Professional Documents
Culture Documents
To Minh Thanh
TUYEN SINH SAU AI HOC CHUYEN NGANH Giang day tieng Anh
Thc te la khong phai sach ngon ng cua tac gia ngi nc ngoai nao
cung ap ng ung va u noi dung on tap thi tuyen sinh sau ai hoc chuyen
nganh Giang day tieng Anh (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages)
theo quy nh cua Trng ai hoc Khoa hoc Xa hoi va Nhan van, thuoc ai
hoc Quoc gia Thanh pho Ho Ch Minh. Tai lieu nay ra i nham ap ng nhu
cau on tap thi tuyen sinh sau ai hoc cho mon Ng hoc trong chuyen nganh
neu tren.
e giup cac oi tng d thi lam quen va chuan b tot cho ky thi cua
mnh, tai lieu nay (1) bao gom nhng trong iem theo ung qui nh ve noi
dung on tap cua e cng on tap Cu phap cho ky thi tuyen sinh sau ai hoc
chuyen nganh Giang day tieng Anh va (2) c trnh bay thanh bon phan:
Phan 1: Cac t loai (Word Classes)
Phan 2: Cac loai ng, cu va cau (Types of phrases, clauses and
sentences)
Phan 3: Cac moi quan he ng phap (Grammatical relations)
Phan 4: Mot so e thi va ap an a thc te c dung trong cac ky thi gan
ay.
Tai lieu nay cung co the nam trong th muc sach tham khao giup sinh
vien he tai chc va he chnh quy bang 1 va bang 2 cua chuyen nganh Ng
van Anh hoc thanh cong mon Syntax trong chng trnh chnh khoa cua cac
he ao tao ai hoc nay. Ngoai ra, cac hoc vien cao hoc chuyen nganh Giang
day tieng Anh va cac thay co cua khoa Boi dng giao vien tai Trng ai
hoc Khoa hoc Xa hoi va Nhan van, thuoc ai hoc Quoc gia Thanh pho Ho Ch
Minh cung co the tham khao tai lieu nay khi theo hoc mon Linguistics PG
trong chng trnh chnh khoa cua ca hai he ao tao sau ai hoc nay.
Rat mong tai lieu nay se giup cac oi tng d thi t on luyen tot hn du
co ieu kien hay khong the trc tiep theo hoc cac lp luyen thi tai trng.
vi
CONTENTS
Content ................................................................................................................................. i
Preface.............................................................................................................................. vii
Outline for revision ............................................................................................................ ix
Table of notational symbols ........................................................................................... xii
i
8.6 Verb participles ........................................................................................ 29
8.7 Gerunds ..................................................................................................... 30
8.8 Restricters ................................................................................................ 31
9 Types of post-nominal modifiers ......................................................................... 32
9.1 Prepositional phrases ................................................................................. 32
9.2 Adjective phrases ...................................................................................... 33
9.3 Participial phrases ..................................................................................... 35
9.4 Infinitive phrases ...................................................................................... 35
9.5 Subordinate adjective clauses .................................................................. 36
10 Noun complements vs. optional post-nominal modifiers .................................. 36
11 Classification of English verbs/verb phrases ................................................... 38
11.1 Intensive verbs/verb phrases ................................................................. 39
11.2 Complex transitive verbs/verb phrases .................................................. 40
11.3 Ditransitive verbs/verb phrases ............................................................. 43
11.4 Monotransitive verbs/verb phrases ........................................................ 47
11.5 Prepositional verbs/verb phrases ........................................................... 51
11.5.1 Monotransitive Prepositional verbs/verb phrases ................... 51
11.5.2 Ditransitive Prepositional verbs/verb phrases ........................ 53
11.6 Intransitive verbs/verb phrases ............................................................. 55
11.7 Summary of the classification of English verbs/verb phrases ............. 57
11.8 Troublesome verbs ................................................................................... 59
12 Types of clause links .......................................................................................... 61
13 Types of clauses ................................................................................................. 62
13.1 Finite clauses vs. non-finite clauses ........................................................ 62
13.2 Independent clauses vs. dependent clauses ........................................... 63
13.3 Subordinate clauses vs. embedded clauses ............................................ 64
14 Covert subjects vs. overt subjects .................................................................. 66
15 Types of finite dependent clauses .................................................................... 67
15.1 Nonimal clauses ........................................................................................ 67
15.2 Relative clauses ........................................................................................ 67
ii
15.3 Adverbial clauses ..................................................................................... 68
15.4 Reporting clauses ..................................................................................... 68
15.5 Comment clauses ...................................................................................... 68
16 Types of non-finite clauses .............................................................................. 69
16.1 Infinitive non-finite clauses .................................................................... 69
16.2 Gerund non-finite clauses ........................................................................ 69
16.3 Participial non-finite clauses ................................................................... 70
16.4 Verbless clauses ....................................................................................... 71
17 Classification of sentences according to their structures ............................. 71
17.1 Simple sentences ...................................................................................... 71
17.2 Compound sentences ................................................................................ 72
17.3 Complex sentences ................................................................................... 72
17.3.1 Embedded nominal clauses .............................................................. 73
17.3.1.1 As the subject ...................................................................... 73
17.3.1.2 As the direct object/the predicator complement ............ 78
17.3.1.3 As the indirect object ........................................................ 89
17.3.1.4 As the subject(ive) complement .......................................... 90
17.3.1.5 As the object(ive) complement ........................................... 91
17.3.1.6 As the complement of a preposition .................................... 94
17.3.2 Subordinate/embedded adjectival clauses .................................... 95
17.3.3 Subordinate/embedded adverbial clauses ..................................... 96
17.4 Compound-Complex sentences ................................................................. 97
iii
21 Constructions vs. constituents ........................................................................ 104
22 Immediate constituents vs. ultimate constituents ........................................ 104
23 Immediate constituents of a sentence ........................................................... 105
24 Intervening level of organization between word and sentence ..................... 106
25 Modifiers vs. complements ............................................................................... 106
26 Types of adjective complements ...................................................................... 108
27 Pre-adjectival modifiers vs. post-adjectival modifiers ................................. 108
28 Adjective complements vs. optional post-adjectival modifiers .................... 109
29 Classification of English adjectives according to their post-modifiers ............ 111
30 Types of adverbial adjuncts ............................................................................. 112
31 Noun phrase analyses ....................................................................................... 123
32 Mis-diagraming .................................................................................................. 125
33 Structural ambiguity in English noun phrases ................................................. 126
33.1 Define a structurally ambiguous noun phrase .......................................... 126
33.2 Explain structurally ambiguous noun phrases ........................................... 128
33.3 Disambiguate structurally ambiguous noun phrases ................................. 134
33.4 Account for structurally non-ambiguous noun phrases ........................... 138
34 Verb phrase analyses .................................................................................. 140
34.1 Noun phrases as the sP/sC of an intensive verb or as the dO of
a monotransitive verb ............................................................................. 140
34.2 NP direct objects of a monotransitive verb or NP adverbial
adjuncts of an intransitive verb .............................................................. 141
34.3 Prepositional phrases as the sP/sC of an intensive verb or as
the optional adverbial adjunct of any verb ............................................ 142
34.4 IntransVAC vs. intransVAdv .............................................................. 143
34.5 MonotransVACNP vs. intransVPP .................................................... 144
34.6 MonotransVACNP vs. monotrans-prepVprepO ............................... 146
35 Sentence analyses ....................................................................................... 147
35.1 Identify the syntactic function of a PP ................................................... 147
35.2 Decide whether a PP is part of the complementation of a
ditransitive verb ..................................................................................... 148
iv
35.3 Explain the difference between two sentences ...................................... 151
35.4 Re-analyse sentence pairs, using tree-diagrams .................................. 154
36 Structural ambiguity in English verb phrases ................................................ 157
37 Phrase structure ............................................................................................... 162
37.1 Definition ................................................................................................. 162
37.2 How to determine phrase structure? ..................................................... 162
37.2.1 Substitution .............................................................................. 162
37.2.2 Conjoinability ............................................................................. 165
37.2.3 Movement .................................................................................. 166
37.2.4 Checking the antecedent for a pro-form ................................ 167
37.3 Phrase structure exercises .................................................................... 167
38 Phrase structure rules ..................................................................................... 170
39 Surface structures vs. deep structures ......................................................... 172
40 Signals of syntactic structures ....................................................................... 174
40.1 Word order .............................................................................................. 174
40.2 Function words ......................................................................................... 174
40.3 Inflection ................................................................................................. 175
40.4 Derivational contrast .............................................................................. 176
40.5 Prosody .................................................................................................... 176
41 What is syntax? ............................................................................................... 177
v
ai Hoc Quoc Gia Tp. Ho Ch Minh
TRNG AI HOC KHOA HOC XA HOI & NHAN VAN
Mon C s: LINGUISTICS
1. Linguistics
(a) Semantics
- The expression of meaning in English at the word and sentence level;
- The relations of different kinds of meaning;
- Meaning shifts or words;
- Use of language in social interaction.
(b) Syntax
- Word classes;
- Grammatical relations;
- Types of phrases, clauses & sentences.
2. Academic Writing
Write an essay of 250 - 300 words on an issue of second language
teaching and learning.
REFERENCES
Fromkin V. et al (1988) An Introduction to Language.
Sydney: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
viii
ix
SEMANTICS
Propositions-Utterances-Sentences
Performative sentences
Felicity conditions
Speech events
Pragmatic meaning
Maxims of conversation
Maxims of politeness
x
ENGLISH SYNTAX
Introduction Chapters 1 & 2 in Jackson
Syntax: the study of how words combine to (1980)
form sentences and the rules which govern the Chapter 5 in Francis (1958)
information of sentences (Richards, Platt & The Grammar of English by
Weber) Heatherington, in Clar et al
Traditional grammar Structural grammar (1981: 329-42)
Transformational grammar What do native speakers know
Five signals of syntactic structures: Word order, about their language?
Prosody, Function words, Inflections, and by Jacbs and Rosenbaum,
Derivational contrast (Francis, 1958: 234) in Clark et al (1981: 343-49)
Word classes: open ad closed classes
Open classes: Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives,
Adverbs (Jackson, 1980)
Closed classes: Pronouns, Numerals,
Determiners, Prepositions, Conjunctions
(Jackson, 1980)
ICs in Syntax Chapter 6 in Francis (1958)
Four basic types of syntactic structures: Chapter 6 in Fromkin et al
modification, predication, complementation, (1990)
and coordination (Francis, 1958) Chapter 1in Nida (1996)
Endocentric and exocentric constructions John Lyons (translated
(Bloomfield, 1933; Nida, 1966) version) pp. 368-70
Noun phrases Chapter 3 in Jackson (1980)
Types of modifiers in noun phrases
Premodification: identifier, numeral/quantifier,
adjective, noun modifier
Postmodification: relative clauses, non-finite
clauses, prepositional phrases
Verb phrases: tense, aspect, mood, voice Chapter 4 in Jackson (1980)
Adjective phrases, adverb phrases, and Chapter 5 in Jackson (1980)
prepositional phrases
Clauses Chapter 6 & 7 in Jackson (1980)
Structures and types
Dependent clauses
Phrase structure rules & Transformational rules Chapter 5 in Fromkin et al (1990)
xi
NOTATIONAL SYMBOLS
Most of the symbols used in this text follow conventions, but since conventions
vary, the following list indicates the meanings assigned to them here.
A = adjective iO = indirect object
Adv = (general) adverb M = modifier
ART = article ModN = pre-modifying noun
AP = adjective phrase monotrans = monotransitive verb
AdvP = adverb phrase monotrans-prep = monotransitive
C = complement prepositional verb
ComN = compound noun monotransVAC = monotransitive verb-
Comp = complementizer adverbial composite
complex = complex transitive verb N = noun
Conj = conjunction N = N-bar
Co-P = a coordination of Prepositions nC = noun complement
Co-PP = a coordinate Prepositional NP = noun phrase
phrase NUM = numeral/number
Co-NP = a coordinate noun phrase opA = optional adverbial adjunct
Co-AP = a coordinate adjective phrase obA = obligatory adverbial adjunct
DEG = degree adverb oC = object(ive) complement
DEM = demonstrative oP = object-predicative
DET = determiner POST-MOD = post-modifier
dO = direct object POST-DET = post-determiner
ditrans = ditransitive verb PRE-MOD = pre-modifier
ditrans-prep = ditransitive PRE-DET = pre-determiner
prepositional verb PRO = pronoun
EmACl = embedded adjective clause PropN = proper noun
EmAdvCl = embedded adverbial clause Poss = possessive
EXCLAMATORY DET = exclamatory PossA = possessive adjective
determiner PossPropN = possessive proper noun
E] = empty/covert/zero/implicit subject PossCommN = possessive common noun
[E
H = the head PossMarker = possessive marker
headN = the head noun PossNP = possessive noun phrase
headPRO = the head pronoun predC = predicator complement
headPropN = the head proper noun P = preposition
headA = the head adjective prep = prepositional verb
headGer = the head gerund prepO = prepositional object
IC = immediate constituent prepC = complement of a preposition
InfP = infinitive phrase PP = prepositional phrase
intens = intensive verb PartP = participial phrase
intrans = intransitive verb Q = quantifier
intransVAC = intransitive verb- QA = quantifying adjective
adverbial composite RESTRIC = restricter
S = sentence
xii
S= S-bar Prt = adverbial particle
sC = subject(ive) complement VAC = verb-adverbial composite
sP = subject-predicative * = unaccepted form
SubACl = subordinate adjective clause ? = doubtfully acceptable form
SubAdvCl = subordinate adverbial clause [ ] = embedded unit
VP = verb phrase / = or
Vgrp = verb group = unfilled
V-Part = verb participle = one-way dependence
V-Ger = gerund = two-way dependence
xiii
SECTION 1: WORD CLASSES
The traditional term parts of speech is puzzling; its not clear why
kinds of words really, classes of words would be parts of speech
any more than, say, phonemes, allophones, morphemes, allomorphs, or
even phrases or sentences. In fact, instead of parts of speech, linguists
usually employ the terms word class or grammatical category. The
term grammatical category is a useful one, since it captures an important
aspect of a part of speech, namely, that all tokens of a particular part of
speech share important grammatical characteristics that other parts of speech
lack. The term word class, however, is valuable in its simplicity and is
certainly an improvement over part of speech. [Kaplan, 1989: 105]
1
The syntactic categories of words and groups of words are revealed by
the way they pattern in sentences. If you didnt have knowledge of these
syntactic categories, you would be unable to form grammatical sentences or
distinguish between grammatical and ungrammatical sentences. [Fromkin
et al, 1988: 214] For example, the child belong to a family that includes the
police officer, your neighbour, this yellow cat, he, and countless others.
Each member of this family can be substituted for the child without
affecting the grammaticality of the sentence, although the meanings of
course would change.
A family of expressions that can substitute for one another
without loss of grammaticality is called a syntactic category. [Fromkin
and Rodman, 1993: 79]
1
2 Classification of word classes
2.1 Major classes vs. minor classes: Kaplan, [1989: 106] divides word
classes into two main groupsmajor and minor.
major classes minor classes
1. The major classes nouns, 1. The minor classes pronouns,
verbs, adjectives, and adverbs numerals, determiners, prepositions,
have a great many members, e.g. a conjunctions, and so on have few
hundred thousand nouns. members. Its easy to list all the
articles of English: a, an, and the.
