OPTIMUM Race Car Engineering Seminar & Consulting Claude ROUELLE Optimum G LLC 8801 East Hampden Avenue Suite 104 Denver CO 80231 USA. Tel : 1 303 752 1562 Fax : 13033680121 engineering@optimumg.com Vehicle Dynamics & Race Car Engineering STU Race Car Performance is not only about maximum lateral acceleration. eT ne Re ee ee eee Itis about maintaining at every position of the track the maximum possible tire grip FO ea eae ed age es Reon ere e nines aeSPEED SECRETS * on ie BRIAN LANGFORD STUTTGART GOALS SEM IMA CONTENT 9 ———S8'"*t§ PRIVER MENTAL TRAINING? \) FINISH EACK OF BUILDING Introduction SEGMENT ON TIME 2 : 2) WANT TO WIN ( neEDS #1) 1. Tire CHANE THE pene) 34 2. Aerodynamics a) HAVE FLAN & IF FLAN 203 NS FAWS 3. Kinematics CHANKE seT UP FoR cae Race 224 . CCKMBER, TIRE PRESSURE, RIDE WeleHt, aes 4. Dynamics and Steady State Weight Transfers 368 5. Dampers, Ride and Transient Weight Transfers 442 6. Data acquisition IMPORTANT 520 Evaluation r) oo 672 MINIMUM, OF = — \S00 Miles asa IME SPENT ON THE CNB. MANUFACTURING IEE NS BEFORE COMP ASSEM BL CHAPTER = yin" ) ESTING AND TD NUsT Uce “Ssh ITT xr ae BE ne TIRES DORNER TRAINING? 1 aaa IPMN 2 PEINER TRAINING toe SENG IND StIAREWhat is | required to master race car vehicle dynamics Understanding the amount of parameters which influence the race car handling and performances Understanding the interconnection of these different parameters * Qualitative interdependence * Qualitative interdependence Understanding the need for accuracy Practice these skills through * Simulation - poE/SP ¢ Data analysis ¢ Lab work — Wind tunnel — Damper Dyno —7 Post rig READGHEET ¢ On track-testing TTMINO 3.Racing in the 2000’s Requires the Knowledge of a lot of Parameters Influencing the Car Performance Example of Set up Choices 3 settings for front anti-roll bar (soft, medium, stiff) 3 settings for rear anti-roll bar (soft, medium, stiff) 9 possibilities STIMU 4(eyecare Sponsor BEST EXACT RACING Pee eS Ren Pie]_pan | Nena = SS SESISS [RT RS] Ge Pio te} seg tsa [ep] 6 [aol ote | veo [pe tz a Sa (ae OECD3 2) 48 Set up possibilities Ride Height /) 41+ Caster Camber Toe Springs Shock Low Speed Bump Shock High Speed Bump Shock Low Speed Rebound Shock High Speed Rebound 10. Shock Piston 11. Shock Pressure 12. Shock Bump Shimming Ko eh? Oooo eh 3 = 13. 14. 15. 16. Ave 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. oe, en Shock Needle Shock Rebound Shimming Roll Center Antidive / Antilift /Antisquat Wings Setting Gurney flaps Tire pressure Antiroll Bar Antiroll Bar Blades Antiroll Bar Blades Position Bump Rubber Brake Master Cylinders 79,766,443,076,872.5 Trillions possibilities. ... SPAIN 6Settings possibilities eT Knowledge is power @ Performance Zone Accuracy Number of parameters influencing the race car performances Qualitative and quantitative parameters interdependence TTI 7Parameters interdependence Damping & Ride Aerodynamics Compliances Mass distribution SFM 8Road Course 4 10 Comers Understanding the need for accuracy Lap time = 1 ‘’40 “ = 100 seconds Car A is 5/10 of a second quicker than Car B which is 0.5 % That means, that A is 5/100 of a second quicker per corner That means, as an average, that A is 25/1000 of a second going in and 25/1000 of a second going out of each corner. Oval 4 Comers Lap time = 24 “ Car A is 0.12 second quicker than Car B which is 0.5 % That means, that A is 3/100 of a second quicker per corner That means, as an average, that A is 15/1000 of a second going in and 15/1000 of a second going out of each corner. Will you see the difference in the car handling and driver input (steering, throttle, brake, clutch gear) if you log at 10 Hz ? TMI 92008 Malaysian F1 Grand Prix |Kirar Raikkonen - [Ferran FOI ae an Gian c Qiee ae: 1|__11__ [Jamo Trulli Toyota ~1:35.205 |_0.00% 2] 23 [Heikki Kovalainen _|McLaren-Mercedes| 1:35.227| _0.022| 0.02% i i : 0.25% 32 [Felipe Massa Ferrari 4:35.347| 0.142] 0.15% (0.25% 4|___22 _|Lewis Hamiton {McLaren Mercede 0.20% 5 10 Mark Webber Red Bull-Renault 0.25% a a a Nick Hee _ [Raber Ka i 2 0.63% © JRed Bull Renault: Renault ISIR-Feran Honda Force tndia-Ferrari | Nislslo|sjolsialslalel= STAIN 10Ten Things to Make a Successful Racing Team Timi 11S FFE! ae E a iT wee ‘s heen fr EVERY SINGE PAPT oF THE c\R ROTATES AROUND INSTANT CENTER Center OPTmUa 12Yaw Rate But No Slip Angle —=xx eo? - ene dont oO yn Nae eee’? ITM 13Slip Angle But No Yaw Rate SPTMING 14Skid Pad SFTIMIN ASSkid Pad Same Yaw Rate But Different Slip Angle LTBUID 16Skid Pad Same Yaw Rate But