BRITISH STANDARD BS 8006 : 1995 Code of practice for Strengthened/reinforced soils and other fills : state I AWITHION 7 HST PERMISSION EXCT™T AS PERMITTED NY COPYRIGHT LAS ib” SaBS 8006 : 1995 ‘This Bish Standard, naving ‘een prepares under the (Soecuan of the Secor Board for ‘Suseing and Civil Enpneenn. was publsned under die sothonty of the Standards Board and comes into effect an 1S November 1985 © ast 1998 ‘The folowing BSI references Fela wo one work gn ue Commitee reference 8/526 = Draft fr comment 81214551 OC ISBN 0580 24216 1 Committees responsible for this British Standard ‘The preparation of this British Standard was entrusted by Tecnnical Commirtee 8/526, Geovecanics, 10 Subcommicee B/S2 Surengthened/reinforces soils and other fill. upor: which t ‘were represenved. following bodies British Coal Corporation British Palways Board Bridsh Texzle Confederation County Surveyors’ Society Department of Transpor (Highways Agency) Department of Transport (Transport Research Laboratory’) Federation of Civil Engineering Contractors Institution of Civil Engineers Institution of Highways and Transportation Insocution of Structural Engineers Zine Development Association Amendments issued since publication Amd. No. [Date Tex affectedAw Contents Page Commitvees responsible Inside frone cover Foreword vi Section 1 General LL Scope 1.2 References 1.3 Definitions LA Symbols, Section 2, Concepts and fandamental principles 2.4 General 6 2.2 Limit state principles 6 2.3. Partial factors 6 2.4 Design loads 7 7 8 8 2.5 Design strengths 2.6 Fundamental mechanisms 2.7. Soll reinforcing mechanisms in walls and slopes: 2.8. Soil einforeing mechanisms in embankment foundations 8 2.9 Soil reinforcement interaction 10 2.10 Soil properties to be considered u 2.11 Reinforcement geometry 2 2.12 Reinforcement bond 2 2.13 Effects of flexible reinforcement axcal stiftness on loads 13 2.14 Factors affecting tensile behaviour of flexible reinforcement 13 Section 3 Materials — —— 3.1 Soils and fills 18 3.2. Reinforcing macerials at 3.3 Facings 23 3.4 Pasteners between the facing and reinforcing elements 24 3.5. Testing materials and components not covered by relevant specifications 24 Section 4 Testing for design purposes 4.1, General ar 2 Fl and ground 27 4.3. Soil reinforcement 29 4.4 Pacing units 32 4.3. Trial constructions to evaluate constructability 32 Section 5. Principles of design 5.1 Design philosophy 33 5.2 Service life 33 5.3 Factors of safety 33 5.4 Fasteners and connections 33, 3.5. Serviceability 35 6 Design information 36BS 8006 : 1995 Section 6. Design and walls and abutments 6.1 Gersral 5 6.2. Partial factors used in this section + 6.3 Basis for design 6.4 Dimensions (or the structure 6.5. Exemal sabibry 6.6 Internal suabiliy 6.7 Facings 6.8 Connections 6.9. Soil nailing for walls ‘Section 7. Design of reinforced slopes 7A Gener 80 Partial factors used in the design of reinforced slopes 80 Areas of applicasion a1 Reinforcement of fll materials 81 Reinforcement of existing ground 85 Facings. 8s (on 8, Design of embanlenents with reinforced soil foundations on poor ground 8.1 General 98 8.2 Partial factors used in the design of embankments wich reinforces soi} foundations on poor ground 98 8.3 Reinforced embankments over soft and very soft foundation soils se Reinforced embankaments over areas prone to subsidence 108, Section 9. Construction and maintenance — 9.1 Genera 9.2 Walls and abutments 9.3. Slopes 9.4 Foundations 9.5 Handling, storage and placing ‘Annexes A. (normative) Assessment of partial material factors for reinforcements B (normative) Microbial activity index test (normative) Determination of effective angle of interna! friction (¢’) and effective cohesion (c’) of earthworks materials 148 (normative) Site damage test aa (normative) Deteomination of coefficient of friction and adhesion Seeween fil and reinforcing elements or anchor elements for Feinforced sol! and anchored earth siructures (normative) Til constructions (informative) Propping forces ng on‘Tables 1 Factors affecting performance 2 Selection of fill for walls and abutments 3 Category of structure depending upon ramificacion of failure 44 Elecarochemical properties of {il used with plain steel, galvanized sceel and stainless steel materials Grading of 6l] material for basal mattresses 6 Minimum properties of some different types of stee! reinforcement 7 Sacrificial thickness to be allowed on each surface exposed to corrosion 8 Jointing methods and approximate strengths of polymeric materials 9 Material standards (or different types of facing 10 Properties of bolts and screws up to 40 mun stock size 1A Propeities of dowels and rods up to 40 mm stock size 12 _Exaruples of service life 13 Checklist for investigations of reinforcement products 14 Factors affecting durability and performance of buried soil reinforcement macerials 15 Partial materials factors (or reinforcements 16 Summary of partial {actors to be used in section 6 A7 Partial load factors for load combinations associated with walls 18 Partial load factors for load combinations associated with abuements 19 Dimensions of walls and abutments 20 Determination of the minimum embedment as a function of the tmochanical height £7 in metres and che factores bearing presure ge in kNita! 