ORIENTAL ARCHIVE 81, 2013 391

The Different Faces of Nezha in Modern Taiwanese

Culture1

Kai Sheng

Nezha in Taiwan

The popularity of Nezha in Taiwan is an exceptional phenomenon.2 Nezha may not

be the most common god worshiped in Taiwanese temples, but he is very familiar
to ordinary people and probably the most beloved deity at the present time. No
other god than Nezha has been capable of stimulating so much enthusiasm among
the younger generation. Young people even regard Nezha as a national icon. For
example, the college student Wu Jianheng dressed himself in a 17 kg Nezha
costume when travelling around the world to places such as India, Egypt (see Fig. 1)
and Brazil.3 Wu said that, by doing so, he wanted to represent Taiwan to the world.
Moreover, apart from being worshipped as a protector deity, Nezha images have
recently appeared on commodities such as tissue boxes and lucky socks.

Figure 1
Wu Jianheng dressed as Nezha
in Egypt, 2011. Reproduced by
permission from: Wu Jianhengs
blog, http://twsometimestw.
pixnet.net/album/photo/
5499036#.

1
An earlier draft of this paper was presented at the 2012 Annual Conference of the European
Association of Taiwan Studies (EATS), the University of Southern Denmark in Snderborg,
Denmark, June 1821, 2012. The author wishes to express his gratitude to Dr Lin Pei-Yin,
Prof. Ann Heylen, the ArOr editors and the anonymous ArOr reviewers for their invaluable
suggestions and comments.
2
It is possible to pronounce the name of Nezha as Nezha, Nazha or Nuozha in Chinese,
but the transcription of Nezha in Hanyu Pinyin is more common. So, we follow this usage.
3
Xie Ruxin, Dianyin Santaizi baxi biao senba, A8.

ArOr Issue 81.3 ISSN 0044-8699 2013 Oriental Institute (ASCR), Prague
392 KAI SHENG

The reasons for Nezha having become such a representative icon for Taiwanese
youth, instead of other gods such as Mazu , need to be explored. The symbols
of Nezha have changed time and again. Since the performance of Techno Nezha in
the opening ceremonies of the 2009 World Games in Kaohsiung, Nezha has been
widely represented as an amusing childlike figure. This paper will investigate the
unique characteristics of Nezha that have enabled him to be adaptable to popular
culture, something rarely seen in other holy beings.
From a traditional protector deity to a pop icon, Nezha surely has many different
faces. The cute Techno Nezha that dances abroad is just one of the various
representations. Possibly the most significant peculiarity of Nezha is the diversity
of symbolizations. In order to analyse the Nezha phenomenon in Taiwan and his
different faces, this paper will explicate 1) Nezha in folklore and traditional religion,
2) Nezha in modern literature, 3) Nezha in cinema, 4) Nezha in fine art, and 5)
Techno Nezha as a new icon of Taiwan. The transformations of Nezha and related
identity issues in the socio-cultural context of Taiwan will also be addressed.
Regarding religious influence, many researchers have discussed Nezhas origins
and the folk beliefs surrounding him.4 In the past decade, two Nezha conferences
have been held in Taiwan,5 though research on Nezhas modern adaptations and
representations is relatively small. Gong Yulings study is useful for references
on the representative modern literary adaptations of Nezhas tale and Tsai
Mingliangs films, but contemporary artwork of Nezha is not mentioned.6 This art
is often neglected and has not received thorough comparative discussion, which
is necessary for an understanding of Nezhas cultural meaning. Furthermore, the
reason why Techno Nezha has become so popular in Taiwan also requires further
comprehensive explanation. The goal of this investigation is to clarify the different
faces of Nezha and depict them more specifically.

Nezha in Folklore and Traditional Religion

Nezha is a very common protector deity in Taiwan. Taiwanese folk religion is a
polytheistic system based on Daoism and Buddhism, and according to a survey
of the top ten most popular gods in Taiwan, public temples under one of Nezhas
titles i.e. the Prince (Taizi ) or the Marshal of the Central Altar (Zhongtan
yuanshuai ) rank in tenth place.7 In every formal temple, small private
altar or ordinary Taiwanese house, there is always a vanguard in front of the gods,

4
To name but a few: Xiao Dengfu, Nezha su yuan, 165; Li Fengmao, Cong Nezha taizi
dao Zhongtan yuanshuai: zhongyang-sifang siwei xiade hujing xiangzheng, 3557.
5
Both Nezha conferences were held in Sun Yat-sen University in 2003 and 2008.
6
Gong Yuling, Guaitai Nezha xianshen shuofa: xiandai xinbian wenben zhongdi Nezha
tuxiang, 12540.
7
Li Fengmao, Cong Nezha taizi dao Zhongtan yuanshuai: zhongyang-sifang siwei xiade
hujing xiangzheng, 4143.
 The Different Faces of Nezha in Modern Taiwanese Culture 393

wearing the identifying Cosmic Ring and with the Wind Fire Wheel at his feet; this
deity is the Marshal of the Central Altar, or Nezha (see Fig. 2). And when the deities
go on inspection tours (that is, when they are carried by believers out of their
temples to visit the surrounding villages), the marshal Nezha leads the way. Thus,
although there are not so many temples dedicated primarily to Nezha, if we add in
all of his statues that are set in temples or altars of other gods, only the God of the
earth (Tudi Gong ) can compare in relation to how widely Nezha is found.8

Figure 2
The statue of Nezha in Haian
Temple , Kaohsiung by
the author.