Different Slip Angle OPTIMA ATGeometry N In steady State V+ 68 A= N* a o-4 N Circle Center TM 18Circle Center Geometry In steady State Tangent to the Trajectory \ of the CG SPTMIND 19Geometry In steady State No Steering No Toe Angle a = Chassis Slip Angle 8 =CG Slip Angle Radius Front Radius Rear Circle Center ETM 20Geometry Insteady State No Steering No Toe Angie Now we can find the Slip Angle of each Tire. Radius ry Radius og Radius pre Radius Circle Center TMM 21Geometry In steady State No Steering With Steering GFL with Steering 7 GFL without Steering Circle Center STIMIND 22Example of a car in steady states Reais @ GySipAnge 7 G] 8 [ss fee Pat eee eae ie (eg) [arr | Sane | ae Sar [ ae | | oe [PARP ama [eas | assetass | gape [5s | 74s [Soars [163] 36a.) 5639 | 788 agQea | Conf = 2005] 400] €00- | a0o| ono, [200 [ a0o: | *em0= | eo [on [200] 4m | 600 | 8o0:| cao) “200. | 400 | eo0: | aco ‘a Qed [> 277 | Sars. [Re75 | a74.[ 1078 [oat [eat [sit [ 70. [ am [08s [255 | 45] 6m | essfoam [ow [437 | ew. | am Rin) | -ai0s"|-zom [sess | 1990 [ices | sum | aor [ance | aaer | age | toot | sa96 | coor | oose | saat | 4ai07 | a9 | nat | tame | e981 Rar) | z500 | 2000 | zaoo: | zoo | anoo | sico | sooo | sooo [sa0v | sooo [ sov00;| tooo f-too00 | sct00 | noo | 15000 15000 | 8000 | tno | 1000 Rim) | 2005 [2010 [2015 | 2020 [2025 [sou [soon | sar2 [sor | soz | tooot | tonos | ot | toate | toazr | senor | 4s008 | sort [tense [18021 VMI 23 CEEB =Cg Slip angle A= Angle between front and Cg Vv. B instantaneous Radius rotation = B= Angle between rear and Cg instantaneous Radius rotation A Front ca bcosB R+(bsin(B )) SITIMEND 24Difference between Measured Lateral Acceleration and Actual Lateral Acceleration 7100 ‘tangential speedOG (km/h 200, Og Sip Ange 476 8 0 [esas] Aes meas = Ace reat OCB) GTM 25Velocity and Lateral Aceeleration In steady State No Steering No Toe Angle Radius, # Radius, # Radius Voo# Ve # Vp A= V*Radius => Ace # Ap # Ag Radius p Circle Center IPTIRIND 26Velocity and Lateral Aceeleration In steady State No Steering No Toe Angle Radiusgg # Radius,, # Radius, # Radius, # Radiuspe Voo # Vev # Ver # Vaw # Var A=VARadius > Age # An # Arn # Am # Ane Radius og Radius ja Circle Center SPTIMIN 27Example of a car in steady states with different yaw angles i 2) 2785 | 800. | 800, 20 Bo 655: 85S 2515) a eae: |= sar 1898 i asa 0000; | 10000 700: | sts | 0.015000. 1006 | 10021 rss | Wsont | 15016 | 18021 21a [a0 Ar | -4t08y| va Tor | 418 6 | a6 ant [ait | attis| at Aa tae [ras | tar [oro iss [tore te [ee | to ae) are a ae | aes 413 ane [ane | it SIMINO 28 UaeExample of a car in steady states with different yaw angles Tas Reais i Fy a Tangeid spent enh) taped oot fen) @ Pe 10 Oy Sip Ange Sphnge 2] 4 [6] 0 |rsvesloamar eta oO So Rae | to ae waa erate) ssi [ asst] 7 200- | 400--| 800) 800 =) 0002 | 200 400 200] 5400] 8800" | 600 4mm | 661, | 80. | 1059, 105. | 305. | ost ro 25 [45 | 68] 85 aor | 1985 | 1990 | 1980] e008] Oe | saat ea | oor) ono] saan | ease, | are [enor]. mass | ea90 | taan7| a7 000-| 2000 | 2000; ] 200°] S000, | “S000. aml ‘000, [10000 | toa00 | 1000 | 19000 | 1oae | 15000] 15000 | sano | ts000,] e000 me pas | ae [on | som | mos | on oan [in [10006 [senso | wooss | sone [maar | nos | Soro | 1 | ore Tea] Tate | ta] Tae | toe | Tar [tre | 1970 tar | aur [ars | ams [aut | amo | att) amo | aioe] sor | ate Tab] ta | 1a | tate | 18] 1573] 15s | ta [1 | 190 (ame (ame | ae | se [one] ain] aim) ait) ann ant Taio] 1a | tas | toe] ter | as | 155 | 16 | ioe | toe | ame | ae | ae | om | tee [ain | ane [aie | an | ante SPTIMIND 29Rear Tire Forces Decomposition 1 G, fe . Slip Angle Axis 1 Vehicule Axis 7 1 No Toe, nale ») 1 oy 1 — 1 t eo), Cornering Force Lateral Force IPTMIND 30Rear Tire Forces Decomposition 2 a, : Vehicle Longitudinal Axis With Toe Ani -) oS _ mm! Slip Angle Axis \ Rear Tire Vehicle Lateral Axis ' 1 ' t 1 1 ' 1 1 SPEMIND 31With Steering Angle ae Front Tire Forces Decomposition 1 1 Longitudinal 4 Vehicule Axis t Lateral Force Cornering Force IPTIMIND 32Front Tire Forces Decomposition 1 Oo Y Slip Angle Axis, Ss With Steering Angle . 