21 Minimum vertical movement capacities required for facing systems to cope with vertical internal settlement of reinforced fill 22 Guide to the effects of settlement 23 Usually accepted tolerances for faces of retaining walls and abutments 24 Serviceability limits on post-construction internal strains for bridge abutments and retaining walls 25 Connection loads for ultimate and serviceability limit states 26 Summary of partial factors to be used in section 7 27 Summary of partial factors to be used in section 8 28 Arching coefficient C; for basal reinforced piled embankments B.1 Classification for microbial activity B.2 Determination of sulfate reducing bacteria classification, Page u 18 18 19 20 au 23 23 24 24 aT 30 30 34 afes a7 49 49 51 106 7 18Page Figeres 3 heange of applications of reinforce soi 2 Effect of reinforcement on a sou eleme=t 3. Reinforcing mechanisms in walls and slo 4 Forms of reinforcement 5 Types of seams 6 Sach configuration 7 Bodian joint 8 Selection of materials for reinforcement, connections and facings for reinforced soil structures 26 9 Suress/strain relationship for sand under plane strain loading 22 10 Examples of structures in category 1 — applicable to walls and slope 38 11 Examples of structures in category 2 — applicable to walls and slopes 39 12 Examples of foundations in category 2 40 18 Examples of structures in category 8 — applicable to walls and slopes 41 14 Examples of foundations in category 3 a2 15 Definitions and wpes of walls and abutments, 6 16 Common facings used with structures 65 17 Load combinations showing load factors 63 38 Design procedure for reinforces soil walls 66 19 Initial sizing of structures 67 20. Sizing of walls with various geomernies 66 21 Definition of embedment, Dy 69 22 Ultimate limit states — external stability 69 23 Serviceability limit states — external and interna) stabil 69 24 Definition of soll properties and principal loads 70 25 Pressure distribution along base of wal) a 26 ‘Types of slip surface failure a 27 Stability — effects to be considered a 28 Stresses imposed due to self weight, surcharge and retained backfill 72 29 Dispersal of vertica) strip load Unrough reinforced fill — ue back ‘wedge method 72 30. Dispersal of horizontal shear trough reinforced fil) — Ge back wedge method 2 31 Determination of adherence capacity of the reinforcement — tie bac wedge method 73 32 Types of reinforced soil anchors 33 Internal wedge stability 34 Internal wedge stability analysis of simple problem 38. Assessment of post-construction strain under appbed load Tass 6 36. Variation of coefficient of earch pressure with depth — coherent gravity method 76 37. Dispersal of vertical strip load through reinforced fill — coherent gravity method 7 38 Dispersal of horizontal fnear through reinforced fill — coherent gravicy method " 39 Line of maximum tension for retaining wall — coherent gravity method "7BS 8006 : 1995 a 3 6 65 66 Definition of maximum tension line 2 (retaining wall without superimposed strip loads) — coherent gravity method Lines of maximum tension for structures with strip loads — coherent gravity method Definition of line 1 — coherent gravity method Examples of structures requiring global stability analysts — coherent gravity method Soil nailed walls Examples of slope reinforcement Design basis for reinforced slopes Ueimate limit states — external stability Ultimate limit states — internal stability Ultimate limit states — compound stability Serviceabllity limut states Definition of soil properties and principal loads for reinforced steep fil slopes ‘Two-part wedge analysis for internal stability of reinforced fill slopes Other methods of internal stabiliry analysis of reinforced fill slopes Force components in two-part wedge analysis of compound stability Applications of soil nailing Use of owo-pare wedge analysis for soll nailing Use of log-spiral analysis for soil nailing Reinforcement used to control initial stability only of embankment Reinforcement used to control both initial stability and settlement of embankment Ultimate limit states for basal reinforced embankanents, Serviceability limit states for basal reinforced embankments Procedure for assessing rotational stability by sip circle analysis Lateral sliding stability at fileinforcement interface [Analysis of foundation excrustion stability ‘titimate limit state stability analysis for basal mattress reinforcement Piled embankment configurations ‘Uitimae Limit states for basal reinforced piled embankments Servicebility limit states for basal reinforced piled embankments Outer limit of pile caps Variables used in determination of Trp Lateral sliding stability at M/reinforcemenc interface Variables used in analysis of overall stability of basal reinforced pled erbankmencs Conceptual role of reinforcement in limiting surface deformations due co subsidence Parameters used to determine reinforcement Wrap-around construction techniques Reinforced soil retaining walls Typical drainage detail for abutment bankseae Reinforced soil mass acting as drain Porous pipe at wall face Drainage details for walls supporting cuttings Page 78 78 8 79 39 29. 