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Strength of

Material
(Formula & Short Notes)
Stress and strain
Stress = Force / Area

L Changeinlength
Tension strain(et )
L Initial length
Brinell Hardness Number (BHN)
P

D
( D D2 d 2 )
2
where, P = Standard load, D = Diameter of steel ball, and d = Diameter of the indent.

Elastic constants:
STRAIN ENERGY

Energy Methods:

(i) Formula to calculate the strain energy due to axial loads ( tension):

U = P / ( 2AE ) dx limit 0 to L

Where, P = Applied tensile load, L = Length of the member , A = Area of the member, and
E = Youngs modulus.

(ii) Formula to calculate the strain energy due to bending:

U = M / ( 2EI ) dx limit 0 to L

Where, M = Bending moment due to applied loads, E = Youngs modulus, and I = Moment of
inertia.

(iii) Formula to calculate the strain energy due to torsion:

U = T / ( 2GJ ) dx limit 0 to L

Where, T = Applied Torsion , G = Shear modulus or Modulus of rigidity, and J = Polar


moment of inertia

(iv) Formula to calculate the strain energy due to pure shear:

U =K V / ( 2GA ) dx limit 0 to L

Where, V= Shear load

G = Shear modulus or Modulus of rigidity

A = Area of cross section.

K = Constant depends upon shape of cross section.

(v) Formula to calculate the strain energy due to pure shear, if shear stress is given:

U = V / ( 2G )

Where, = Shear Stress

G = Shear modulus or Modulus of rigidity

V = Volume of the material.


(vi) Formula to calculate the strain energy , if the moment value is given:

U = M L / (2EI)

Where, M = Bending moment

L = Length of the beam

E = Youngs modulus

I = Moment of inertia

(vii) Formula to calculate the strain energy , if the torsion moment value is given:

U = T L / ( 2GJ )

Where, T = Applied Torsion

L = Length of the beam

G = Shear modulus or Modulus of rigidity

J = Polar moment of inertia

(viii) Formula to calculate the strain energy, if the applied tension load is given:

U = PL / ( 2AE )

Where,

P = Applied tensile load.

L = Length of the member

A = Area of the member

E = Youngs modulus.

(ix) Castiglianos first theorem:

= U/ P

Where, = Deflection, U= Strain Energy stored, and P = Load

(x) Formula for deflection of a fixed beam with point load at centre:

= - wl3 / 192 EI

This defection is times the deflection of a simply supported beam.


(xi) Formula for deflection of a fixed beam with uniformly distributed load:

= - wl4 / 384 EI

This defection is 5 times the deflection of a simply supported beam.

(xii) Formula for deflection of a fixed beam with eccentric point load:

= - wa3b3 / 3 EI l3

Fixed end moments for a fixed beam with the given loading conditions:

Type of loading (A--B) MAB MBA

-wl / 8 wl / 8

-wab2/ l2 wab2/ l2

-wl2 / 12 wl2 / 12

-wa2 (6l2 8la + 3a2)/ -wa2 (4l-3a)/ 12 l2


12 l2

-wl2 / 30 -wl2 / 30

-5 wl2/ 96 -5 wl2/ 96

M/4 M/4
Eulers formula for different end conditions:

1. Both ends fixed:

PE = 2 EI / ( 0.5L)2

2. Both ends hinged :

PE = 2 EI / (L)2

3. One end fixed ,other end hinged:

PE = 2 EI / ( 0.7L)2

4. One end fixed, other end free:

PE = 2 EI / ( 2L)2 where L = Length of the column

Rakines formula:

PR = f C A / (1+ a (l eff / r)2 )

where, PR = Rakines critical load

fC = yield stress

A = cross sectional area

a = Rakines constant

leff = effective length

r = radius of gyration

Eulers formula for maximum stress for a initially bent column:

max = P /A + ( Mmax / Z )= P/ A + P a / ( 1- ( P / PE ))Z

Where, P = axial load

A = cross section area

PE = Eulers load

a = constant

Z = section modulus
Eulers formula for maximum stress for a eccentrically loaded column:

max = P /A+( M max /Z) = P/A + ( P e Sec(leff /2 ) (P/EI) )/((1- (P / PE )) Z )

Where, P = axial load

A = cross section area

PE = Eulers load

e = eccentricity

Z = section modulus

EI = flexural rigidity

General expressions for the maximum bending moment, if the deflection curve
equation is given:

BM = - EI ( d 2y / dx 2 )

Maximum Principal Stress Theory ( Rakines theory):

1 = f y.

where 1 is the maximum Principal Stress, and f y is elastic limit stress.

