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    CRO Eei Topic PDF

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    Samuel Bhukya
    CRO description

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    21 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) 2. Introduction, ‘The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a very useful and versatile labora tory instrument used for display, measurement and aralysis of wavefornis and other phenomena in electrical and electronic circuits. CROs are in fact very fast X— Y plotters, displaying an input signal versus another signal or versus time, The “stylus”.of this “plotter” is a luminous spot which moves over the display area in response to an input voltage. ‘The luminous spot is produced by a beam of, electrons striking a fluorescent screen. ‘The extremely low inertia effects associated with a beam of electrons enables such a beam to be used for following the changes in instantaneous values of rapidly varying voltages. The extremely low inertia of electrons as. compared to metallic conductors used in an electromechanical oscilloscope Duddell's oscilloscope described in Art, 7°26 page 184) enable a CRO to be wsedat frequencies much above the highest on which tte Dude’ oscioscpe can be user ‘The norinal form of a CRO uses a horizontal input voltage which js an internally generated ramp voltage called “Time Base”, This horizontal voltage moves the luminous spot_ periodically in a horizontal direction from left to right over the display area or screen, ‘The vertical input to the CRO is the voltage under investigation, The vertical input voltage moves the luminous spot up and down in accordance with the instantaneous value of the voltage. The luminous spot thus traces the waveform of the input voltage with respect to time. When the input voltage repeats itself ata fast rate, the trace (display) on the screen appears stationary on the screen.’ The CRO thus provides a means of visualizing time varying voltages. As such, the CRO has become a universal toot in all kinds of electri- cal and electronic investigations, CROs operate on voltages. However, it is possible to convert current, strain, acceleration, pressure aud other physical quantities iuto voltages with the help of tansducers ‘and thus preseit visual representations of a wide variety of dynamic phenomena on CROs. CROs are also used to investigate waveforms, transient phenomena, and other time varying ‘quantities from a very low frequency range to the radio frequencies. ‘24°2, Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). A cathode ray. oscilloscope consists of a cathode ray tube (CRT), which is the heart of the tube, and some additional circuiny to cperate the CRT, The main parts of a CRT are + (i) Blectron gun assembly, (ii) Dellection plate assembly, (iti) Fluorescent screen, (ie) Glass envelope, -(v) Base, through which connections are made to various parts. ‘The main parts of a CRO are shown in Fig, 71'l. Before going into Exctron gun pguade details of working of various parts of a Pie accelerating \ CRO, a summary of functions of the anode different pazts is given below : Pra, Heater The “Hleetron gon assembly’? = produces a sharply focused beam of elec- trons which are accelerated to high velo> = ‘This focused beam of electrons gaze sttikes the fluorescent screen with’ sufi- : rtzent ci ciont energy to cause a!lminous spot on trode Gaiectin >ypspros, the soreea. t me Arter leaving the electron gun, the Fig. 20, Internal structure of e CRT. 655 656 [BLECTRICAL MPASUR? MENTS AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS electron beamn passes through two pairs of “Electrostatic deflection plates”. Voltages applied to these plates deflect the beam. Voltages applied to one pair of plates move the beam vertically up and down and the voltages applied {o the other pair of plates move the beam horizontally from one side to another. These two movements je, horizontal and verlical are independent of each other and thus the beam may be positioned anywhere on the sereen, ‘The working parts of a CRT are enclosed in an evacuated glass envelope so that the emitted clectrons are able to move about freely from one end of the,tube to the other. 