29 39 on 92 93 98 96 or 110BS 8006 : 1995 em si 82 53 a 85 86 87 85 89 Al Az As AS Dl List of references Page Wrap-arouné facing 138 Reinforces gabions 135 Reinstatement of failed siope 199 Soil nailing technique 140 Laving ane jointing sequence for besa) reinforcement 340 Advancing mud wave a Inverted “U" construction wn Construction of a "U shaped leading edge 341 Basal mares fabrication technique ww Assessment of funy 144 Assessment of fni22 145 Assessment of fnt2 45 Assessment of fn) Schematic lavout ofBS 8006 : 1995 Foreword ‘This British Standard has been prepared by Subcommittee B/521 Strengthenedsreinforced soils and other Mills. It supersedes PD is withdrawn. 17 : 1988 which ‘There has been an increasing use of soil reinforcement techniques in Great Bricain over the past decade for a variety of applications from verucal walls and Bbuuments through reinforced slopes to reinforced foundations. The modern Grpetus for the use of such techuques stems from the development af reinforced wai techniques for vertical or near vertical slopes some 25 years ago. generally taing metallic reinforcement, usually with modular concrete facing units. The evelopment of the use of porymeric materials in the form of geatextiles in the Givil engineering industry has been accompanied by thetr introduction into Fantorced soil applicauons including the reinforcing of slopes and foundations, Reinforced soil techniques are now used extensively fora range of design lives dnd service requirements and are stil in an active stage of development Particularly 29 far as the Use of polymeric materials is concerned, and it was felt vert tne absence of a code of practice covering the techniques was hindering their wider development. ‘This code of practice contains material which is both for the information and guidance of engineers and material which forms recomamendations on good Practice. Engineering judgement shovld be applied to determine when the Plcoinmmendations of the code should be followed and when they shoule: not ‘This code of practice embodies the experience of engineers successfully engaged on the design and construction of the particular class of works. Ibis intended for the use of engineers with some knowledge of the subject as a basis for che design of similar works. ‘A.code of practice represents good practice at the time itis written and, A htsbly technical developments can render parts of it obsolescent in time. It is the responsibility of engineers concerned with the design and construction of suorks to remain conversant with developments in good practice, which have taken place since publication of the code, Iuhas been assumed in the drafting of this British Standard that the execution of its provisions is encrusted to appropriately qualified and experienced people. ‘As a code of practice, this British Standard takes the form of guidance and ‘reommendations. It should not be quoted as if it were a specification and particular care should be taken to ensure that claims of compliance are n misleading, CompLance with a British Standard does not of itself confer immanicy from Tegal obligations.‘This British Standard contains guidelines and recommendations for the application of hnforcement techniques to soils, as (Il or in situ, wilco other fills. The standard is writzen in a limit Bote format and guidelines are provided of safery ‘Sahgine in terms of partial material factors and Toad factors for various applications and design lives ‘The code is divided into nine sections. Section | identifies the scope, definitions and SStation of the code. Section 2 describes the Roncepes and fundamental principles of reinforced SSLL Section 3 provides recommendations for the ARS of materials where existing standards are pvailable. Where materials are used which are not Covered by existing standards or where known sepverials are to be used in ways not covered by Sxdsting standards section 4 gives recommendations for che testing and approval of such materials. Sections 5 to 9 relate to design, construction and maintenance of walls and abutments, slopes and foundations. They include specific Aeeommendations for characterization of the soils fo be used and other factors affecting the design Gnd performance of the structures. Emphasis is placed on quality control both with regard to the Consistency of the properties of the fill and feinforeing macerials and to the handling of the materials on site. Much of the existing practice of reinforced soil is based on the use of Limit equilibrium design methods which incorporate a global factor of fafety, In keeping With the principles of limit state desigh, consistent structural dimensions and materials quancities have been maintained with existing practice by calibration af the partial factors in the limit stare design relaonships in this code. ‘This approach is different to that adopted by some concurrent codes of practice, e.g. BS 8002 : 1994, Grhich rely on the use of ‘worst credible parameter to develop an adequate margin of safety, The clauses are supplemented by a substantial lis. Of references to enable the user to consider in greater depth the applications of the technique. 