Maximum Principal Strain Theory ( St. Venants theory):

e1 = fy/ E

In 3D, e 1 = 1/E[ 1 (1/m)( 2 + 3) ] = f y / E [ 1 (1/m)( 2 + 3) ] = f y

In 2D, 3 = 0 e 1 = 1/E[ 1 (1/m)( 2 ) ] = f y / E [ 1 (1/m)( 2 ) ] = f y

Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Trescas theory) :

In 3D, ( 1 - 3) / 2 = f y /2 ( 1 - 3) = f y

In 2D, ( 1 - 2) / 2 = f y /2 1 = f y

Maximum Shear Strain Theory (Von Mises- Hencky theory or Distortion energy
theory):

In 3D, shear strain energy due to distortion:

U = (1/ 12G)[ ( 1 - 2)2 + ( 2 - 3) 2 + ( 3 - 1) 2 ]


Shear strain energy due to simple tension:

U = f y 2 / 6G

(1/ 12G)[ ( 1 - 2)2 + ( 2 - 3) 2 + ( 3 - 1) 2 ] = f y 2 / 6G

[ ( 1 - 2)2 + ( 2 - 3) 2 + ( 3 - 1) 2 ] = 2 f y 2

In 2D, [ ( 1 - 2)2 + ( 2 - 0) 2 + ( 0 - 1) 2 ] = 2 f y 2

Maximum Strain Energy Theory (Beltrami Theory):

In 3D, strain energy due to deformation:

U = (1/ 2E)[ 12 + 22 + 32 -(1/m)( 1 2 + 2 2 + 2 2 )]

Strain energy due to simple tension:

U = f y 2 / 2E

(1/ 2E)[ 12 + 22 + 32 -(2/m)( 1 2 + 2 2 + 2 2 )] = f y 2 / 2E

[ 12 + 22 + 32 -(2/m)( 1 2 + 2 2 + 2 2 )] = f y 2

In 2D, [ 12 + 22 - (2/m)( 1 2 )] = f y 2

Failure theories and its relationship between tension and shear:

1. Maximum Principal Stress Theory ( Rakines theory):


y = fy
2. Maximum Principal Strain Theory( St. Venants theory):
y = 0.8 f y
3. Maximum Shear Stress Theory ( Trescas theory):
y =0.5 f y

4. Maximum Shear Strain Theory ( Von Mises Hencky theory or Distortion energy
theory):

y= 0.577 f y

4. Maximum Strain Energy Theory ( Beltrami Theory):


y= 0.817f y .

Volumetric strain per unit volume:

f y 2 / 2E
Torque, Power, and Torsion of Circular Bars:

Relation between torque, power and speed of a rotating shaft:

Tn
H
63000
Where H is power in Hp, T is torque in lb-in, and n is shaft speed in rpm.

In SI units:

H T
Where H is power in Watts, T is torque in N-m, and is shaft speed in rad/s.

The shear stress in a solid or tubular round shaft under a torque:

The shear stress:

Tr

J
J is the area polar moment of inertia and for a solid (di=0) or hollow section,


J (d o4 d i4 )
32
The angle of rotation of a shaft under torque:

TL

GJ

Axial deflection of a bar due to axial loading

The spring constant is:

EA
K
L

Lateral deflection of a beam under bending load:


48 EI
K
L3
For cantilevered beams of length L:

3EI
K
L3
Torsional stiffness of a solid or tubular bar is:

GJ
Kt
L
The units are pounds per radians.

Load Distribution between parallel members:

If a load (a force or force couple) is applied to two members in parallel, each member takes
a load that is proportional to its stiffness.

Kt2
Kt1 T
K1 K2
The force F is divided between the two members as:

K1 K2
F1 F F2 F
K1 K 2 K1 K 2

The torque T is divided between the two bars as:

Kt 1 Kt 2
T1 T T2 T
K t1 K t 2 K t1 K t 2
Direct shear stress in pins:

F

2A

The clevis is also under tear-out shear stress as shown in the following figure (top view):

F F

Tear-out shear stress is:

F

4A
In this formula A= (Ro-Ri) is approximately and conservatively the area of the dotted
cross-section. Ro and Ri are the outer and inner radii of the clevis hole. Note that there are
4 such areas.