213. Electron Gun, The source of focused and accelerated electron beam is the electron ‘gun. The electron gun, which emits electrons and forms them into a beam, consists of a heater, Cathode, a grid, a pre-accelerating anode, a focusinglanode and an accelerating anode. In smaller CRTs, connections to the various electrodes are brought out through pins io the base of the tube as shown in Fig, 21'1. Larger types and medium sized high performance tubes operate at very high Voltages, and these leads are usually brought out through the sides of ‘he glass envelope. é Electrons are emitted from the indirectly heated cathode. A layer of barium and strontium oxide is deposited on the end of the cathode—which is a eylinder—to obtain high emission of elec- trons at moderate temperatures. “These electrons pass through a small hole in the “control grid” ‘This control grid is usally a nickel cylinder, with a centrally located bole, co-axial with the CRT axis The intensity of electron beam depends upon the number of electrons emitted from the cathode, The grid with j s negative bias controls the number of electrons emitted from the cathode and hence the intensity is controlled by the grid. ‘The electrons, emitted from the cathode and passing through the hole in the control grid are accelerated by the high positive potential which is applied to the “pre-accelerating” and “accelerating anodes”. “The electron beam is focused by the “focusing anode”. The accelerating and focusing anodes are oylindrical in forai, with smalt openings located in the centre of each electrode, coaxial with the tube uals, After leaving the focusing anodes, the electron beam passes through the vertical and hori zontal deflection plates and then’ goes on to the fluorescent screen. There are two methods of focusing an electron beam + (j) Electrostatic focusing and (ii) Electromagnetic focusing. The CRO uses electrostatic method of focusing as compared to a TV picture tube which employes electromagnetic focusing, 244, Electrostatic Focusing. Fig. 21°2 shows an electron at rest placed in an clectric field produced two parallel plates. Force on the electron is > Fa-e€ newton A211) where electric field intensity ; V/m, and e=charge of clectron=1'602X10"C, ‘The minus sign indicates that the force acts in the opposite direction to that of the field. The above discussion is valid only ifthe electron is situated in afield of uniform intensity, In pratice, however, the field is not uniform. The lateral repulsion of the electric field lines causes a spreading of +e cPiate = +8 jt See Rauipotentige Se etindery Fig. 202. Eletri eld between parallel pats, Fig. 21°3, Feld between to covasial eyinders, CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE 687 space between the lines, resulting in curved field lines at the ends, Thus the eld intensity will be less at the ends. Fig. 21°2 also shows equipotential surfaces, indicated by solid lines. Since the force is in a direction opposite the field and the equipotential surfaces are perpendicular to the field, the force on an electron is in a direction normal to the equipotential surfaces. Fig. 21°3 shows two concentric cylinders with a potential applied between them. Lateral repulsion again causes the spreading of the ; flux lines producing a field as shown. ‘The ave equipotential surfaces are shown as solid Tines, It is clear from the diagram that the equipotential surfaces are curved. Let us consider the region on the two sides of an equipotential surface S as shown in Fig, 21°4, ‘The potential on the left side of the surface is —V and on the right side is +V. Let an electron moving in a direction AB enter the area to the left of S. This electron experiences : a force which is normal to the surface Sand Met ie de is thus accelerated. _ Since the foree acts in a direction normal to the surface, it is the normal component of velo- city that is inereased after refraction while the tangential compouent remains the same, ‘The tangential components are : m= sin & and nig=0g sin Oy Refracte ‘beam | Equipotntat lacy Inckdent ‘beam Now aa =vig or vy sin O1=0 sin br toe . 012) where uy = nitial velocity of electrons, 1-velocity of electrons after leaving surface S, Gi-angle offincidonce, and = angle of roftaction, Eqn. 21°2 is identical to the expression relating the refraction of.a light beam in geometrical optics. ‘The refraction of an electron beam follows as the bending of a light beam at a refracting surface such as an optical lens. For this reason the focusing system in a CRT is known as electron leus. Fig. 21°S shows the functional diagram of an electrostatic focusing arrangement. ‘The pre« accelerating anode, which is a metal cylinder containingm any baffles, collimates the electron beam ‘which enters it through a small opening on the left hand side. ‘The pre-accelerating anode is connect- ed to a high positive potential Preacesataing Focusing Accelerating node seve yy Seceen C vottage supply Fig. 215, Electrostatic focusiog arrangement, 658 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS. The