1.2 References 1.2.1 Normative references ‘This British Standard incorporates, by dated or undated reference, provisions from other Dublcations. These normative references are made Er che appropriate places in the text and the cited publications are listed on page 156. For dated References, only the edition cited applies; any Subsequent ainendments to or Tevisions of the cited ‘publication apply to this Britsh Standard only Srhen incorporated in the reference by amendment or revision. For undated references, the latest Gdition of the cited publication applies, together with any amendments. 1.2.2 Informative references ‘This British Standard refers to other publications that provide information or guidance. Editions of these publications current at the time of issue of this standard are lisved on page 158, but reference ‘should be made to the latest editions. 1.3 Definitions For the purposes of this British Standard the folowing definitions apply. 1.3.2 anchored earth Form of reinforced soil which uses anchors embedded within the soll mass to provide stability. Resistance to pull-out is provided by passive action of the anchor and friction along the anchor shaft or loop. 1.3.2 cohesive frictional fll FMI containing at least 15 % material passing a 63 um sieve in accordance with BS 410. NOTE. ts descrbed inthe Specfeation for Flghray ‘Works [1] unger Ul matanad dasses 1C and 7D. 1.3.3 fill material Material in the reinforced soil structure in contact swith the reinforcing elements, connections and facing, including Boe seer Gl and any ‘ter 1.3.4 frictional lL AAU containing less than 15 % material passing a 63 im test sieve in accordance with BS 410. NOTE. {tis deserbed in the Speciication for Figheray ‘orks {i} tnder Mi auanal cases 6f and 60 1.3.5 geogrid Polymeric, planar structure consisting of an open network of connected tensile elements used in geotechnical and civil engineering applications. 1.3.6 geotextile Permeable, polymeric material, which may be woven, nonwoven or knitted, used in geotechnical and civil engineering applications. 1.9.7 partial factors Specific design parameters to account for uuncertaingy 1.2.8 polymeric reinforcement Generic term thae encompasses geosynthecie mavenals used in geotechnical engineering such as, (eotertles and geogrids. 13.9 reinforced soil General term which refers co che use of placed or in sita soil or other matenal in which tensile reinforcements act ckrough interface friction, bearing or other means to improve stability.Section } BS 8006 ; 199: 1.3.20 reinforcement base strength Unfactored scrength of the reinforcement at the fend of its selected esign life 1.4.11 reinforcement design strength Factores strength of the reinforcement at the end of its selected design life. It is che reinforcement Qase serength divided by the appropriate partial material factor 1.3.12 reinforcement 1.3.12.1 axially flexible reinforcement Reinforcement that can absorb tensile loads only 1,8.12.2 exially stiff reinforcement Reinforcement that can absorb tensile, shear and bending loads. 1.3.12.8 extensible reinforcement Reinforcement that sustains the design loads at ‘sorains greater than 1 %: 1.9.12.4 inextensible reinforcement Reinforcement that sustains the design loads a ‘strains less than oF equal to 1%. 1.3.19 retained backfill Fill material located between the reinforced mass and the navural sol. 1.8.14 soil nailing ‘Tepe of reinforced soil formed by installing reinforcing elements in sicu into an otherwise Undiseurbed soll mass. 4.4 Symbols 0 Size or diameter of pile caps ae Crost-sectional area of connections or connection components dep Cross-sectional area resisting bearing ‘Suesses in connecuon components aq Cross-sectional area of the shear plane of connection component resisting shear b Width of the loading strip contact area at right angles to the structure Width of footing or foundation b’ Variable, defined in figure 37 bj Width of slice # in stability analysis Cohesion of the soil under effective stress conditions. @ —_Undrained shear strength @ Maximum vertical deflection of ‘unsupported reinforcement Distance of strip load from wall face a Variable, defined in figure 37 % Diameter of a fastener In # connection Vertical displacement of surface of pavement or embankment due to Subsidence below Eccentricity of an applied force Eccentricity of vertical stip load with Respect uo the ceritre line of the contact Grea of the load on