There are maybe 70 prepositions and
approximately a dozen subordinate
conjunctions: when, since, because,
after, before, while, although, as, etc.
2. Major class words tend to have 2. Minor class words tend not to have
referential meanings, since they referential meanings. That is their
involve, or allow, reference to actual meanings are not easily specified by
things, actions, events, or properties, means of a neat definition, e.g. how
e.g. Horse means that kind of would you define the or of? In other
animals. uttered while pointing to a words, the open classes bear the
horse. greatest load in terms of meaning, in
the sense of refrence to things in the
world while the function of closed
classes is oriented more towards
internal linguistic relationships.
[Jackson, 1980: 7]
3. Major classes are receptive to new 3. Minor classes are not receptive to
members. As a result, major classes new members; they are closed. Its
are also called open classes [Jackson, unlikely you can think of any last new
1980: 7]. Originating in slang or slangy article, conjunction, pronoun,
casual contexts are the following new or preposition youve learned.
nouns, verbs, and adjectives (new
adverbs are harder to come up with):
teflon, yuppie, nerd (nouns); scam,
boot up, book (verbs); rad, gnardly,
killer, tubular, (adjectives).
2
2.2 English major classes: In defining major/open classes, Stageberg
[1965: 191-219] presents a double-track classification, one by form and the
other by position2.
2
1. House and Harman [1965] also classifies major/open classes according to their
meaning.
According to the meaning they represent, nouns may be divided into several
classes: common or proper, concrete or abstract, collective, individual, mass,
material, etc. [House and Harman, 1965: 22]
When classified as to meaning, adjectives are descriptive or definitive,
some of each class having definite and some indefinite application. [House and
Harman, 1965: 73]
2. Fromkin et al [1988, 214-215] present three types of criteria to define
major/open classes:
- Form: The class of a word may be apparent from its form. Certain
inflectional and derivational morphemes are associated with certain word classes.
- Function: The class of words may be indicated by the way it functions in a
phrase or sentence. For example, in the sentence
He will not score any more runs unless he runs faster.
The first runs is recognized as a noun and the second as a verb because of
their function.
- Meaning: Some words are commonly classified according to their semantic
type, such as abstract nouns (truth, kindness, beauty) and stative verbs (be,
appear, resemble).
Unfortunately meaning is not a reliable guide because there are many words
which belong to more than one word class (kick, love, drink), but those whose
meaning remains essentially the same. Meaning is therefore best regarded as a
secondary criterion, to be used to check the purely grammatical criteria of form
and function.
3. Kaplan [1989:108] points out that one problem with the traditional definition
of noun and verb since it is meaning-based (a noun is a word that names a person,
place, or thing; a verb is a word that names an action or state), it ought to be
universal valid in all languages, that is. But concepts that are encoded
linguistically as nouns in one language may be encoded as verbs or adjectives in
others. In English, for example, we normally say Im hungry, using an adjective to
describe how we feel; but in Spanish one says tengo hambre literally, I have
hunger, using a noun, hambre, to describe the same feeling.
3
Stagebergs four form classes are nouns, verbs, adjectives, and
adverbs. Each form-class has its correlative position class, which will be
later labelled as nominals, verbals, adjectivals, or adverbials.
2.2.1 English form classes
2.2.1.1 Nouns
Noun are identified as nouns by two aspects of form, their
inflectional morphemes, and their derivational morphemes.
2.2.1.1.1 The two noun inflectional suffixes in English are:
The noun plural morpheme {S1}: books, apples, boxes, etc.
The noun possessive morpheme {S2}: mans, girls, students,
Alices, etc.
2.2.1.1.2 Nouns are identified not only by inflectional
morphemes but also by noun-forming derivational suffixes added to
verbs, adjectives, nouns, and bound forms: accept acceptance, big
bigness, book booklet, dent- dentist, etc.
2.2.1.2 Verbs
Verbs are identified as verbs by two aspects of form, their
inflectional morphemes, and their derivational morphemes.
2.2.1.2.1 The four verb inflectional suffixes in English are:
The verb third person singular present tense morpheme {S3}:
walks, finds, mixes, etc.
The verb present participle morpheme {ing1}:
playing, typ(e)ing, dig(g)ing, etc.
The verb past simple morpheme {D1}:
flowed, worked, creat(e)ed, drank, broke, thought, showed, etc.
The verb past participle morpheme {D2}:
flowed, worked, creat(e)ed, drunk, broken, thought, shown, etc.
2.2.1.2.2 Verbs are identified not only by inflectional
morphemes but also by verb-forming derivational affixes added to
nouns or adjectives: knowledge acknowledge, bath bathe, ripe ripen,
large enlarge, etc.
4
2.2.1.3 Adjectives
Adjectives are identified as adjectives by two aspects of form, their
inflectional morphemes, and their derivational morphemes.
Or, an adjective will be any word which has one or more of the
following positive attributes:
i. it can occur between Article and Noun.
ii. it can occur in the slot (Art) N is _____.
iii. it can occur before (or contains) er and est, or after more and most.
3
There is a group of about seventy-five, mostly of two syllables, which begin with
the prefix a-: afoot, aground, awake, agape, aloud, afresh, alert, adroit, etc.
These are uninflected words (UWs) because they take no inflectional endings.
Although they do have the prefix a- in common, it seems unwise to label them
formally as either adjectives or adverbs since positionally they appear in both
adjectival and adverbial slots. [Stageberg, 1965: 206]
5
2.2.1.3.4 Adverbs
2.2.1.3.4.1 The two adverb inflectional suffixes in English are:
The adverb comparative morpheme {er1}: faster, harder, etc.
The adverb superlative morpheme {est 1}: fastest, hardest, etc.
2.2.1.3.4.2 Adverbs are identified not only by inflectional
morphemes but also by the adverb-forming derivational suffix {ly1}4
added to adjectives: just justly, beautiful beautifully, etc.
4
In the word-stock of English there are many uninflected words often employed
in the adverbial positions:
1. Uninflected words used both as adverbials and prepositions: above, about,
after, around, before, behind, below, down, in, inside, on, out, outside, since, to,
under, up.
2. -ward series, with optional s: afterward, backward, downward, forward,
homeward, inward, northward, outward, upward, windward.
3. Here series: here, herein, hereby, heretofore, hereafter.
4. There series: there, therein, thereby, theretofore, thereafter.
5. -where series: anywhere, everywhere, somewhere, nowhere.
6. -ways series: crossways, sideways; also, anyway.
7. -time series: meantime, sometime, anytime, sometimes.
8. Miscellaneous: today, tonight, tomorrow, yesterday, now, then, seldom, still,
yet, already, meanwhile, also, too, never, not, forth, thus, sidelong, headlong, maybe,
perhaps, instead, indeed, henceforth, piecemeal, nevertheless, downstairs, indoors,
outdoors, offhand, overseas, unawares, besides, furthermore, always. [Stageberg,
1965:215]
6
- For Glenda to steal the diamond WOULD BE a shame.
2. The position of the direct object:
I HATE telling lies.
I WANT to think critically.
7
5. Giving to the poor is a Christian virtue. [Stageberg, 1965: 201]
2.2.2.3 Adjectivals, like nominals, occupy certain
characteristic sentence positions. [Stageberg, 1965: 206]
1. The position between the determiner and the noun:
That joyful/college/laughing/recommended freshman is bright.
2. The position right after the noun:
The fellow waving drives a convertible.
3. The position right after an intensive verb: He always remains quiet.
4. The position right after the direct object of a complex transitive
verb: The management considered him competent.
8
(2)a. She actually EXPECTS to marry him.
b. Mary in her own way WAS a darling.
c. The environment secretary yesterday MOVED
to mitigate the effects of the inland revenue revaluation.
After THE MODAL/FIRST AUXILIARY VERB and before THE LEXICAL VERB:
(2)d. He WOULD seldom MAKE effort.
e. You MAY in this way BE of great assistance.
f. Carrie HAD often DREAMED about coming back.
g. The utilization of computers IS not of course LIMITED to business.
After all obligatory elements, i.e. the indirect object, the direct object,
the subjective complement, or the objective complement, of THE LEXICAL
VERB (though it may not be the last element if there are other final
adverbials in the same clause):
(3)a. Tom WAS a doctor for many years.
b. Tom WILL PLAY football tomorrow.
c. Tom SENT a telegraph to his wife yesterday morning.
d. Tom PUT his watch where he can find it in the dark.
e. Tom BELIEVED the man crazy after questioning him.
9
2.3 English minor classes:
Jacksons [1980: 9-11] minor/closed classes consist of pronouns that
have to main function of substituting for nouns, once a noun has been
mentioned in a particular text; numerals that are of two kinds: ordinal and
cardinal; determiners that are used with nouns and have the function of
defining the reference of the noun in some way; prepositions the chief
function of which is relating a noun phrase to another unit; and
conjunctions that are of two kinds: co-ordinating conjunctions, such as
and, or, but, which join two items on an equal footing; and subordinating
conjunctions, such as when, if, why, whether, because, since, which
subordinate one item to another in some way.
1. swiftly 6. richly
2. homely 7. neatly {-ly1}
3. softly 8. yearly
4. costly {-ly2} 9. beastly
5. deftly 10. sourly
10
EXERCISE 2: Identify the italicized -ly as either the derivational adverb-
forming suffix {-ly1} or the derivational adverb-forming
suffix {-ly2}. Complete the table.
5
Notice the derivational class-changing noun-forming morpheme {-ing2} in
teaching, a meeting, droppings, etc.
11
EXERCISE 4: In the blank place a V to identifythe italicized inflectional
verb past participle morpheme {-D2} and an A to identify the
italicized derivational class-changing adjective-forming
morpheme {-D3}6. Complete the table.
1. You should read the printed statement. {-D2}
2. Mary became a devoted mother. {-D3}
3. This is a complicated question.
4. His chosen bride had lived in India.
5. He bought a stolen picture.
6. The invited guests all came.
7. He had a reserved seat.
8. The skipper was a reserved (= quiet) man.
9. A celebrated painter visited the campus.
10. A worried look crossed his face.
6
Notice that {-D1} is the inflectional verb past tense morpheme.
12
EXERCISE 6: The adverbial word groups are italicized. In the blank, give their
syntactic function in the sentence. Complete the table.
1. Ill dress while you shave. adjunct of time
2. Our guide split the log with care.
3. He might under the circumstances agree the job.
4. When the coffee is ready, blow the whistle.
5. Chewing his tobacco meditatively, Ed studied
the blackening sky.
6. A hungry trout rose to the surface.
7. By that time the fish were no longer biting.
8. To find the camp, just follow the creek downstream. adjunct of purpose
9. From the hilltop you can see the sawmill.
10. Jake hunts to make a living.
11. You must hold the knife this way.
13
EXERCISE 8: In the blank identify the italicized word(s) by nominal, verbal,
adjectival or adverbial. Complete the table.
1. Last Monday was a holiday. nominal
2. The Monday washing is on the line. adjectival
3. Mrs. Reed always washes Mondays. adverbial
4. Wont you come in?
5. The outs were angry with the ins.
6. They stomped upstairs.
7. They slept in the upstairs room.
8. One can see the airport from upstairs.
9. Jack was wrestling with his math.
10. The wrestling roommates were exhausted.
11. Jennifer found wrestling exciting.
12. They came in wrestling.
13. The student movie is presented weekly.
14. The student movie is a weekly occurrence
15. His way is the best.
16. He had it his way.
17. The mechanic ran the engine full speed.
18. By this means he burned down the carbon.
19. He raised the hood because the engine was hot.
20. They found the cabin just what they wanted.
14
SECTION 2: TYPES of PHRASES, CLAUSES and SENTENCES
15
rude, theoretically untenable, oddly inconclusive, diabolically tinted,
immediately recognizable, horribly burnt, etc.
An ADJECTIVE (A, for short) is the minimal form of an AP; indeed
many adjective phrases occur in the minimal form:
very enthusiastic enthusiastic.
The head adjective may be pre-modified by:
degree adverbs, which are also called intensifying adverbs,
(DEG, for short; ly or without ly adverbs which specify the degree of the
attribute expressed by the adjective): very, highly, extremely, terribly,
awfully, completely, much, quite, so, too, rather, somewhat, hardly,
fairly, moderately, partially, slightly, increasingly, incredibly, etc.
general adverbs, which are also called non-intensifying adverbs,
(Adv, for short; ly adverbs which typically have other adverbial functions
as well): frankly, potentially, enthusiastically, immediately, annoyingly,
oddly, disgustingly, amazingly, suspiciously, awkwardly, beautifully, etc.
AP AP
16
appears to be either directly (amazingly) or indirectly (horribly) an
expression of personal evaluation.
AdvP AdvP
17
But the vast majority of adjectives may function either attributively or
predicatively:
ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES PREDICATIVE ADJECTIVES
(4)a. The charming girl ATTRACTS his attention. (4)b. The girl IS charming.
(5)a. SheS a lonely wife. (5)b. I sometimes FEEL lonely.
_________________
6 Noun phrases vs. verb phrases
6.1 A NOUN PHRASE (NP, for short) in English consists of a nominal head
(normally a noun or a pronoun) with or without the modifiers that accompany
it, before or after.
NP1
NP2 AP
AP1 N2
ART A AP2 N3
ModN headN
18
6.2 The one constituent that a VERB PHRASE (VP, for short) must contain is
the VERB GROUP (Vgrp, for short) [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 78]. The Vgrp, in
its turn, contains one lexical verb and may have up to four auxiliary
verbs, besides the negative word not:
may not have been being interrogated. [Jackson, 1980: 18]
The verb phrase in English consists of a Vgrp and all the words and
word groups which belong with the Vgrp and cluster around it. The Vgrp
itself is called the head, and the other words and word groups are the
modifiers and/or the complements of the head.
The modifier is the generic term for all the adverbial adjuncts that
optionally provide circumstantial information about the action, the process,
the event, etc. talked about in the clause in which they occur. Soundly
optionally describes the manner in which the baby sleeps and beside a
stream optionally describes the place at which Phil had lost his leather
wallet; the two adverbial adjuncts can be omitted without disturbing the
proposition of the two following sentences, which are marked (4)a-b:
(4)a. The baby WAS SLEEPING (soundly).
b. Phil HAD LOST his leather wallet (beside a stream).
The relation between the Vgrp (was sleeping or had lost his
leather wallet) and the adverbial adjunct (soundly or beside a stream)
is one of modification: there is a one-way dependency between the Vgrp
(as head) and the adverbial adjunct (as modifier). Thus, the use of the
Vgrp without any adverbial adjunct is grammatically acceptable.
The complement is the generic term for all the completers of the
verb [Stageberg, 1965: 165], which are usually known as the direct
object, the indirect object, the subjective complement, the objective
complement, and also the predicator complement [Downing and Locke,
1992: 55-56].
19
had lost is the Vgrp. The relation between the Vgrp (had lost) and the NP
(his leather wallet) is one of complementation: there is a two-way
dependency between the Vgrp (as head) and the NP (as complement).