focusing anode and the accelerating anodes aré co-axial with the pre accelerating anode, ‘The pre-accelerating and accelerating anodes are connected to the same. potential while the focusing anode is connected to a lower potential. On account of difference of potential between focusing anode and the two accelerating anodes non-uniform field exists on each of the two ends of the focusing anode. The equipotential surfaces, thus, form a “double concave lens”. ‘The electron beams entering the field at angles other than the normal to the equipotential surfaces, will be deflected towards the normal and the beam is thus focused: towards the centre of the tube axis. By changing the voltage of the focusing anode, the refractive index of the electron Jens is changed aud therefore the focal point of the beam can be changed: The change in voltage is brought about by changing the setting of a potentiometer. This control is brought to the front panel of CRO and is marked Focus. 21'S. Electrostatic Defiectiou, Fig. 21°6 shows a general arrangement for electrostatic deflection, There are two parallel plates with a potential applied between, These plates produce a uniform electrostatic field in the ¥ direction. Thus any electron entering the field will experience a force in the Y direction and will be accelerated in that direction, There is no foree either in X direction or Z direction and hence there will be no acceleration of electrons iu these directions. Paravotic portion Betlecting plates: Sereen, 21°6, Blectrostatic deflection. Let Homvoltage of pre-accelerating anode; V, _\e=charge of an electron ; C, me>mass of electron ; kg, . ex =Velocity of electron when entering the field of dbflecting plates ; m/s, Es=potential between defiecting plates ; V, _d=distance between deflecting plates ; m, Ta=length of deflecting plates ; m, L=distance between screen and the centre‘of the deflecting plates ; m, and D=deflection of electron beam on the soreen-in Y direction ; m.. The loss of potential energy (P.E.) when the electron moves from cathode to accelerating anode ; PE,=eks W203) The gun in kinetic energy (KE) by an election K.E.=-Lmnna? 214) (The mass of an electron is m=9'109 x 10-81 kg) Equating the two energies, we have : na=(2.¢ Ealm)bi2 ers) ‘This is the velocity of the electron'in the X direction when it enters the dellecting plates. ‘The velocity in the ¥ direction remains the same throughout the passage of electrons through the deflection vlates as there is no force acting in this direction, The set eld intensity in the ¥ diection y= 4208) 4 CATBRDE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE Force acting on an electron in Y directio 2217) | : oo 18) j {As there is no initial velocity in the Y_ direction the displacement y at any instant ¢ in the ¥ | iretionis 1 L ety eh pad os : | ge pandas ore (219) | As the velocity in X direction is constant, the displacement in X direction is given by = | tot -QV'10) | : | 7 ‘ 2 QP) | Substituting the above value of ¢ in Eqn, 21°9, we have : ie al ey og : “7 22042) "This is the equation of a parabola, : ‘i ee é The slope at any points, y) iss an 26, x QL) Putting x= in Eqn. 21°13, we get the value of tan 0. ey ebala : o fan nat Oi deat sOrls) . ‘After leaving the deflection plates, the electrons travel ina straight line, The straight line of travel of electrons is tangent to the parabola at x=la and this tangent intersects the X-axis at point. 0’. The location of this point is given by : ae ‘The apparent origin is thus at the centre of deflection plates. The deflection Don the screen is given by: Eels $ fi Dek tan = ey 2015) 4“ Substituting the value t= rel in Eqn, 21°15, we get _ Lekals _m__ Libs "md VeBe* 2dBe From Eqn. 21°16 we conclude : (i) For a given accelerating voltage Ee, and for paruiculat dimensions of CRT, the deilection of the electron beam is directly proportional to the deflecting voltage, This means’ that the CRT may be used as a linear indicating device, (ii) The discussion above assumes that Er i is usually a time varying’quattity and the image on the screen thus follows the -variati deflection voltage in a linear manner. (til) The deffection is independent of the efm ratio, Ina cathode ray tube, in addition to the electrons many types of negative ions such as oxygen, carbon, chlorine ete, ate present. . With ! D: fete wl2h16) fiked d.c. voltage. The deflection voltage of the anc 660 BLECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS electrostatic deflection system, because deflection is indepondent of e/m, the ions travel with the electrons and are not concentrated at one point. Hencs cathode ray tube with electrostatic deflection aystem does not fyoduce an ion buru, Deflectiod Sensitivity. The deflection sensitivity of a CRT is defined as the deflection of the screen per unit deflection voltage. 