It is said that the origin of Nezha is based on Nalakubar, a deity from Hindu
mythology,9 whose importance later spread throughout China due to the Ming
Dynasty (13681644) classic work The Investiture of the Gods (Fengshen yanyi
). In the classic, Nezhas mother gives birth to a ball of flesh after being
pregnant for three years and six months. His father Li Jing, a military commander
who later becomes the pagoda-wielding Heavenly King (Tuota tianwang
), thinks the ball is a demon and attacks it with a sword. The ball splits open and
Nezha jumps out as a little boy instead of an infant, being able to speak and walk
immediately after birth. He is later accepted as a student by Taiyi Zhenren ,
the immortal Daoist god. As Nezha has two older brothers named Jinzha and Muzha,
he is also named Third Prince (Santaizi ) or Lord Prince (Taiziye ).

Tsai Wentin, Taitzu, the Child God, 5355.

8

Keith Stevens, Chinese Gods: The Unseen World of Spirits and Demons, 64.
9
394 KAI SHENG

According to folklore, Nezhas rash behaviour led to the severing of ties with
his family. One day, while playing near the sea, Nezha fought and killed Ao Bing
(), the third son of the East Sea Dragon King, Ao Guang . Ao Guang called
for his brothers and together confronted Nezha. He threatened to flood Chentang
Pass (Chentang guan ) and report Nezha to the Jade Emperor (Yuhuang Dadi
), the ruler of Heaven and all the realms of existence. In order to save his
family, Nezha returned his body to his parents by disembowelling his flesh and
bones. The Dragon Kings were moved by his filial piety and spared his family.
Nezha was later brought back to life by his teacher, Taiyi Zhenren, using a lotus to
construct a human body for his soul.10
The figure of Nezha is complex, even contradictory, in the story. As a legendary
divine being, Nezha is regarded as a powerful but rash boy who is nevertheless
affectionate towards his parents; on the other hand, the detriment of his body and
split from his family do not conform to Confucian principles. It is not far-fetched to
consider Nezha as a prototype for rebellious youth, or the rebel without a cause.
In some versions of the Nezha legend, he even fights his father after his rebirth.11
Interestingly, both faces of Nezha are sustained and reinforced in Taiwanese folk
religion. As a mighty god, Nezha is venerated in the sanctified title the Marshal of
the Central Altar, which means he can command the five altars (the altars of north,
south, east, west and centre) and guard the residents of the area. Almost every
Taiwanese village either has a Nezha temple (Taizigong ) or reveres Nezha in
temples of other gods. Some scholars believe that Taiwan, as an immigrant society,
places importance on Nezha as a deity of defence and protection.12 Even today,
there is a nationwide association of Nezha temples in Taiwan. The association has
produced a new and revised edition of The Scripture of the Marshal of the Central
Altar (Zhongtan yuanshuai jiangmo zhenjing ).13 Moreover, in
view of his exceptional character in mythology, some gamblers and lottery players
during the eighties and nineties worshiped Nezha as a patron god when playing
the Mark Six Lottery, which was illegal but nevertheless popular in Taiwan. The
rebellious character of Nezha, as someone who challenges authority, has made a
strong impression on people. It is no wonder that Taiwanese youth identifies with
this unruly deity rather than with other upright but distant gods, especially when
they feel malcontent and unjustly treated.

10
Lu Xixing, The Investiture of the Gods, Chapter XIIXIV.
11
For instance, On Taiyi Zhenrens advice, Nezhas spirit appeared to his mother in a dream
and requested that a temple be built in his honour. She complied but without informing her
husband. When Li Jing happened upon the temple one day, he flogged Nezhas statue and
burned the structure to the ground. Upon reincarnation, Nezha sought out his father for
revenge. Neal Donnelly, Gods of Taiwan: A Collectors Account, 60.
12
Li Fengmao, Wuying xinyang yu Zhongtan yuanshuai: qi yuanshi ji yanbian, 59094.
13
This version of The Scripture of the Marshal of the Central Altar also contains a compact disc
with recitals by the sutra-chanting group of the Sansheng Temple in Taipei.
 The Different Faces of Nezha in Modern Taiwanese Culture 395

Nezha in Literature: Nezha as a Melancholic Young Man

In the traditional folk culture of Taiwan, Nezha has always played an important
role, namely as an impulsive child. For example, the songbook Li Nezha chou
longjin ge, which is a rhyming tale based on The Investiture of the Gods, narrates
Nezhas adventures as he fights the East Sea Dragon King and disobeys his father.
However, the psychological motivation behind Nezhas rebellion is omitted.14
Consequently, his childish and naughty temperament is very similar to Sun Wukong
, also known as the Monkey King, in Journey to the West (Xi you ji
). Sun Wukong is one of the main characters in the fantasy novel Journey to the
West, a Chinese literary classic written by Wu Chengen . In the novel, he
is a born as a monkey from a stone and has supernatural powers. After rebelling
against the heavenly kingdom, he is subdued by the Buddha. However, Nezhas
characters have become more complicated in contemporary Taiwanese culture and
have acquired different faces.
Although adapted from The Investiture of the Gods, the short fiction Nezha in
the Investiture of the Gods (Fengshenbang li de Nezha , 1971)
by Xi Song (1947 ) provides Nezha with a profound personality in the
psychological perspective.15 The time and space of this work of fiction are still the
same as in the original Ming Dynasty classic, but the narration is relatively modern,
frequently using monologues and streams of consciousness. The viewpoints change
frequently; the story starts with a flashback in which Nezhas spiritual master Taiyi
Zhenren provides details of Nezhas birth, fourteen years earlier, but most of the
monologues are spoken by Nezha and refer to the relationship with his family:
Nezhas father is very strict, so they are not very intimate; his brothers dislike and
envy him; his mother loves but does not understand him. Nezha does not have
any close friends either, save his servant Simang who adores him but is unable
to understand his mind. Because of his loneliness, Nezha sometimes ponders the
meaning of life:

