.33) — A suitable support positioned at 2 convenient height above the baseplate of the strucnral steel shell to carry the ‘weight ofthe liners. Lining (2.34) (see appendix No 2)—A material applied to the internal face of the chimney to prevent the fue gases contacting the inser surface of the stesl shell, ‘Multiflue chimney (2.35) —A group of wo or more chimneys within a structural framework or a chimney comprising a group of two or ‘more liners within 2 structural shell. Nett section ~ The section of the load bearing steel shell without corrosion allowance, Reinforcement — Structural shapes or plates at or near to. shell ‘peratures to strengthen the shel Roofplate (2.36) — A plate which follows the contour of the roof round the chimney where it pastes through the roof of a building. Also Inown as flashing. Rungs ~ Horizontal bars in ladders page 4 Safety system — Proprietary fall arest system xed to ladder rungs cr beside the ladder to give s safe fixing for attachment of operatives" safety harnesses. Self supporting chimney (2.37) ~ A chimney in which externally applied loads (@ g. wind) are carried exclusively by the structural shell and which, together with the foundation, will remain stable ‘under all design conditions without sdditional suppor. Splitter plate (2.38) — A vertical plate welded to the interior of the shell between twa horizontally opposed inlets 10 divert the low of the fue gases into a vertical direction and to inhibit the passage of fiue ‘gases from one inletinto the other. Stay (239) ~ A rigid member providing both tensile and compressive sesiotance to the lateral displacement of the chimney. Also known as. a lateral brace. CICIND Mode! Code ~ Commentaries and Appendices Stayed chimney (2.40) — A chimney in which not all extemelly applied loads (e.g. wind) are carried exclusively by the structural shell and for which stays, connected to another structure, are provided 10 ensure siability. Stiffening ring — Horizontal members to prevent ovalling and to maintain the “chimney shell circular during fabrication end transportation, ‘Strakes ~ see aerodynamic stabilisers Stringer — Vertical member ofa laderto which the rungs are attached. ‘Typical general arrangement of three types of self supporting steel chimney. ‘The numbers are related to the text AP PLATE Bt To cone 242 J——core nooo 26 of A core wae 1 SHA a \ seas f Ber cate aon ye i re ens: 232 a | sea srg Sn or > te 4 an 0 ‘pram I J BASE Come T MENS 10 Wap nae 7 : Vat So ao] - ww LO Ones it 7 Base, mao’ uBloms ooww BASE oR BEARMG” ern DOWN Salers scar sweormng Pe courte sea \GLITELUE PREY caaET CHET 238 a 1 Figure cia CCIGIND Mocist Code ~ Commentaries and Appendices age 5 Structural shell 2.41) ~The main externa strucune ofthe chimney, excluding any reinforcing or flanges. ‘Top cone (242) ~ A truncated cone or other device fited atthe top of chimney to increase the gas exit velocity. ‘Tandish (2.42) ~ A conical or sloping Wlanking off plate provided ‘wth facilites for drainage. Also known asa flse boro. ‘Tuned mass damper ~A form of damping device which employs a pendulum, tined to the chimney's nstural Fequeney. The moving part of the pendulum is connected to the chimney by an energy iorbing device. ‘Vanes — See Aerodynamic stebilizers Venturi, See Top cone ‘Weatherhood (2.44) — A hood designed to shed rain water clear of the cravat and prevent its entey into the building. Also énown as counter flashing. ‘Wind force coefficient ~The ratio between the wind pressure on the chimney and the equivalent pressoze on the same area normal to the wind dizeetion, ‘Typical general arrangement of guyed, stayed and bracketed chimneys. ‘The numbers are rel lated to the text —_ cgi re se I~ Cope BAND WA ‘connason —— [ss || gro ir stay aw r ||| | eri me 2 ae 4 La se cn K a | seme = aus {| Bo | | j t Lj i q ‘euy WIRE 1 fom | FP venmeso fi} [| an ‘ sosPuste rc gare sen | t gun : I JONTING poset eno} an ‘connDsoN | ' ems ic re | | | 8 me mio 7 le pare access, gastreates 2a ‘b00R 7 we | | sl et 8 bal |! ie aces neernit seme ACCESS ies ota see om Bl Ey ea oan sigs po] ems fe | KAKO 1 cuveo curry staveo caatey Staveocemmty ——_agasnereo suse 226 WITH THREE ELUES WIT FOUR ELUES. FLUE CHIMNEY ICuTRALcoLUe) TERN FRAME) a 200) 240 Figure C: 12 page S COMMENTARY No. 2 SAFETY ‘The safery of a chimney is ensured by the use of partial safety factors st the ultimate limit stat, These partial safery factors are listed in paragraph 5.3 of the cods. A chimney is thus deemed safe if the ‘maximum sess due to the characteristic Joad, increased by the appropriate partial load factor, is less than the allowable stress, divided by the partial material Safety factor. The level of wind load factor chosen ensures that premature failure due to low cycie fatigue, caused by wind gusts in the wind direction, ean not occur. Derivation Of The Partial Load Factor in The Wind Direction (Temperate Zones) ‘The partial lond factor for wind lond in the wind direction is derived 1s followe by considering the social and economic consequences of {ale or damage requiring the chimney’s repair or replacement. This {involves deriving che acceptable probability of failure (P) during the chimney’s lifetime, using the following expression given in CIRTA (UK) Report No. 63, entitled “Rationalisation of Safety and Serviceability Factors in Structural Codes"t): Pea 10XK, Xny/n, Whee p= average mumber of people nets the stuetuse during the period of risk ng = design life of structure (assured to be 30 years for 2 seal chimney) K,= social criterion factor, given in table C2.1 cy Table 2.1 - Social Criterion Factor Nature of stuctre Ks Paces of pubic assem, Dam 0005 Domestic, Ofie o Trade and nducry 005 edges os “Tovars, Masts, shore Suctores 5 In order to use equation C2.1 it is necessary to estimate the value of ay. Tt ie euggested 1.7 that allowaace be made for the aumber of people likely to be close to the structure atthe time that maximum loading can be expected, Since maximum loading is most likely to occur under extreme wind conditions, it can be assumed that no-one will be climbing the chimney and no-one will be nearby, except through necessity. If we assume ng =20 years und K, as 0.05 for “normal” chimneys ‘and 0.005 for critical chimneys, acceptable probabilities can be estimated as summarised in table C2.2: ‘Table C2.2 Typical failure probabilities for environmental economic risk Environment wks r (hinay ins ares Cronmel” chimney) uO? Chimney in urban ares oc hespital("itcal chimney") 1510 Chey serving etic plant (Ciel chirney") 010.005 «TOE ‘cfollows that safety factors should be chosen to give probabilities of failure of 10-3 for a “Normal” chimney and 10 for a “Critical” chimney. ‘The probability of failure depends upon the statistical distributions of resistance and loading. The resistance of a steel chimney may be taken as normally Aisributed with a coefficient of variation (ratio of stendard devietion ‘to mean value) approximately 10%. CICIND adel Cade ~ Commentaries and Appendices ‘The principal loed is éue to wind, The moment is proportional to the wind pressure, the extreme values of which follow a Fisher-Tippett ‘Type | (FTI) distribution as described in reference 3 is distribution has a Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) n by P(q) = exp{—exp(—a(a — u)) Jn which the constants are the mode u and ths dispersion 1/. In temperate climates the product a5; other values may obtain elsewhere (Soe ref. 2) Now, se characteristic wind is defined as heving annwal probability of being exceated = 0.02 thea P,y(s) = exp(—exp(—au(x—1))) ty eto oma oe 4 = GPG) = amexp( ange-I)) Puls) 7 spe soyee wind pesucietgs=1+ 80) Te saris sane somal Gite wih men 3x Berean Techunced wei tex — 165, 1h a Leo, oe ‘The load factor xn (t+ 22) 6486, 1 L " ovr -$ (254) ‘The CDF for the wind pressure in period T years is Pix(q) = (Pas(@))" Thea fag pe ent Tyas ste mde fon 1014222 vita ange tape ot the disteibation. Hence the CDF is Pats) = exp(—exp(—so(s—1) +n) ‘The protaiiy of file is given by Pp = fA.—Pa Cen dee Now the fastor F= "jm where ys the Wind Toad factor andy the material factor. Assuming “yq= 1.1, then i oyea14 Pry 81+ Yen 1S Pog e304 ‘When failure is ductile, additional safety agcinst collapse is derived from the chimney's residual strength, after mobilisation of ite allowable (yield) streagth at one point of its periphery (Le., at the ultimate Liait state). ‘When failure is by buckling, addtional safety is implicit in the relationship used between the allowable (critical buckling) strength and the yield strength of the material. This relationship includes an additional partial safety factor to ensure that the critical buckling sess is sulficiently below the lower bound of experimental curves used as a basis for the design (se= ref. 5), For normal steel chimney this additional partial safety factor lies between 12 and 1.33, depending upon the diameter/ thickness ratio. 11s, therefore, proved iat wind load factors of 1.4 and 1.5, will ceisure failure (coUlapse) probabilities of 10"? and 10°, required by "Normal" and “Crivial” chimneys, respectively. CICIND Model Code ~ Commentaries and Appendices References a 2 3) o 6) Report 63 “Rationalisation of safety and serviceability factors in structural codes” — CIRIA (U.K), 1977 BS 6100 Part 2, British Standards Instution, 1996 Bierrum, NR. — Latter to the Editor, CICIND REPORT Vol. 5, No. 1, 1989 ENV 1991-2-4, CEN, 1995, “European Recommendations for steel construction’ — ‘European Convention for Construction Steclwork (ECCS), 1978. page 7 page 8 CICIND Madel Code ~ Commentaries and Appendices COMMENTARY 3 os WIND LOAD 2 [At the time of publication of the revised CICIND Model Code for ‘Steel Chiraneys (1999), the wind load model currently used in ENV. 1991-2-4 (eveniwally istended to form the basis of Eurocode 1, Part 2-4: Actions on Structures — Wind Actions) fias been showa by ‘calibration studies by CICIND and others to be unacceptable, In view of the time expected 10 elapse before an acceptable model for urocodle 1 is agresd by all parties, CICIND have decided forthe time being to retain the wind losd model described in the 1988 version of this Model Code. A zecenz papar[1) has shown that this model gives safe und reasonably accurate estimates of the wind lond on chimneys 3.1 Wind-speed |As the basis for the wind-lond, the hourly mean windspeed bas been. setained. The win-lond is calculated after estimating a turbulence intensity, by a “gust factor” method. 3.1.1. Basic wind-speed "The basic wind-speed used in deriving wind-loads i the wind-speed averaged aver one hour and measured at 10m above open ground at the chimney location, which has a probability of excesdence of once in 50 years. ‘The value of the basic wind-speed for a given location should be obisined for data colleczed by meteorological stations. ‘When wind speeds have been measured over periods less than SO. years, the valite of the basic windspeed must be extrapolated using. the Fisher-Tippett Type 1 expression far the statistical distribution of| extreme values, 2s follows: PCV} = exp [-exp[—a(V —W)]) er: C0) oti fete of vty Vig cass 2 wepeoteaneinre C31 ow secant cn eva ptbiiy ct xeee cin Sy PV) = 2 Tare se onrvloraan aefoed ee3) ‘The relationship between the wind-speed and the retum period is given in igure C31 Ifthe averaging time of the measurement is shorter than one hous, the hourly mean at 10m height may be determined using figure C3.2. In this figure the zatio between the hourly mean and shorter averaging ppetiods of the wing-speed is given for various types of terrain. Table 3.1 gives a quick reference for “Open county” terrain situations. Fig, C3.1 ~ Relationship between wind-speed and its return period ees Fig. €3.2— Relationship between windspesd and its averaging time Table C3.1 ~ Relationship between commonly quoted windspeeds at 10m height above grade for “open ground” situations Hourly Y0-minute — S-second —S-second ‘mean mean ust ‘ust Foury mean 10 105 14s is ‘0-ninute mean 0 10 14 145 S-second gust 07 p75 10 1.05 second gust oss or 29s 10 Note:- To convert “Fastest mile” windspeed to the above time- averaged windspeeds, use the relationship (velocity=distance / time) fo determine the time taken fo traverse one mile. This time should then be entered in fig. C3.2 63.1.2 Wind Maps ‘When no resulls of wind-epeed measurements are available on indication of the basic wind-speed is given in the Sgures C33, C3.4, 3.5, C3.6, C3.7 and 3.8 for Europe, USA, Asie, Australis, Aibies and Brazil ‘Some countries have not published wind velocity maps, chosing instead to specify wind pressure maps or wind velocities at specific locations. In such cases the customer should specify the wind ‘velocity (vy) to be used in the design. The map showing isopleths for Africa is unofficial and should be used with caution. 