1 Vehicle Longitudinal Axis ' ' \ t ' ' Lateral Force Vehicle SPTIMIND 331. Tire Forces Acting on the Tire Friction Coefficients Vertical, Lateral. Longitudinal and Torsion Tire Deformations Slip Ratio and Longitudinal Tire Force Longitudinal and Lateral grip VS Vertical Load Rolling Radius Vertical Tire Deflection and Camber Slip Angle Lateral Grip, Self Alignment Moment, Vertical Load and Slip Angle Measure of Tire Forces on Laboratory and in Real Conditions Camber Toe Ackermann Steering Geometry Influences on Front inside Slip Angle Same Lateral Grip at different Slip Angles Tire Pressure Management IPMN 34xe Vertical Aero Banking Weight 4 % it “inline G Traction Force Lat G \' (and rolling resistance) of ongitudinal Aero Transversal AeroFriction Coefficients Definition Different Friction Coefficient along Lateral and Longitudinal Axis dD Tire Rear Front Vertical Load Fz 1.5 1.2 1.3 Maxi Transversal Resultant Force Fy i: Maxi Longitudinal Resultant Force Fx CAMBER. Fx = [Ux * Fz TRE coNstRUCTION Fy = Uy * Fz SPMD 36The tire coefficient of friction The average of the 4 tires’ coefficient of friction equals the car's lateral acceleration measured in g. Eg. Imagine a 10 KN car, cornering at 2 g as measured by the car's lateral accelerometer: oo. ood La] 2g=20kN —) Q I weight = 10 KN _ 20kN | Weight = 10 kN 10kN 2g=20KkN DPTMIAD 37Tire)deformations / Load 4 SPRINAS Vertical Load Lateral Grip Traction Force Torsion Torque Vertical Deflection of tire during corner CMD 33 CaVertical Deformation Vertical deformation due to vertical load Vertical Load IPTMIND 39Static Tire Contact Patch Measurement Example 1 : Tire with significant camber FU) PRESSURE SENS ITIYVE PAPER. SPAIN 40Static Tire Contact Patch Measurement Example 2 : Tire with low pressure MND 41Vertical Tire Stiffness and Deformation with Camber ‘——} Camber Angle Vertical Load Vertical Load Tra 42Vertical Tire Stiffness and Deformation with Camber Stiffness N/mm O degrees -2 degrees -3 degrees -4 degrees Front Tire, 0 Kph, Plane Surface 1.50 bar 1.80 bar 1.95 bar Rear Tire, 0 Kph, Plane Surface , 250/ 570/13 1.50 bar 1.80 bar 1.95 bar Front Tire, Knurled Steel Wheel (5.5% meter circumference), 1.5 bar, 180 / 550 / 13 0 Kph 20 Kph 60 Kph 100 Kph 140 Kph Stiffness increases with pressure, increases with speed (damper effect) and decreases with camber. PTIMIND 43Lateral Deformation Vertical deformation due to lateral deformation Lateral deformation S 0) 2 ; ee Meattad) N Lateral Grip OPTIMUM 44Longitudinal Deformation SPMD 45“Torsional” Deformation Tire Speed Wheel Speed Lateral Grip JFTIMING 46Tire Stiffness Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) t Vertical Stiffness Longitudinal Stiffness Lateral Stiffness 5000} ~~~ ? 5000) 5000] 1 ~222Nimm fs 400 N/mm ~ 192 N/mm 4000] 1 4009 4000) 000] ‘3009 i 3000, i ooo} i 2000) ! 2000) i }1009] ; 1000, i 1000} i Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm) T Ls > T T ee > T : of 4 a 4 2g 49 29 TM 47 CeeInfluence of Tire Deformation Outside M=F.-R=F,-weR M uw = F, : You : Ruut zout My = Fin Win Rin M 1. Because of weiaht transfer F, out is bigger than i in Moy are different : 2. Because of tire lateral and vertical stiffness, the rolling radius Ry is bigger than Rj, 3. UoutsMin are different DPTMIND 48Influence of vertical, lateral and longitudinal tire springs on a car I Even without the suspension taken into account, we understand that each tire’s vertical, lateral, longitudinal and torsional flexibility and dampening will influence the car response due to road roughness and forces acting on the car Cc! For example, the lateral rigidity and the dampening of all four tires will influence + the car frequency in yaw. + the tire response time to steering wheel input + the car's lateral stiffness aTiMIa@ 49Loaded radius Don’t make the mistake between rolling radius and loaded radius !! R: rolling radius r: loaded radius SFiMIN 50Rolling Radius Rolling _ Circ. Rolling _ radius = 2xn Unloaded Radius Unloaded Rolling Circumference Loaded Radius Loaded Rolling CircumferenceContact path surface S (mm?) 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 Vertical Load Effect on Contact Path Surface —_—_——————— ]} —— > | I | 1 I 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 F, (N) SFTMINO 52Vertical Load Effect on Contact Path Surface Contact patch area surface (mm?) 7500 15000 20000 23000 25000 With weight transfer we lose more from the inside, than gain from the outside. For example without weight transfer the total contact patch area is 40000 mm?, with a weight transfer of 2000 N, the total contact patch area becomes 32500 mm? TMA 53= - = Slip Angle _ —_< ge Steering Angle Aligning Torque. Slip Angle een of Lateral “Grip” (NOT IN MUGDUE Real Direction As the Slip Angle increases, we have in the contact patch area : 1, Lateral tire deformation No DeEFORMATIO 2. Torsion around a vertical axis NO GRIP 7 3. Modification of the contact patch shape Eee » a 4. Modification of the contact patch lateral forces distribution > ge SPTIMIND 54Calculating Slip Angle Inline speed Slip angle Real speed Example If Inline speed = 100 km/h And Lateral speed = 10 km/h Lateral speed Slip angle = arc tan (10/100) =5.71° LPTMIND 55Measure of Slip Angle with Optical Sensors FT/MIN 56Measure of Slip Angle with Optical Sensors ‘a GTM 57What’s a Slip Angle Sensor? “A two-axis optical sensor which provides highly accurate measurement of vehicle speed, distance and angle parameters.” STIMIAD 58Example of Slip Angle sensor installation on a Car Front (in nose) TMI 59What's a Slip Angle Sensor? The CORREVIT ® SL Sensor is specially developed for the measurement of tire slip angle. The low weight and compact design of the sensor give negligible affect on tire slip angle, providing more accurate results. + Developed for measurement of tire slip angle at speeds up to 400 kph. + Extremely high measuring accuracy — better than 0.1% (or better than 0.1° angle resolution). + Any required measurement quantity available. + Easy operation, mounting angle correction and direct connection to PC or other evaluation systems. - Tested and used under extreme weather conditions. + Negligible service and maintenance requirements as a result of durable technology. + Ultra light weight — 1.15 Ib (~520 g) * Non-Contact 2-Axis Optical Sensor FFIMINA 60What things can | Calculate From a Slip Angle Sensor? + Slip angle of the front and rear of the vehicle. + Slip angle of all wheels. + Location of the yaw axis. + Yaw rate. + Balance of the vehicle (understeer / oversteer). + Real turn radius. When used in conjunction with other common vehicle sensors, slip angle sensors also allow you calculate: + Longitudinal slip ratio. + Tire model. - Response of the vehicle to inputs (steering, throttle, brake, gear change, etc.). + Driving style and response. SFTIMIND 61How do | Find the Slip angles of Four Tires, Given only Two Slip Angle Sensors? Dual (X,Y) Optical Sensors (A ot SPTIMIND 62.Firstly, find the instant centre (IC) of the motion of the car. This is done by finding the intersection of the lines perpendicular to the velocity vector of each slip angle sensor. Velocity Dual (X;Y) Dual (X;Y) Optical Optical Sensor sensor SJ ATMO 63Dual (X;Y) Optical Sensor ic—P Rear Inside Slip Angle From the IC, trace lines back to each contact patch and create the perpendicular velocity vectors at each wheel. The slip angle is thus defined as the angle between where the wheel is pointed and the velocity vector at the contact patch. Front Inside Slip Angle Velocity Rear Outside Slip Angle Dual (X;Y) Optical sensor rorit Outside Slip Angle FPTIMIND 64The steer angle can be seen here (the tire slip angles are different from the front axle) Data Analysis: Tire Slip Angles pote UEes GOINR ee Tee N_ HA be oN TIRES , NONE The slip angle offset, or static toe angle. Front Slip Angles () Time (s) The slip angle offset, or static toe angle. The rear has no steering (the tire slip angles follow the rear axle slip angle)Example of Slip Angle sensor curves In some corners the slip angle sensors curves (attitude angle) goes to the same side and in some corners the curves goes to opposite side er se23 7 a £7 Front Attitude Angle ma ae Tum 3 _ um al 3 Tum1 Turn oT i a4 4 Rear Attitude Angle AeIn) TVNS = ve, PONT ‘om jum 3| 30 0:35 0:30 0:35, ITIMIND 66Example of Slip Angle sensors curves obtained Explanation: If in front wheels, the slip angle is bigger than the steering angle, then the front slip angle sensor shows side speed direction (attitude angle) towards the outside of the corner. In high speed corners In low speed corners Steering angle < Slip angle Steering angle > Slip angle Front Inside Slip Angle Front Inside Slip Angle Steering Angle Steering Angle Steering Angle Front Outside Slip Angle TPTMIRG 67 ‘Steering AngleExample of Slip Angle sensors curves obtained Instant center position in high and slow speed corners In high speed corners In low speed corners TT:Second incomplete and inaccurate definition of a steady state neutral car in cornering a Equal Slip Angles Po? : Two Wheel! Model Geometric Ic Center ee a-slip angle j 1 \ y —steering angle ~-l f - attitude angle SFTIMIND 69Second incomplete and inaccurate definition of a steady state neutral car in cornering 7 Equal Slip Angles Four Wheel Model Geometric I Center For simplification we assume, that car has perfect Ackerman and there is a geometric center. ee peal a—-slip angle A \ y -steering angle i : a B - attitude angle ieee “Ner\ Yer —— tee p No toe at rear and front steering angle ab eae = includes toe e SFTIMIND 70Neutral A =o a fn iP ( WWE iNUndersteerOversteer yy OF eee \\ ANLateral Force Vs Slip Angle 1500 +000 +500 Linear (or Elastic) Lateral Force (Fy) Vs. Slip Angle ~=0 Rim 10” * 13 “ 1.51 bar I>) Camber 0 deg Vertical load 3000 N Given tire, given ground Transitional] Frictional FrictionalSame Lateral Force for different Slip Angle Lateral Force (Fy) 5500. +5000. Lateral Force (Fy) Vs. Slip Angle Same lateral grip 4600 N 4500 4000. 