Oh, Master, my birth is a mistake with no reason at all. Since my childhood, I have
understood that I am reared by an overbearing mother and a father with much too high
expectations. They seem to have never cared about my actual existence, but intensely
restrain me with the correct direction of their thinking.16

14
Li Nezha chou longjin ge, 111. This kind of songbook, Gezaice , like Li Nezha chou
longjin ge, has its long tradition in Taiwan, and the performance is recited mostly in the local
Holo language. Chen Zhaonan, Taiwan shuochang de Nezha chuanshuo, 489525.
15
Xi Songs Fengshenbang li de Nezha, first published in Xiandai wenxue 44 (Sep
1971), which was a representative modern literature journal at that time, was then collected
in Liushinian duanpianxiaoshuo xuan [The annual short-fiction selections of 1971], 205227.
Xi Song was once a potential novelist because of his modernist expressions, but he is now
mostly famous for his paintings of Buddha and Zenism.
16
Xi Song, Fengshenbang li de Nezha, 209.
396 KAI SHENG

As a result, Nezha is no longer characterised as a spoiled child, as in the

traditional legend, but is presented as rather a melancholic young man. Although
the high degree of self-awareness demonstrated in this reflective monologue may
seem too mature for a young mans personality, Nezha is convincingly depicted,
as is his dissociation from his parents. And of more importance to us is the
transformation of Nezhas face: the dissociation does not stem from the discontent
of a naughty kid in response to his parents discipline but initially from a young
man rebelling against his parents in relation to his actual existence. From the
mythological or anthropological viewpoint, the traditional Nezha icon is a kind of
enfant terrible, but more violent,17 while the disobedience of the elder Nezha is
more concerned, essentially, with the conflict of different generations that might
be akin to the experience of Oedipus. As a matter of fact, the relationship between
Oedipus and Nezha has been comparatively researched by Fan Sheng , a
doctor of psychology.18 According to his interpretation, both Nezha and Oedipus
are in conflict with their fathers, except that Oedipus actually kills his father while
Nezha does not; in other words, Nezha is ideal proof that the Oedipus Complex also
exists in Eastern literature. However, Xi Song abandons the story of Nezhas battle
against his father and instead focuses more on Nezhas inner feelings.
The novelist Li Qiao (1934 ) writes a positive review of Xi Songs novel
and considers individualism to be an important theme. The essence of the tragedy
is that Nezhas parents do not recognize the individual personality of their son.19 As
shown by Nezhas complaint that his parents have never cared about him but have
only restrained him, the values of different generations have diverged; the concept of
individualism that young people take for granted is the cause of this generation gap.
Nezhas dissociation from his parents reflects the longing for independence of the
new generation after World War II; they no longer liked to be treated as children and
wanted their voices to be heard, as manifested in the student protest movements of
the 1960s. The publication of this novel was only three years after the 1968 uprising
in France. The mythical character of Nezha is an apposite icon, symbolizing this
discontent. Nezhas transformation also manifests an awareness that young people
are no longer to be regarded as obedient children who lack individuality.
Generally speaking, the concept of individualism and the independence of youth
do not exist in traditional culture. Young people are frequently considered as either
children or marriageable adults; they must obey their parents without question. The
alteration of the age of Nezha in this fiction is hardly a minor one but instead can
be regarded as an important indication of the essential transformation of Taiwanese
society. If we refer back to the Japanese colonial period (18951945), Taiwan

17
Traditionally, the believers of Nezha often offer toys or candies to please him, as the author
has observed in Haian Temple, Kaohsiung. Obviously, they regard him as a child.
18
Fan Sheng, Yidepasi yu Nezha, 5762.
19
Yi Chanti (Li Qiao), Xipin Fengshenbang li de Nezha, 128. Yi Chanti is one of the pennames
of Li Qiao.
 The Different Faces of Nezha in Modern Taiwanese Culture 397

modernized in many aspects, and as a consequence modern Taiwanese literature

also progressed, but work dealing with young persons or the generation gap was
relatively uncommon. The social tragedies in fiction during that period mostly
reflected the conflict between individuals and society or between different classes,
rather than between different generations. From this point of view, Xi Songs fiction
broke new ground in Taiwanese literature by depicting a young mans emotion
through a protagonist, based on a mythical legend.20
For the most part, Xi Songs novel is not heavily dramatized, except for the
accident at the end. One day, Nezha goes to the riverside alone and takes off his
clothes in order to bathe. As in the myth of Narcissus, when Nezha looks at his
reflection, he feels that the image in the water becomes a real naked young man and
comes close to him. Nezha also wants to hold the man and play with him, but the
reflection is actually the river god. Then they hold each other and pretend to fight,
just for fun. However, Nezha kills the god of the river unintentionally and regrets
the accident:

Master, I understand I have the responsibility for the blood-stained sins of the birds in the
sky and the animals in the forest. However, I cannot remember precisely what happened
this time. Did I kill a strange young man because of my desire to bathe in the cool water
that afternoon? I reflect on my past life closely, I know, I shall pay the price21

The river god that Nezha killed is the Dragon Kings son. As a consequence,
Nezha punishes himself by destroying his body, even though the death might have
been an accident. Obviously, Xi Song depicts Nezha through a psychoanalytic
perspective, representing him as a lonely young narcissist with ambiguously
homosexual desires. For this reason, Gong Yulings critique considers Xi Song to
be a pioneer of Taiwanese queer literature.22 Whether Nezha is homosexual or not,
his unruly personality is understandable, portraying him as being more than simply
a holy being separate from the secular world. Since the publication of Xi Songs
fiction, Nezha has scontinued to inspire many artistic innovations. In 1974, Lin
Hwaimin (py: Lin Huaimin) (1947 ) choreographed the dance Nezha for
the Cloud Gate Theatre (Yunmen wuji ), which was well received by the
critics.23 However, it was left for other artists to explore the social character of
Nezha.
20
Of course, there had also been some novels that had presented young characters and the
problems of youth, such Yang Qingchus Zai shi nan (1969), but these fictions seldom
focused on disobedient or marginalized youth.
21
Xi Song, Fengshenbang li de Nezha, 217.
22
Gong Yuling, Guaitai Nezha xianshen shuofa: xiandai xinbian wenben zhongdi Nezha
tuxiang, 13438.
23
For example, Yang Zi highly recommends Lin Hwaimins dance drama, Nezha, considering
it to be a successful development of modern dance with an Oriental spirit. Yang Zi, Yunmen
zhi wu, A2.
398 KAI SHENG