5 : oe DLs : +1 Deflection sensitivity, S=-j>- = 5 72- metre/volt (2117) | ‘The Deflection Factor of a CRT is defined as the reciprocal of sensitivity. | . 1 _ 2dfs , i J+ Deflection factor @= 5 = 717" volimetre (21°18) of accelerating voltage Es, But this has a disadvantage as the luminosity of the spot is decreased with decrease in Ho.On the other hand a high value of Bs, produces a highly accelerated beam and thus juces a bright spot. However, a high accelerating voltage (E.) requires a high deflection potential (E:) for a given deflection. Also highly accelerated beam is more dificult to dellect and is sometimes called ard beam. Typical values of sensitivities are 0°I mm/V to 1°0 mm/V corresponding to deliec- tion factors of 10 V/mm and 1 V/mm, 216, fect of Beam Transit Time and Frequency Liniteious, inthe derivation of | Baa. 21'16, the plate voltage Zz is assumed constant during the motion of the electrons through the deflecting field, If the voltage applied to the vertical deflecting plates changes during the transit | ‘time of the electrons through the horizontal plates, the deflection sensitivity gets decreased. It is clear from Eqn. 21°17, that the sensitivity can be increased by decreasing the value | ‘Transit time y= (P19) ‘The transit time imposes a limitation of the upper frequency limit. An upper limiting frequency is defined as that-frequency at which the: transit time is equal to one quarter of the period of the voltage aiid to vera lates. f (2120) 1. Upper limiting frequency fe zt ‘The frequency range of the oscilloscopes can be increased by subdividing the deflecting plates ina number of sections inthe path of the electron beam, ‘The voltage being measured is applied to the’ vertical plates through an i'erative network, whose propagation time corresponds to the velocity of electrons, thereby the voltage applied to the vertical plates is made to synohronize with =| the velocity of the beam. The use of this technique allows the cathode ray oscilloscope upto | frequencies of 500 MHz and above. { 247. Deflection Plates. Referring to Fig. 20'l, we observe that the electron heat, after leaving the electron gun, passes through two paits of deflection plates. One pair of plates is mounted horizontally and produces an electric field in the vertical plane. This pair produces vertical deflection and is thus called Vertical Deffection Plates or Y Plates. The other pair of | plates is mounted vertically and produces a horizontal deflection. This pair of plates is called | Horircata! Deflection Plates or X Plates. The plates are flared so ato allow the beam to pass, shrouzh ther without striking the plates. eaafor CRTs The soreen materia! on the inner absorbs the kinetic energy of the bombarding Phosphor ; ths form of 9 oright spot soaterials of different characteristics are used. The commonly ased materials are liste So in Table 214. 661 CATHODE RAY osciLLoscorE TABLE 211 CRT Phosphor Materials and Characteristics t Trace Colour | | Phosphor|_ Type Persistance Applications - \Under excitation! After glow sreen medium General purpose CRO. Satisfactory for photographiag. Good for . visual work, P.2 | yellow-green | yellow-green fmebium, short | Observation of low and medium speed nor-recurrent phenomena. Very suitable for slowly varying signals, P.4 | white yellow medium | Used in TV. displays. Observation of low-speed recurrent 2.7 | blue-white | yellow-green | tong or medium speed nonrecurrent pheno- | mena, Pil | blue | bine medium, short} Good for photographic work. Mainly | | used in high speed oscillography. Pt | green green ‘medium, short | General purpose phosphor. Observation of low or medium speed non-recurvent phenomens. I ‘The bombarding electrons, striking the screen, release secondary emission electrons, These secondary electrons are collected by an aqueous solution of graphite, called aquadag which is connected to the secoud anode. Collection of secondary electrons is necessary to keep the screen in a state of electrical equilibrium, 219. CRT Graticule. The graticule is usually rectangular in form and is placed inside the display area to alloy correet measurements. Most CROs have a graticule inseribed on a clear ‘or tinted plastic plate, placed over the outside of the CRT face. 2110. Time Base Generators, Most of the CRO applications involve measurement or display of a quantity which varies with respect to time, This requires that the CRT spot move across the screen from: left to right with a