The use of had lost without a following NP is ungrammatical, and so is the
use of the NP without had lost.
In the VP had lost his leather wallet beside a stream, had lost
is the Vgrp, his leather wallet is the complement and beside a stream
is the modifier of the Vgrp.
S
NP VP1
Since the one may substitute for the lonely man, we have shown that
lonely man is indeed a constituent, one that is a sister of the determiner on
the tree-diagram. Clearly, lonely man is not a full noun phrase, since it needs
a determiner; but neither is it a single noun an intermediate category
20
is needed, one higher than noun and lower than noun phrase. We will
show it here as N, and call it the N-bar.
NP
DET N
AP N
8.1.1 Below are the determiners that may be preceded by one of the
pre-determiners (PRE-DET, for short), which are all, both and half
[Stageberg, 1965: 235]:
articles: the and a/an;
possessives: her, his, its, their, your, Johns, the books, etc.;
demonstratives: this, that, these, and those.
NP1 NP1 NP1
21
called QUANTIFIERS (Q, for short): some, any, no, each, enough, either,
neither and another, the others are often known as interrogative or
exclamatory determiners: what (a/an)1, which2 and whose3.
NP NP NP
1
what /w4t/ (det.) = the thing(s) which, the person or people who:
What money I have will be yours when I die.
I spent what little time with my family.
What family and friends I still have live a broad.
what /w4t/ (exclamatory det., used in making exclamations):
What awful weather were having!
What beautiful flowers! What a (lovely) view!
what /w4t/ (interrogative det., used to ask sb to specify one or more things, places, people,
etc. from an indefinite number):
Guess what famous writer said this.
I asked her what experience she has had.
What books have you got to read on the subjects?
What woman are you thinking of?
2
which /w1t/ (interrogative determiner, used to ask sb to specify one or more things,
places, people, etc. from a limited number):
Which way is quicker by bus or by train?
Ask him which platform the London train leaves from.
which /w1t/ (interrogative pronoun) = which person or thing:
Which is your favourite subject?
Here are the recently published books. Tell me which are worth reading.
The twins are so much alike that I cant tell which is which.
3
whose /hu:z/ (interrogative determiner/interrogative pronoun) = of whom:
Whose (house) is that? I wonder whose (book) this is.
22
NP1
NP DET N1
ART headN2
(3)b. the book s cover
8.1.4 The determiner position may be UNFILLED (, for short). Although
the noun phrases marked (4)a-b contain just one word, they should still be
analyzed as having a DET + N structure:
NP NP
DET N DET N
HeadN headN
23
Like adjectives, they co-occur with and follow determiners: those
many books, the little butter that I have, some few successes, etc.,
including an unfilled determiner: many books, much garlic, etc.
Like adjectives, they are gradable: VERY many books, TOO much
garlic, SO few ideas, VERY little tact, where they are modified by A DEGREE
ADVERB.
NP NP
DET N1 DET N1
Q/DEM/ART AP N2 AP N2
DET N1
AP N2
QA headN
24
CARDINAL NUMERALS: one, two, three, ... , and ninety-nine.
ORDINAL NUMERALS: first, second, third, fourth, ..., and last.
NP NP
DET N1 DET N1
AP N2 ART AP N2
score [C., pl. unchanged] set or group of twenty: a score of people, three score and ten
4
25
NP NP
DET N1 DET N1
(8)a. the first three students (8)b. the two first prizes
DET N1 DET N1
26
NP NP
DET N1 DET N1
DET N1 DET N1
EXCLAMATORY DET AP N2 AP N2
27
NP NP
DET N1 DET N1
Q AP N2 PossPropN AP N2
(11)a. some expensive roof maintenance (11)b. Georges two wool neckties
8.5.2 It is not unusual for more than one modifying noun to occur in a
noun phrase. A complication arises from the fact that noun modifiers can
themselves be modified. [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 163]
NP NP
DET N DET N1
ModNP
headComN1
(12)a. the child safety harness (12)b. the child poverty action group
28
NP NP
DET N1 DET N1
AP N3 A AP2 N3
PossCommN
A headN PossCommN headN
(14)a. the summers red roses (14)b. the red summers roses
Note that (14)a-b both mean the roses which are red and which bloom
in summer. Similarly, (15)a means the garden roses which bloom in summer
while (15)b means the garden roses which are red and which bloom in
summer.
NP NP
DET N1 DET N1
AP2 N3
(15)a. the summers garden roses (15)b. the summers red garden roses
8.7 VERB PARTICIPLES (V-Part, for short): The active present participle
and the passive past participle may appear as pre-modifiers within the
N-bar.
NP NP
DET N1 DET N1
DEM AP N2 ART AP N2
29
5
ACTIVE PRESENT PARTICIPLES PASSIVE PAST PARTICIPLES
the preceding statement a broken heart
melting snow sliced cake
falling leaves photocopied materials
those leaping/dropping clicks these departed guests
8.8 GERUNDS (V-Ger, for short) may also appear as pre-modifiers within
the N bar, but they should be carefully distinguished from active present
participles:
ACTIVE PRESENT PARTICIPLES GERUNDS
living organisms living rooms
the sleeping guard the sleeping car
a drinking horse drinking water
The combination of gerund and head noun is also referred to as A
COMPOUND NOUN. The compound noun sleeping car should be dominated in
ComN as in (17)b:
NP NP
DET N1 DET N
5
Note that:
Certain true adjectives look very much like verb participles: tiring, tired,
(un)interesting, (un)interested, bored, boring, devoted, relieved, unexpected,
surprising, charming, demanding, pleasing, etc. However, since they are gradable (i.e.
they can be modified by degree adverbs) they are easily distinguished from verb
participles: rather pleasing, very interesting, quite unexpected, extremely devoted, etc.
Since the present and past participles are verbal rather than adjectival,
they are not gradable: *the very leering manager, *a slightly forgotten valley,
*rather sliced cake, etc. They may, however, be modified by general adverbs: in
the rapidly congealing gravy, rapidly modifies congealing resulting in rapidly
congealing, which is an AP.
30
8.9 RESTRICTERS (RESTRIC, for short): are really a small number of
adverbs with or without ly like just, only, even, quite, especially,
merely, and particularly [Stageberg, 1956: 242] which can:
modify the head noun alone just girls, even water, especially
candy, etc.;
precede the pre-determiner and/or the determiner, modifying
the whole noun phrase and simultaneously restricting its meaning to some
extentonly ten short minutes, just college girls, just romantic
college girls, just another romantic college girl, especially all our
guests, even the empty box, just some white athletic socks,
particularly her spotted kitten, quite a few6 people, quite a lot of
wine, quite some7 car, quite a party, etc.
DET N PossA AP N2
(19)a. especially all our guests (19)b. particularly her spotted kitten
_________________
6
Quite a few or quite a lot (of) both means a considerable number or amount (of).
7
Quite some or quite a is used to indicate that a person or thing is unusual.
31
9 Types of post-nominal modifiers
(1)a. an expedition to the pub (1)b. the man in the iron mask
32
NP1 NP1
DET N1 PP DET N1 PP
the nuclear scientist from Germany Larrys neat summary of the argument
(2) (3)
NP2 AP NP2 AP
(4)a. the time before this one (4)a. the time before
b. the morning after the wedding b. the morning after
c. the bus behind our car c. the bus behind
d. the room above us d. the room above
33
NP NP1
DET N1 NP2 AP
ART AP N2 DET N A
NP2 AP NP2 AP
(6)a. the chef responsible for the sauces (6)b. a tree safe to climb up
NP2 AP
ART headN
NP2 AP
ART headN
34
9.2.4 There is still another circumstance when the post-modifying AP
itself contains two or more adjective heads linked by a coordinate
conjunction, as in (8)a-b:
NP1
NP2 AP
ART headN
(8)a. the mailman, tired and wet, [trudged along in the rain]
b. a woman, old and gaunt, [stood at the door]
9.3 PARTICIPIAL PHRASES (PartP, for short):
Participial phrases can be subdivided into two sub-categories:
participial phrases with ing as in (9)a-b and participial phrases with
ed as in (9)c-d:
NP1 NP1
NP2 AP NP2 AP
PP InfP
the car coming down the road the man expected to arrive at any moment
(9)a. (9)b.
9.4 INFINITIVE PHRASES (InfP, for short):
An Infinitive phrase can play the role of an adjective, post-modifying
an NP.
NP1 NP1
NP2 AP NP2 AP
(10)a. the man to answer this question (10)b. a scheme to win Kathys heart
35
9.5 SUBORDINATE ADJECTIVE CLAUSES (SubACl, for short)
The adjective phrases in (6)a-b, (7)a-b and (8)a-b, the participial
phrases in (9)a-b, and the infinitive phrases in (10)a-b are often regarded
as the reductions of the following subordinate adjective clauses,
either restrictive or non-restrictive:
NP1
DET N
ART headN
36
clause (or phrase) normally specifies the content of its head noun. [Jacobs,
1995: 100]
NP1
NP2 AP [nC]
DET N PP
ART headN
(1)a. her belief in God
b. the rumour of an impending merger
c. the news of where she is staying
NP1
DET N
ART headN
(2)a. this belief that the company WAS NOT making a profit
b. the rumour that Eds wife FALLS in love with his brother
c. the news that the enemy WERE near
37
Note that SUBORDINATE ADJECTIVE CLAUSES (SubACl, for short),
either restrictive or non-restrictive, are not noun complements; they are
optional post-nominal modifiers (POST-M, for short) in the noun phrases
marked (6)a-h: NP1
DET N
ART headN
(6)a. the chef that is responsible for the sauces
b. a tree which is safe to climbed up
c. the mailman, who was exuberantly happy,
d. the mailman, who was tired and wet,
e. the car that is coming down the road
f. the man who is expected to arrive at any moment
g. the man whom you should ask about this question
h. the man who should answer this question
38
There are six main categories of English verbs: monotransitive,
intransitive, ditransitive, intensive, complex transitive, and
prepositional. The six categories of English verbs result in six types
of English verb phrases.
NP VP
39
(i) Attributive Subject(ive) Complements
AP Mountaineering CAN PROVE very dangerous indeed.
She IS twenty-two years old.
NP John IS a very lucky man.
Two brothers ARE pilots.
Finite clause Kens belief IS that things CANT GET any worse.
He HAS BECOME what he always WANTED to be.
40
complement (oC, for short) are in italic while the dOs are underlined in the
following examples:
S
NP VP
E] to be honest.
Non-finite clause We BELIEVED him [E
E] to be very important.
We CONSIDER this [E
41
(ii) Identifying Object(tive) Complements
Definite NP CAN you IMAGINE yourself the owner of a luxury yacht?
They ELECTED her Miss Universe.
42
copular verb. [Jacobs, 1995: 59] That is the reason why the second NP in
(3)a-b is called an Object-Predicative or an Object(ive) Complement:
(3)a. We DECLARE Frank Wilson the winner.
(cf. Frank Wilson IS the winner.)
b. The club ELECTED Mr. Jones membership secretary.
(cf. Mr. Jones WAS the membership secretary of the club.)
11.2.4 Many complex transitive verbs can be made passive. The direct
object of an active verb became the subject of the same verb in the passive:
S
NP VP1
VP2 PP
[opA of Agent]
Vgrp [oP/oC]
[complex]
(2)a. The lesson WAS MADE extremely interesting (by the teacher).
b. Stella IS BEING MADE Beths spokesperson.
c. He WAS REGARDED as the only possible candidate (by party members).
d. The traffic WAS GOT moving (by the policeman).
e. The place HAS BEEN DECLARED to be free from infection
(by an official).
11.3 DITRANSITIVE (ditrans, for short) verbs/verb phrases
11.3.1 A ditransitive verb is one which requires two NPs as its
complementation [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 83]. A few examples of
ditransitive verbs are give, send, and buy.
43
11.3.2 In (5)a-c, the first complement NP, which is in italic,
functions as the INDIRCT OBJECT (iO, for short) of the ditransitive verb. The
second complement NP, which is underlined, functions as the DIRECT OBJECT
(dO, for short) of the ditransitive verb. The indirect object NP in (5)a-c
corresponds to a PP in a position following the direct object in (5)a-c. The
PPs that correspond in this way with indirect objects are always introduced
by to or for:
S S
NP VP NP VP
44
Verbs which take Beneficiary Indirect Objects, with alternative
for constructions, are verbs which carry out an action on someones behalf.
They include:
book bring build buy cash cut fetch find
get keep leave make pour reserve save spare write
Book me a seat on the night train. ( for me)
Would you cash me these traveler checks? (for me)
She cut the boy some slices of ham. (for the boy)
Ive kept you a place in the front row. (for you)
He got us a very good discount. (for us)
She made all the family a good paella. (for all the family)
Certain verbs such as bring, read and write admit either to or for as
alternatives, depending on the interpretation. With to as in bring it to me, read
it to me, write it to me, I receive the thing, either physically or mentally. With
for as in bring it for me, read it for me, write it for me, the thing is brought,
read or written on my behalf. [Downing and Locke, 1992: 87]
11.3.4 Structures with a ditransitive verb + its iO Recipient + its dO like
(5)a admit two passives while those with a ditransitive verb + its iO
Beneficiary + its dO like (5)b admit only one passive because Beneficiary
Objects do not easily become Subject in a passive clause, although this
restrictive is not absolute [Downing and Locke, 1992: 47]:
(5)a. A prize WAS GIVEN to Steven.
b. Some toys WILL BE BOUGHT for you.
c. A place HAS BEEN SAVED for me.
(5)a. Steven WAS GIVEN a prize.
b. *You WILL BE BOUGHT some toys.
c. ?I HAVE BEEN SAVED a place.
45
do not fulfil the second criterion for Indirect Objects, that of substitution
by a phrase with to or for as in (6)a-b. We will therefore call them Direct
Objects:
NP VP
46
c. [Let]s ASK someone the way.
d. The bank HAS REFUSED me a loan.
e. They GRUDGED him his pocket money.
(7)a. *He WISHED a happy day to me.
b. *He GAVE a push to the door.
c. *Lets ASK the way to someone.
d. *The bank HAS REFUSED a loan to me.
e. *They GRUDGED his pocket money to him.
(7)a. *A happy day WAS WISHED to me.
b. *A push WAS GIVEN to the door.
c. * The way IS ASKED to someone.
d. *A loan HAS BEEN REFUSED to me.
e. *His pocket money WAS GRUDGED to him.
NP VP
Vgrp NP[dO]
[monotrans]
11.4.2 The semantic role realised by the Direct Object can be realised
by the Subject in a passive clause After passivisation, the meaning remains
unchanged. [Downing and Locke, 1992: 41-42] A noun phrase is a typical
realization of the subject of a passive monotransitive verb which may be post-
modified by AN OPTIONAL ADVERBIAL ADJUNCT (opA, for short) of Agent:
47
S
NP VP
VP AdvP
[opA of Agent]
Vgrp
[monotrans] PP
However, the removal of over the fence and along the road from
(9)a-b is impossible because these PPs are two obligatory adverbial
adjuncts of Path:
(9)a. *He JUMPED the horse.
b. *The sergeant MARCHED the soldiers.