3500. 1500 1.7 deg. slip angle 7.1 deg. slip angle ee ee Slip Angle Jd TIT Tm om 1) eeTateral Force (Fy) VS. Slip Angle 000 000 = 2500 B ssw = F,(N)-d,(m)/25F,-d,-+tana /2 5 as Tire A Tire B Less feeling More feeling _ Less energy ioss More energy loss ™ Quicker reaction Slower reaction o os 1 45 @ 2 3 35 4 45 5 85 6 65 7 75 6 65 9 05 W WS wi tS We wes Slip Angle SPINA 76Measure of Tire Forces and Slip Angle in Laboratory SPMD TTMeasure of Tire Forces and Slip Angle in Laboratory CTMeasure of Tire Forces and Slip Angle in Laboratory SPT/MIND 79_ Measure of Tire Forces and Slip Angle in Laboratory — STIMU 80Measure of Tire Forces and Slip Angle in Laboratory SFTIMING 81~ Measure of Tire Forces and Slip Angle in Laboratory SFIMINO 82Lateral Force Vs Slip Angle The shape of curve of Fy/a is dependent of: 1. Rim . Tire pressure . Camber . Toe — initial slip angle . Vertical load . Speed . Tire construction and compound ONDA PF OND . Ground surface structure 9. Ambient and track temperature. 10. Tire temperature (Surface and gas) 11. Slip ratio OFTIMIND 83Lateral Force Vs Slip Angle for different Normal Load 9000 OUTS\De ee Rim 8.25j19 8000 32 psi Camber 0 deg Given tire _ Given ground Given speed = 6000 < > 6000 N 8 5000 |—2— 4500 N/ 2 —*— 3000 N B 4000 [=*— 1500 N 2 2.0 msipe TRE — 3000 3 s—1 2000 IN FLUENCES ACKERMAN \ 1000 e GPM IN ~ 84,Lateral Force Vs Slip Angle for a Very Different Type of Tire 9000 8000 = Rim 8.25)19 32 psi ™ Camber 0 deg Given tire ae Given ground z 8 so00 -s— 6000 N 2 > 4500 N 4000 —— 3000 N & —*— 1500 N 3 — 3000 2000 1000 3 4 5 Slip Angle (°) SPTIMINO 8SCamber Definition Camber Angle o. : lec! la>o! L I ree eee | j — 7 i a —, 7~ — | ia LN 1 Loaded Radius R Camber Thrust 4 Camber Thrust / When the top of the wheel is oriented toward the inner side of the car, the camber is defined as < 0. TTD 86The Effect of Camber on the Friction Ellipse For a given vertical In case of negative camber, for the load and slip angle, same vertical load and slip angle no camber. Camber generates a shifted ellipse, allowing more lateral grip (camber thrust) one way, less the other way. OPTIMIND 87Effect of Camber on Contact Path Area t 2000 N 2000 N 3500 N 500N id | Increase in vertical load increases lateral grip on outside wheel. Positive camber decreases it. At given Slip Angle Decrease in vertical load decreases lateral grip on inside wheel. Negative camber decreases it. SFTIMIND 88Effect of Camber on Contact Path Area 4000 N 2000 N 2000 N 3500 N 500N aso 3% Increase in vertical load increases lateral grip on outside wheel. : : Less Positive camber (or more negative camber) increases it even more. At given Slip Angle Decrease in vertical load decreases lateral grip on inside wheel. More negative camber decreases it even more. SPTIMIND 89Effect of Negative Camber on Outside and Inside Tire Total Grip Negative Effect of Negative Camber on Inside Wheels Camber Thrust neuen Lateral Grip due to Slip Angle Grip due to Slip Angle = Camber Thrust No Grip at all on these tires SPTMIN 90Lateral Force Vs Slip Angle The shape of curve of Fy/a. is dependent of: 1. Rim 2. Tire pressure 3. Camber 4. Toe — initial slip angle 5. Vertical load 6. Speed 7. Tire construction and compound 8. Ground surface structure 9. Ambient and track temperature. 10. Tire temperature (Surface and gas) 11. Slip ratio SPMD OVLateral Force Vs Slip Angle for different Normal Load 9000 Rim 8.25j19 8000 32 psi Camber 0 deg Given tire ~ Given ground Given speed — 6000 — € —s— 6000 N 8 5000 —*— 4500 N © —— 3000 N 'B 4000 (7+ 1500 N 2 S — 3000 2000 1000 FTA 92Lateral Force Vs Slip Angle for a Very Different Type of Tire 9000 8000 | a Rim 8.25j19 32 psi Camber 0 deg Given tire 7000 — 6000 Given ground cS = o 8 5000 —3— 6000 N & > 4500 N % 4000 —— 3000 N oO —*— 1500 N 2 3 — 3000 2000 1000 3 4 5 Slip Angle (°) IPTIMIA 93Camber Definition Camber Angle a : la Lateral Grip due to Slip Angle Grip due to Slip Angle = Camber Thrust No Grip at all on these tires FFTIMIND 98Increase of the Lateral Force Vs Slip Angle during a corner entrance Without Camber 2000. 