top of a structure Eccentricity of resultant vertical load at jth Jeve) about centreline of reinforcement “average height of {i above reinforcement Height of fill above jth lever of reinforcements Height of the prop above toe of a structure ‘Height of {Ul above toe of a structure ‘Variable in 6.8.4.9.5 Variable in 6.8.4.3.6 Variable, defined in figure 37 Number of shear planes resisting appbed shear, 6.8.4.3.3 ‘Number of slices in 2 moment stability analysis Sideslope of embantonent Vertical stress on pile cap Value of acidity of an aqueous solution Bearing pressure ‘Ultimate bearing capacity of foundation soil Pore pressure ratio Pile spacing Long term height of an anchor head Design life ‘Test duration Pore water pressure ‘Average pore pressure acting on the base of ‘Shee # in stabibity analysis Uniformly distributed surcharge on top of a servcture Depth measured from top of wall or slope Depth of design line 1; coherent gravity method Critical depth of foundation sliding block 6 m critica) depth, Depth of dispersal of horizonta) shear Width of an clement of reinforcement Length of Meyerhof pressure distribution Long term wideh of an anchor head Long term horizontal projection area of shaft of loop of an anchorBS 8006 : 1995 Section | Ge Dex Ds RP Ma Arehing coefficient Cavity diameter formed at the underside of 2 pavement or embankment Embedment depth of reinforced walls and aburments Deformation diameter at surface of pavement or embanianent due to Subsidence below Elastic modulus Function in 6.6.3.2.1 Factored design load Unfactored characteristic load Horizontal shear applied to the strip contact area of width b on top of the ‘Structure per metre 'run* Resistance of pile Overall height of reinforced structure or ‘All, mechanical height of structure ‘ual height Coefficient of earth pressure Coefficient of active earch pressure Coefficient of earth pressure af rest Coefficient of passive earth pressure Length of element of reinforcement or anchor Length at right angles in plan to the face of the structure of the Dortom layer of reinforcing elements Distance between centres of end fasteners of a connection, Length of that part of the jth layer of reinforcements within the potencial failure plane Reinforcement bond length needed beyond outer row of piles in piled embankment Effective length of reinforcement Length of that part of the jth layer of reinforcing elements beyond che potential failure plane Bond length of basal reinforcement within sip circle Length of nail jin a slope Horizontal distance becween ourer edge of pile cap and toe of embaninent Length of side slope of an embantonent Maxamum bending moment in a connection ‘component Reinforcement base bending moment resistance Ma Mp M Mo Ma Map Mar Mrs Mar Maw A Bending resistance in a connection component Disturbing moment in sip circle or og-spiral analysis Maximum bending moment in nail j in the slope Out of balance moment, My = Mp - Mw Restoring moment in slip circle analysis Restoring moment due to ples under an embankment Restoring moment due to reinforcement Restoring moment due to soil strength Restoring moment due to tension in nails Restoring moment due to shear in nails Moment about XX ads Moment about ¥-¥ axds Normal force acting on potential failure plane Bearing resistance of anchor at level jin yall ‘Total horizontal width of top and boctom faces of the jth layer of reinforcements per metre ‘run’ of seructure. in case of arid reinforcement the width of the jth laver of gid per metre ‘run’ of structure. For nails, It is the perimeter of individual nails Horizontal component of backfill thrust on reinforced soil block Horizontal propping force Pull-out resistance generated on anchor shaft in cohesionless fill at level j in wall Uttimate pull-out resistance of an anchor at level jin wall Vertical component of backfill thrust on reinforced soll block Pressure beneath strip loading Force acting at discontinuity berween ow regions of two-part wedge analysis Average pressure Bearing capacity of pile Reaction Radius of entical sip surface in rocational failure Radius of slip surface at slice + tn log-spiral analysis Radius of slip surface coinciding with nail J in log-spiral analysis, Horimotal factored discurbing force Reaction at slice # in log-spual analysis, Verbal factored resultant forcepecuon } BS 8006 : 1995 Tas Tes Tas To T Vertical loading, applies te @ strip contact fares of wiéth 8 on top of 2 structure, p*r Length of strip tosd S, Veriea} spacing of reinforeement Vertical spacing of jth leyer of reinforcement ‘Total tensile force to be resisied by the layers of reinforcement which anchor ‘wedge of reinforced soll, per metre "Tun (wedge analysis) ‘Average tensile load along the length of the feinforcement at the jth level an the wall or slope Reinforcement base swrength Applied maximum tensile load on connection ‘Tensile force developed due to cohesion in reinforced fil at Jevel j in wal Exrapolated creep rupture strength at the tend of the design life