constant velocity. In order that the beam deflect linearly from left to right, ramp voltages are applied to horizontal deflection or X plates, ‘The circuits which develop these ramp voltage are called time base generators or sweep generators, ‘The output of a sweep ‘generator is called w sweep voltage, 1 typical form of a time-base voltage is shown in Fig, 21°7(@). This voltage, starting from al value, increases linearly with time, to a maximum value, ‘after which it again returns I value. ‘Time 7,, is called the sweep’ time while time, 177 is called the retrace time or fiyback time. Fig. 21°7 (5) shows an idealized form of sweest voltage, where the voltage is linear dicing the sweep time and the fy-back time is zero, Time base genrators. do not necessarily provide sweep voltages that are exactly finear, although every attempt is made to obtain reasonable linearity of rise of voltage, ‘A simple sweep generator uses an RC circuit wherein a switch is used to’ charge and discharge some to its 662 SLECIRICAL MEASUREMENTS AND: MEASURING INSTRUMENTS Voltage —oe S (a) o Fig. 207. Sweep voltages. acapacitor. The switeh may bea vacuum tube, a gasifilled tube, a SCR, a transistor or any other somi-conducting device depending upon the application, speed required, and many otber factors, Fig. 21°8 (a) shows a sweep generator using a thyratron, Capacitor C charges exponentially through R, approaching the supply voltage Hw as shown in Fig. 21°8 (). When the plate voltage % ‘Thyratron é Y c voltage es ‘supply ee a *o' £v hil > : Eee (a) th) Fg, 21°8 Sweep generator circuit using thyrairo, reaches a value Zp which corresponds to breakdown voltage corresponding to the critical grid voltage, the thyratron ionizes and conducts beavily. ‘The capacitor discharges rapidly through the tube and resistance Ry till the capacitor voltage drops to a value Js, which is the ionization potential of the thyratron. At this vollage the thyratron stops conducting and presents an infinite resistance and the capacitor starts charging again through resistance R,.“When its voltage reaches Br, it discharges again. ‘This process repeats itself, and the voltage’ cfoss the capacitor is a saw tooth wave. This voltage is fed to the X plates. ve One metivod of linedrization isto use a stall portion of the exponential curve and if necessary, amplify this voltage before applying to the X plates. Better linearity, approaching the waveform given in Fig. 21°7 (6) may be obtained by replacing the resistance R, in circuit of Fig. 21°8 (6), with a pentode valve. 2UIL, Basic CRO Citenits. Fig. 21°9 shows a block diagram of atypical oscilloscope. In he following few pages, we describe the basic circuitry of cathode ray oscilloscope. 1. Vertical (¥) Deflection Systom, The signals to be examined are usually applied to the vertical or Y deflection plates through an input attenuator and a number of amplifier stages. Vertical amplifier is required because the signals are not strong enough to produce measurable deflection on the CRT sereon. ‘The amplifier response must be wide enough to pass faithfully the entire band of frequencies to be measured. When high voltage siguals_are fo be examined, taey must be attenuated to bring them within the rango of vertical amplifiers. The vertical amplifier output isalso applied to the synchronizing amplifier through the synchronizer selector switch in the internat position This permits the horizontal sweep circuit to be triggered by the signal being investigated. ey CATHODE RAY OscILLoscUrs 663 gan) “eat Cee eee ee ee vat? fg ae eas came | | en, Menaentate, 7 xt es fara q Accelerating ataenate | TT = ‘oes ehiing De Suppty spttioee Fig, 21°. Simplifed block diasram of a general purpose oscilloscope. weep voltage that provides a time base. ‘The horizontal plates are supplied through an amplifier, but they can be fed directly when voltages are of suficient magnitude. When external signals are to te appiedto the noizotal defection system, they ean also be fed rough the horizontal ampli, Virihe sweep. selector switch inthe external postion, - When the sweep selector suitch Yo the internal postion, the horizoptal amplifier reoeives an input from the saw tooth sweep generator which is tigpored by the synchronizing amplifier. ‘Types of Sweeps. There are four basic types of sweeps (i) Bree Ranning or Recurrent Sweep, In the free running or recurrent sweep, the sawtooth waveform is repetitive, Anew sweep is started immediately after the previous sweep is terminated and the circuit is not initiated by any external signal, 2. Horisontal (X) Defiection System. The horizontal (X) deffection plates are fed by a (i!) Triggered