48
The same result will be found out with (9)c-d, (9)e-g and (9)h when
they respectively lose their obligatory adverbial adjunct of Terminus,
Location or Direction:
(9)c. *ILL WALK you.
d. *You COULD BRING it.
e. *I always GET off /LEAVE the bus.
f. *Liza HAS BEEN PUTTING the liquor.
g. *She PLACED the baby.
h. *He [PUT his arms around me and] WALKED me.
As an obligatory adverbial adjunct of Terminus in (11)a, home
can neither be moved out of its fixed position at the end of this English
sentence, i.e. after the direct object you of the monotransitive verb
WALK. Thats why (11)b-c are not grammatically correct:
(11)a. ILL WALK you home.
b. *I home WILL WALK you.
c. *ILL home WALK you.
As an optional adverbial adjunct of Time in (12)a-c, soon is free to
move to other typically adverbial positions within a sentence:
at the end of the sentence, i.e. after the complement (the direct
object, the indirect object, the subjective complement, or the objective
complement) of the lexical verb;
after the NP subject; and
after the auxiliary verb or the first auxiliary verb:
(12)a. ILL SEE you soon.
b. I soon WILL SEE you.
c. ILL soon SEE you.
The above illustrations prove that although it is not always easy to
distinguish obligatory adverbial adjuncts from optional adverbial adjuncts,
this can successfully be done with some care.
49
indirect object) and the two types of complements (i.e. the
subject(ive) complement and the object(ive) complement. The predC
follows one of the following subcategories of monotransitive verb:
(i) RELATIONAL VERBS: have, possess, lack, suit, contain and fit
(13)a. We HAVE plenty of time.
b. I DONT POSSESS any valuables.
c. His argument LACKS force.
d. WILL 5 oclock SUIT you?
e. This jar CONTAINS nails.
f. These gloves DONT FIT me.
(13)a.*Plenty of time IS HAD.
b. *No valuables ARE POSSESSED.
c. *Force IS LACKED by his argument.
d. *WILL you BE SUITED by 5 oclock?
e. *Nails ARE CONTAINED in this jar.
f. *I AM NOT FITTED by these gloves.
50
(iv) VERBS completed by means of a finite or non-finite clause
which cannot be replaced by a noun phrase or by the pronoun it: complain,
wonder, fancy, bother, wish, etc.
(13)m. He COMPLAINS that he is never consulted about anything.
n. I WONDER if you would like to join us for tea.
o. Dont BOTHER [EE] to clear away the dishes.
p. FANCY [E
E] getting into a panic over a silly thing like that.
51
for) or has a different meaning (e.g. allow, allow for); and (b) if the verb
can passivise with the completive of the preposition at Subject (The
loss cant be accounted for). In addition, such verbs can typically answer a
question beginning with what or wh(om) (What/Who must I see to?). A
short list of some common verbs of this kind is given below. Many verbs,
such as think or hear, admit more than one preposition with a slight
difference of meaning:
account bank admit talk
aim call consent about
allow for on to think
hope count keep
long rely resort
NP VP
Vgrp PP[prepO]
[monotrans-prep]
52
11.5.1.2 Some of the verbs in this case can be made passive. The
noun or noun phrase following the preposition in the active pattern becomes
the subject of the passive one:
S
NP VP
Vgrp P
[monotrans-prep]
NP VP
53
h. It REMINDS me of Italy.
i. They ROBBED her of her watch and jewels.
11.5.2.2 The subject and the direct object of the verb may refer to
the same person, in which case a reflexive pronoun is used.
(16)k. Why DONT you HELP yourself to wine?
l. He CONVINCED himself of the rightness of his actions.
11.5.2.3 Note that both the NP direct object and the PP
prepositional object are obligatory in this case and that the ditransitive
prepositional verb is frequently used in the passive, with the dO constituent
becoming the subject in the passive clause:
S
NP VP
Vgrp PP [prepO]
[ditrans-prep]
54
11.6 INTRANSITIVE (intrans, for short) verbs/verb phrases
11.6.1 An intransitive verb does not require any further constituent as
sister in the VP [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 83]. In other words, verbs used
intransitively dont take objects. [Jacobs, 1995: 247]
S S
NP VP NP VP
Vgrp Vgrp
[intrans] [intrans]
NP VP1 NP VP1
55
11.6.3 Adverbial adjuncts are usually CIRCUMSTANTS or NON-
INHERENT ROLES [Halliday, 1970: 150], i.e. they optionally occur in a large
number of VPs; they can be omitted without disturbing the grammaticality of
the whole VPs that include them. However, they are ACTANTS or INHERENT
ROLES, i.e. their occurrence is obligatory in other VPs, when they accompany
a number of verbs:
(i) INTRANSITIVE VERBS of movement , in many cases together the
manner of moving, such as race, creep, slip, slide, flow, steal, walk,
stroll, trudge, run, plunge, swim, fly, sail, ride, etc. typically require an
obligatory adverbial adjunct of Location, Source, Direction, Terminus
or Path [Biber et al, 1999: 143]; [Downing and Locke, 1992: 56]:
56
(iii) INTRANSITIVE VERBSof occurrence such as break out, pick
up, take place, emerge, arise, ascend, follow, etc. typically require an
adverbial adjunct of Location, Source, Extent in Time, Point of Time,
Manner or Role:
(21)a. The market PICKS up in the spring (Point of Time).
b. A desperate hope AROSE somewhere deep inside her (Location).
c. No new evidence EMERGED during the enquiry (Extent in Time).
d. The funeral TOOK PLACE on 24 April at 3pm (Point of Time).
e. The mist ASCENDED from the valley below (Source).
f. Rioting BROKE up between rival groups of fans (Location).
g. He EMERGED as leader at the age of thirty (Manner or Desguise).
h. [I dont see] how that FOLLOWS (Manner).
57
COMPLEX TRANSITIVE [complex]:
SVdOoP/oC:
HOLD your hand tight.
He CALLED her an angel.
I PREFER it with water.
He MADE the team what it is today.
subjectVgrpdirect objectobject predicative/object(ive) complement
S [complex] dO oP/oC
DITRANSITIVE [ditrans]:
a. SVdOiO: I LL ORDER a taxi for you.
subject Vgrp direct object to/for indirect object
S [ditrans] dO iO
58
PREPOSITIONAL [prep]:
a. MONOTRANSITIVE PREPOSITIONAL [monotrans-prep]:
SVprepO: Max GLANCED at the falling acrobat.
subject Vgrp prepositional object
S [montrans-prep] prepO
b. DITRANSITIVE PREPOSITIONAL [ditrans-prep]:
SVdOprepO:They BLAMED the fire on the gardener.
He REMINDED her of the time.
subjectVgrpdirect objectprepositional object
S [ditrans-prep] dO prepO
INTRANSITIVE [intrans]:
a. SV: He TURNED UP (= appeared).
He IS LYING (= is telling lies).
subjectVgrp
S [intrans]
59
(24)a. The water FEELS warm.
S Vgrp sP/sC
[intens]
(feels warm = is warm, is in a specified physical state referred to as warm)
60
(28)a. The doctor CAN only STAY the progress of this disease.
opA of Manner
S Vgrp dO
[monotrans] (stay = delay, make (sth) slower)
61
(3)a. They HAD no idea what it WAS.
b. The two people who FOUND it
ARE EXPECTED to receive the value of the brooch.
(5) I KNOW. I SAW it this morning. ItS really smart, ISnt it?
_________________
13 Types of clauses
13.1 Finite clauses vs. non-finite clauses
The distinction between finite and non-finite clauses depends on
the form of the verb chosen: If the speaker wishes to express tense,
person or number, a finite form of the verb is chosen, such as eats, locked,
went and the clause is then called a finite clause. [Downing and Locke,
1992: 11]
All of THE FOLLOWING VERB FORMS, which are capitalized, and
therefore the following clauses, are finite:
(1) She BROKE the dish.
(2) He HAS GONE.
(3) It IS unnecessary.
Accordingly, if the verb form does not express this type of information
about the verbal process, the verbs and the clauses are classed as non-
finite. In the following non-finite clauses, THE NON-FINITE VERB FORMS
are capitalized and italicized:
(4)a. For Sandra TO DELAY her graduation IS unnecessary. (to-infinitive)
b. I LET him DO it by himself. (bare infinitive)
c. Mary DOESNT TOLERATE
Anna CHATTING with the construction workers.(active present participle)
d. He LEFT me STUNNED. (passive past participle)
e. The light HAVING GONE out, we LIGHTED candles.
(active perfect participle)
62
Briefly, a non-finite clause is a clause with a non-finite
(tenseless) Verb group. MAIN clauses are always finite. So non-finite
clauses can only be SUBORDINATE. [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 250]
13.2 Independent clauses vs. dependent clauses
A necessary distinction is that between INDEPENDENT CLAUSES, which
are also called MAIN CLAUSES, and DEPENDENT CLAUSES (which can be
subdivided into EMBEDDED CLAUSES and SUBORDINATE CLAUSES).
13.2.1 INDEPENDENT CLAUSES
A clause that can stand alone as a sentence is called a main clause or
sometimes an independent clause. The latter designation is often used
when the clause is the only one in its sentence. [Jacobs, 1995: 65]
An independent clause does not depend on another clause, although
it may be linked to another independent clause, or to a dependent clause
[Richards, Platt and Weber, 1987: 77]:
(1) Sharons car HAD BROKEN down, and this ASTONISHED the mechanic.
(2) Sharons car HAD BROKEN down before she ARRIVED at the airport.
An independent clause can be used on its own:
(3) Sharons car HAD BROKEN down.
(4) This ASTONISHED the mechanic.
(5) Sharon ARRIVED at the airport.
63
(8) has a specific meaning, one something like the reasons is. Introducers
such as because, although, and since, all of which have quite specific
meanings, are subordinators.
NP VP
ART headN
(1) That Sharons car HAD BROKEN down ASTONISHED the mechanic.
64
S
NP VP
COMP S
(2) The police REPORTED that Sharons car HAD BROKEN down.
NP VP1
NP VP
65
Also note that the sentences marked (3-5)a are well-formed even without
their subordinate clauses, resulting in (3-5)b:
(3)b. The family RETURNED to the villa.
(4)b. Pavlova FOUND the children.
(5)b. Lord Aston only USED his Rolls Royce.
_________________
14 Covert subjects vs. overt subjects
14.1 All of the non-finite clauses in (1)a-e have an overt subject.
(1)a. For Sandra TO DELAY her graduation IS unnecessary. (to-infinitive)
b. I LET him DO it by himself. (bare infinitive)
c. Mary DOESNT TOLERATE
Anna CHATTING with the construction workers.
(active present participle)
d. He LEFT me STUNNED. (passive past participle)
e. The light HAVING GONE out, we LIGHTED candles.
(active perfect participle)
14.2 However, non-finite clauses frequently lack an overt subject
[Burton-Roberts, 1997: 250]. Consider the italicized non-finite clauses in
(2)a-d. They lack an overt subject and their non-finite verbs (to avoid,
chatting, pushing, and battered) are tenseless:
(2)a. Beth LEFT early so as [E
E] TO AVOID the police.
b. Anna ENJOYS [EE] CHATTING with the construction workers.
E] PUSHING him aside, Carol JUMPED onto the platform.
c. [E
E] BATTERED by the heavy storm,
d. [E
the ship LIMPED into Southampton harbour.
66
Covert subjects are cognitively real, that is, real in the English
speakers consciousness, despite the lack of words standing for them.
[Jacobs, 1995: 72]
Although the non-finite clauses in (2)c-d seem like modifiers of the
noun phrase following them, both their position and their function show that
they are not. They are non-finite subordinate clauses marking a perspective.
Sometimes, a more explicit marking of perspective appears:
After [E
E] BEING BATTERED by the heavy storm,
the ship LIMPED into Southampton harbour. [Jacobs, 1995: 72]
_________________
15 Types of finite dependent clauses
67
wh-word, which has a grammatical role in the relative clause in addition to
its linking function [Biber et al, 1999: 195]. Relative clauses may be either
restrictive as in (2)a or non-restrictive as in (2)b.
(2)a. We HAVE 30 men who ARE WORKING from 6am to 11pm.
b. He WANTED the public not to approach the men,
who ARE armed and dangerous.
15.3 Adverbial clauses
Adverbial clauses are used as adverbials in the main clause,
generally as circumstance adverbials they are optional and have some
freedom of positioning; both initial and final placement are common.
Adverbial clauses are regularly marked by a subordinator indicating the
relationship to the main clause. [Biber et al, 1999: 194]
(3)a. Most ions ARE colorless, although some HAVE distinct colors.
b. If you ARE in a hurry, you CAN LEAVE.
68
16 Types of non-finite clauses
Non-finite clauses are regularly dependent. They are more
compact and less explicit than finite clauses; they are not marked for tense
and modality, and they frequently lack an explicit subject and
subordinator. [Biber et al, 1999: 198]
16.2 Gerund non-finite clauses can only play the role of a nominal to be:
E] HAVING a fever IS unpleasant.
the subject: [E
69
The extra-posed subject:
There are only around five tons of newsprints left and
itS very difficult [E
E] GETTING supplies into Sarajevo.
the direct object: I STARTED [E E]THINKING about Christmas.
the subjective complement: The real problem IS
E] GETTING something done about the cheap imports.
[E
the complement of a preposition: I EARN my living by [E E]TEACHING.
70
16.4 Verbless clauses
Among non-finite clauses may also be verbless clauses such as:
- She HAD also BEEN TAUGHT, when in difficulty, to think of a good
life to imitate.
- Although not a classic, this 90-minute video IS worth watching.
_________________
17 Classification of sentences according to their structure
In many traditional grammars three major sentence types are
distinguished. A simple sentence consists of a single clause that stands alone
as it own sentence. In a coordinate sentence (called compound in
traditional grammars), two or more clauses are joined by a conjunction in a
coordinate relationship. A complex sentence combines two (or more) clauses
in such a way that one clause functions as a grammatical part of the other
one. [Finegan, 1994: 122]
NP VP
71
17.2 The following are a number of typical examples of compound sentences.
S3
S1 Conj S2
(2)a. Karen ASSEMBLED the new grill and Joe COOKED the hot dogs.
b. She IS rich and famous but I DONT FIND her talented.
c. You SHOULD TRY to work hard or you LL GET fired.
d. Roses ARE red but violets ARE blue.
Last but not least, co-ordinate constructions are not limited to two items
of equal value:
S5
(2)e. Roses ARE red but violets ARE blue and sugar IS sweet and so ARE you.
72
d. Although I DID NOT WANT to leave my bed, the wind BLEW so strong
that I WAS at last COMPELLED to get up to shut the window.
Unlike coordinate sentences, which contain clauses of equal status,
complex sentences contain clauses of unequal status. In the complex
sentence we have been examining, one clause is subordinate to another
clause and function as a grammatical part of that clause. We call the
subordinate clause an embedded clause and the clause into which it is
embedded a matrix clause. Every subordinate clause is by definition
embedded in a matrix clause, in which it serves in a grammatical function
such as subject, direct object, or adverbial. [Finegan, 1994: 122]
Complex sentences contain sentences inside them Embedded
clauses typically function as subjects and direct objects and as sentence-
adverbial phrases. [Kaplan, 1989: 267]
17.3.1 EMBEDDED NOMINAL CLAUSES (EmNCl, for short):
17.3.1.1 The subject can be realised by either a finite clause or a
non-finite clause. Constituents functioning as subjects are always analysed
as NPs [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 197], so we shall analyse any clausal subject
as dominated by NP.