7500. 500. 6000. 1500. 5000. |= 4500. 8 000. Fa 3500 5 2000 Tateral Force (Fy) Vs. Slip Angle Outside Wheel 5.5 KN Initial Load 4.0 KN Inside Wheel 2.5 kN Entrance of the corner ae 88s ee we BR OOS, Ps Slip Angle SFTMIMD 99Increase of the Lateral Force Vs Slip Angle during a corner entrance Outside Wheel with Camber Tateral Force (Fy) V5. Slip Angle 9500. 000. Outside Wheel 5.5 KN 2500. Initial Load 4.0 kN Slip Angle TT aIncrease of the Lateral Force Vs Slip Angle during a corner entrance Inside Wheel with Negative Camber Lateral Force (Fy) Vs. Slip Angle Initial Load 4.0 kN 5000 Lateral Force (Fy) Inside Wheel 2.5 kN os 6 65S 5 Slip AngleIncrease of the Lateral Force Vs Slip Angle during a corner entrance Inside and Outside Wheel with Negative Camber Lateral Force (Fy) VS. Slip Angle Outside Wheel 5.5 kN Initial Load 4.0 KN Initial Load 4.0 KN Tateral Force (Fy) Inside Wheel 2.5 kN Entrance of the corner SPTMIMD \02Decrease of the Lateral Force Vs Slip Angle during a corner exit Without Camber Lateral Force (Fy) Vs. Slip Angle 7500 Outside Wheel 5.5 kN 7000 ee Initial Load 4.0 KN 6000. Inside Wheel 2.5 kN Lateral Force (Fy) Exit of the corner 05 4. 48 @ a8 9 95 4 45 5 5 6 65 7 75 ‘Slip Angle SPTIMIMD 103Decrease of the Lateral Force Vs Slip Angle during © a corner exit With Camber Tateral Force (Fy) Vs. Slip Angle Outside Wheel 5.5 kI Initial Load 4.0 KN Initial Load 4.0 kN Lateral Force (Fy) Inside Wheel 2.5 kN @1100O 104 UECamber per corner Turn 2 1.3 1d. 120 km/h oer Imagine the right front tire temperature distribution in turn 1 and in turn 2 was as follows: Tum 1 i Center | Outside 1.7g and 210 km/h 100 C 130. C 105C | 100C Clearly it is necessary to get more negative camber in turn 1 but less negative camber for turn 2 How do we solve the problem? 1. As the lateral acceleration values are not the same for each corner, the amount of body roll is also going to be different. 2. Also the speed is different. It means that downforce and ride height are different. Therefore the solution is choosing a new suspension configuration so that the camber increment in roll and ride height is adjusted to what you need. Then do the necessary static camber adjustment for getting the balance. SPTIMIND 105How to use tire data to find the ideal camber variation in heave and roll Your tire data will decide H how to make a compromise between camber variation in heave and roll. Longitudinal Lateral Camber (°) GPHMINO 06Toe-Out A By Toe-Out : Tire direction toward the outside. Toe-In : Tire direction toward the inside. Create artificial slip angle and lateral grip ! : TPTiMUa@ 107Toe Consequences on Friction Ellipse: Example of Toe In For a given vertical load, In the case of toe-in, for no slip angle, no toe. the same vertical load. Toe generates slip angle so ellipse is created, allowing more lateral grip and creates tire rolling drag. SFi/Ming@ \08 GaceEffect of Toe-in and Toe-out on Tire Total Grip [===> Thrust due to Toe [=> Resultant Grip Negative effect of toe-in on inside wheels Negative effect of toe-out on outside wheels Toe-in | decreases grip on this tire TTT 1093.1° Using asymmetric toe 2 mm toe in on each rear wheel co /}} ¢ Nee to decrease rear right slip angle ’ > in order to get more grip 3.3° 3.3° 2PTMINB 110Using asymmetric toe - 1mm toe in on rear right wheel ZI ont 3° \ 7 oN By decreasing toe in, you i decrease slip angle and 3° increase grip on this wheel. 3.3° 3.3° SFTMIND WAToe in advantages and drawbacks in the corner: outside rear wheel At the entry and at the exit of the corner, the slip angle doesn’t exceed the optimum value. However, at mid corner, the slip angle value could be too high and the tire will loose grip. It could be necessary to decrease toe in on the outside wheel in order to get more grip at mid corner. SPH MIND 112Measure of Toe and 2 Track If (A-B) > 0, then Toe-in Conditions : If (A-B) < 0, then Toe- Reference out ride height Verification about half track value : C = (A+B) /2, verify (L— C) right = (L — C) left Camber angle o and rim width Wr known : L Radius R L SFTIMING 113Slip Ratio Definition Sr is ‘Slip Ratio’ : The contact patch longitudinal speed and the vehicle longitudinal speed could be different. 