3.1.3. The influence of the height ‘The increase of the wind-speed wih height is in accordance with the power law: Vee Vi Bpae 2/10" Vy isthe basic windspeed (2, measured at 10m above open, level terrain, without abstructions). The scale factor "fy." and exponent “" depend on the tecrain roughness arovnd the chisnney. The values ina 1 and c= 0.14 have been chosea in the Model Code. This is sBShumed to cover the most common ese when the chimney is not in the centre of cities and not at the sea shore, but somewhere in between and clear above the surrounding buildings. ‘When structures such as buildings are being designed, ite norraal to assume different values of a and kyaq relevant to the terrain considered. This, for instance, would give lower wind velocities in town centres than in open county. When tall structures, such as chimneys, are concerned, however, the wind velocity’ gradient continues to be influenced by the terrain over which it previously ‘wavelled In some eases, the previous terrain continues to be of influence after the wind’ has travelled by as much as Skm over rougher terrain. In addition, the gust facter is a function of che ‘turbulence, so that in town conues, even though the wind velocity may be less than in open county, the gust factor could be ‘considerably higher, pardally cancelling out the seducsion in dynamic pressure. AS a result of these considerations, it was decided to keep ‘the Model Code simple and use just one terrain category. CICIND Model Code ~ Commentarias and Appendices page 9 2D oO $00m—590m-HS1_ E> wom 0-H (SOY >30tde “HSL. Moon wie apd tn Fatan fared Bors, 40 min. mean Fig. C3.3 Wind speads in m/s for Europe (10 min, mean} {note ~ to convert to Vb — hourly mean, divide by 1.05) CICIND Modal Gods ~ Commenters and Appendices: page 10 | aa Fig €3.4 ~ Wind Speeds In USA Speclat Wind Reglon CCICIND Model Code ~ Commentaries and Appandices page 14 Fig C35 ~ Basic windspeeds in m/s for Asia (hourly mean) CICIND Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices page 12 REGION ‘Tropical Cyolones REGION 8 Iniarmedicts REGION D Sever Alea Springs REGION A ‘Normal REGION C Tropical Cyclones REGION @ tnlermediate 250 REGION 8 Inlermedisto 30° Basle windspeed Vi, (hourly mean} Regions ms pg 7 7 REGION A B co Normal Hobart c 2 ° “1 Fig 8.6 Basle Windepoods for Australia CICIND Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices poge 13 HET ORD Bee cane HERE nonser Tropical storm zone Fig C3.7 ~ Basie wind speed Vb in m/s for Africa, Isoplathe shown dotted should be used with caution. For final designs local rogulations should be used in all cases. page 14 CICIND Model Gade ~ Commentaries and Appendices Fig. C8 - Windspeed in mvs for Brazil (second gusts) Note - To convert ta basic windspeed (hourly mean), dvide by 1.5 CICIND Modal Gods ~ Commentaries ail Appendices page 15 ©3.2 The gust factor ‘The proposed method for the calculation of the bending moments in the chimney is based on the gust fector method (see lit [4]) ‘This conventional approach is: %@=G-w,@ where: vi, = the load at tovelz G=the gust factor — a function of wind turbulence and the chimney’s natural frequency, damping end height ‘Way (2) the load due to the mean wind velocity ‘An extension of this method has been proposed by B.I. Vickery (see lit (51) to account for the inertial response of a chimney and give more accurate values of the beading moments at levels above the bse. This method has been adopted ia the CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, Part (a) for the design of concrete shells, where steel reinforcement as well as shell thickness, varies often aver the chimney height In the case of steel chimneys however, which are lighter and shorter than concrete chimneys (giving a smaller inertial response) and for whieh there is less scope for changes of thickness ‘with beight, it was decided to use the simpler conventional method. ©3.3 Vortex shedding ‘Large vortex-induced vibrations perpendicalar to the wind difection may occur when the vortex shedding frequency coincides with a ‘natural frequency f of the chimney. This occars at a mean wind velocity “V" equal to the critical wind velocity “V,,” determined by: VaVe= fist (33.1) jn which dis the predominant chim ‘and Stis Stroubal number. ‘Vortex-induced vibrations depend strongly on mass and damping of the chimney, The risk of large vibrations is judged by the Scruton smunber Se defined as: diameter over the top third 4om-fomy se in which { is the structural damping ratio, mo is the effeétive mass per unit height ofthe chimney as defined in the model code and p is the deasity of air. ‘The risk of lange vortes-induced vibrations depends ox 2 combination of Scruton number and large-scale turbulence intensity of the incoming wind field. High intensity of large-scale turbulence or bigh Scruton numbers reduces the sisk of large vortex-induced vibrations, ‘Acstructure with a given Scruton aumber may be stable inthe kind of turbulence flow normslly encountered but become unstable in rare cases with low furbulence occuring under stable atmospheric seratfieation, (C332) 63.3.1 Structural Amplitudes ‘The standard deviation “o,” of the top structural deflection is given by, soe ref. [Is L odd St Se @ C= Reem) (T= (65, DF] me (C333) in which C, Ky and a are aerodynamic parameters. The aerodynamic parameter C, is found from the generalised vortex induced wind load on stuccuras without any significant additional response induced by the chimney’s own motion. The serodynamic parameters K, and a incorporate the effects of the motion-induced response by means of aerodynamic damping: ~The first term (Ka-p-d?/m,} introduces negative aerodynamic damping = The second tenn (1~ oy /(ox aE] gives the positive aerodynamic damping — important for large amplitudes and ensuring thatthe response is sel-imiting For small amplitudes of up to approx. 5% of the diameter, the aerodynamic damping is described sufficiently accurately by the first term only. Tt can be seen thet, when the structural damping £ is much greater than the negetive aerodynamic damping, a, is quite small Ac the wo values converge, however, the increase in 2, becomes dramatic, until the self limiting amplitude ic approached and increases become smaller (se Fig, C39). ‘The maximum value "y" of the top deflection amplituds is calcalated by muliiplying the standard deviation oy with a peak factor kp, i.e, y=lkp:oy- For small ampliudes below approx. 1-2% of tie diameter, the peak-fuctor is approx. 4, corresponding to a stochestic ‘ype of vibration, For large amplitudes, the pealc-factor is equal to about 1.5, comesponding to sinusoidal vibrations with constant amplitude. For intermediate amplitudes, the peak-factor increases gradually ‘with decreasing amplitude. However, for the sake of simplicity, the Model Code assumes a sudden change at a value of oy = 4% of diameter oy c Fig. C3.9 ~ Relationship between o, and Structural Damping ©) {or given values of Ky mg and Solving equation (C3.3.3) for the standard deviation shows that che ‘maximum value y of the top defection smplinde (i.e. ze0 to ‘maximum) can be expressed by (see Model Code equation 7.9): sd = ky fey + (oP +e)S}S (C334) ‘where the constants ey and ey are equal to: 61 = 05-7. (1 ~ [6-19 /CK-p- I] (C335) for ey = 0.5 a3. {1 ~[Se/(4--K}) = (C336) In smooth flow conditions, ay = approximately 0.4 (see table 1), which gives the following expressions for cy and ea (see Model Code, 724.3) = 008-1 ~ [-imy/ Kp dD page 16 For most non-heavily damped chimneys with Scrutoa numbers less than 4rK,, the influence of the constant cy is negligible and the amplitude ofthe structural deflection (0 - max.) can be found from: [d= ky: Qc) = 04k, (1 ~ (Sef @-m-K MN) .