17.3.1.1.1 Subject finite clauses can be that-clauses or Wh-Wh
clauses, i.e. finite clauses preceded by either the introductory word that or
the subordinate conjunction what, where, when, why, who, how, etc. This
construction is generally used in formal written English [Stanley, 1989: 2]:
S1
NP1 VP1
S[finite clause]
Comp S2
NP2 VP2
73
e. That Columbus WAS an Italian IS sometimes DISPUTED.
f. That the computer revolution IS in its infancy frequently ESCAPES comment.
(5)a. Whether it IS CAUSED by rain or wind IS unknown.
b. How they MANAGED to survive IS a mystery.
c. When it WAS DONE SEEMS quite obvious to me.
d. Where he GOES IS no business of yours.
e. Why the library WAS CLOSED for months WAS NOT EXPLAINED.
f. What he SAID SHOCKED me.
g. When I GO DEPENDS on when the train leaves.
NP1 VP1
NP S[finite that-clause]
DET N Comp S2
74
E]8TO TAKE such a risk WAS rather foolish. (to-inf. clause)
[E
Where [E
E] TO LEAVE the dog IS the problem. (Wh + to-inf. clause)
NP1 VP1
NP2 VP2
8
Note that [E
E] is the symbol to stand for the empty/covert/zero/implicit subject in
non-finites clauses.
75
*WAS TO TAKE such a risk rather foolish?
*DID that he FAILED to turn up SURPRISE everybody?
DID the fact that he FAILED to turn up SURPRISE everybody?
[Downing and Locke, 1992: 34-35]
9
In any clause, elements are frequently of different size and complexity, or weight
There is a preferred distribution of elements in the clause in accordance with the weight
called the principle of end-weight: the tendency for long and complex elements to be
placed towards the end of a clause [Biber et al, 1999: 898]. Compare:
(1) I FOUND the man guilty.
(2) I FOUND guilty the man who has scars on his cheeks.
76
S1
Note that the subjective complement of the copular verb be is, quite
often, realised by an NP, as in (6)a-d. Also note that embedded clausal
subjects can be extraposed from various sentence structures, with (S + be +
sP/sC) the most common:
(7)a. [E
E] TO SEE such poverty MAKES one sad.
a. It MAKES one sad [E
E] TO SEE such poverty.
(S + complex transV + dO + oP/oC)
b. Where you SIT DOESNT MATTER.
b. It DOESNT MATTER where you SIT . (S+ intranV)
c. (The fact) that the number-plate HAD BEEN CHANGED STRUCK me.
c. It STRUCK me that the number-plate HAD BEEN CHANGED.
(S + monotransV + dO)
d. (The fact) that you ARE LEAVING the company SHOULDNT COME as a surprise.
d. It SHOULDNT COME as a surprise (that) you ARE LEAVING the company.
(S + intensV + sP/sC)
77
17.3.1.2 The direct object (dO, for short) or the predicator
complement (predC, for short)10 can also be realised by either a finite
clause or a non-finite clause:
17.3.1.2.1 The dO/predC finite clause of a monotransitive
verb can be a that-clause or a Wh-clause. Since clausal functioning
objects in active sentences can become subject NPs in the passive, I shall
analyse them as being dominated by a NP node, just like the clausal
subjects. [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 200]
S
Comp S1
NP1 VP1
Vgrp NP[dO/predC]
[monotrans]
S[finite clause]
Comp S2
NP2 VP2
10
Also see 6.2, 11.3.5, 11.4 and Downing and Locke [1992: 55-56] for further consideration.
78
Again, passivisation can be used to test whether or not an embedded
finite clause is a dO:
(9)a. Most people RECOGNISE that some form of taxation IS necessary.
b. That some form of taxation IS necessary IS RECOGNISED
by most people.
c. It IS RECOGNISED by most people that some form of taxation IS necessary.
Vgrp NP[dO/predC]
[monotrans]
S[non-finite clause]
Comp S2
NP2 VP2
79
(12)a. We HADNT DECIDED what we OUGHT TO DO next.
what [E
E] TO DO next.
b. It HADNT BEEN DECIDED what we OUGHT TO DO next.
what [E
E] TO DO next.
NP1 VP1
Vgrp NP[dO/predC]
[monotrans]
S[non-finite clause]
Comp S2
NP2 VP2
80
After remember and forget, the contrast between the to-infinitive
or the ing form corresponds to a difference of meaning:
(13)f. I REMEMBERED [EE] TO POST your letters.
(= I didnt forget to post them.)
(14)f. I REMEMBERED [EE] POSTING your letters.
(= I recalled having posted them.)
After need, require and want; the ing form of the verb can be
replaced by the passive to-infinitive:
(13)g. The children still NEED [E
E] TO BE LOOKED after.
(14)g. The children still NEED [E
E] LOOKING after.
The verbs in this case cannot be made passive:
(13)f. *[E
E]TO POST your letters WAS REMEMBERED (by me).
(14)f. *[E
E] POSTING your letters WAS REMEMBERED (by me).
(13)g. *[E
E]TO BE LOOKED after IS still NEEDED (by the children).
(14)g. *[E
E] LOOKING after IS still NEEDED (by the children).
NP1 VP1
Vgrp NP[dO/predC]
[monotrans]
S[non-finite clause]
Comp S2
NP2 VP2
81
(17)a. I DONT LIKE him/John INTERUPTING all the time.
b. Jill HATES him/her COMING home late.
c. We ANTICIPATED her/Mary(s) TAKING over the business.
d. The employers RESENTED the staff(s)/their BEING CONSULTED.
Note that the overt subject of the non-finite clause must be an object
personal pronoun (e.g. him, her, and them), a noun phrase (e.g. the staff) or a
possessive (e.g. Marys, their, and her) and that the verbs in (17)e cannot
normally be made passive while some of the verbs in (16)e can:
82
S1
NP1 VP1
Vgrp NP[dO/predC]
[monotrans]
S [non-finite clause]
Comp S2
NP2 VP2
Note that:
The verbs in (19)a-e can be made passive:
(19)b. Someone WAS HEARD SLAMMING/TO SLAM the door (by the porter).
c. The cat WAS SEEN STEALING/TO STEAL the meat (by the children).
83
17.3.1.2.6 Many ditransitive verbs of communicating (assure,
inform, tell, notify, etc.) and of causing someone to think or believe or know
something (convince, persuade, remind, teach, etc.), and the performative
that-clause
verbs such as bet, promise, and warn can take a dO finite that
after an iO pronoun or noun phrase.
S1
NP1 VP1
Comp S2
NP2 VP2
17.3.1.2.7 Advise, ask, remind, show, teach, and tell are some
common ditransitive verbs which introduce indirect interrogatives. Most of
these can take a dO Wh-finite
Wh or non-finite clause after an iO pronoun or
noun phrase. Remind is commonly used with a non-finite.
84
S1
NP1 VP1
Comp S2
NP2 VP2
what [E
E] TO DO.
d. REMIND me when [E
E] TO SWITCH it off.
e. Tom WILL SHOW you where you CAN SEND it.
85
S1
NP1 VP1
Comp S2
NP2 VP2
(21)f. The instructor TAUGHT the dancers how they SHOULD BREATHE.
how [E
E] TO BREATHE.
86
(22)h. He ADVISED her [EE] TO SEE a doctor.
h. She WAS ADVISED to see a doctor (by him).
E] TO SEE a doctor WAS ADVISED (by him).
h. *[E
17.3.1.2.9 Below are a number of ditransitive verbs that take
that-clause, a
an iO to-prepositional phrase first and later a dO which is a that
finite or non-finite Wh-clause
Wh , or a non-finite clause containing or
consisting of a to-infinitive: confess, explain, point out, prove, indicate,
signal, acknowledge, admit, announce, declare, mention, propose,
recommend, remark, report, state, and suggest.
S1
NP1 VP1
NP2 VP2
87
(25)a. He GESTURED to the students [E E] TO STAND UP.
b. Fred SIGNALLED to the waiter [E E] TO BRING another chair.
c. Stephen SHOUTED to the chairman [E
E] TO LET someone else speak.
d. A policeman MOTIONED to us [E
E] TO MOVE to the side of the road.
Note that:
The iO prepositional phrases in (23)a-f and (24)a-b refer to the
person or people addressed by the subject while the iO prepositional
phrases in (25)a-d refer to the person or people to whom the subject is
calling or signalling.
The Recipient indirect objects of these verbs can never become the
that-clause
subject in a corresponding passive clause. Neither can their that
direct objects:
(23)h. Sir Humphrey EXPLAINED to the Minister that delays MIGHT BE fatal.
h. *The Minister WAS EXPLAINED that delays MIGHT BE fatal.
h. *That delays MIGHT BE fatal WAS EXPLAINED to the Minister.
88
S1
NP1 VP1
NP2 VP2
89
S1
NP1 VP1
Comp S2
NP2 VP2
(28)a. I M GIVING [E
E] READING magazines much less time.
b. He DID NOT GIVE [E
E] FINDING the cat a second thought.
90
S1
NP1 VP1
NP2 VP2
91
S1
NP1 VP1
NP2 VP2
NP1 VP1
NP2 VP2
92
17.3.1.5.3 The objective complement in (33)a-g is the bare
infinitive, either alone (e.g. work) or as part of a larger clause (e.g. play in
the road). It tells us what the direct object is made or allowed to do [Oxford
Advanced Learners Dictionary, 1992: xxvi]. The causative verbs have, let
and make take a bare infinitive. With help either a to-infinitive or a bare
infinitive is possible:
S1
NP1 VP1
Comp S2
NP2 VP2
93
S1
NP1 VP1
Comp S2
NP2 VP2
Note that:
Only a small number of complex transitive verbs; usually those
mentioned in (31)a-e, (32)a-h, (33)a-g and (34)a-d; are used in this case.
Only a few verbs in this case can be made passive. The direct object of
an active verb becomes the subject of the same verb in the passive:
(31)c. The baby WILL BE NAMED whatever his grandfather WISHES.
94
PP
P S[(non-)finite clause]
[cPrep]
Comp S
NP VP
NP1 VP1
DET N Comp S2
(37)a. The news that the enemy WERE near ALARMED everybody.
b. The boy who WAS SLEEPING WAS DREAMING.
c. The place where I first MET my husband IS NOT far from here.
95
NP1
DET N Comp S
ART headN NP VP
d. ILL never FORGET the day when I first ENTERED the university.
e. Thats the reason why she HAS REFISED his invitation.
Vgrp AP[sP/sC]
[intens]
headA S[(non-)finite clause]
Comp S2
NP2 VP2
96
c. The tree IS safe ( [E
E] TO CLIMB up).
d. Elephants ARE NOT easy [E
E] TO LASSO.
NP1 VP1
S3 Conj S2
Comp S1
NP1 VP1
(42)a. Sally SAID she SAW a ghost and Dan BELIEVED her.
97
S4
S3 Conj S2
I DID NOT WANT to leave my bed but the wind BLEW so strong
(42)b. S
[finite that-clause]
Comp S1
NP1 VP1
98
SECTION 3: GRAMMATICAL RELATIONS
18 Structure
The concept of STRUCTURE is essential in distinguishing between the
strings of words that are well-formed expressions in the language
and those that are not. [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 8] To show how things can
be analyzed into their constituent parts in this text, we use TREE-DIAGRAMS
the trees that are upside-down:
S
NP VP
these basic
_________________
19 Endocentric structures vs. exocentric structures
19.1 ENDOCENTRIC STRUCTURE
Phrases like the NOUN PHRASE (NP, for short) their rather dubious
jokes are said to be ENDOCENTRIC. An endocentric construction may be
99
substituted for as a whole by one of its constituent units; e.g. a noun may
stand for the whole noun phrase, c.f. big African lions roaming in the
jungle lions. [Jackson, 1980: 26]
100
omission would result in an ill-formed string (*their rather jokes). Notice,
however, that dubious is in no way dependent on rather. We can omit
rather and still be left with a perfectly good phrase (their dubious jokes).
Since one of the two constituents cannot stand for the whole verb
phrase as a unit, saw many things is a typical example of the STRUCTURE
of COMPLEMENTATION.
101
Co-NP Co-NP
N1 N2 N1 N2 N3
(2)a. too stuffy and hot (2)b.too stuffy and hot (2)c. stuffy and too hot
(3)a. up and down (3)b. in the foundation and under the rafters
102
coordinator (and in this case) all have the same category label
[Burton-Roberts, 1997: 71] and that the parts joined by Coordinate
Conjunctions ought usually to be of exactly equal value [Campbell,
1962: 5]. All these co-ordinations are typical examples of the STRUCTURE of
COORDINATION.
NP (subject) VP (predicate)
The sentences (4)a-i have all been divided into two constituents; the
first is traditionally said to function as SUBJECT, and the second as PREDICATE.
One way of thinking of these functions is to think of the subject as being
used to mention something and the predicate as used to say something
true or false about the subject. [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 31]
While the noun phrase and the verb phrase of the sentences
marked (4)a-i display the STRUCTURE of MODIFICATION, the very
sentences are typical examples of the STRUCTURE of PREDICATION.
_________________
103
21 Constructions vs. constituents
21.1 A construction is any significant group of words (or morphemes):
old man, lives there, the man who lives there, has gone, to his sons
house, has gone to his sons house, the old man who lives there has
gone to his sons house, etc.
But there has is not, since the two words have no direct connection.
Neither is man since this word contains only one word (and also one
morpheme). On a syntactic level lives is not a construction; but on a
morphological level it is a construction consisting of two morphemes, live
and s.
Briefly, all but the smallest constituents are constructions and all
but the largest constructions are constituents. In syntax, the smallest
constituents are words, and the largest constructions are sentences.
_________________
104
the old man who lives there | has gone to his sons house
the old man | who lives there has gone | to his sons house
the | old man who | lives there has | gone to | his sons house
old | man lives | there his sons | house
his son | s
his | son
22.2 ULTIMATE CONSTITUENTS are the smallest constituents of
which a given construction is composed.
If the ultimate constituents of a word are the unit morphemes
of which it is composed [Stageberg, 1965: 98] then the ultimate
constituents of a sentence are the individual words (or the possessive
morpheme in some cases) of which it is composed.
There are thirteen ultimate constituents in the old man who lives
there has gone to his sons house: the, old, man, who, lives, there,
has, gone, to, his, son,s and house.
_________________
23 Immediate constituents of a sentence
Using the diagram marked (1) as an illustration, one may say yes to
the question Are words the immediate constituents of the sentence that
contains them?
S
Compare the diagram marked (1) with the diagrams marked (2) and (3):
S
The diagram marked (1) fails to give any explanation of why the
words that occur in (1) form a well-formed English sentence, and why
those that occur in (2) and (3) do not.