Exrapolated tensile load based on creep strain at the end of the design life ‘Tensile force in the reinforcement developed from the lateral thrust of ti¢ ‘embankment Design tensile strength of the reinforcement ‘Tensile force developed from the horizontal shear applied to the top of the seructure to bbe resisted by the jah laver of reinforcing elements ‘Total maximum tensile force resisted by the Jjeh layer of reinforcement ‘Maximum tensile force in basal reinforcement General tensile force in reinforcement ‘Tensile force in basal reinforcement due to shear stresses at surface of foundation ‘Tensile foree in basal reinforcement needed to resist rotational failure Tensile force generated in basal reinforcement in piled embankments due te transfer of vertical loading ‘Tensile foree generated in basal reinforcement over unsupported void ‘Tensile force developed from the externa! Yoading (S_) on top of the structure ‘Tensile force developed from the external loading Ultimate tensile strength of mezalli reinforcements b o Applied maxamum ioaé on 2 connection component ssaxsmum shear load in nai Fora weight of sol) structure per mety Weight eight of soil contained within Coulomb failure wedge the slope slice 1 in seabihicy analysis Disributed vertical load acting on bass! reinforcement between adjacent pile c2ps Horizontal moment arm in rotational failure Design soil parameter valve Horizontal moment ann to sce i in rotational failure Characteristic soil parameter valve Vertical moment arm in rotational failure Vertical moment arm to reinforcement J in slope or wall Section modulus Section modulus about X-% axis Section modulus about Y-¥ axis Inclination of slope supported by einforced Friction coefficient relating sail friction angle to soil/reinforcement bond “Adhesion coefficient relating soil cohesion to soil/reinforcement bond “Angle of inclination of base of soil slice ¢ ‘Angle of inclination of backfill thrust on reinforced soil block Inclination of a potential failure plane to the vertica} plane Inclination of slope Unit weight of the soil “Angle of shearing resistance berween soi! ‘and reinforcement measured under effective stress conditions Lateral strain of soll under an applied load ‘Axial corapression under an applied load Reinforcement strain Masamum allowable strain in reinforcement ‘Angle of draw in embankment fil Angle of slice 4 in a log-spiral analysis ‘Angle of nail j Jocation in the slope in Jog-spiral analysis “Angle (to the vertical) between the outer ‘edge of the outside pile cap and the shoulder of an embankment Load shedding coefficientSection 1 ES Oe Oy cr ay a % Coefficient of friction becween the fill and reinforcing element derived from the identity 1 ~ tan é', where 6 is the angle ff bond stress between the fill and the reinforcing elements Statistical mean of results obtained ‘Apparent coefficient of friction Rate of increase in undrained shear strength with depth of foundation Normal stress Statistical standard deviation of results obeained Maximum bearing pressure becween connected parts Ultimate bearing strength of connection components ‘Tensile stress in connections Extreme fibre bending stress for compression Extreme fibre bending stress for tension Horizontal stress on an element of soil Ultimate shear strength of connection components Normal effective confining stress acting on nail jin the stope Ultimate tensile strength of connection components Vertical stress on an element of soil Vertical stress acting at level jin a wall Applied vertical effective stress ‘Major principal effective stress Minor principal effective stress Shear stress average shear stress ° on te Ss Sn Smt Sma Mohe-Coulomb angle of friction. ‘Angle of friction of soil under total stress conditions Angle of internal friction of soit under effective stress conditions ‘Angle of constant volume shearing resistance under effective stress conditions Peak angle of shearing resistance under effective stress conditions Moment correction factor Inclination to the horizontal of nail jin the slope Partial load factor applied to external dead loads Partial load factor applied to soil unit weight loads Partial material factor applied to reinforcement Partial material factor related to material properties of the reinforcement Partial material factor related to construction effects and tolerances of the reinforcement Partial material factor applied to soil parameters Partial factor associated with ramification of failure Partial load factor applied to external live loads Partial factor of safety against pull-out failure of the reinforcement. Partial factor of safery against sliding failure across the reinforcement or soilBS 8006 : 1995 Section 2. Concepts and fundamental principles 2.1 General Reinforcement may be incorporated in engineenng fil of inserted into natural gound either to Provide sweeper slopes utan would otherwise De osible or to improve load carmsing capacity Reiworcement may also be used to umprove the performance of weak sols to support