Sweep. A waveform to be observed on the CRO may not be petiodic but may perhaps occur at irregular intervals, In this case it is desirable that the sweep circuit remain inoperative and the sweep be initiated by the waveform under examination. In some cases the waver form may be periodic, but it may be that the interesting part of the waveform is of a very short duration compared to the period of the waveform, Under such cases a triggered sweep is used. In triggered sweep or single sweep, the spot is swept once across the screen in response to a trigger signal. The tiggered sweep is used for examination of transients. or one time signals and the waveform'is photographed for record, The trigger can bo obtained from the signal under Investigation or by an external source. (aif) Deiven Sweep. In most cases, a driven sweep is used where the sweep is recurrent but triggered by the signal under test: (i) Nes Saw Tooth Sweep. For some applications like comparison of two frequencies or for finding phase shift between two voltages, ‘aon sawtooth sweep voltages. are utilized for the sweep revit, Sweep frequencies vary with the type’ of oscilloscope. A laboratory oscilloscope may have 668 BLECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS AND MEASURING INSIRUMENTS sweep frequencies upto several MHz ; a simple oscilloscope’ for audiowork has an upper limit of 100 kHz, Most TV service require a ‘sweep voltage frequency upto 1 Miz, _ 3. Syochronization. Whatever type of sweep is used, it must be synchronized with the sigoal being measured, Synchronization has to be done to obtain a stationary pattern. This requires that the time base be operated at a submuliiple frequency of the sigaal under measurement (applied to Y plates). If synchronization is not done, the pattern is not stationary, but appears to drift across the sereen in 4 random fashion, Sources of Synchronization, There are three usual sources for synchronization which can be selected by synchronizing selecto (i) Toternal, In this type of synchronization, the trigger is obtained ‘from the signal ‘being measured through the vertical amplifier, (ii) External, In this method, an external trigger source is also used to trigger or initiate the signal being measured. = In this case, the trigger is oblained from the power supply to the CRO (say 230 V, 50 Hz). 4, Blanking Cirenif. The sawtooth sweep voltage applied to the X plates moves the beam across the CRT tube in a straight horizontal line from left to. right during the sweep or trace time Ts. ‘A comparatively stow movement of the spot will appear as a solid line, provided the rate of movement ‘exceeds the threshold of persistence of vision. Below this threshold limit, a m ving spot is perceived, On the other hand, the comparatively rapid movement of spot will appear as a thin and dim line, of may be invisible.” Thus ifthe retrace or flyback time is very small, the spot remains invisible. In an ideal case the flyback tine, 7+ is zero and hence the spot while moving from right to left remains invisible. However in actual practice the flyback time is not zero and therefore the retrace (moving ‘of beam from right to left ie, its starting point) may cause confusion. ‘Thus the retrace should be Gliminated or blanked out. The retrace is blanked out by applying a high negative voltage to the arid during the flyback period 7». The blanking voltage is usually developed (or triggered) by sweep generator, 5. Intensity (Z-Axis) Modulation, Intensity modulation (Z-axis modulation) is done by inserting a signal between the ground and the cathode (or control grid), Z axis modulation iS applied during normally visible portion of the trace. ‘The Z-axis modulation can be used for brightening the display. Periodic positive pulses are applied to te gsi (arnativey aepatve puis ate applied to cathode) to brighten the beam during its sweep period. These periodically brightened spots may be used as markers for time calibration of the main waveform 6. Positioning Controls. It is necessary to provide some means of positioning the trace on the sereen, The positioning of the trace is done by applying Small independent, internal d.c, vol- tages to the deflecting plates and control can be exercised by varying the vollage with help of potentiometers. 7. Focus Control. As mentioned earlier, the focusing electrode acts like a lens whose focal length can be changed, This change can be brought about by changing the potential of the focusing anode. 