Nezha in Cinema: The Neon God

Nezha has had a popular title role in fantasy films for a long time. But these movies
have mostly focused on martial arts and special effects, seldom exploring Nezhas
temperament and personality.24 There may be no appropriate example in cinema
that can compare with Xi Songs adaptation of Nezha in literature. Nevertheless,
Rebels of the Neon God (1992), directed by Tsai Mingliang (1957 ), though
not adapted from the Nezha legend, focuses heavily on concerns regarding self-
indulgent youth in modern society.
In 1994, Tsais film Vive Lamour was honoured with the Golden Lion Award
at the Venice Film Festival, establishing his worldwide reputation. However, his
first full-length film, Rebels of the Neon God, demonstrates his personal style and
favourite themes, such as calming moods, steady pace, images of water and the
alienation of urban life. This film also won the award for Best Film at the Torino
International Festival of Young Cinema. It is difficult to attribute a genre to Rebels
of the Neon God, because it is not a simple melodramatic story. The movie tells two
separate stories about the youth of Taipei. One details a cram school student named
Xiaokang and his troubled relationship with his family. His parents wish him to
attend college, but he withdraws from the cram school and uses the tuition fee for
recreation purposes. The other shows two young hooligans, Aze and Abing, along
with Akuei, Azes girlfriend. Aze and Abing sometimes steal the components of
game machines for money, but eventually they get into trouble. These two groups
do not know each other, although they bump into each other by chance. At one
point, Aze has a traffic dispute with Xiaokangs father (he is a taxi driver) and
damages his car; Xiaokang was in the car and later takes revenge. Both stories
concern troubled and dissatisfied young people, along with the alienating effect of
urban life.
The original Chinese title, Qingshaonian Nezha , is a phrase with
a double meaning which can literally mean Young Nezha or The Youth as Nezha,
which also implies the use of Nezha as a metaphor for the frustrated teenagers in
modern metropolitan Taipei. In this movie, the name of Nezha is mentioned at
least three times: on the first occasion, when Xiaokangs mother tells her husband
that Xiaokangs disobedience is due to him being the reincarnation of Nezha, as
told by a sorceress. The second time is when Xiaokang meets Aze, the young man
who had damaged his fathers car; Xiaokang defaces Azes motorbike as an act of
vengeance, leaving the words Nezha was here on the sidewalk; the third time is
when Aze complains of his misfortune, and his friend Abing advises him to worship
Nezha. Moreover, the young men riding motorbikes may also refer to Nezha and his

24
The most famous fantasy movie about Nezha may well be Na Cha the Great (1974), because
the director Zhang Che is a renowned action movie director in Taiwan and Hong
Kong.
 The Different Faces of Nezha in Modern Taiwanese Culture 399

Wind Fire Wheel. Nezha is indicated in many ways and is implied as an important
symbol in this film.
Apart from these indications, Rebels of the Neon God also contains the
intertextuality of cinema, such as the title and a James Dean poster appearing in one
scene, both of which echo Nicholas Rays Rebel without a Cause (1955). The figure
of James Dean in Rebel without a Cause has become an important cultural icon for
rebellious youth. Furthermore, on many occasions, Tsai Mingliang has expressed
his admiration for the New Wave director Franois Truffaut, so Rebels of the Neon
God might be seen as an act of homage to The 400 Blows (1959), for they both
concern unruly teenagers. Therefore, the decadent young people in Rebels of the
Neon God can be regarded as an attempt to combine the mythical figure of Nezha
with the modern subculture that represents the angst of youth.
The movie also presents the social problems that young people face, such as the
pressure of examinations, the desire for sex and the lack of goals in their lives. The
parent-child relationship in this movie is tense, with the parents really caring for
their children, even though they do not understand the young generation. In the end,
Xiaokangs father unlocks the door to let in his son, even though he is still angry.
Obviously he was waiting for his son to come home. Despite this brief show of
human warmth, the films portrayal of the cold modern metropolis as a dehumanized
space only makes these young people more decadent and alienated.25
Tsai Mingliang decided to make reference to mythology in a film about decadent
youth, instead of simply making a nihilistic film about young rebels. In his first
full-length film, Tsai was not satisfied with making a conventionally realistic film
and instead searched for a new aesthetic in cinema. Chris Berry suggests the term
hyperbolic realism to describe the style of Tsais Vive Lamour26; although Rebels
of the Neon God may not be a typical case of hyperbolic realism, it possesses its
own poetics of alternative realism. The allusion of the Nezha myth will not destroy
the realist atmosphere, but instead enriches the film with its multi-dimensional
symbols.
With the intertextuality of the Nezha myth, this film is no longer a specific
case of troubled teenagers in Taipei but also a representation of the more general
phenomenon of lost generations in the modern world. The mention of James Dean
also reinforces this universality. This film is neither a superstitious mythical story,
nor a psychological drama covering the lives a few young persons; it is really
concerned with the situation of Taiwanese youth. Mythology and modernity are well
balanced in this film. As we have mentioned, Nezha has the Wind Fire Wheel, and