- (C33.1) “Inthe present simplified end approximate approsch, the aerodynamic damping parameter K, is estimated for smooth flow cases 2s @ Function of Reynolds umber (R,) only. A function of longitudinal turbulence intensity, "7" gives the reduction in turbulent flow, ie. Ky BoD = Kea RIK) (C338) The aerodynamic damping parameter, Kamae for smooth flow at various Values of Ris given in Table 1 ‘The funetion K, may approximately be determined by: K,Q)= 1-31 for 6 1<0.25 and K)=025 for I>0.25. For terrain category 1 (Le. within Slam of open sea}, the minimum ‘turbulence intensity, pig can be assumed to be O% for wind velocities Jess then or equal 10m/s and 10% for wind velocities larger than 10m/s. For all other tersin categocies the minimum turbulence intensity, Tg, can be assumed to be 0% for wind velocities less than for equal 10.7 m/s and 10% for wind velocities larger than m/s. Further studies are needed to clanfy the influence of turbulence mare accurately. ‘Table 3.2. Aerodynamic parameters in smooth tlow. For Reynolds numbers between the limits given, the aerodynamic parameters are determined by linear interpolation using InfRe} as erqument Aerodynamic parameter Rec tO Re= 5-10! fle 10 Cama 0.02 interoition 0.08 Kame 18 10 10 ou 04 04 04 ‘Figure C3.10 shows the vortex-induced vibrations as a fumetion of turbulence intensity for Reynolds numbers equal to 108 ‘and 108, respectively. 63.3.2 Bending Moments ‘The bending moments in the chimney can be esleulated fom the inertial load per unt length (Fy) corresponding tothe relevent mode, shape (6), where: Fyn (2rr0)?- Yan (C339) where 1, relevant natural frequency Yan = Toaximum amplitnde atthe relevant natural frequency ‘or from the bending mement due to 2 force at 1/6 of the chimney height from the top, causing dhe sume deflection Jie CIGIND Mode! Code - Commentaries and Appendices afd 5 v! Re= id ous 030 4 r= 0% tas 4 = 10% | 0.00, mp o 5 w 15 Scruton number, Se. ola Re= 10" os 030 {r= 104 10 ous 000 St 0 5 1 15 2s Seraton number, Se. Figure €3.10. Vortex-induced vibrations 2s function of turbulence Intensity and Reynolds number. Itis essumed that imo/ pa? = 50 and hid = 39, which influence the low amplitude part of the curves shown. ‘The amplitude should be limited to ensure that suesses are within permissible limits, both from the point of view of failure and fatigue life. In addition, the amplitide should not be lage enough to alarm bystanders. This limit is diffieult to define in general verms os bystanders’ alarm is subjective, depending’ upon bow often the response occurs, its frequency, the visibility of the chimney and the bystanders" perception of the risk. Definition of the limiting amplinade for this aspect is, therefore leit to the owner and the designer to agree for each individual case. Some guidance for highly “Visible chimneys with low values of Ver (< 10mis within Ska of sea or lake-shore, < 7a in inland locations is given below: Critical Chimueys ~ Top double amplitude (peak to peak) +. should be not more than 10% top diameter one Normal Chimneys ~ Top double amplitude (peak to peat)» 13% should be not more then 25% top diemeter “These limits may be increased for less noticeable chimneys and/or those wits higher values of Ver Ge. those which rarely see lange amplitude rerponte), 63.4 Movements in the second mode “Just ag in the case of cross-wind response in the fundamental mode, fa response to excitation in the second mode, giving a top amplimnde exceeding sbout 4% of the top diameter, tiggers an increased response, initisted by the chimney's own movernent. ICIND Moc! Code ~ Commentaries and Appendices page 17 In the case of fundamental mode movernente, response is only importentto vorties shed over a length near to the chimney top, equal {0 about 5 top diameters, as demonstrated by Fig. C.3.11. top amplitude in the frst mode. The stresses, however, wll be sbout the same in each case. Ver =42 m/s, Ser’ = 187, 1= 205 be Fig. 03.11 ~ Auto-Spectra of the anemometer signal (velocity signal), measured at Ver in the wake of the model, ‘measured over top half ‘The maximum ampltude in the second mode will occur atthe top (see fig, C-3.12). The amplitude reduces to zero over a length of H/ 4 ‘This steep reduction means that the length over which vortex shedding is important will be much smaller in the case of second mode respons, 31-4 uye3selETii 7 uye220/Tal® Fig. 3.12 - Mode shapes, first and second mode Inthe second mode, the exergy due to fuctuating wind pressures wil be applied at the middle part of the chimney. The top amplitude of a ‘chimney responding in the second made will never be as great as that reached by the same chimney responding in the primary mode, This is because much more wind-induced energy would be zoquired inthe second mode. This is illustated in Fig. 3.13, which shows the Dending moment causing the same amplitude in the second mode 25 in the first mode would require about 50 times more energy. On the other hand, the energy requized to cause the seme base stress in the second mode is almost the same as that inthe first mode, even though ‘op deflection in 2nd mode is much smaller. ‘The proposed calculation method is based upon the assumption that ‘more or less the same energy is applied in bending, whether the chimney is in the first or the second mode. It therefore follows that the top amplitude in the second mode would anly be about 1/6 af the Fig. £3.18 ~ Strascos and anorgy feves in first and second mode ‘This is partly demonstrated by measured values in a full-scale chimney — see fig. C3.14. The measured values in this trace are of stresses ot the base and it can be sean that many of the stress cycles jn that part of the response inthe second mode sre much the same as those inthe frst mode. The second mode amplitudes were, however, aly about 15% ofthe first mode amplitudes. fearhe foaabHe Fig. 03.14 ‘The proposal for determining tbe top amplitudes in the second mode is siven in fig. C.3.15, The stresses in both the frst and second modes should be taken into account when dealing with the effects of fatigue. on, + z oF top amall Fig. 3.15 ~ Relationship between Scruton Number ‘and top amplitude page 18 63.5 Ovalling ‘The static as well as the dynamically fluctusting pressure causes a ‘varying pressure over ihe circumference of the chimney. The varying wind pressure around a circular cylinder causes a “static” ovalling deformation of the cicle. The dynamics inthe wind, including vortex shedding ean cause a vibration ofthe cireular shape, the lowest order ‘mode and mast likely to oceur being that of ovalling. €3.5.1 Static ovalling load ‘The distribution of the wind pressure around the circumference ofthe shell can be written as ‘p= po: (0.823 + O.A4Boosd + 1.115c0s2h + 0.40000536 ).113cos4e ~ 0.027c085p) w= (C351) ‘where: py = the wind pressure = 0.5-p-v? = Angle between wind direction and point on circumference under consideration ‘The fist term (0.823-pa) is an overall suction and causes a small ‘uniform tensile foree on vertical cross sections of the shell. ‘The second term (0.448-po-cosd) is the pressure in the wind direction (8g. C.3.16) and provides the derivation of the force ‘coefficient (shage factor) of 0.7, to give a total load. Ik causes no ptsture from a cicular cross-section Fig. C2.16~ Wind pressuro and deflected ‘shape due to pycosd term ‘The third term (J.115-pp-cos — fig. C.3.17) causes ovalling. Fig, C.3.17 ~ Wind pressure and deflected ‘shape due to pecos2é term ‘The remaining terms have litle influence. ©3.5-1.4 Unstiffoned shells 63.5.1.1.4 ~ Effect on vertical moments (Stresses on horizontal sections) ‘An analysis of the deformation and stresses in an unstiffened shell (assuming a rigidly Gxed circulor base) due to the ovalling lead has bean given elsewhere in the literstarel®), This considered stresses on CICIND Model Gade ~ Commentaries and Appendices horizontal sections of an unetiffened shall due to the total wind distribution, involving mainly the cos and cox29 terms (Rg.C3.18) ‘A major part of the stresses on horizontal sections is due to the transition from a circular shape at the base 1 an oval chaps, Wed Direction Fig, €.2.18- Circumferential wind pressure and deflected shape Derivation of the increase in tensile stress is fuily straight-forward, fag the maximum tensile stresses due to both beam flexure and restraint of avalling deformation occur atthe bese at 180° tothe wind rection fie, on the up-wind side). Clause 8.2 of the Model Code gives the expression: (tensile shell sess = tensile beam sress % (1+ {6 / [(n)?-(ér} ‘Therefore, for Yr= 0008 and Yr= $0, the increase in tensile siress = 30%, This is probably unimportant in dhe design of chimney shells, which are uswally govemed by compressive stresses, but it is ‘important in designing the base joint and holding-down bots. The Model ‘Code, therefore, calls for shell theory (or the above approximation) fo be ted for unstiffened chimneys with aspect ratio < 25. ‘The position segarding compressive stresses is not so simple. Ref. (8) limited itself to consideration of stresses atthe base, at O° to the wind direction. Here, the compression due to beam fexure is reduced or teen reversed by the shell stesses induced locally by restraint of ovalling deformation, However, increases in compressive stress are possible elsewhere, Increases in compressive stess are due to either of two effects: 1) At the base and between values of about 60° and 120° to the ‘wind, tbe reduced compression stress duc to beam flexure (Function tf 6) has to be added to the cormpressive shel stress due to restraint of ovaling (function of 24) — see fg. C3.19. Significant increases in toll compressive stress only occur ot relatively small valves of Le for Ir ratios less than 30 — see table C3.5.1 2) For relatively thick shells at low ifr ratios, increases of compression sress occurr on the down-wind sie at O° 10 the wind direction, at heighss shout 6 diameters above the base — see table C352. This is due to contraflexure affects, associated with restraint of ovalling, causing compressive stresses at this height. CGICIND Model Coda — Commentaries and Appendices page 18 te ur beam stress 6 team stress shel sess total stress sate max, tb, ae a egoes Pa wnPa Pa nn 2 23 2 00 73 73 378 0 60 7 20 80 ao 135 40 1s n an 50 100 087 005 20 13 2 00 48 8 259 0 48 7 ar 37 54 113 40 82 n 32 37 88 075 006 2 18 2 00 33 33 213 20 40 ” 1 25 39 098 ‘Table 69.5.1 ~ Max. Compression Stresses at Base of Unstiftened Chimney ue ue max. com. height 2) beam stress ofa stress ratio shel stress ate atz Pa (eaiay Pa MPa ai 0 08 a2 13 2 1 30 as 82 a8 97 ‘at on Ey og 62 18 23 17 x og 82 a8 a7 110 0 os 62 a4 240 1.08 00s » 08 62 18 27 143 » os 62 ns 1B 108 0008 0 04 1A 12 16 12 20 04 78 ne me 103 ‘Table 63.5.2 - Increases in compressive stress at 00 to wind (downwind side}, ‘about 6 diameters above bese of an unstiffened chimney. 0 oa oon Soran F asl Fig. C3.20~ Increases in compressive siress over lower § ~ St diameters of an unstifened chimney, dus to shell effects tae] \PNZ nin ©.3.5.1.1.2~ Effect on horizontal momenis (stresses on vertical sections) Fig. 03.19 ~ Stresses at chimney base ‘Therefore, combining both tables it cam be seen thot consideration of shell stresses leads fo significant increases in compressive stresses, either at the base or ata height about 6 diameters above the base for ir ratios < 30. Guidance regerding these increases is given by fg. C32 ‘The distribution of ovalling pressure = 1.115 -pg-cos 26 ‘Where pp is the wind pressure, averaged over 5 seconds. ‘Away from the ends of a long, unstiffened shell, the consequent bending moment at position bis m, where: 115 po AE we pyrcos 26 0.67 pp-*@Nnvim) my w= (C352) and mg (max) page 20 (Note: 0.07 increated to 0.08 in Model Code (equation 7.11), 10 allow for effect of initisl curvature) ‘The associated deflection of an unstiffened shell at point d is Wo, where: 2-RA1115-Bo won EES and wo (max) =0.06-99-"/E-P) 005 2b (352) (©3.5.1.2 Stiffened shells, ‘The addition of carectly sized circumferential stiffeners atthe top and at the correct spacing wil reduce shell stesses duc to ovalling 10 negligible values. In considering the effect of stiffeners the following approach is used: Based upon the theory of shell, the deformation (w) at a distance: (eight) x from the stffener is (with a small approximation) given by the following function: we ng: (12 foosyH 2) NORM) (3-54) Zo (uR where: M2 aaa Substituting Ly/2=1.52-(093/(RY'4, the deformation of the stiffened shell becomes close to that of an unstiffened shell at Bistance 1.58 -R - GRAYS, of 0.56-d-(@)°5 The deformstion of the shell above and below the siffencr is shown in fig. C3.21 Fig. 3.21 - Ovaling deformation of a cylinder with ati ring at Tecan be seen that the ovalling deformations and, therefore stresses, remain low (about 0.030) if the distance between stiffeners of infinitely high stiffaess is smaller than 0.56-4-(&/)P°. ‘The maximum bending moment in the stiffener at this spacing is obtained after integration ofthe shear forces in the shel:- M = 0.028- py-€-(4i)"S (Nm) (C355) In onder to be effective, the deformation of the stiffener under this ‘moment must be much smaller then wy — this requizement being ‘more important than is strengdh. ‘The deformation of the ving (with spacing =L) is obtained by integration of the bending mornent M. The result is ‘When L=1.58 -R- (R/S Re cot 2b (3.5.6) ETO ICID Madel Gede ~ Gornmentarios and Appendices ‘This must be mack less than Wo, sey 1/5. “Therefore, I must be, say, greater thaa 5 times (0.08 dS - 3), This will engure avalling esses in the shell are reduced to about 20% of those in an unstffened shell. i.e The spacing (L) of stiffening rings should be = 0.56-a-(6/) and the moment of inertia (,) of the stiffening ring Gnelnding arscipating shell (see Mocel Code Fig. 7.4) shouldbe: 1,>03-d4-25 wien L=0.56-4-(aty ~€35N T,>03-d!5-25-1/0,56-4-(ai)° ‘when L< 056-4 (4/9 = (C358) ©3.5.2 Dynamic component of ovatling C.8.5.2.4 - Unstiffened shells ‘The resonance frequency ofthe fundamental (ovalling) vibrations for an unstiffened cylinder is given by: (3.59) Zaung's modulus ofthe shell p = Density of te shell A. = Cross-section area of shell (= ¢m/mn) T = Moment of inertia of shell about its vertical axis By egnie R, dnd t = Radius, diameter and thickness of shell In the case of steek: = 2560-7 = (C35.11) The frequeney of vortex shedding reevaat to ovallng = ‘Therefore lurge scale resonant movemements can occur if st-VId 2560-/#2=2-St-V/d For St 02, therefore, Vor = 6500-t/d (C3512) ‘To ensure that ovalling vibrations do not occur, itis necessary to increase the moment of inertia of the shall 1o give a value of Ver sulficfendly high wo avoid a build up of periodic excitation. Assuming that Ver= 30 m/sis high enough to achieve this, the required value of Li then given by: f= 2-St-Ver/ sss satel casa ber Ya> tn S109 70 E= 210 - 10° Nim’, therefore. T>74-10-6-A-R?