8. Intensity Control, The intensity of the beam is varied by the Intensity control potentio- meter which changes the grid potential with respect to cathode. The grid potential determines the amount of electrons leaving the cathode and thus cootrols the iotensity of the beam. 9, Calibration Circuit. Laboratory oscilloscopes normally have an internally generated and stabilized voltage of known amplitude which is used for calibration purposes, Usually the calibrating - voltage has a square waveforin. 10. Astigmatism. In most modern oscilloscopes there is an additional focusing control marked Astigmatism, This is used to correct an effect which exactly is anologous to astigmatism in optical lenses. To focus the spot correctly, it is necessary to stop. it near the centre of the screen, by ace CATHCDE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE 665 switching off the time base and adjusting the Y and Y positioning controls. The spot is then sade as sharp as possible by suocessive adjustment of focus and astigraatism controls Tater Yerticar ost : Vertical gain cnt nput_wavetorm Applied to y plates 21010) x 0 paidde Genoa caame ano mes ¥ input Fig, 2010, F ont panel of a general purpose CRO. Fig, 21711, Observation of waveform ov CRO, 2112, Observation of Waveform on CRO. In order to observe waveform on a CRO, the waveform of voltaze under test is applied to Y plates anda voltage obtained from a sawtooth generator is applied to X plates, Let us assume that the sawtooth waveform has an idealized wwaveshape, When simultaneously with the horizontal sawtooth (ramp) voltage, an input voltage is applied to vertical deflection (¥) plates, the beam is under the influence of two forees : (i) one in the horizontal irection moving the beam at a linear rate from left fo right) and second in the vertical direction moving the beam up and down, Since the delection is. proportional to the voltage applied to the Geflection plates, the horizontal movement is proportional to the voltage applied to X plates at any instant and since the ramap voltage is linear it traces a straight tine on the CRT screen, The vertical dellection is proportional to the voltage applied to the ¥ plates at any iastant and thus the beam moves up and dowa according to the magnitude and polarity of the input voltage, Fig. 21°11 shows the waveform displayed on a CRT tube due to an input sinusoidal voltage At the end of one sweep cycle, the sweep voltage abruptly drops down and the spot ig 666 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS AND MGASURING INSTRUMENTS immediately transferred to its original position. The process is then repeated again, with the result, that a stationary image is seen on the screen, For the case shown the frequency of the input voltage is twice that of savitooth (sweep) voltage. To observe more than one cycle of the input voltage, the sweep voltage frequency has to be a submultiple of the-ioput voltage frequency, 213. Measurement of Voltages and Currents, ‘The expression for electrostatic deflection, given in Eqn, 21°16, shows that the deflection is proportional to the deflection-plate voltage. ‘Thus the cathode-ray tube will measure voltage, It is usual to calibrate the tube under the given operating conditions by observing the deflection produced by a known voltage. Direct voltages may be obtained from the static deflection of the spot, alternating voltages from the Jength of the line produced when the vollage is applied to Y plates while no voltage is applied to X’plates, The length of this line corresponds to the peak-to-peak voltage. ‘When dealing with sinusoidal voltages, the rms value is given by dividing the peak-to-peak voltage by 2/2. Laboratory oscillogtaphs frequently incorporate voltage-measurement facilities by including constant-gain amplifiers and calibrated shift controls. ‘The Y-shift control is adjusted so that positive peak of the test voltage coincides with some datum line on the screen ; the shift control is then operated until the negative peak coincides with the datum, The movement of the control is arranged to read directly the peak-to-peak voltage. ‘The value of a current can be obtained by measuring the voltage drop across a knowa resistance connected in the circuit. 20°14. Measurement of Phase and Frequency (Lissajous Patterns). It is interesting to consider the characteristics’ of patterns that appoar on the screen’ of a CRT when sinusoidal voltages are simultaneously applied to horizontal and vertical plates. These patterns ace called ‘Lissajous Patterns’, When two sinusoidal voltages of equal frequency which are in phase with each other are applied to the horizoatal and vertical deflection plates, the pattern appearing on the screen is a straight line as is clear from Fig. 21°12. . geht “

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