25
The urban space of Taipei was an important motif of Taiwans New Cinema in the 1980s and
1990s, which also reflects the capitalization of Taiwan. See the discussion of Edward Yangs
The Terrorizer; in Frederic Jameson, The Geopolitical Aesthetic, 15355.
26
Chris Berry uses the term hyperbolic realism to describe the style of Tsais films, especially
for Vive Lamour, but Rebels of the Neon God also contains some of these features, cf. Chris
Berry, Hyperbolic Realism and Indulgence in Vive Lamour, 8990.
400 KAI SHENG

the impulsive young men who ride motorbikes bear witness to this. The mythical
elements of air (wind or engine speed) and fire (engine power) remain in modern
society, and the uncontrolled water flooding Azes apartment is an unforgettable
image in the film; only the element of earth is missing, instead being replaced by the
cold citys asphalt and cement. The absence of real earth serves as an explanation
for the alienation of existence in the modern world.
In the same way that these young people, these neon gods, have no way out in
Tsais movie, the poet Chen Kehua (1961 ), who is also an ophthalmologist,
wrote the poem Nezha (1993) to correspond to the image of young people who
speed on their motorbikes so as to forget their confusion.27 Chen usually writes
about homosexuality and social minorities in fantastic or surrealistic ways. In this
poem, the protagonist as a narrator is a young man lying in a valley because of an
accident, but the only thing he worries about is his motorbike. One technique Chen
uses is to write the word Shi but with an altered meaning. The Chinese word
Shi is the same as Yi , which originally means Yttrium, a chemical element with
the element symbol Y and atomic number 39, but here it refers to the third-person
pronoun denoting metal, serving as a mechanical Ta . The poem tragically
portrays an alienated life. When Nezha becomes a neon god, not only has he been
modernized, but he assumes the despair of a new era.

Nezha in Art: Rebel with Many Causes

Six years after the repeal of martial law in Taiwan, the young artist Hou Chunming
(py: Hou Junming) (1963 ) exhibited his Soushenji [Anecdotes
about Spirits and Immortals] (1993) in a Taipei art gallery, presenting eighteen
gods in woodcut prints and legends, which grotesquely parodies the writings and
drawings of Chinese scripts. In this modern collection of Taiwanese deities, Nezha
is also depicted as a weird and rebellious infant (see Fig. 3).

Figure 3
Hou Chunming, Nezha, 1993.
Print. Reproduced by permission
of the artist.

27
Chen Kehua, Nezha, 18082.
 The Different Faces of Nezha in Modern Taiwanese Culture 401

Martial law in Taiwan began in 1949. Free speech and the formation of new
political parties were prohibited, and political dissidents were commonly suppressed;
this period is often named the White Terror. Since the lifting of martial law in 1987,
many political and cultural taboos have been challenged. Of all the artwork by
Hou Chunming during the 1980s and 1990s, Soushenji is the most notable and
is often regarded as a testimony to Taiwans social transformation. In 1995, Hou
was chosen to represent Taiwan at the Venice Biennale. Today, Hou is one of the
most distinguished artists among his peers, and his work still holds the record for
the highest sale price of contemporary Taiwanese art at auction. In fact, it was his
Soushenji that set the record, being sold at Christies for US$0.34 million.28
According to Huitu sanjiao yuanliu Daquan [The
comprehensive illustrated collections of gods from three religions], the classic
record book of the gods of major religions in China that can be traced back to
the Yuan dynasty (12711368), a conventional representation of Nezha is as an
innocent-looking child treating his weapons as toys (see Fig. 4). However, Hous
artwork is more than just an exaggerated parody. His Soushenji has become so
significant in contemporary Taiwanese art due to its challenging of mainstream
social values, and to a lesser extent due to its advanced style for the time and its
transformation of local folk culture.

Figure 4
Nezha represented in a
conventional style. Reproduced
by permission from Huitu sanjiao
yuanliu daquan, 39.

28
Hou Chunmings Soushenji sold for HK$2.64 million (about US$0.34 million) at Christies
Hong Kong auction in November 2007, which is the highest record for contemporary
Taiwanese art. Teng Suefeng, The Fab Four of Contemporary Taiwanese Art, 91.
402 KAI SHENG

As a matter of fact, the title Soushenji comes from the name of the classic Chinese
novel by Gan Bao (?336), who was an historian of the Eastern Jin Dynasty
(317420). Gan Bao gathered and recorded many myths and legends, as well as
stories of monsters and incredible events. He considered these as facts and recorded
them as such in the Soushenji. As a contemporary religious sceptic, Hou Chunming
certainly does not believe in these superstitions.29 He appropriates the books name
and its narrative form, which often takes the form of a brief story with a moral, in
order to relate the modern legends that he has gathered. Some have been invented
by Hou, such as Floral Man (Huajun ), representing homosexual people, but
many deities of this series already existed, such as Nwa and Nezha; they have
all been given new appearances with different symbolic meanings. For example,
Nwa, the earliest goddess who created human beings, according to Chinese
mythology, is transfigured to symbolize the empowered modern woman. As we
know, Lu Xun (18811936) had already rewritten the story of Nwa in Butian
[Mending Heaven] (1935), which was collected in Old Tales Retold (1935),
and had given it new meaning. But Lu Xuns retelling of the old story fails to
address modern societys feminist perspective.
The text on the left of the Nezha illustration, which was also written by Hou,
relates the Nezha legend as well as refers to his incarnations in contemporary
society. As with the youths in Rebels of the Neon God, Nezha symbolizes their
inability to adapt to the demands of society, as the explanation states, The restless
youths wander around Ximending [the old city centre of Taipei and a major
scene in Rebels of the Neon God] without knowing their future as seen in the movie.
Some people regard it as a kind of subculture. Here Hou not only refers to Tsais
movie but also implies that the educated class tend to label youth as members of a
subculture or with other descriptors, rather than attempt to understand them.
Nezhas image in Hous Soushenji is horrifying in that he stabs his mother (see
Fig. 3). In fact, Nezha is an unfilial son, having fought against his father Li Jing
in the original legend, although his conventional image in Taiwan is usually as a
cute boy and a protector deity. Hou simply reinforces Nezhas disobedience. From
a political point of view, Hou presents Nezhas disobedience as being closer to
the spirit of Xingtian , who also appears in the Soushenji. According to the
Classics of Mountains and Seas (Shan hai jing ), a compilation of early
geographical treatises and myths dating back to the fourth century BC, Xingtian
once fought Huangdi (the Yellow Emperor), the legendary Chinese ancestor,
but failed to defeat him. Although Xingtians head was cut off, he kept challenging
Huangdi and refused to surrender. Even without his head, Xingtian was so strong-
willed that he alienated his own body by transforming his chest into eyes in order to
stare at the world, and his navel into a mouth for shouting. As a rebel god, Xingtian
is a tragic hero who can be compared to Prometheus, and is also the prototype for
martyrs, revolutionaries or activists fighting against unjust rule, just as Prometheus
29
Hou Chunming, interview by the author, Hous studio, November 3, 2011.
 The Different Faces of Nezha in Modern Taiwanese Culture 403