Shear stresses in beams under bending forces:

VQ

IZb

Q A1 y1
A1 Y

b
y1 y1

Torsion of Thin-walled Tubes:


Shear stress:

T

2 At
TSL

4 A 2 Gt
Where S is the perimeter of the midline, L is the length of the beam, and G is shear modulus.

Stress in Thin-Walled Cylinders

The tangential or hoop stress is:

Pdi
t
2t
The axial stress is:

Pdi
a
4t
Stresses in Thick-walled Cylinders

The tangential stress:

P P
Pi ri 2 Po ro2 ri 2 ro2 o 2 i
t r
ro ri
2 2

The radial stress is:

P P
Pi ri 2 Po ro2 ri 2ro2 o 2 i
r r
ro2 ri 2

When the ends are closed, the external pressure is often zero and the axial stress is:
Pi ri 2
a 2 2
ro ri
Stresses in rotating rings

3 2 ri2 ro2 1 3 2
t (2
)(ri ro 2
2
r )
8 r 3

3 2 2 ri2ro2
r ( 2
)(ri ro 2 r 2 )
8 r
where is the mass density and is the Poissons ratio.

Interface pressure as a result of shrink or press fits

The interface pressure for same material cylinders with interface nominal radius of R and
inner and outer radii of ri and ro:

E r (ro2 R2 )( R2 ri2 )
P
R 2R2 (ro2 ri2 )

Impact Forces

For the falling weight:

2hk
Fe 1 1 W
W
2h
Fe 1 1 W
st

IF h=0, the equivalent load is 2W. For a moving body with a velocity of V before impact, the
equivalent force is:

Fe V mk
Failure of columns under compressive load (Buckling)

The critical Euler load for a beam that is long enough is:
2 EI
Pcr C
L2
C is the end-condition number.

The following end-condition numbers should be used for given cases:

When both end are free to pivot use C=1.


When one end is fixed (prevented from rotation and lateral movement) and the
other is free, use C= 1/4 .
When one end is fixed and the other end can pivot, use C=2 when the fixed end is
truly fixed in concrete. If the fixed end is attached to structures that might flex
under load, use C=1.2 (recommended).
When both ends are fixed (prevented from rotation and lateral movement), use C=4.
Again, a value of C=1.2 is recommended when there is any chance for pivoting.

Slenderness ratio:

An alternate but common form of the Euler formula uses the slenderness ratio which is
defined as follows:

L I
Slenderness Ratio where k
k A

Where k is the area radius of gyration of the cross-sections.

Range of validity of the Euler formula

Euler formula is a good predictor of column failure when:

L 2 2 EC

k Sy

If the slenderness ratio is less than the value in the RHS of the formula, then the better
predictor of failure is the Johnson formula:

SyL 1
2

Pcr AS y
2k CE

Determinate Beams

Equations of pure bending:


M E
= =
I R y

Where,

M: Bending Moment [N*m]

: normal stress [N/m2]

E: Modulus of elasticity [N/m2]

R: Radius of Curvature [m]

y: Distance from neutral surface [m]

I: Moment of inertia [m4]


d2y
EI =M
dx2
Indeterminate Beams
Macaulays Method (Singularity functions):

n 1 n+
1
<
x
-
a>=<
d
x x
-
a> x>
a
n
+1
If positive then the brackets (< >) can be replaced by parentheses. Otherwise the
brackets will be equal to ZERO.
n
<
x
-a
>=0 0
<x
<a
n n
<
x
-a
>=(
x-
a) x
>a

Hooke's Law (Linear elasticity):


Hooke's Law stated that within elastic limit, the linear relationship between simple
stress and strain for a bar is expressed by equations.
,
E
P l
E
A l
Where, E = Young's modulus of elasticity
P = Applied load across a cross-sectional area
l = Change in length
l = Original length

Poissons Ratio:

Volumetric Strain:
Changeinvolume V
eV
Initial volume V
Relationship between E, G, K and :
Modulus of rigidity:
E
G
2(1 )
Bulk modulus:
E 9KG
K or E
3(1 2 ) 3K G
3K 2G

6K 2G
Stresses in Thin Cylindrical Shell
Circumferential stress (hoop stress)
pd pd
c c
2t 2t
Where, p = Intensity of internal pressure
d = Diameter of the shell
t = Thickness of shell
= Efficiency of joint
Longitudinal stress
pd pd
l l
4t 4t

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