=1.8-10-6-d?-t (n4/m height) For an unstiffened shell, this means 8/12> 1.85: 10-6-d2-b = (C35.14) i.e, vd must he > 0,004, otherwite sifening rings will be required 0 avoid the risk of ovalling vibrations. ©.3.5.2.2- Stiffened shells ‘Assuming the top of the chimney is stiffened by a sing satisfying ‘equation (C3.3.8), ovalling vibrations can sill occur at lower levels if the fd ratio is < 0.004. These vibrations are defined by: CCICIND Mociel Code - Commentaries and Appendices + S/S a Set ae Lae aye deformation coordinate along the shell (Le. vertical ¥y = coordinate along the circumference TH Time ‘The solution is approximated by: w= wo" C08 wt-cos yf) -cos(m-x/L) (C3510) Where L = distance between stiffening rings 1W = deformation of unstiffened shell ow =derl £ = frequency Substituting in equation (C3.5.12) gives: (oIL} + QMIE)* + [A RE-L4)} (Gath + RPP Ee T2-p ‘An approximation is: = E/p)"5- (1/ TR + GL) ((a2-RY) ‘Therefore L?= (a /2)*-[[(R/2m-)-E/0y"5} ~R3} “Assuming that Ver> 30m is high enough to avoid oscillstions and 2Vo/R ‘and substiuting E=210109 Nfm2 and px 7850 kan 7 (C3517) ~(C35.18) L<18-Ror9-d on (C3519) From equetiot! (C3.5.14), we have seen that the minimum value of I pet unit height to avoid oscillations is: > 185-10°6-d2-t (on'fm height) Assuming the stiffener to provide the equivalent T of 2 length of shell = 9d, Ir of stiffener Gincluding participating shell — see Model Codie, Fig. 74) ) must be: B>1.75-10°5--t = (C35.20) 03.6 Interference Effects In considering the effect of serodynamic interference by an upstream cylindrical structure on the cross-wind response of a chimney, it is ‘generally accepted that the value of Lift coefficient increases with the localised small-scale turbulence associated with wake buifening!™. In Reference [1], however, Vickery acknowledges in paragraph 5.2 that this daes not explain the full increase in cross-wind response. He tet that: “Across-wind response of the downstream structure is snanced but the mechanism is aot completely clear”. He assumes tbat a second contribution comes from reinforcement of the movement by buffeting at a similar frequency 10 that of vortex shedding by the downwind chimney. Presumably this reinforcement ‘can be expressed by an increase in negative aerodynamic damping. Unfortunately litle research data is yet available to define the way in Which the increase in negative aercdynamic damping is affected by spacing, Scruton Number, or large-scale atmospheric turbulence. ‘Therefore, for spacings ‘beoween chimney and interfering structure less than 10 diameters, the Model Code merely recommends addition of structural demping to increase the chimney's Scruton Number to ‘more than 25, At this point itis unlikely dhst excessive response will beexperienced. Whea research datn is available, more definite design guidance ean be given, page 21 Literature (1) BJ. Vickery — "IWind loads and Design for Chimneys" — CICIND REPORT, Vol. 14, No. 2, 1998 [2] AG. Davenport — “Wind structure and wind climate” — ‘Seminar on Ssfery of Structures, Trondheim, 1977. DB) PE. Rijkoost and J. Wieringa — "Eureme wind-speadr by compound Weibull analysis of expesure-corrected data” Journal of Wind Engineering, no. 13, 1983. [4] AG. Davenport — “Gust loading factors" — Proc. ASCE Fournal Stree. Div, Vol. 93, No, ST'5, June, 1967. [5] BJ. Vickery — "Wind-induced loads on reinforced concrete chimneys” — Nat. Seminar on Tall Reinforced Concrete Chimneys, New Delhi, 1985. (6) S. 0. Hansen — “Vortex Induced Vibrations of Line-Like Structures" — CICIND REPORT, Vol. 15, No. 1, March 1999 (7) Shoei-Sheng Chen — “Flow-induced vibration of circular cylindrical sructures". Hemisphere Publishing Corporation 1987. (8) H.van Koten — “Tie Stress Distribution in Chimneys due (0 Wind Pressure” — CICIND REPORT Vol. 11, No.2, 1995 (9) Hevan Koten — “Structural analysis of shells" — Technics) Univecsity of Delft page 22 GIGIND Mode! Gado ~ Commentaries and Appendices COMMENTARY No. 4 - FATIGUE ‘When we consider the long term history of mavernent of a chimney subject to crass-wind movement in response to vortex excitation, we ‘ust fake into account the following phenomena: (1) Movement is subject to a “start-up” and a “wind-dowa" phase at the beginning and end of each response excursion (see Fig. C4.1) (©) The stress at a point on the chimney tends to vary, reducing a5 the wind direction changes and its speed departs from ite critical value, all due to atmospheric turbulence. The degree of reduction opends upon the level of ruzbulenes. Fig. €4.1 Typical trace of cross-wind oscillations Farther, in inland locations and at relatively high critical windspeeds, atmospiiecic turbeleace is high coough to ensure that the maximum amplitude rarely occurs. This was demonstrated by a series of long term measurements (varying between 93 days and 322 days) of the response of four steel chimneys in Germany — see fg. C4.2. Ikan bbe seen from these histograms that amplitudes exceeding 90% of ‘maximum occurred only rarely, varying from about 10 cycles during. 