was during the Romantic Era.30 As Hou says, he was aware that although martial
law had been lifted, the dictatorship had not yet been completely dismantled in the
early 1990s, so he views Xingtian as a symbol representing the power of social
movements that have challenged ruling institutions.31 Just as with Xingtian, Hous
Nezha is also a mythical hero who has held rebellious power throughout history; he
is more like Prometheus than Oedipus in relation to the social meaning.32

Techno Nezha as a New Icon

So far, we have provided an outline of the Nezha legend in Taiwanese folk
religion and have discussed Nezhas remodelled faces in three cases. Although Xi
Songs novel borrows from the traditional legend and maintains the ancient times
background setting, his narration is modern in style; for instance, the psychoanalytic
representation of Nezhas mind opens up the reader to issues such as individualism,
homosexuality and the generation gap. Tsai Mingliangs film does not only reference
the anxiety of youth in the modern city, but also the modernism that combines
realism with mythological references in order to achieve universal meaning. Hou
Chunmings Nezha, along with the rest of his Soushenji, also corresponds to
the post-martial law atmosphere in Taiwan and represents the discontent among
modern young people in relation to injustice, although the drawing and writing
styles originate from conventional religious books.
Though Hous Nezha is a kind of modern art form, it does not belong to pure
modernist aesthetics, because the narration and the application of folk culture
push it closer to postmodernism. For Hou, modernist aesthetics seem to be too
preoccupied with formal language and rarely commit to social issues, so he applies
a modified or parodied version of figurative language, borrowed from traditional
culture. As we know, woodcut printings can make an associative connection to 20th
century propaganda art, such as Kthe Kollwitzs anti-war art and the left-wing
prints in 1930s China, but Hou boldly applies this media to present these deities in
an avant-garde manner and tells his own version of the legends. Although Nezha
is a typical example of this, it is not Pop Art; it is not borrowed from consumer
commodities or current fashion, neither is it kitsch as is most Pop Art. His parody
is a sort of anti-myth with social and political implications in an historical context.
The application of Taiwanese folk culture in Hous Soushenji definitively does not
30
According to the critic and editor of Shan hai jing, Huangdis ruling power was established
after he conquered Yandi and his tribes. Xingtian might have been Yandis descendant,
so he still fought against Huangdi. See Shan hai jing, 216. The critic Yuan Ke also
regards Xingtian as an archetype of oppressed people sturdily resisting the ruling class.
Yuan Ke, Zhongguo shenhua tonglun, 103.
31
Hou Chunming, Houshi Xingtian, 191. Houshi Xingtian is an appendix of Hous book
Soushenji, which contains a number of reviews of his exhibition Soushenji and manuscripts.
32
For more details on Hous Xingtian, see Sheng Kai, Fansixing zhuti de fansi: Hou Chunming
zuopin zhongdi zaixiancelue, zhutiguan yu shehuipipan, 21350.
404 KAI SHENG

belong to modernist aesthetics. In fact, the transformed traditional form, combined