105
The arrangement of words in a sentence is largely determined by the
fact that the words are not immediate constituents of the sentences, but
belong with other words to form groups which have their own specifiable
position in the structure of the sentence. In short, while sentences CONTAIN
words, they dont CONSIST (just of) words. [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 11-12]
_________________
24 Intervening level of organization between word and sentence
The fact that words do not pattern directly into sentences
implies that there are some intervening levels of organization between
word and sentence. They are usually called phrase, and clause [Jackson,
1980: 4].
The sentence marked (1) consists of two phrases: a noun phrase as the
subject and a verb phrase as the predicate.
(1) My bother was an outstanding student.
25.2 The term complement may be used to refer to various linguistic notions.
Richards, Platt and Weber [1985] and Jacobs [1995] share something in
common in reference to the term complement when the former [1985: 52]
106
states that a complement is that part of the sentence which follows the verb
and which thus completes the sentence and the latter [1995: 59] believes
that a complement is the phrase following the predicate and linked very
closely to it; it is the constituent that completes the predicate. However,
these authors differ in what they consider as complements.
107
26 Types of adjective complements
An adjectival complement completes the meaning of the adjective
head in a predicative adjective phrase. There are various kinds of
complements in a predicative adjective phrase:
A prepositional phrase: averse, free and tantamount must take as its
complement a prepositional phrase:
(1)a. IM NOT averse to a cup of tea.
b. ARE you free from all responsibilities?
c. Her remarks WERE tantamount to slander.
A non-finite to-infinitive clause: Loath must take as its complement a
non-finite to-infinitive clause:
(2) They WERE loath [E E]TO LEAVE this district.
A finite dependent clause: Aware must take as its complement a finite
dependent clause1:
(3)a. He IS aware that very few jobs ARE available.
b. I dont think you RE aware how much this MEANS to me.
_________________
27 Pre-adjectival modifiers vs. post-adjectival modifiers
An attributive adjective can only take an optional pre-modifier
while a predicative adjective may optionally be pre-modified and
optionally or obligatorily post-modified.
27.1 The pre-modifier in an adjective phrase, either attributive or
predicative, may only be an adverb:
(1)a. It IS a very exciting film.
b. This film IS very exciting.
1
Aware can also take as its complement a prepositional phrase:
He WAS aware of a creaking noise.
108
27.3 There are various kinds of post-modifiers in a predicative
adjective phrase:
A prepositional phrase:
(3)a. My roommate BECAME tired of studying.
b. The dean WAS NOT angry with me.
c. IM worried about your study.
A non-finite to-infinitive clause:
(4)a. Jack APPEARED eager [E E] TO SEE her.
b. We WERE reluctant [E
E] TO LEAVE.
delighted
c. Jane WAS delighte d [E
E] TO RECEIVE the gift.
A finite dependent clause:
(5)a. IM glad that it IS over.
b. She IS indifferent whether you COME or not.
_________________
28 Adjective complements vs. optional post-adjectival modifiers
28.1 For most predicative adjectives, post-modification is optional.
In other words, an adjective phrase functioning predicatively does not always
obligatorily contain a certain kind of post-modifier. Anxious and devoted,
for example, can occur with or without post-modification:
(1)a. Mrs Green IS devoted.
b. Mrs Green IS really devoted.
c. Mrs Green IS really devoted to her daughter.
(2)a. He IS anxious.
b. He IS (very) anxious.
c. He IS (very) anxious about his wifes health.
d. He IS (very) anxious [E
E] TO PLEASE everybody.
e. He IS (very) anxious that no one SHOULD ACCUSE him of laziness.
109
(3)a. IM NOT averse to a cup of tea.
b. ARE you free from all responsibilities?
c. Her remarks WERE tantamount to slander.
110
29 Classification of English adjectives according to their post-modifiers
We may give a affirmative answer to the above question because
English adjectives vary in the kinds of post-modifiers that are possible
after them:
29.1 Many adjectives do not allow any post-modifier (though they may
take a pre-modifier): big, blue, astute, sudden, tall, criminal, etc.:
(1)a. This IS another really big problem.
b. This problem IS really big.
(2)a. She HAS blue eyes.
b. Her eyes ARE blue.
(3)a. ItS a criminal waste of public money.
b. Their actions ARE criminal.
Anxious
Anxi ous, however, take all three kinds of post-modifiers:
(7)a. He IS very anxious about his wifes health,
b. He IS very anxious to please everybody,
c. He IS very anxious that no one should accuse him of laziness.
111
(8)a. IM fond of swimming.
b. Her remarks WERE tantamount to slander.
112
30.2.1 Adverbial adjuncts of Time have four subcategories within them:
Adverbial adjuncts of Point of Time tell when an event takes place,
answering the question When? or At what time?:
(1)a. My father WORKS at night.
b. WeLL BE FLYING over France at eight thirty tonight.
c. ILL COME some time/next week.
d. They ARRIVED the next day/at a quarter past nine.
113
b. My sister and her boyfriend MET at a dance.
c. I CAN hardly STUDY at home.
d. A Panamanian passenger bus LAY in a ditch.
e. He always HIDES where I can never reach.
114
Adverbial adjuncts of Path describe the pathway of an action,
answering the question By/Through/Along/Via/By way of which?:
(10)a. They ARE TRAVELING to France by way of London.
b. You CAN GO from London to Washington via New York.
c. He JUMPED out of the window/over the wall.
d. A lot of vehicles TRAVEL along the street.
e. The train WHISTLED past (the village).
f. We CAME by country roads, not by the motor road.
g. The burglar GOT in through the window and ESCAPED through the
back door.
115
d. The students CANT TRANSLATE as well as their professor does.
e. You MUST TRANSLATE as accurately as possible.
f. The lip CURLED like a snails foot.
116
(16)a. The prisoner ESCAPED with only a razor blade.
b. I CAN hardly STUDY without an up-to-date dictionary.
c. She frequently WRITES in pencil.
d. You SHOULD NOT READ by artificial light.
e. They usually PAY in cash, not by check.
f. She often SEWS with cotton thread.
117
c. You HAD BETTER NOT SKI in case the weather is really bad.
d. We STARTED early for fear of a possible traffic jam.
118
c. They KEPT on swimming
(even) though/in spite of the fact that the weather was bad.
despite/in spite of the bad weather.
d. [1700 miners have been out for seven months and,]
despite intimidation, no one HAS GONE back to work.
119
(24)a. She also PLAYS well.
b. I DID, too.
c. I DIDNT, either.
It is important to note that unlike conjuncts, adverbial adjuncts of
Addition do not serve primarily to link units of discourse. Rather, their
primary purpose is to show that one bit of propositional content is being added
to a previously mentioned idea or entity. [Biber et all, 1999: 779]
30.3 Note that adverbial adjuncts may precede and/or follow the Vgrp
of the VP:
S S
NP VP1 NP VP1
120
30.4 Also note that two or more adverbial adjuncts of different types
may occur together, following a variety of orders:
(27)a. He TRAVELS a lot (Degree)
from and to Hanoi (Source and Terminus).
b. She WROTE quickly (Manner) in order to finish in time (Purpose).
c. The cat CREPT silently (Manner) towards the bird (Direction).
d. I WANT TO GO somewhere slightly more exotic (Terminus)
for a change (Purpose).
e. He WILL certainly (Degree) DIE
if you dont call a doctor (Condition).
S
NP VP1
121
(29) a. We HAVE LIVED here (Location) for ten years (Extent in Time).
b. We WENT to Rome (Terminus) by Milan and Florence (Path).
c. A van carrying farm workers RAN off a foggy rural road (Source)
and PLUNGED into a murky canal (Terminus) today (Point of Time).
d. HeS COMING downstairs (Direction)
with two sleeping bags over the top of his head (Accompaniment).
e. She SLID over the questions (Path)
without answering them (Manner).
f. Daddy CAME home (Terminus) from work (Source)
earlier than usual (Manner).
30.7 Quite often, only one obligatory adverbial adjunct is enough to make
the meaning conveyed by the VP of a given sentence complete. In some
cases, however, both adverbial adjuncts in the VP are obligatory:
(30)a. The project WOULD GO forwards (Direction) as planned (Manner).
b. The project WOULD GO forwards (Direction).
c. The project WOULD GO as planned (Manner).
(31)a. The jumbo jet FLEW up (Direction) into the open air (Terminus).
b. The jumbo jet FLEW up (Direction).
c. The jumbo jet FLEW into the open air (Terminus).
122
S S
DET N1 DET N1
AP N2 ART AP N2
ModN headN
(2) a much harder job
(1) much evening enjoyment
2
much /mt/ (quantifying adj., used with uncountable nouns; esp. with negative an
interrogative verbs or after very, as, how, so, too) = a large amount or quantity (of sth): I
havent got much money. Theres never very much news on Sundays. Take as much time
as you like. How much petrol do you need?
123
2. In a much harder job, much3 is a degree adverb meaning to a
great extent or degree, pre-modifying THE COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVE
(ComparA, for short) harder. Much harder, in its turn, is an adjective
phrase, pre-modifying the N2 job, which is in fact the head of the whole noun
phrase.
3. In a much more expensive trip, more is a comparative degree
adverb, pre-modifying the positive adjective expensive. Since degree
adverbs cannot themselves be modified [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 65], much
cannot be another degree adverb, pre-modifying the very comparative degree
adverb more. That is why much should be considered a degree adverb pre-
modifying the comparative adjective phrase more expensive. Much more
expensive, in its turn, is another adjective phrase, pre-modifying the N2
trip, which is in fact the head of the whole noun phrase.
NP NP
DET N1 DET N1
ART AP N2 AP1 N2
DEG2 headA A
(4) much more white sand
(3) a much more expensive trip
3
much /mt/ (adv., used with comparatives and superlatives) = to a great extent or degree:
much louder; much more confidently; Shes much better today; My favourite is usually
much the most expensive; I would never willingly go anywhere by boat, much less go on
a cruise.
124
adjective clause Ive ever tasted post-modifies the NP2 much the
best meal.
NP1
NP2 SubACl
RESTRIC NP3
DET N1
ART AP N2
SuperA headN
32 Mis-diagraming
Whats wrong with the two following diagrams?
NP NP
DET N1 DET N1
ART AP N2 ART AP N2
QA headN QA headN
DET N DET N
Q headN Q headN
125
33. Structural ambiguity in English noun phrases
DET N1 DET N1
Q AP N2 Q AP1 N2
ModNP
A headComN headN1
DET N3
ModN headN
AP2 N4
DET N1
ART AP1 N2
A1 AP2 N3
A2 headComN
ModN headN
126
(2)b. the teacher of old Rumanian history
NP
DET N1
ART AP1 N2
ModNP
DET N3 headN1
AP2 N4
A1 AP3 N5
A2 headN2
the old Rumanian history teacher
ART AP1 N2
A1 AP2 N3
ModNP
DET N4
AP3 N5 headN1
A2 headN2
the old Rumanian history teacher
127
33.1.3 More exciting ideas can be interpreted in two different ways:
(3)a. more ideas that are exciting(3)b. ideas that are more exciting
NP NP
DET N1 DET N1
AP1 N2 AP N2
AP2 N3
QA DEG headA headN
[ComparA] A headN [ComparAdv]
128
NP NP
DET N1 DET N1
ART AP N2 ART AP N2
ModNP
A headComN
DET N3
headComN headN
DET N1 DET1 N1
A headN
129
33.2.3 The world womens congress can be interpreted as the
womens congress of the world as in (3)a or the congress of world
women as in (3)b.
NP1
NP DET1 N1
33.2.4 A nice mans fur coat can be interpreted as a mans fur coat
that is nice as in (4)a or a fur coat of a nice man as in (4)b.
NP NP1
DET N1 DET1 N1
A headN2
(4)a. a nice mans fur coat
(4)b. a nice man s fur coat
130
33.2.5 A large womans garment can be interpreted as a womans
garment that is large as in (5)a or a garment for a large woman as in
(5)b.
NP1
NP DET1 N1
A AP2 N3 DET N2
NP DET1 N1
A AP2 N3 DET N2
PossCommN headN AP N3
131
33.2.7 A camels hair brush4 can be interpreted as an implement
with bristles used to brush, scrub, clean or tidy a camels hair as in
(7)a or an act of brushing, scrubbing, cleaning or tidying the hair of a
camel as in (7)b.
NP NP
DET N1 DET1 N1
ART AP N2 ART AP N2
ModNP
DET N1 DET1 N1
DEM AP N2 DEM AP N2
AP N4
(8)a. that greasy kid stuff
A headN
(8)b. that greasy kid stuff
4
brush 1. [C] implement with bristles of hair, wire, nylon, etc. in a block of wood, etc.
and used for scrubbing, sweeping, cleaning, painting, tidying the hair, etc.:
a clothes- brush, a tooth-brush, a paint-brush, a hair-brush.
2. [singular] act of brushing: give ones clothes, hair, shoes, teeth, wool coat,
etc. a good brush.
132
33.2.9 The basic book service can be interpreted as the book
service that is basic as in (9)a or the service for basic books as in (9)b.
NP NP
DET N1 DET1 N1
ART AP N2 ART AP N2
AP N4
(9)a. the basic book service
A headN
(9)b. the basic book service
DET N1 DET N1
ART AP N2 ART AP N2
AP N4
133
33.2.11 An old car enthusiast can be interpreted as a car
enthusiast who is old as in (11)a or an enthusiast about old cars as in
(11)b.
NP NP
DET N1 DET1 N1
ART AP N2 ART AP N2
ModN headN
DET2 N3
AP N4
(11)a. an old car enthusiast A headN
(11)b. an old car enthusiast
DET N1 DET N1
AP1 N2 AP N2
AP2 N3
QA DEG headA headN
[ComparA] A headN [ComparAdv]
134
Our English grammatical system provides us with at least five
common means of avoiding such ambiguities:
1. Gender signals: The dog on the porch with (its, his) battered look.
2. Person-thing signals: The young calf of the boy
(who, which) was standing near the gate.
3. Number signals: The rooms of the house which (were, was) dirty.
4. Position: A dispute at the courthouse on drinking.
5. Co-ordination: A second-hand car that he later traded for a motorcycle
and that he loved to tinker with.