83 days at Aachen to about 100 cycles daring 264 days at Cologne. ‘The method in the Model Code takes these facts into account and develops a spectram of response, using the Miner Rule to determine fatigue life. The Miner sum is: M= as / Fun Cog 1)" (41) Where cing, % the maximum stress, per section 7.2.4 of the Model Code Gay = the stress causing cracks after n cycles (per Wobler curve) = Sin the case of fatigue in steel A= afimction (ependent upon Ver) defining the shape of the losc/eycle coeciive curve (Fig. C4.3) as follows:- 1 = cing” (1 ~ Clog /logm)]* 4.2) A= (Wer/ 6)! aa) n= Number of load cycles due to cross-wind excitation ‘daring the lifetime T Yep Oma Ve 2.8 ave B= 60 naam Yar 8 n/a Veg 3.5 m/e 322 days 152 days Fig, 04.2 - Histograms of long term response af ‘our ful-scale chimneys a leg 2 Fig. C4. Lead/eyele collectives for various values of \. ‘To determine the number of load cyclas(n), it is frst necessary to Know the number of occasions the wind wall blow at its critical velocity (Vor). This is determined from considerations of the probability of their occurrence — P(Vex): Mee ret P(Ver) = 2, ~ 44) ‘Whore Vo. = wind velocity averaged over one year = approx. Vx(o)/4 Vet) = houly mean velocity at chimney top, with cexceedance probability of once in 50 years, ‘eis assumed that the chimney responds at wind velocities berween 1.1Ver and 0.9Ver, CICIND Model Code ~ Commentaries and Appendices Also a reduction has to be introduced to account for changes in the ‘wind direction, so that the point of maximaom stress is moved away from the point under consideration. The stress at a given point is ‘propertional ta cos%s and the oral effect is roughly: 11120) Fentnag—o5 Asares, ” RESIS OTs E4-2-05-0.1-A-c-# 126-10" T-E-A-e-™ (5) Gee Model Code 85.2) Where A=4- Ver /Vb(t) Resonance frequency page 23 ‘The Joadjeycle collective predictions over 20 yeart, ealeulated by ‘equations (3) & (5) are shown by the doited lines in Fig. C4.2. ‘Because the spectrum was derived from long term measurements on relatively few chimneys, a modelling snfery factor = 14 is {introduced in the exprestion for the Miner Nomber, Literature. (0) W. Langer, H, Ruscheweyh & C. Verwiebe — “Untersuchungen des Querschnitwverhalten von Original Seahlschornste" — Forschungebericht P. 230 [2] H.van Koten— “A Calculation Method for the Cross-Wind Vibrations of Chimneys” — CICIND REPORT Vol. 14, No. 1, Tone 1998 page 24 COMMENTARY No. 5 ~ OPENINGS Openings have to be strengthened to prevent local reduction of: Strength Resistance against — fatigue instabilicy ‘The strength of the cross-section with openings is the same as the strength of an undisturbed section ifthe section modulus is the same, ‘This equality of section moduli is sufficient to fullfll the first condition of strength. ‘The moment of inertia of a circle with an opening subtended by the angle 26 is: T=@X 1/8 X (w—G— sindbeosd ~ (sin"§) /Ca— D1] Derivation formulae for cross section properties of chimneys (both tuneinforced and reinforced) and of chimneys with more than one opening at the same elevation are given in Tuble C5.1 {£6 is small then the valve of Tis close to that of the complete circle (0125 x 1rd? % 0). As B increases, however, the value of I drops rapidly (Gee Fig. 5.1). The same holds for section modulus. To replace the lost material, reinforcing stiffeners re welded vertically {othe chimney on exch side of the opening. Tobe effective, the xoss- section area (A) of each ofthe reinforcing stffners should be atleast equal to A= 1.25 XR x (SnB) ‘Across section with an opening is sensitive to the effects of buckling This is due to the slifiness of the weakened cross-section being reduced by the possibility of the shell bending in or out at the edges bf the opening, To prevent this the reinforcement stiffeners bave to be CCICIND Mods! Gade - Commentaries and Appendices placed normal to the shell (see Figures C52 & C53) and Concentrated along the edge of the opening. However, sudden ending of ofthe reinforcement above and below the ‘opening can cause stzess concentrations. These can treble stresses Tocally and lead to fatigue damage such as local cracks. To rvoid this, in the case of openings with width greater than 40% of the chimney iameter locally, the vertical stiffeners should conneet at each endl ‘with a horizontal siffenar extending around the full cireumference (eee Big. C52). r tr r Re He. #. Fig 05.1 ~ Reduction of inertia at openings ‘When the width of openingis ess than 40% of the chimmey's diameter Iocaly, it is not necessary to provide @ horizontal stiffener extending round the full cireurnferonce and a more local exrangement may be tused (see fig. C5.3). Vertical reinforcement should be continued above and below the opeaing to point where the added stress is unimportant. The code deoms that continuing the reinforcement ‘beyond horizontal stiffeners above and below the opening a distance at least 0.5 times the width of de opening will sufi. A= Dir (a ~ 26) + 40 log = 2t9(n/2-B-sinBcosp) leg / F008 gg = 21 (=/2—-8—sinpcose) + 4artcos?B Zo = les / 160538 loser = 2t (n/2—+ sinBicos8) Zora = karat laser = 25° (w/2—B-+sinBicosp) “+ farPsingB Zag = lool An Du (-p) +20 42 sinp ~ arcosB Ww 8) + @ lop = 1 fw — B= sinB cosh) + 2artcos?p gg = U9 (7 B-sinBoosh Nes * loo Ae ~ Raine 8 Zog = laa! (e+ e088) Zea = lee! (+0088) Zoe = lea! 1-8) Poa = baa! 6-8) loro = t® (-B-sinBcos feo: = 14 (-B-sinpeosB) Zeros * lov 2artsintB 2oen = loedt Fig. C&-1 ~ Derivation formulae for section properties of chimneys with openings (a = reinforcement ares) GIGIND Medel Code ~ Commentaries and Anpandices page 25 co ‘section AA Fig. C8.2 ~ Suggested datall of reinforcement for wide openings 0.40) If the vertical height of the opening is more than twice ils horizontal width, a stbilty check is needed. Guidance on such checks is given {in the chapter on bending of plates under lateral loads in “Plates and shells", by Timoshenko. ‘When the duty of the chimney requizes flue ges inlets whose width exceeds two-thirds of the structural shell’s diameter, a possible solution would be to provide a large number of small circular openings, giving 1 total area equivalent to that required. Reinforcement could then be threaded between the small holes and sround the whole group, a8 required. Fig. €5.3 ~ Suggested deta af reinforcement for narrow openings (¢ 0.40) Even thongh it is reinforced to ensure the section complies with sength requirements, the presence of an opening can reduce locally the stiffness of the chimney ond affect its natural frequencies. This reduced stiffness should therefore be taken into account when deriving the chimney's dynamic response. This is done by taking account of the reduced local stiffaess 2 the opening when calculating "x" for each section in equation 7.16 of the Model Code. page 26 COMMENTARY 6 — CHEMICAL EFFECTS AND INTERNAL CORROSION 6.1. Chemical effects 66.1.1, Attack dus to sulphur oxides "The most commen form of intemal chemical attack is due to acids formed by the condensation of sulphur oxides inthe flue ges. Sulphur 4s found in all solid and liquid fuels to varying degrees and can also ‘be found in gaseous fuels. During the combustion process, nearly all sulphur inthe fuel is oxidised to sulphur dioxide (SO) which can be absorbed by condensing water vapour to form sulphurous acid. A small quantity of sulphur dioxide (SO;) is further converted to sulphur trioxide ($0,). The quantity depends in a complex manner ‘upon the sulphur content of the fuel, the amount of excess air svailable during combustion, temperature in the combustion chamber fand the presence of catalysts such as iron oxides. This small ‘concentration of 50; (usually measured in PPM), gives rise to most of the acid corrosion problems encountered in'chimneys. This is because on condensation, the S03 ions combine with water vapour to form sulphuric acid whose concentration can be as