embankments Gromer resilient structures. These applications Siiich are Dustrated in figure 1, may involve the Use of a range of reinforcement tvpes and rechnigues induding: = metallic strips, grids or meshes; ~ polymeric strips, sheets, grids or meshes; = anchors of muld-anchors (but not ground anchors); = soi) nails and in situ reinforcement, 2.2 Limit state principles Limit state principles are applied to the design of reinforced soll walls, slopes 2nd foundations te Embankment or similarly resilient structures, The fEwo limit states considered in design are the {timate limit stale ang the serviceability inde sate Ulamate Umit states are associated with collapse oF other similar forms of structura failure, These Staves are attained, for a specific mode of failure, when disturbing forees equal oF exceed restoring forces. Margins of safecy, against attaining the Limit sate of collapee, are provided by the use of partial gratenial factors and partial load factors. These Pardal factors assume prescribed numerical values of unity or greater Discurbing forces are increased bby multiplying by prescribed Joad factors produce design loads. Restoring forces are Beereased by dividing by prescribed material factors fo produce design strengths, Provided the design Strength equals or exceeds the design load chen there is deemed to be an adequate margin of safety ‘agains attaining the wdmate Lit state of collapse Serviceability limit states are atzained if the mragnitudes of deformation occurring within ¢he eagn life exceed prescribed limits or if the Serviceability of the structure is otherwise impaired, Construction tolerances are Subject to Erpaiate limits and are considered separately {rom ‘rw serviceability Limit state. In assessing deformations or swralns to determine compbance Snth the appropriate limit state, the prescribed Fumenieal values of load factors are different to Ghose used in assessing the ultimate Unit state of Collapse and usually assume a value of unity: In esessing magnitudes of total or differentia} Sethlements all partial factors are set 0 2 value of un excet for thove pertaining 2 the 2.3 Partial factors Limit state design for reinforced soil employs fou: Poineipal parua) factors all of which assume Presenibes numerical values of unity or areates Feevol these are load factors fy (and Jia) appbed t esd loads and fo applied w bve loads. The principal materials factor if (and Jina), The Fourth factor fps used to take account of te Coonomie ramifications of failure. This factor 3s Craploved, in addition to the materials factor. tO produce @ reduced design strength. itis not feasible to uniquely define values for loae or material factors. Pri ranges of these Values ave given to take account of the type of Saucture, the mode of loading and the selecied Gesign Life and are considered in sections 6, 7 and 8 tn relation to walls, slopes or embankment Foundations respectively. In 2 particular application the load factors applied to dead loads and live loads can vary depending upon the load ‘Combination under consideration; in some Cteumstances the partial load factors for live loads may be set to zero Wo produce 2 worst case Combination for the design load. "The material factors applied to shear strength are sunusly preseribed. For 2 given application and Gesign life. the matenal factor applied to soil feinforcement wil assume 2 prescribed minimum, Clue chat will reflec: che selected design life an¢ type of reinforcement used. In contrast to load Fretors, reuvforcement material factors are principal factors that can be broken down into various Components and subcomponents that individually SGaress each aspect of reinforcement strength. BY Gefinition each companent or subcomponent has 2 Value of unity or greater but the values may’ vary or different reinforcemencs. Guidance is provideé fn how chese matéria! factors are devermined Partial factors are applied in a consistent manner ‘0 Frunimize the nsk of attaining a limit state. Ln the Case of the ultimate limit state of collapse, Gotental failure mechanisms will vary from one Epplication to another and those pertaining to one Spplieation, such a a reinforoed soil wall, may’ be Gifferent to another application such 3s 2 einforced soil slope oF reinforced soi) foundation. Potential failure mechanisms to be considered are Gescribed in the particular sections of tis code seiueh address the analysis and design of walls slopes and foundations,A999 Section 2 although potential failure mechanisms may vary sere ge application to another the ultimace Limit Tete of collapse and the serviceablity limit state of Siig inforced soil applications should be considered an Rinne of both extemal and internal stability. The usessment of external stability involves asstaderation of the stability of the reinforced soil Seuss. in the case of a reinforced soil wall, for Teample, this would include assessment of Gotendal faure modes such as forward sliding Prong the base of the wall. For each (allure mode