[Stageberg, 1965: 167-168]
NP1
NP2 AP1
DET1 N1 PP1
headN1 P1 NP3
DET2 N2 PP2
NP2 AP1
DET N PP2
ART headN
135
NP1
NP2 AP1
DET N1 PP
DET N1
ART headN2
(2)a. the young calf of the boy who was standing near the gate
NP1
NP2 AP1
DET1 N1 PP
ART1 AP N2
A headN1
(2)b. the young calf of the boy which was standing near the gate
NP1
NP2 SubACl
NP3 AP
DET N PP
ART headN
136
NP
NP2 AP
DET1 N PP
NP4 SubACl
DET2 N
ART2 headN2
NP2 AP1
DET N PP2
ART headN
NP2 AP
DET N PP1
headGer AdvP
PP2
137
NP1
NP2 SubACl1
DET N1
AP N2
ComA headN
SubACl2 Conj SubACl3
(5)a. a second-hand car
that he later traded for a motorcycle and that he loved to tinker with
which he later traded for a motorcycle and which he loved to tinker with
NP1
NP2 SubACl
DET N1
ART AP N2
ComA headN
P NP1
NP2 SubACl
DET N1
ART headN
(6) [that he later traded] for a motorcycle which he loved to tinker with
138
(1) young car salesmen
(2) second-hand car salesmen
(3) some beautiful print collectors
ANSWER:
The three noun phrases young car salesmen, second-hand car
salesmen and some beautiful print collectors are not STRUCTURALLY
AMBIGUOUS. In other words, there is only one way to explain them:
1. young car salesmen: Since people, but not things, can be described
as young, young must modify a constituent of which salesmen is the head. It
cannot modify car and hence cannot form a constituent with car. The natural
structural analysis of this noun phrase, then, is:
NP
DET N1
AP N2
headComN1
A ModN headComN2
young car salesmen
DET N1
AP N2
ModNP
headComN
DET N3
AP N4
A headN
139
3. Some beautiful print collectors is better interpreted as some
beautiful collectors of prints and not as some collectors of beautiful
prints; that is, for me at least, print, when acting as a pre-modifier itself,
does not accept beautiful as a modifier [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 164].
NP
DET N1
Q AP N2
A headComN
ModN headN
some beautiful print collectors
_________________
34 Verb phrase analyses
34.1 Noun phrases as the sP/sC of an intensive verb
or as the dO of a monotransitive verb
When a verb is complemented by an NP, you will have to decide
whether [Vgrp + NP] is an example of a monotransitive Vgrp + its dO or
an example of an intensive Vgrp + its sP/sC. Compare (1) with the
following (2):
S S
NP VP NP VP
In (2) only one individual is mentioned (by means of the subject Tom).
The rest of the sentence (the VP) is used to characterize the subject. If (2)
expresses a relation, it is the relation between an individual and a property:
the sentence expresses the ideas that Tom has the property of being an
auctioneer.
140
APs only ever identify properties. NPs, by contrast, can be used both
to identify properties and to refer to individuals. This is why an NP can
function both as predicative (complementing an intensive verb) and as
direct object (complementing a monotransitive verb). [Burton-
Roberts, 1997: 87]
(1)a. Lightning STRUCK the oak tree. (2)a. They ARRIVED the next day.
141
(1)c *The oak tree lightning STRUCK.
Also as an optional adverbial adjunct of arrive, the next day
can easily be removed from (2)d:
(2)d. They ARRIVED.
Such an omission will result in the ungrammaticality of (1)d:
(1)d. *Lightning STRUCK.
This proves that the oak tree is a complement of struck. It is the
direct object of struck, to be precise.
NP VP NP VP
(1) Oscar SHOULD BE in the engine room. (2) *Oscar SHOULD BE.
NP VP1 NP VP1
142
34.4 IntransVAC vs. intransVAdv
Distinguish an intransitive verb-adverbial composite (intransVAC,
for short), which is also called an intransitive phrasal verb, from a
combination of an intransitive head verb and its adverbial adjunct
(intransVAdv):
1 He TURNED up. intransVAC meaning appeared
2 He CLIMED up. intransVAdv
3 The two friends WALKED out. intransVAdv
4 The two friends FELL out. intransVAC meaning quarreled
5 He DOES CARRY on, intransVAC meaning behave strangely
doesnt he? or argue, quarrel or complain noisily
6 After drinking rapidly and intransVAC meaning fainted or
heavily, lost consciousness
he suddenly PASSED on.
7 They TURNED back. intransVAdv
8 She SAT down. intransVAdv
9 SLOW up a bit, intransVAC meaning
or you make yourself ill. work more energetically
10 After a month intransVAC meaning come to an end
their food supplies GIVE out.
11 That foreign student intransVAC meaning will survive
WILL MAKE out.
12 Why DONT you MAKE up? intransVAC meaning put powder,
lipstick, greasepaint, etc. on your face
to make it more attractive
13 If you are so sleepy, intransVAC meaning go to bed
why DONT you TURN in?
14 Williard WENT in. intransVAdv
15 She STOOD up. intransVAdv
16 She SHUT up. intransVAC meaning stopped talking
17 She WAS LOOKING up a new intransVAC meaning was searching
word as I entered the room. for (a new word) in a dictionary
18 She LOOKED up from her book intransVAdv
as I entered the room.
143
34.5 MonotransVAC NP vs. IntransVPP
34.5.1 How to distinguish a monotransVACNP from an intransVPP?
ANSWER:
Only the adverbial particle (Prt, for short) of a monotransVAC can
move over its NP direct object:
(1)a. She CALLED up her husband.
b. She CALLED her husband up.
Indeed, when the direct object is a pronoun, the adverbial particle must
appear after it:
(2)a. She CALLED him up.
b.*She CALLED up him.
The preposition in a PP can never move to a position following its
complement. So, particle movement provides a very reliable test for
distinguishing between a monotransVACNP and an intransVPP:
[He] SAW through her little game or [He] SAW her little game/it
through is a monotransVACNP meaning [He] WAS NOT DECEIVED by the
trick she had tried to play on him.
144
34.5.2 Distinguish a combination of a transitive verb-adverbial
composite (also called a transitive phrasal verb) and its NP direct
object (monotransVAC NP, for short) from that of an intransitive verb
and its PP adverbial adjunct (intransVPP, for short):
145
17 Dr. Holmes ARRIVED at monotransVAC meaning reached
the following conclusion.
18 When did you ARRIVED intransVPP
at the airport?
19 His normally placid dog monotransVAC meaning attacked
TURNED on him (him) suddenly and unexpectedly
and bit him on the leg.
20 WILL you TURN on the light monotransVAC meaning cause (the
in this room? light) to start functioning
21 I RAN into an old school friend monotransVAC meaning
at the supermarket this morning. met (him/her) by chance
22 The bus went out of control and intransVPP
RAN (straight) into a shop front.
23 She monotransVAC meaning deliberately
LOOKED (straight) through me. ignored (me) whom she could see
clearly
24 I LOOKED through a key hole intransVPP
but saw nobody in the house.
25 The police ARE LOOKING into monotransVAC meaning
his disappearance. are investigating
26 I LOOKED into the box intransVPP
but saw nothing there.
146
4 LOOK at the blackboard, please. monotrans-prepVprepO
5 She SMILED/GRINNED/STARED/ monotrans-prepVprepO
GLANCED/SQUINTED/SHOUTED at me.
NP VP
NP VP
147
S
NP VP1
NP VP1
Vgrp AdvP
[intrans] [obA of Location]
PP
148
(1) is not a reasonable paraphrase of (1), but (2) is a reasonable
paraphrase of (2). Therefore, the PP in (2) is part of the complementation of
the verb write, which must be subcategorised as [ditrans] in this sentence:
S
NP1 VP
NP1 VP
DET N1 PP
headN
35.2.2 Considering (3) *Max bring the station the hyena, we see that
(3) is not a reasonable paraphrase of (3). Therefore, the PP to the station
is the obligatory adverbial adjunct of Terminus of bring, which is a
monotransitive verb:
S
NP1 VP
149
Consider (4) Max lent the Dramatic Society his hyena. (4) is a
reasonable paraphrase of (4). So the PP to the Dramatic Society is the
iO of bring, which is a ditransitive verb.
S
NP1 VP
35.2.3 Notice that it is only NPs denoting animate things (or things
that could be interpreted as being animate) that can be indirect objects.
Mary is a person; therefore, for Mary in (5) is the iO of the
ditransitive verb bake:
(5) William BAKED a cake for Mary.
S Vgrp dO iO
[ditrans]
Christmas is not a person. It is a festival; therefore, for Christmas in (6)
is not the iO the ditransitive verb bake; it is in fact the optional adverbial
adjunct of Purpose of the monotransitive verb bake:
(6) William BAKED a cake for Christmas.
S Vgrp dO opA of Purpose
[monotrans]
However, the moment you interpret Christmas as a person rather than
a festival, William baked Christmas a cake sounds as perfectly grammatical as
William baked Mary a cake. In other words, for Christmas can also be
considered the iO of the ditransitive verb bake as the result of the
personification of Christmas:
S
NP VP
150
35.2.4 Sophie is a person; therefore, for Sophie in (7) is the iO of the
ditransitive verb is saving:
(7) She IS SAVING a place for Sophie.
S Vgrp dO iO
[ditrans]
A new car is not a person. It is a non-living thing; therefore, for a new
car in (8) is not the iO of the ditransitive verb is saving; it is in fact the
optional adverbial adjunct of Purpose of the monotransitive verb is
saving:
(8) She IS SAVING the money for a new car.
S Vgrp dO opA of Purpose
[monotrans]
151
35.3.1 Verbs of measurement like last or extend link to a noun phrase or
a prepositional phrase which indicates extent (e.g. how much the subject
costs, what it measures, how long it lasts, etc.).
The verb in (1)a and (2)a is monotransitive:
(1)a. The meeting LASTED three hours.
(2)a. The seafront EXTENDS four miles.
Subject Vgrp NP
[monotrans] [predicator complement]
35.3.2 Call and make in (3)a and (4)a are complex transitive verbs:
(3)a. He CALLED her an angel.
(4)a. I LL MAE you First Secretary
S Vgrp dO oP/oC
[complex]
152
S S
NP VP NP VP1
(5)a. The two friends FELL out. (5)b. The two friends WALKED out.
NP VP NP1 VP
NP1 VP NP1 VP
(7)a. Ed WILL MAKE Liz a good wife. (7)b. Ed WILL MAKE Liz lots of money.
153
35.3.6 Left in (8)a is a complex transitive verb meaning caused or
allowed (the house) to remain in a certain condition, and in a mess is the
object(ive) complement (oC) of the direct object (dO) the house.
NP1 VP
NP1 VP1
VP2 AdvP
[opA of Time]
Vgrp NP2[dO]
[monotrans] PP
154
(2)a. His favorite pastime IS swimming.
S + intensive headV + NP/(sC)
saying [Jackson, 1980: 26]: Frankly, I cant see George doing the job either.
155
(6)b. He RETURNED home several hours later.
S + intrans headV + Adv/adjunct of Terminus + AdvP/adjunct of Time
156
(12)a. I LOVED her the instant I saw her.
S + monotrans headV + pronoun/dO + NP/adjunct of Time
157
2. [He] watched the hunters with binoculars.
This verb phrase is structurally ambiguous because:
(2)a. With binoculars is a PP, an adjectival post-modifier of the
NP the hunters:
He WATCHED the hunters with binoculars.
S + monotrans headV + NP/dO
158
(4)a. Moving is the present participle of the verb move, a verbal,
part of the finite verb are moving:
They ARE MOVING sidewalks.
S + monotrans headV + Compound Noun/dO
(4)b. Moving is the present participle (V-part, for short) of the verb
move, an adjectival pre-modifier of the compound noun sidewalks:
They ARE moving sidewalks.
S + intensive headV + V-part/adjectival pre-modifier + Compound Noun/dO
159
Thus, the whole sentence may mean: She made up her mind (while she was
travelling) on the train.
She DECIDED on the train.
S + intrans headV + PP/adjunct of Location
160
(8)b. The PP in the moonlight is an optional adverbial adjunct of
location of drinking, which is the present/progressive participle of the
intransitive verb drink.
The participial phrase drinking in the moonlight is an obligatory
adverbial adjunct of manner of the intransitive verb stood:
The teacher STOOD drinking in the moonlight.
S + intrans headV + PartP/adjunct of Manner
161
37 Phrase structure
37.1 Definition:
Phrase structure is the division of a sentence into parts, and
the division of those parts into subparts. [Kaplan, 1989: 191] For
instance, the sentence Our French teachers have just left for France
can be first divided into two parts as follows:
S
Its usually easy to split a sentence into two parts. The left part
normally functions as subject, the right part as predicate. Within the subject
and the predicate, though, the division isnt always so straightforward. In the
above sentence, for example, there are two possibilities for dividing up the
NP subject our French teachers:
(1) Our French teachers may mean our teachers, who come
from France. French in this case is an adjective of nationality meaning
of or concerning France. It pre-modifies the head noun teachers,
resulting in the noun phrase French teachers.
(2) Our French teachers may mean our teachers whose subject
is French. French in this case is a noun meaning the language spoken in
France. It is one of the two free bases which are combined together to form
the compound noun French teachers.
NP NP
DET N1 DET N
162
substitute a single word for, preserving grammaticality, is a chunk, a phrase
[Kaplan, 1989: 191].
163
another word sequence, and second, by examining mutual substitution
possibilities in a range of environments. The idea is that word
sequences which are mutually substitutable in a given environment are
likely to be phrases; and if they are mutually substitutable in different
environments they are even more likely to be phrases [Kaplan, 1989: 193].
In the context of (1)a, (2)a, and (3)a; the puppy, that little striped
kitten, and Little Susie are mutually substitutable:
(1)b. That little striped kitten scratched at the screen door.
c. Little Susie scratched at the screen door.
(2)b. I want the puppy.
c. I want Little Susie.
(3)b. The puppy yawned.
c. That little striped kitten yawned.
164
(5)a. The puppy can really be fun.
b. That little striped kitten can really be fun.
c. Little Susie can really be fun.
d. Swimming in the reservoir can really be fun.
The reason why this example is ungrammatical is that boy ran into
the and girl dashed out of the are not phrases.
165
be the same internal structure. For instance, if you suspect (as you should)
that in the sentence Max devoured the sweet jam the word sequence the
sweet jam is a phrase, you should try to conjoin it with something similar,
like the stale toast: On the table is the sweet jam and the stale toast.
This is a grammatical sentence, so you conclude, tentatively, that the sweet
jam is a phrase. [Kaplan, 1989: 195]
166
(14)a. Ed CRIED when Sally left.
(15)a. She said he would wash the dishes, and he DID WASH the dishes.
b. She said he would wash the dishes, and WASH the dishes he DID.
167
substitute the, my, this, one, in each case preserving grammatically: the
horse, my horse, this horse and one horse.
(1) a white horse
piano a piano
horse a horse
Substituting: tree gives: a tree
man a man
soul a soul
On the basis of this, we can divide the phrase like this: a white horse.
Unfortunately, substitution fails to tell us which of the two groupings, either
(1) or (2), is correct.
6
Since a white horse and a gray pony have exactly the same internal structure, the
repeated indefinite article a/an is acceptably omitted in the second noun phrase, i.e.
after the co-ordinate conjunction and.
7
pony /p6n1/ (noun) a small type of horse
8
Since a white horse and a gray horse have exactly the same internal structure, the
shared head noun of these two noun phrases , which is horse, is acceptably omitted in
the first.
168
Therefore, as with the substitutability criterion, according to the
conjoinability criterion both a white and white horse are constituents.
But they cant both be, since they overlap.
(5)a. Though she WAS a fast finisher, she didnt win all her races.
b. Fast finisher though she WAS, she didnt win all her races.
b. White horse though he IS, he will fit in with the rest of the herd.
(7)a. Though he IS a white horse, he will fit in with the rest of the herd.
b. *A white though he IS horse, he will fit in with the rest of the herd.
a white horse
169
37.3.4 There is a so-called pronoun one that can refer to white horse
as an antecedent, if not in a white horse, at least in the identity structured
the white horse:
(8) I want the white horse by the gate, not the one in the stall.