high as 85%. Condensation of these acids takes place when the temperature of the flue gas falls below their respective acid dew point tempernures (ADB), oF when the flue gas comes into contact with a surface, at or below the relovant acid dew point temperature. ‘The acid dew point temperature of sulphuric acid depends upon the ‘concentration Of SQ; in the flue gas (see Fig C6.1). Provided the femperature of the flue gas and the gurfaces with which it can come into contact are maintsined 10°C above the acid dew point estimated fom Fig. C6.1, there is no danger of acid corrosion due to this cause. Aiternatively, suitable acid resisting coatings can be applied to protect the steal, Guidance on suituble coatings and their performance is given in “CICIND Manual for Chimney Protective Coatings”, ‘The acid dew point of sulphurous acid is about 65°C, a litle above the water dew point Ifthe fuel is contaminated, other acids, such a5 hydrochloric and nitric acid can be expected to condense in the same temperature range. Thus, even if fuel and combustion processes are cchosen to minimise production of SO, or if flue gases are scrubbed to remove most of the $0, and SO;, severe corrosion can be expected if the temperatures of-the flue gas or the surfaces with which it can ‘come into contact fall below 65°C, or the acid dew point temperature relevant 19 the reduced 80, concentration, if this is higher. Again, 2 safely margin is recommended of 10°C above the acid dew poi temperature estimated from figure C6.1. C.6.1.2 Effects of Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) Despite the removal of most of the sulphur oxides during FGD, @ severe corrosion risk remains. This is because, downsueam of a scrubber, the de gus is usually very wet and its temperanae is often ‘very low — low enough to be below the (low) value of acid dew poitt temperature (ADP) associated with the reduced sulphur oxide ‘content. Fig. C62 shows the relationship between temperature and acid concentration to be expected and demonstrates that Bue gas condensing at temperatures as low as 80°C can end up as quite concentrated acid. Also the flue gas often contains chlorides, caried over from the scrubbing materials All steels except the very expensive high nickel alloys and titanium ‘vould deteriorate very quickly in this environment. To minimise the expense, methods have been developed to apply very thin sheets of alloy or Stanium (othe inner face of carbon steel or otber vulnerable liners. Some organic coating materials have also been developed for this duty. CICIND Made} Gade ~ Commentaries and Appendices ©6.1.3. Attack due to chlorine, chlorides and fluorides CChiorides are found in most soid fuels, including refuse and in many Tiquid fuel. It is also sometimes found as a pollutant in some FGD processes. Upoa combustion chlorides are transformed into free Chloride fons which, on contact with water vapour are transformed into hydrochloric scid. The highest condensation temperstize at ‘which hydrochloric acid has been found is 60°C. Thus, when any fue surface falls below this acid dew point, very serious corrosion will ‘occur, This daw point is close to the water and sulphurous acid dew point. Even very small amounis of chlorides in combination with ‘other eondensed acids can cause serious corrosion problems. Hydrogen chloride, hydrogen duoride and free chlorine in fle gases also become corrosive in their vapour stage. Stainless steels are attecked at temperatures above 320°C. Fluoride vapours are corrosive to stainless stels at temperature above 250°C. 06.2 Internal Corrosion ‘The internal corrosion ellowanees in table 8.2 of the Mode! Code are ‘based upon limited exposure to condensing sulphuric acid per Fig, 6.1. They are derived ffom the relationship between “Peak ‘corrosion rate” and "S03 concentration” shown in figure C63. This, in tum, was derived fiom the upper bound of a family of curves which show the same relationship observed in practical situations. See lit. (2] and (3). A safety factor of 4 has been used in arving at the easrosion allowances 20 200] 160 2 ‘wixtre of z ‘9e2 and condensate i 120] 5 ea | | — “a Condensate aa Hp SOx Gew % Fig, 6.2 Phase diagram: sulphuric acid - water vapour 6.3 Guideline to choice of liner metallic materials Guidelines oa the suitability of various metals and alloys for the range of chemical risks to be found in chimneys will be given in CICIND's “Metallic Materials Manual” (1o be published in 2001), Literature [1] “Desulphurisarion Systems and their Effect on Operational Conditions in Chimneys”, Henseler, F, CICIND REPORT, Vol. 3, No. 2, 1987 (2) “Influence of fuel oil characteristics and combustion conditions on the gos properties in water mbe boilers" Bunz. G., Diepenberg H, and Rundle A. — Jnl of the Instinwte of Fool Sept 1967 [3] "Prevention of cold end corrosion in industrial boilers". Lech ‘and Landowski — "Comision" — March 1979 ICIND Model Code ~ Commentaries and Appandicas page 27 BEER Sutlur honing, orm = Fig. C8.1 ~ Relationship between ADP and $03 concentration escorain feo ey 55, antan pm opm pao Fig. C6-3 - Relationship between peak internal corrosion rates and SO, concentration page 28 APPENDIX 1 ~ DESIGN OF CHIMNEY BASE PLATES ‘This appendix is intended to give guidance on rationalising baseplate etails. In the following calculations, base plate bearing stress (o*.) ‘nd maximum bolt tension (Py?) are calculated for factored load and overtursing moment. In the case of bases with a compression ring and/or gussets the values of o*, and P,* are calculated using elastic fnalysis as a reinforced concrete ring assuring the modsler rato of Y2NIDI, The area of steel bolts is taken as the thread root cross ‘ection area of the bolts. Ia chimoeys requiring an increase in design tensile sess atthe base on account of clause §.2 of the Model Code, the-value of P,* should be factored accordingly. AL14 Simple baseplates, with no gussets or compression Tens se caression side Tool dad pe Valles Pre lola, i ity * Fig. Ait ~Simple Baseptste On the compression side, the vertical shell force is distributed over @ strip of width (2.5 +t), where ls is chosen to limit the pressure on the grout (oc) to no greater than fy, / 1.5. ‘The maximum baseplate stress (o*)is then given by: oF =3.ahe-(g/h) SRL (ALD) where f = characteristic strength of the bottom plate steel of, = pressure on the grout te 7 thickness of shell fig characteristic compressive strength ofthe grout On the tension side, the values of 4 and f, should be adjusted to give veitical and rotational equilibrium, The active circumferential length Of the baseplate may be taken as 3- fy or the bolt spacing, whichever isthe lesser. ‘The bolt tension (P,*) then = p*-( +1) ‘Where pt is the vertical ensile force in the shell per bolt. ‘Assuming a distribution of baseplate stress over a length of 3-: ~@12) of m2priyt

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