with a degree of originality, is his way of differentiating himself from Western
Modern Art. In this way, he is able to represent his cultural identity, although Hou
does not mean to choose Nezha as an exclusive icon to represent Taiwan. Thus, the
identity issues and the fusion of modernity with tradition have become significant
characteristics of Nezha in the new millennium.
In fact, the Taiwanese poet Lin Yangmin (1955 ) has appropriated the
Nezha myth as an allegory to explain the relationship between Taiwan and China in
the year after the abolishment of martial law. In the preface to his collection of essays
that was published in 1988, Lin considers that the episode where Nezha returns his
body to his parents and his subsequent rebirth with a lotus as his new body can serve
to enlighten the Taiwanese. Lin argues that the Taiwanese people should imitate the
Nezha spirit and build an independent nation, cutting the bloodline with China as
part of the process.33 The title of Lins book, Taiwanren de lianhua zaisheng
, can be translated as The Lotus Rebirth of the Taiwanese, which also
corresponds to the Nezha myth. Although Lin does not regard the Nezha icon as
a unique symbol in the representation of Taiwan, his interpretation chiefly focuses
on Nezhas radical abjuration and his rebirth in order to redefine the relationship
between Taiwan and China.
In recent years, the Nezha icon has become popular in relation to advertising
commodities, as we have mentioned above, but this phenomenon is not peculiar
to only this deity. One notable example is the popularity of the goddess Mazu.
There are many types of Matsu idols, serving as a kind of mascot, and some are
even produced in cartoon styles. However, only Nezha, the traditional deity with a
modern face, has the ability to act as a role model for cultural identity, and has thus
achieved much higher levels of popularity. Today, we might well see Nezha as the
Marshal of the Central Altar in a religious parade but he is likely to be portrayed as
a follower of modern fashion, i.e., by wearing sunglasses or dancing to electronic
music. It is a new kind of performance that has now become very popular in Taiwan,
and has even appeared on the international scene. The best known example may be
Techno Nezha dancing to Lady Gagas Bad Romance at Dodger Stadium in Los
Angeles on September 4th, 2010. However, other deities, such as Matsu, seldom
appear aboard as Taiwanese icons, regardless of whether or not they are given a
modernized appearance or appear in a strictly traditional representation.
Taiwanese folk parades are usually held on special occasions, such as the
birthdays of gods and traditional holidays, but nowadays the parades (Dintao
in Holo) have sometimes started to become part of secular ceremonies or
have developed into a kind of folk performance for entertainment purposes. The
performance of Techno Nezha at the opening ceremony of the 2009 World Games
in Kaohsiung is the most notable example; a group of Nezhas even rode motorbikes
into the stadium and danced to the rhythm of contemporary pop songs. Certainly,
33
Lin Yangmin, Taiwanren de lianhua zai sheng, 4.
 The Different Faces of Nezha in Modern Taiwanese Culture 405

Techno Nezha appears in this kind of scene even if he retains his original purpose of
keeping the peace and ensuring safety; Nezhas modernized figure and performance
have enabled his character to be disseminated and further refined as a new icon
of Taiwanese identity in international events, based on the hybridization of old
traditions and modern fashionable elements.
In fact, the modernized figure of Nezha not only wears sunglasses but has
also changed his size, face and plastic appearance. The gods of folk parades are
actually body puppets with people (or operators) inside, but since Techno Nezha
has converted the traditional dance steps into a twirling techno performance, the
puppets have become, for practical purposes, smaller. In addition, Nezhas poses
and actions have also become cuter than before, and his face has even been given
larger dimples, making him look more childish. As a result, Nezha nowadays is
represented as a mild god rather than a wild god, one who is not harmful to the
world and looks like an amusing kid dressed in contemporary fashion. The violent
and rebellious character of Nezha is now hidden, at least on most occasions.34
Although the actions of the dintao (the folk parade) should be regulated, in
accordance with tradition, and this includes Nezhas steps, Techno Nezhas electronic
music has changed this. This creative adaptation has come about through the efforts
of Taiwanese youth, who might have been influenced by the grassroots Taike
movement. As Jerome Keating observes, Taike is the spirit of Taiwan, the spirit of
people that once were belittled and looked down upon by outsiders, foreigners and
colonialists.35 The Taike movement is a revolt against the discrimination directed
towards Taiwanese folk culture, even though the young people who have created
Techno Nezha may not be aware of the fact. The hybridization of the modernized
Nezha, as well as the fusion of popular culture with Taiwanese traditional art, have
quickly become accepted by Taiwanese people and have transformed Techno Nezha
into a representative icon of local culture.36

34
In a parallel current of thought, Chuang Chiayin notices that some politicians in
Taiwan have produced their icons as commodities [to be] consumed, possessed and used
as meaningful markers of social relations, and these kind of dolls appealed to peoples
obsession with Kawaii (meaning cute in Japanese), which helped to integrate the doll into
the everyday life. Chuang Chiayin, Kawaii in Taiwan politics, 12 & 9. However, even if
the modernized Nezhas icon is Kawaii, the faces that challenge injustice still remain.
35
As Keating argues, Taike in the past, had been linked to images of betel-nut chewing, sandal-
shod, palm-leaf hat wearing low-class farmers and ill-dressed gangsters, but now it is being
extended past that and past the latest hip fashion. It is being examined and embraced as the
true spirit and heart of the Taiwanese. Jerome Keating, To Be Taike Is to Be a Taiwanese, A8.
36
Of course, the trend to merge popular culture and Taiwanese traditional art is not an exceptional
phenomenon in Techno Nezha. As Teri Silvio has observed, the new Opeila, which combines
new performing art with conventional theatre, could be described as popular pastiche and
bricolage in Taiwan, or an example of hybridity. See Teri Silvio, Hupiezai de duoyang
shikong: cong minzu/guojia zhi bianyuan kan gezaixi, 1819. However, the identity of
Techno Nezha as Taiwanese culture is more obvious.
406 KAI SHENG

As Techno Nezha has absorbed pop culture and become a new popular icon of
Taiwan, mass culture has begun to utilize Nezha as well. For instance, in the music
video which accompanies the pop song Bobee (which means blessing in Holo)
a Techno Nezha group dances behind the singer. The song was very popular in
2010. Then, in the following two years, two films, The Spin Kid (2011) and Din
Tao: Leader of the Parade (2012) also indirectly refer to Nezha. The protagonist of
The Spin Kid is a night club DJ who has grown up in a temple and often takes part in
folk performances. Din Tao: Leader of the Parade is about a young man who revives
his fathers folk parade troupe and takes the religious processions performance to
the stage. Naturally, both films include some scenes in which Techno Nezha is
performing, and the most significant link with Nezha is that the protagonists of
both films have difficult relationships with their fathers, though they both reconcile
their differences in the end. These two films are sentimental melodramas, a kind
of mediocre family romance, and do not explore the situation of young people and
their minds as profoundly as Rebels of the Neon God, but both portray Nezha as a
prototype of a disobedient son and are still able to inspire the cultural imagination.

