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of groundwater recharge14. GIS has also been extensively extends up to the end of the June. The south-west mon-
used for groundwater modelling1517. Remote sensing, soon continues from July to mid-September. The period
GIS and other assessment techniques have been used for from mid-September to mid-November forms the post-
a long time to study groundwater in terms of its move- monsoon season. The annual average rainfall is
ment, quantity, and quality throughout the world18. GIS- 588.7 mm. The rainfall during the south-west monsoons
based methodology along with Darcys law has been used constitutes about 82% of the average annual rainfall. The
for groundwater flow estimation across the boundary in mean monthly air temperature ranges from 12C in Janu-
ground water flow modelling19. ary up to 35C in June, with a mean annual air tempera-
GIS-based method is used to estimate the groundwater ture of 25C. Water level data of 16 wells from 2003 to
flux using groundwater mapping which depends on sev- 2013 and borelog data of 5 wells was obtained from Cen-
eral variables and needs a computationally consistent tral Ground Water Board (CGWB), Jaipur. Tables 1 and 2
manipulation of georeferenced information and hydro- show the borelog data of 5 wells and water level data of
geological data at different spatial scales. In absence of 16 wells, respectively, for the study area, in 2012.
hydrogeological data or where the measurements are not The area is covered by unconsolidated formations con-
made or not feasible to measure due to economic or other sisting of sandy clay, clay, silt, kankar and sand, etc. of
various considerations, geostatistical methods can be Quaternary age underlain by Delhi and pre-Delhi group
used to determine the required value using spatial inter- of rocks comprising quartzite, phyllites, schists, etc. Pre-
polation20. This study is useful in identifying the ground- Delhi (pre-Aravalli) is the major group of rocks. The
water flux flowing through a boundary of the region on soils of the region can broadly be divided into two
the cell basis analysis using GIS technique. classes, viz., Older Alluvial Soils and Red Gravelly Soils.
Older Alluvial Soils are found in major part of the
KBNIR region including full part of Mundawar tehsil and
Study area
large part of Neemrana tehsil. Red Gravelly Soils are
found in some parts of Neemrana tehsil.
The study area covers KhushkheraBhiwadiNeemrana
Investment Region (KBNIR) identified by DelhiMumbai
Industrial Corridor (DMIC), located in the Alwar district, Methodology
Rajasthan, India (Figure 1). The KBNIR area is situated
in north-east of Rajasthan from 275433 to 280320N The methodology for estimation of the groundwater flux
lat. and from 762406 to 763540E long. covering a through the boundary is developed using GIS-based spa-
geographical area of about 162.4 km2. Western part of the tial analysis of groundwater levels and hydrogeology data
study area lies in Neemrana block and eastern part in of the region. Figure 2 shows the flow chart of the meth-
Mundawar block. Out of the total area, Neemrana block odology.
covers 130 km 2 and remaining 32.4 km 2 is covered by Data and information required by hydrogeological
Mundawar block. studies is complex. Information concerning geology, hy-
Climate of the KBNIR is semi-arid and very hot in drology, geomorphology, soil, climate, land use, topogra-
summer and extremely cold in winter. The monsoon sea- phy and man-made (anthropogenic) features need to be
son is of very short duration. Winter season starts by the analysed and combined21. Methodology is applied assum-
middle of November and continues up to the beginning of ing that the hydrogeological layers within the region are
March. Summer season follows the winter season and hydraulically interconnected and the groundwater level
gradients do not change significantly for different sea-
sons19. It is also assumed that monsoon period starts from
1 June and continues up to 15 September and non-
monsoon period starts from 16 September and continues
up to 31 May of the next year.
Typically, the boundary taken for groundwater analysis
is complex and contains many small curves. It is difficult
to calculate normal direction to boundary at different
locations. Therefore, in the first step boundary of the
study area is simplified into only horizontal and vertical
lines. Figure 3 shows both original and simplified bound-
aries of the study area. This simplification is not likely to
introduce major errors in estimation but would signifi-
cantly reduce the complexity of solution. It may be noted
here that some of the area gets excluded from the boundary
Figure 1. Location of study area. and another portion is included from outside boundary.
Coordinate (UTM)
Latitude Longitude Village Ground elevation (m) Bedrock elevation (m) Permeability (m/day)
Normally, both balance each other and so net effect to logy information, permeability, transmissivity and satu-
this change in shape of boundary shall be negligible. rated thickness of the boundary. The groundwater levels
This GIS-based methodology requires groundwater during the pre-monsoon month (June) and post-monsoon
levels for pre-monsoon and post-monsoon period, litho- month (December) for 2003 to 2013 are observed at 16
1052 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 110, NO. 6, 25 MARCH 2016
RESEARCH ARTICLES
wells located surrounding the study area. Ordinary same resolution is applied to all other raster maps in the
Kriging method is used to calculate the missing values in GIS database. Also, all the maps are snapped to the same
the database. grid so that cells of different maps exactly overlap each
A geodatabase is created by point interpolation method other and calculations are easily performed using multi-
and inverse distance weighted (IDW) technique has been ple layers. Simplified boundary of the study area is en-
used to obtain raster maps of elevation of pre-monsoon closed only by horizontal (top and bottom) and vertical
and post-monsoon water levels for the study area. A reso- (left and right) boundaries and includes 708 cells.
lution of 100 m is adopted to construct the maps and In aquifer system, hydraulic gradient can be defined as
the change in water depth per unit flow length of water.