2 essential reasons: - Wheel spin ACCELERATION / BRAKING - Movement of the contact patch Vs the rim LTMIND 114Slip Ratio Definition Sr is ‘Slip Ratio’ : mere S = 40 km/h $= 40 km/h \ ~Gjee | < - aI @R=44km/h_ Tractive Force @R=36 km/h Braking Force Sr = (44 - 40) /40=10 % Sr = (40 - 36) /40 =-10 % IPTMIND WASAnother Slip Ratio Definition Distance traveled by the external surface of the tire Distance traveled by the wheel center. SATIN 116Longitudinal Force (Fx) Tire Longitudinal Friction Coefficient Variation Longitudinal Force (Fx) Vs. Slip Ratio Fx (N) n (Slip ratio, Rubber, Temperature, Pressure, Ground, Tractive Force Braking Force Slip Ratio (%) Rolling Resistance TTI WATa / —~_Fz = 8000 N Seat! Fz = 6000 N Slip Ratio (%) LPM 118Pacejka formula Fy : Frictional ! Adhesion and Sliding Linear i Ce (elastic) Sliding D Adhesion i i ~e— Slope in Ib /slip angle deg. : : = comering stiffness Slip Angle a ; © > TMM 119y Pacejka formula y S| X = Input variable for « (or « ) ao Y = Output variable for F y (or F x) Y(X) =y(x)+Sv x =X+Sh Arc tan(BCD) Ya x xX > Y=D sin (C arctan (Bx - E (Bx - arctanBx ) ) ) B = Stiffness factor C = Shape factor. Must be bigger than 1 otherwise the curve never reach its maximum. D = Peak value E = Curvature factor always smaller than 1 S n= Horizontal Shift Takes care of the initial steer, toe Bx,, — tan| S v= Vertical Shift E C= sul arcsin 2+ 2 - 2C Bx, ~ arctan(Br, ) I? 7/000 120Pacejka formula: Lateral model + Lateral model: ee Oe F, (A, F,, y) =D x sin(C x Arctan(B x phi)) + SV Phi = (1-E) x (Delta + SH) + E/B x Arctan(B x (Delta + SH)) D=(a1xF,+a2)xF, BCD = (a3 x sin(2 x Arctan(F,/a4)) x (1-a5 x |y|) B= BCD((C x D) C=a0 E=a6xF,+a7 SH = a8 x y+ a9 x F,+.a10 SV=(a112x F, +a111) x Fzxy+a12xFz+a13 Michelin’s extension: the parameter a1 12 is introduced. * Coefficient: a0, a1, a2, a3, a4, a5, a6, a7, a8, a9, a10, a111, a12, a112, a13 JFTMIND 121Pacejka formula: Lateral model Example of coefficients Dimensionless a, =0 Dimensionless ‘MN aq = -6.111/1000 Degree/KN ‘Kil i ° aq = -3.224/100 Degree KN a4, = 0 1/MN-Degree 1/degree 442 =0 1/KiloDegree KN a= 0 1/Kilo Dimensionless ayy = 0 N STIMIND 122Pacejka formula + Longitudinal model: Formula F, (G%, A, F,) + Transversal model: Formula F, (G%, A, F,, y) * Notation: E,; Longitudinal force Ey Lateral force E,: Vertical load G%: Longitudinal slip A: Side-slip y: Camber SPTIMIMD 123Pacejka formula: Longitudinal model + Longitudinal model: F, (G%, F,) = D x sin(C x Arctan(B x phi)) + SV Phi = (1-E) x (G% - SH) + E/B x Arctan(B x (G% + SH)) D = (b1 x F, + b2) x F, BCD = (b3 x F, + b4) x F, x exp(- b5 x F,) B =BCDKC x D) C=b0 E=b6 xF,?+ b7 x F, + b8 SH = b9 x Fz + b10 SV =b11 x Fz+b12 SV = 0 (if pure braking or pure driving) Michelin’s extension: a vertical shift SV is introduced. * Coefficient: b0, b1, b2, b3, b4, b5, b6, b7,b8, b9,b10, b11, b12 TM 124 CoadLeft Front Right Front wo = -- 250kg Ny --- 150kg Fz= Fz= 150kg 250kg Lateral Force (kN) Lateral Force (kN) o nN 4 6 8 Slip Angle (deg) 1.0G = 10kN b=0.8m Left Rear Fy= = 3.2kN z 275kg z 8 Fz= Fz= 8 8 275kg 325kg 8 B Myaw = (F¥ie + F¥ae)@ B § =Fiint Yeo § a = (1600 + 2400)1.2 5 oi G6 a. — (2800 + 3200)0.8 0 2 4 ¢ ‘Slip Angle (deg) =0 Slip Angle (deg) TIMID 125Tire and Contact Patch Deformations under Lateral Load !Slip angle ty Lateral 1 ® grip Tire height Fixed camber 0 deg Fixed vertical load LPHMIMD 126Consequences of the Tire and Contact Patch Area Deformations Variations of tire trail due to tire elasticity impose variation of aligning torque Longitudinal Tire Trail Lateral Tire Trail TPTMIMD 127Consequences of the Tire and Contact Patch Area Deformations on Aligning Torque and Lateral Grip Aligning Torque (Nm) 500 7 400 + 300 + 200 100 4 123 45678 Slip Angle (deg) Lateral Force (N) ry 5000 + When the front tire aligning torque 4000 4 decrease, it sends to the driver, via the steering wheel, an information that he got over the self aligning torque limit. But it doesn’t mean the _| maximum grip has been reached 3000 yet. The slip angle at which the maximum self aligning torque is 2000 —| reached is often smaller than the slip angle corresponding to a maximum grip ===: Vertical Load = 1500 N Vertical Load = 2400 N TMM 128First step in efficient use of a tire model: Steady State response to steering input Understeer Gradient Equation of motion Curvature response to steering Yaw velocity response to steering Lateral Acceleration response to steering Side slip angle response to steering SFTIMIND 129Steer angles (1) : without slip angles 5 steering wheel _ = aa = 8 steering wheel = 8 Ack 8 steering wheel — a|r- Angle A = Angle B SPTMIND 130Steer angles (2) : with slip angles In the triangle ABC, The sum of the angles is equal to 180 degrees: 5 