aonsdered, prescribed load factors and material facxors are appropriately applied to external Aarurbing forces and external restoring forces to Ghaure that the factored restoring force equals or exceeds the factored disturbing force. The incernal stability of a reinforced soil mass is governed by the interaction berween soil and Seiaforcement. This tnteraction occurs by friction felmdhesion. Where internal stability depends upon. the shedding of load from the reinforcement to the Si an appropriate margin of safety is aciueved by Snhancing this load, by a load factor of prescribed etue. and redueing the (ricconal, or adhesive, parameters concroliing the sol/reinforcement Fhrenscuon by a material factor of prescribed value Soil reinforcement interaction also involves the Pelharaission of load from soil to reinforcement. i Uldition to chis load being funcaon of dead and {ive loads it will also be a function of the ‘characteristics of the reinforcement and in Garucular the axial tensile safiness and bending Pafiness of the reinforcement. A margin of safety achieved by erthancing this load by a load factor Of presenbed value, and reducing the strength of the reinforcement Using a material {actor of Greseribed value, Reinforcement design strength ray be governed by an ultimate limit state of Collapse or a serviceability limit state 4 Design loads Loads may be dead Joads or live loads and these are calculated in an unfacwored form. Consequently, if load is developed solely by the self Sveight of soil the load would be calculated using weight of the soil; the characteristic value being the worst credible value. The magnitude of disturbing loads. such as those Guich can be developed by lateral earth pressures. wie controlled by many factors including pore water eescures and sol shear srength, In calculating Eiscurbing loads and forces che shear strength paramecers of the soil and pore fluid are used eAfantored, ‘The numerical value of the calculated Haw diseurbing toad, defined in terms of effective ‘Stress or otal stress, is increased by mulbplying by Sprescribes load factor with 3 value of unity, oF Greater The end product of this factoring is the Sesign load. ‘The magnitudes of design loads transmitted to a reinforeing élement will be a function of prevailing Gead and live loads. However, the magnitude, and nature, of the loads absorbed by the reinforcing, clement will also be affected by the physical properties of the reinforcing element. 2.5 Design strengths A fundamental principle of limit state design is Ghat the design strength should be equal to, or greater than, the design load. In the case of external stability the design load may be resisted by forces generated in the soil. Resisting forces will be a functon of several variables including pore water pressure and soil shear Sorength, their characteristic values are determined as 2 cautious estimate of the value affecting the Sceuerence of the Limit state. These are reduced by Smaterial factor, of prescribed value, co produce & Gesign strength, As with any other geotechnical problem, due account should be taken of any Vanation of soil shear strength with time over the selected design life In the case of internal stability the design load may be resisted by forces generated in the soil and feinforcement. Resisting forces generated by feinforcement will be determuned on a statistical basis (annex A), and reduced by a material factor to produce a design strength. ‘Tne maionty of reinforcing elements, such as sinps, sheets and grids, have thicknesses which are Smal compared to their other dimensions. Such, elements are flexible and, due to their low bending Stiffness, can only absorb avdal tensile loads, The magnitude of the loads absorbed by reinforcing Clements incorporated in compacted fill wil be ‘fected by the axdal tensile stfiness of the feinforcing element. Where the design load can be Sustained at a total axial tensile strain less than or equal to 1% the reinforcement is classified as inextensible and the design load includes the tlfects of higher forces on a wall, or slope, as set Out in sectons 6 and 7. Where tie design load is Sustained a total azcal tensile strains exceeding 1% the reinforcement is classified as extensible In considering the wimate limit stazes of collapse of soll reinforeed with flecble reinforcement, 3 Gesign strength may be determined by dividing the lunfactored reinforcement base strength by 2 presenbed value of the parval material (ctor fn The dengn strength employed may be dictated by considerations of a serviceabibity Limit state rather than the ultimate Limit sate of collapse. if the Economic consequences of failure are high, the Serived design strength may be further reduced by dividing by a paral factor fy to take account of these consequences. It follows chat where che Feinforcement design strength is governed by the thiumase lurut state of collapse it is derived from the unfactored reinforcement base strength divided by the chain product fin x Jn