From groundwater elevation map, the groundwater per-
centage slope maps are constructed and by multiplying it
by 100 using raster calculator, converted to magnitude of
hydraulic gradient at each cell. Direction of the hydraulic
gradient map could be calculated using flow direction
GIS tool. Direction maps are constructed using ground-
water level elevation map and extracted at simplified
boundary of the study area having horizontal and vertical
line segments only.
There are eight valid output directions in a flow direc-
tion map related to the eight adjacent cells into which
groundwater flow can travel. This approach is commonly
referred to as an eight-direction (D8) flow model as
shown in Figure 4 and follows an approach presented by
Jenson and Domingue22. Since the direction of hydraulic
gradient could be parallel, perpendicular or at 45 angle
to the boundary and could be facing inward (positive
flow) or outward (negative flow), a multiplication factor
Figure 3. Location of wells. is required to convert it to velocity perpendicular to the
boundary. Table 3 shows the multiplying factor for dif-
ferent position of boundary cell and direction of hydraulic
gradient.
From borelog geodatabase, spatial distribution of per-
meability of the aquifer formation and bed rock elevation
has been carried out using IDW interpolation method.
Darcys law is applied to construct velocity map using
permeability and slope map at simplified boundary. Ac-
cording to Darcys law23, the velocity of groundwater
flow is given by eq. (1)
Q kdh
Figure 4. D8 flow model. vd Ki, (1)
A dl
dh
i , (2)
dl
1 Inward 1 1 Outward 1 1
2 Inward at 45 Sin 45 0.71 Outward at 45 Sin 45 0.71
4 Parallel to boundary 0 0 Parallel to boundary 0 0
8 Outward at 45 Sin 45 0.71 Inward at 45 Sin 45 0.71
16 Outward 1 1 Inward 1 1
32 Outward at 45 Sin 45 0.71 Inward at 45 Sin 45 0.71
64 Parallel to boundary 0 0 Parallel to boundary 0 0
128 Inward at 45 Sin 45 0.71 Outward at 45 Sin 45 0.71
Year Pre-monsoon Post-monsoon Mean flow rate (m3 /day) Volume of water flow (m3 ) in monsoon period
f x = v p ST CW, (4)
FT f
bnd
x, (5)
Figure 8. Different maps constructed at simplified boundary for pre-monsoon year 2012.
Year Post-monsoon Pre-monsoon (next year) Mean flow rate (m3 /day) Volume of water flow (m3 ) in non-monsoon period
gradual decrease in groundwater flux inward to the study 5. CWC, Water and related statistics, Central Water Commission,
area. Flux of monsoon period varies from maximum of Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India, 2013;
http://www.cwc.nic.in/.
11.41 105 m3 in 2003 to minimum of 0.83 105 m3 in 6. Pethaperumal, S. et al., A novel approach for groundwater budget-
2013. Similarly, for the non-monsoon period, it varies ing using GIS in a part of Pondicherry region, India. J. Water
from maximum 27.4 105 m3 in 200304 to minimum Resour. Protect., 2010, 2(6), 585591; doi:10.4236/jwarp.2010.
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8. Yeh, H. F., Lin, H. I., Lee, S. T., Chang, M. H., Hsu, K. C. and
Conclusions Lee, C. H., GIS and SBF for estimating groundwater recharge of a
mountainous basin in the Wu River watershed, Taiwan. J. Earth
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lows estimating groundwater flux across the boundary on south Al Jabal Al Akhdar area using GIS. GIS Ostrava, 2009.
cell basis using ground levels and borelog data. In ab- 10. Batelaan, O., Smedt, F. D. and Triest, L., Regional groundwater
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method is used to determine the required missing value impact analysis of land-use change. J. Hydrol., 2003, 275(12),
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using spatial interpolation. In this study, the boundary of 11. Healy, R. W. and Cook, P. G., Using groundwater levels to esti-
the study area is digitized to a simplified boundary. Sim- mate recharge. Hydrogeol. J., 2002, 10, 91109.
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horizontal (top and bottom) and vertical (left and right) recharge using the soil moisture budget method and the base-flow
boundaries and includes 708 cells. This methodology has model. Environ. Geol., 2008, 54(8), 17871797.
13. Izuka, S. K., Oki, D. S. and Engott, J. A., Simple method for esti-
been applied to estimate groundwater flux through a sim- mating groundwater recharge on tropical islands. J. Hydrol., 2010,
plified boundary of the study area. Darcys law and (D8) 387(12), 8189.
flow model algorithm are used to reveal the direction of 14. Singhal, V. and Goyal, R., Development of conceptual ground-
groundwater flow across the boundary and then raster water flow model for Pali Area, India. Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Tech-
calculator was used to convert from flow direction to nol., 2011, 5(12), 10851092.
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