steering wheel Angle CAB= 8,,, = UR Angle ABC= 90 - ag Angle BCA - a + 90 + dgteering wheel = 180 Angle BCA = a + 90 - dgteering wheel SUM: CAB + ABC + BCA = (LIR) + (90 - ag)+ (ag + 90 - steering whee!) 180 = (LIR) + (90 - ag)+ (ag + 90 - dstecring wheel) 0 = UR - ap + Of - dstecring wheel SPTIMIMD 131SPTMIAD 13:Understeer Gradient (2) K = Understeer gradient in rad / g ay = Lateral acceleration in g IPIMIND 133: Understeer Gradient (3) This K is called the “Understeer gradient” There is no change on the steering wheel input with speed = Neutral Steer Of > Op The steer angle will have to increase in function of K times ay | Understeer The steer angle will have to decrease in function of K times ay | Oversteer TTR 134egy 4 rer Boe «7380 Naat Understee Front Tire r Gradient — 2 Wheel Model Example Rear Tire Fay = 4500 N F,, = 4000 N ||? / oon sotege Case 1: Wr = 600 Kg Case 2: Wf = 450 Kg IPTIMIND 135Equations of motion Longitudinal speed and yawing velocity: IPTIMIMD 136Equations of motion Longitudinal speed, lateral speed and yawing velocity: JFTIMIN 137Equations of motion ds: Angle due to the steering wheel. R: Radius of the turn TTIMIMND 138Equations of motion Newton's second law: equation of motion: Shas aee For our model: For our model: ct Steady State T=N ee V = Constant dv o dt a = dr/dt Moreover, ay is equal to: centrifugal acceleration + lateral acceleration. .“ ae 2 . q ‘d ve vt R a Sincer=V/R, and |W VB so: 4 Measured with Gyro ° Derivative of CG Slip Angle Sensor Measurement SFTIMIND 139Equations of motion Total tire yawing moment about the z-axis through the CG Total lateral tire force Y Y=Y¥,+Yp Y=C,a, +CpO, v-c.{8 +7?) Cn =a wa] ITIMUYO 140Total lateral tire force Y Lateral Force variation for a 6 variation: 0 a C; + Cp) Lateral Force variation for a r variation: ay 1 ea ylCra -C,-b) Equations of motion oN Ny = op Total tire yawing moment about the z-axis through the CG Moment variation for a f variation: =(ac, - bC,) SFTMINO NALEquations of motion Control Force derivative is a proportionality factor between the side force from the front wheels due to steering and the steering angle. Lateral force / yaw velocity coupling derivative It's the side force due to yawing velocity Side lateral force slope Similar to the slope of a tire curve showing the lateral force vs. the slip angle, but it’s for the entire car. Also called: Damping in sideslip, because it represents a negative lateral force for a positive sideslip velocity SPMD 142Control moment derivative: It's a proportionality factor between the yawing moment and the steering angle. Yaw damping derivative: It's a proportionality factor between the yawing moment and the yawing velocity. Analogous to an angular viscous damper. ifV Nr 0: Reduction in Yaw damping at high speed. loose of directional stability with speed. Directional stability slope or Under/Oversteer derivative: ifNB>0 aCFb.CR The front predominates Increase of B Oversteer TPTTMTMD TASEquations of motion Link between actions on the steering Wheel and Lateral Force/Moment Y; & N, are function of the front cornering stiffness and the mass distribution on the front. Damping effect due to the Car’s characteristics during Yaw movement and Lateral Force Y, &N, are function of the front & rear cornering stiffness, the mass distribution and the speed. Link between Lateral Force and Yaw moment Y, & Ny are function of the front & rear cornering stiffness, the mass distribution and the speed. DPTIMIND 144es SOR nes fevers Those 2 equations can be used in transient study, but In steady turing, B&Q and K=O so, we can then rewrite the previous equation: MIAO 145: Steady state : Response to control 8 - Curvature response _ r la} avy, ~mv?} =) 1 {\-1]o » Neo (vx, -mv?)- (neh f (Vvp.Ns ~¥5.Np )8 = [wp Vy, -mv?)-V.N,¥ \3) SPTIMIMD 146 YR Yp-Ny —Yo-Np 8 Np AVY, -mV?)-V.N, Ye au Ns ~% Np p-¥,-Npmv -N,¥, Q=N,.Y,-N,.mV-¥,.N, 1A _YM-N% 5 V.QSteady state : Response to control 6 - Yawing velocity response 1/R 2 Yp-Ns —Y¥5.Np =| VO ol|~ yy UR _YoNa ~%-Np Q Yawing velocity response 1 _YyN ~My % 8 Q Steady state : Response to control 6 - Lateral acceleration response VR Y,-Ns -¥-N, / = fob ee Lateral acceleration response 3 VO 2 as v2/R 2 UR VA¥,.Ns -%-Np) VIR vt Ns) Sb QO ITM 147Steady state : Response to control 6 - Sideslip angle response Y,.N, — N,.(Y, -m.V) Q BL 8 GTIMINO 148 CEESteady state : Response to control 6 Curvature response Yawing velocity response Lateral acceleration response Sideslip angle response Q=N,.Y,-N,.mV-Y,.N, JFTMING 149 Wace