38.2 The following Phrase Structure Rules are part of the grammar of
English:
38.2.1 Phrase-structure Rules for rewriting Noun Phrases:
1. NP N (NP consists of N)
2. NP DET N (NP consists of DET + N)
3. NP DET A N (NP consists of DET + A + N)
4. NP DET A N PP (NP consists of DET + A + N + PP)
170
is N: the other constituents DET, A, and PP are optional and must be
placed in parentheses. The abbreviated rule looks like this:
5. NP (DET) (A) N (PP)
171
38.2.4 We have now arrived at the following phrase-structure rules for
English:
S NP VP
NP (DET) (A) N (PP)
VP V (NP) (PP) (S)
PP PREP NP
________________
39 Surface structures vs. deep structures
Each sentence is considered to have two levels of structure: the deep
structure and the surface structure. The surface structure is generally the
syntactic structure of the sentence which a person speaks, hears, reads or
writes, e.g. the passive sentence
The newspaper was not delivered today.
The items in brackets are not lexical items but grammatical concepts
which shape the final form of the sentence. Rules which describe deep
structure (phrase-structure rules) are in the first part of the
grammar (BASE COMPONENT). Rules which transform these structures
(transformational rules) are the second part of the grammar
(TRANSFOMATIONAL COMPONENT). [Richards, Platt and Weber, 1987: 74]
172
The phrase-structure rules we proposed earlier would actually
generate a deep structure. Then the syntactic processes the
transformations would operate on the deep structure generated by the
phrase-structure rules to produce a surface structure. We can represent
the situation schematically as follows:
PHRASE-STRUCTURE RULES
Deep structure
TRANSFORMATIONAL RULES
Surface structure
173
The two above examples prove that two different deep structures may
share the same surface structure as a result of the application of a certain
transformational rule. Note also that a sentence is structurally ambiguous
when its only surface structure is derived from two or more different deep
structures.
________________
40 Signals of syntactic structures
There exist five signals of syntactic structures: word order,
function words, inflections, derivational contrast, and prosody.
40.2. Function words /f7k6n ,w3:dz/ are words which have little
meaning on their own, but which show grammatical relationships in and
between sentences (grammatical meaning). Conjunctions, prepositions,
articles, e.g. and, to, the, are function words. [Richards, Platt and Webber,
1987: 61]
174
Co-AP Co-NP
A1 A2 N1 N2 N3
40.3. Inflection
Inflection is the change, or modification, in the form of a word to
indicate a change in its meaning. [House and Harman, 1965: 15]
Almost all English nouns have two forms: the plain form used in the
constructions like a book or the book and the inflected form which is
formed by adding inflectional suffixes to the plain form. The plain form and
its three inflected forms together make up a four-form inflectional noun
paradigm, which is a set of relative forms of a noun. Not all nouns have three
inflected forms:
175
40.4. Derivational contrast /,der1ve1nl k4ntrast/ is
Derivation is the formation of new words by adding affixes to
other words or morphemes. For example, the noun insanity is derived
from the adjective sane by addition of the negative prefix in and the noun-
forming suffix ity. [Richards, Platt and Weber, 1987: 77]
The verb flirt, the noun flirtation, the adjective flirtatious, and the
adverb flirtatiously can be identified thanks to such derivational contrast.
176
Would you like soup or salad? _ Id like soup and salad.
What kind of dressing? _ Oil and vinegar.
What to drink? _ Coffee with cream and sugar.
And for dessert, we have cake or ice cream.
_ Ill take cake and ice cream.
________________
41 What is syntax?
Syntax is a term used for the study of the rules governing the way words
are combined to form SENTENCES." [Finch, 2000: 77]
Syntax is the study of how words combine to form sentences and the rules
which govern the information of sentences [Richards, Platt and Weber,
1987: 285]
Cu phap la cap o duy nhat cua ngon ng trc tiep lien he vi viec bieu at
t tng va cau la phng tien hnh thanh va dien at trc tiep mot t duy
tron ven. [Cao Xuan Hao, 1991: 24]
177
SECTION 4: SAMPLE TESTS IN ENGLISH LINGUISTICS
178
(i) The boy turned down the radio.
(ii) They ran quickly down the road.
(iii) Everyone charged with a crime deserves a fair trial.
(iv) The roaring crowd drowned out the candidate.
(v) I climbed out of bed and jumped into the shower.
PART II. SEMANTICS
1. a. What are primitive elements? Identify semantic properties of the
following words: democracy, maid, ruler, plod, water-lily, gull, ewe, soul
b. Interpret the meaning of the following sentences and then identify the
kinds of figurative language used:
1. The conversation back-fired suddenly.
2. He tries to sing his praises to the skies.
3. Give situations, interpret the meaning and then classify the following
sentences into different kinds of speech acts:
1. The meeting is over!
2. Hurry up, we are going to have a final exam.
3. I call her My Little Cat and she seems happy.
4. How are you?
PART III. WRITING
179
ANSWER KEY
1. a/ A descriptive grammar describes how a language is actually spoken or
written. A prescriptive grammar to lay down rules about how people
ought to speak and write rather than how they actually do. (1/2 point)
3. (i) The boy turned down the radio. not a constituent, as the underlined
part of the sentence cannot be moved as a whole (The radio was turned
down). The constituent here is the radio.
(ii) They ran quickly down the road. a constituent because it can be
moved as a whole (Down the road they ran quickly.)
(iii) Everyone charged with a crime deserves a fair trial. not a constituent
because the underlined part of the sentence cannot be substituted by one
word (eg charged with it). The constituent is a crime.
(iv) The roaring crowd drowned out the candidate. not a constituent (The
candidate was drowned out)
(vi) I climbed out of bed and jumped into the shower. not a constituent
(Out of bed I climbed and into the shower I jumped).
Writing (3 points)
- Form (spelling, punctuation, grammar) - Usage of English
- Ideas, organization of ideas - Persuasiveness and effectiveness
180
H QUOC GIA TP HO CH MINH CONG HOA XA HOI CHU NGHA VIET NAM
TRNG H KH XA HOI & NHAN VAN oc lap - T do - Hanh phuc
__________ _________
3. How do sentences in each of the following pairs differ from each other?
(3a) I will see you the day before you go.
(3b) I will give you the information before you go.
4. Explain the structural ambiguity of the phrase and the sentence given
below, using tree diagrams:
(4a) the motor boat of the man that would not start
(4b) Fred said that he would pay me on Thursday.
PART TWO: SEMANTICS
1. What are semantic features? Consider the following table and give the
semantic features to each of the given words.
181
2. Distinguish true synonymy from partial synonymy? Give two examples
to illustrate each.
5. For each of the following utterances, provide two situations so that one
utterance performs two different speech acts. Interpret the utterances and
identify the speech acts performed in the light of the situations you
provide.
(5a) Why dont you live with your parents?
(5b) Youre home early.
PART THREE: WRITING
Write a short essay of about 300-350 words on either topic.
1. How can you help your students to enlarge their vocabulary?
2. Is it true that one who is good at English grammar can write well in
English?
182
ANSWER KEYS
Part one: Syntax (30 iem = 3/10)
(6 iem) 1. Students are supposed to answer positively with a few examples like:
Embedded sentences functioning as subjects: (2 iem)
That Mary swallowed a gold fish grossed everyone out.
It grossed everyone out that Mary swallowed a gold fish.
Where we are going has not been decided.
Embedded sentences functioning as objects: (2 iem)
Jack made whoever came here the same offer. (IO)
They found what they wanted. (DO)
We will name the baby whatever his grandmother wishes. (OC)
Embedded sentences functioning as sentence-adverbial phrases: (2 iem)
Julia laughed when Max snored.
when Max snored, Julia laughed.
(10 iem) 2.
2.1. Many adjectives do not allow any kind of post-modification: big, blue,
sudden, tall, astute, etc. (2 iem)
2.4. Not all adjectives allow all the three above-mentioned kinds of
complement. Some allow only one or two of them. Interesting, for example,
may take only an infinitive phrase: this book is very interesting to read; safe
allows either a prepositional phrase or an infinitive clause (but not a that-
clause): this toy is safe for children, this tree is not safe to climb up. (3 iem)
183
(8 iem) 3.
verb Head pronoun noun phrase/adverbial
simple transitive verb direct object adjunct of time of will see
(3a) I will see you the day before you go.
(2 iem)
(2 iem)
(6 iem) 4.
(4a) the mans motor boat which would not start vs. the man who
would not start (3 iem)
(4b) Fred said on Thursday that he would pay me. vs. Fred said
that it is on Thursday that he would pay me. (3 iem)
(Note that tree diagrams must be used in this question. Any explaination
without its acommpanying illustrating diagram(s) is not acceptable.
184
Part two: Semantics (30 iem = 3/10)
(6 iem) 3. Presuppositions
(3a) I havent had/onwed/possessed any house (yet).
(3b) They waited until the last minute (and thus they failed the exam).
185
(6 iem) 4. Figures of speech
(4a) Her beloved father was laid to rest in this cemetery.
Was laid to rest is an expression of euphemism meaning was buried.
(4b) Dont live in such a sea of doubt.
- Live in a sea of doubt is an overstatement/an expression of hyperbole
meaning be too suspicious.
- Doubt is implicitly compared to a sea, both being characteristic of their
immeasurability. This is a metaphor.
(6 iem) 5. Speech Acts
Answers to the questions in this part vary depending on the situations
provided by the student. If there is no situation provided, there will certainly
no mark counted.)
186
AI HOC QUOC GIA TP. HO CH MINH
Trng ai Hoc Khoa hoc Xa hoi va Nhan van
HOI ONG TUYEN SINH SAU AI HOC NAM 2003
Part 3: Read the following sentence carefully and answer the questions.
English is spoken in more parts of the world than in any other
language by more people than any other tongue except Chinese.
1. Is there any instance of synonymy in the above sentence?
2. What is the sense relation between the terms English, language, and
Chinese in the above sentence?
3. Like many other words in English, tongue is a polysemous word,
which can lead to lexical ambiguity when it is used in a certain
utterance. Is the word tongue in the above sentence an instance of
ambiguity?
4. What is the figure of speech expressed through the use of tongue in
the above sentence?
Part 4: Identify the speech acts performed in the following underlined
utterances.
1. A. Hey, buddy! Theres a big hole in front of our classroom!
B. Thanks.
2. A. You know what I found on he first day of my new school year?
Theres a big hole in front of our classroom.
B. Really?
187
3. A. Oh, my God! Theres a big hole in front of our classroom!
B. Its not unusual around here.
II. Syntax:
Part 1: Make a complete IC analysis of the following sentence by using an
upside-down-T diagram (e.g. she smile happily)
Part 2: What are the syntactic functions typical of a noun phrase? Illustrate
your answer with examples.
Part 4: What are the types of verbs that do not allow passive transformation?
Part 5: How many types of noun clauses are there? Give an example for each
type.
188
AP AN MON C S: LINGUISTICS
sense (meaning)
1.2 The aspect of meaning that first comes to mind of a child who is
exposed to his/her native language at such an early stage (from the age
of 8 months to the age of 15 months) is reference (0.3 points). The
reason is that there is only one way for an adult/caretaker/babysitter to
communicative with a child of this age, which is to point to specific
referents of word whenever using that word talking to the child (e.g.
point at a teddy bear when saying bear to the child) (0.3 points)
189
Part 3 (3.5 points):
1. There is an instance of synonymy in the above sentence (0.25 points).
The synonymy found here are language and tongue (0.25 points).
2. The sense relation between these word is hyponymy (0.25 points)
because the superordinate term (or hypernym) language (0.25 points)
can be English (a hyponym) (0.25 points), Chinese (anther hyponym)
(0.25 points), etc.
language
English Chinese
(0.25 points)
The classification of language into English, Chinese, etc. is often referred
to as taxonomy (0.25 points).
Part 4 (2 points):
1. In this utterance, the speaker performs an illocutionary act of
warning (0.4 points). This speech act is a directive (0.4 points).
2. In this utterance, the speaker performs an illustration act of
stating/reporting a fact (0.2 points). This speech act is a
representative (0.4 points).
3. In this utterance, the speaker performs an illocutionary act of
exclaiming (0.2 points). This speech act is an expressive (0.4 points).
190
II. Syntax (10 points):
Part 1 (2 points):
Research into the health effects of air pollution is going.
Part 2 (3 points): The syntactic function typical of a noun phrase are subjects
of a verb (0.3 points), object of a verb (direct object, in direct object)
(0.3 points), object of a preposition (0.3 points), and complement
(subject complement, object complement) (0.3 points).
E.g. My dog is sleeping.
(subject of is) (0.3 points)
I gave the little boy a toy.
(IO) (DO) (0.6 points)
Hes fond of Chinese tea.
(object of the prep. of) (0.3 points)
She is a counsellor.
(subject complement) (0.3 points)
I consider him my archenemy.
(object complement) (0.3 points)
Part 3 (1 point):
The two phrases are both adjectivals (0.2 points), very beautiful being
an adjective phrase (0.2 points) and of great beauty a prepositional phrase
(0.2 points). Although they are almost the same in meaning (0.2 points), of
great beauty is a much more formal structure than is very beautiful.
191
Part 4 (2 points):
Verbs that do not allow passive transformation are of two main types
(0.2 points): all intransitive verbs (0.3 points) including linking verbs (0.3 points)
and some transitive verbs, especially verbs of state (0.3 points).
E.g. Active Passive
He worked very hard. (0.3 points)
(intransitive verb)
He was a marketeer. (0.3 points)
(linking verb/copula)
He has two sister. (0.3 points)
(transitive verb of state)
Part 5 (2 points):
There are three types of noun clause (0.2 points): that-clause (i.e. a
noun clause beginning with that (0.2 points), whether/if-clause (i.e. a noun
clause beginning with whether/if) (0.3 points), and (W)H-clause (i.e. a noun
clause beginning with W)H-word) (0.3 points).
E.g. He said that he would come. (0.3 points)
She wanted to know whether he could come. (0.3 points)
She asked me who would come. (0.3 points)
192
AI HOC QUOC GIA TP HO CH MINH CONG HOA XA HOI CHU NGHA VIET NAM
TRNG H KHXH&NV oc lap - T do - Hanh phuc
********** **********
MON THI C S: LINGUISTICS
CHUYEN NGANH PHNG PHAP GIANG DAY TIENG ANH
THI GIAN LAM BAI: 180 PHUT
PART I. SYNTAX
1. What is the difference between descriptivism and prescriptivism.
193
PART III. WRITING
Write an essay of about 250 - 300 words on either topics:
1. English has played an important part in providing employment
opportunity for many people in Vietnam.
2. Advantages and disadvantages in teaching English to adults learners
in the current situation in Vietnam.
Prescriptivism Descriptism
NP VP
V NP PP
Art. N
He killed the robber with a knife.
194
b. He killed the robber who was carrying a knife.
S
NP VP
V NP
Art NP
N PP
Prep. NP
Pro.
Art. N
195
He turned off the light in the living room.
The light in the living room is a noun phrase functioning as
the direct object of the phrasal verb turned off.
196