Conclusion: Nezha as Taiwanese Identity

When Xi Song published Nezha in the Investiture of the Gods in 1971, the nativist
literature movement (xianatu wenxue ) had already taken off in Taiwan.
Although Xi Songs work does not accord with the social realism of the nativist
movement, his adaptation of the Nezha legend from Chinese mythology can be
viewed as an attempt to support the establishment of cultural identity by creating a
kind of modern literature containing elements of traditional Chinese culture. On the
other hand, his version of cultural identity intends neither to make external references
to political issues, nor to oppose Western cultural influence, as was popular with the
nativists, but to rewrite an ancient myth in order to focus on the internal personal
identity of Nezha as a young man with an obscure set of desires in his mind. When
Xi Song described Nezha as having a melancholic face and ambiguous identity,
Taiwan was also going through a time of uncertainty. In the same year that Xi Song
published this novel, the Chinese Nationalist Government lead by the Kuomintang in
Taipei was expelled from the United Nations for not being the lawful representative
of China (according to The UN General Assembly Resolution 2758 on Oct. 25,
1971); since then Taiwanese identity has gradually grown stronger, but Taiwan as
a nation-state has faced uncertainty in the international context. In contrast, Lin
Yangmin interpreted Nezha with a political slant, allegorizing Nezhas rebirth to
the independence of the Taiwanese people. However, between uncertainty and
independence, Nezha as a cultural symbol of Taiwanese identity still has his many
different faces, all of which are far removed from traditional Chinese culture.
Although the belief in Nezha as a protector deity originates in China, its
symbolizations in Taiwan are very different. If we compare the images of Nezha in
modern Taiwanese culture with Chinese versions, there is a significant difference;
 The Different Faces of Nezha in Modern Taiwanese Culture 407

Chinese animations, such as Nezha Conquers the Dragon King (Nezha Naohai
, 1979), are mostly presented as being about the adventures of naughty
children. As we have established above, Taiwans representations of Nezha are
more profound and are overlaid with a higher degree of social connotation, as for
example in Xi Songs adaptation, Tsai Mingliangs film and Hou Chunmings avant-
garde woodcut prints. Of course, it is true that they do have a different purpose, e.g.,
Nezha Conquers the Dragon King is primarily a cartoon for children, while Nezhas
diverse faces in Taiwan are more serious for adult audiences. However, Taiwanese
variations of Nezha move away from the Chinese tradition, without even mentioning
the unique Techno Nezha, so it is reasonable that Nezha has the capacity to stand as
a cultural symbol of Taiwanese identity; even though this identity is not necessarily
directly in opposition to China, Lin Yangmins conviction is that Nezha symbolizes
the Taiwanese as they completely free themselves from Chinese culture.
Some of the innovative transformations of Nezha in contemporary Taiwan
present the image of individuals clashing with established systems and structures,
especially Hous Nezha and his modernized mythic tragic hero, Xingtian. Although
the performance of Techno Nezha is cheerful with its childlike charm, the new
face of Nezha as an icon of Taiwanese culture remains as an inventive spirit; this
vigorous Nezha can still inspire young people. For instance, Ed Wu, the young
man who escorted Nezha around the world, again dressed in the Nezha costume on
another occasion, but did not do so in a foreign country; this time Wu appeared as
Nezhas incarnation in the labour protests at the Hualon Corporation. Here, Nezha
was not only a protector deity for the helpless minority but also a fighting hero to
offer labourers encouragement, serving as a symbol of the determination to achieve
freedom and justice, a figure with which rebellious young people could identify.37
Since Techno Nezha has achieved fame and commercial success, he is not only a
kind of statue in Taiwanese temples but an icon continually attracting the attention
of young people. The figure of Nezha has been altered to become a new symbol of
Taiwanese culture, instead of being a character from old-fashioned folklore. It also
acts as an effective means of showing that the local mass culture has reinstated its
vitality, as Jerome Keating portrays the Taike movement. The Taiwanese Nezha
with Taiwanness also proves the self-confidence of Taiwanese people in relation
to their own culture. The reasons why Taiwanese people appreciate Nezha so much
and regard him as representing their cultural identity are not simply because of his
nativist temperament or his young vivacious appearance, but also because of the
youthful creativeness that boldly merges tradition and modernity. That is why Nezha
the unruly deity, rather than other folk religious symbols, is best able to represent
Taiwanese identity; no other deity exists who is able to present this hybridity as
abundantly and directly as Nezha can. In this respect, the hybridity of Techno
Nezha is one of the most essential examples which explains his popularity. The
differentiation of Nezhas appearances is also a good example which exemplifies
37
Yang Zongxing, Ting Hualong Taiwan Santaizi xianshen bagong xianchang.
408 KAI SHENG

the multifaceted development of Taiwanese culture. Even if Nezha as a classic

myth or a traditional protector deity has lost some of its importance in modern
society, his different faces are still a development in progress and worthy of our
consideration.

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Films
Dian Nezha [The Spin Kid]. Directed by Li Yunjie . 2011. Taipei, Taiwan: Dynasty
Film Production Co., Ltd., 2013. DVD.
Nezha nao hai [Nezha Conquers the Dragon King]. Directed by Wang Shuchen
, Xu Jingda and Yan Dingxian . 1979. Shanghai, China: Shanghai Animation
Film. Studio, 2008. DVD.
410 KAI SHENG

Qingshaonian Nezha [Rebels of the Neon God]. Directed by Cai Mingliang

[Tsai Mingliang]. 1992. Taipei, Taiwan: Central Motion Pictures Corporation, 2004. DVD.
Zhen tou [Din Tao: Leader of the Parade]. Directed by Feng Kai . 2012. Taipei, Taiwan:
Magnificent Film Entertainment Co., Ltd., 2012. DVD.