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ABSTRACT
A correlation of tectonic units of the Alpine-Carpathian-Dinaridic system of geometries resulting from out-of-sequence thrusting during Cretaceous and
orogens, including the substrate of the Pannonian and Transylvanian basins, is Cenozoic orogenic phases underlay a variety of multi-ocean hypotheses, that
presented in the form of a map. Combined with a series of crustal-scale cross were advanced in the literature and that we regard as incompatible with the
sections this correlation of tectonic units yields a clearer picture of the three- field evidence.
dimensional architecture of this system of orogens that owes its considerable The present-day configuration of tectonic units suggests that a former
complexity to multiple overprinting of earlier by younger deformations. connection between ophiolitic units in West Carpathians and Dinarides was
The synthesis advanced here indicates that none of the branches of the disrupted by substantial Miocene-age dislocations along the Mid-Hungarian
Alpine Tethys and Neotethys extended eastward into the Dobrogea Orogen. Fault Zone, hiding a former lateral change in subduction polarity between
Instead, the main branch of the Alpine Tethys linked up with the Meliata- West Carpathians and Dinarides. The SW-facing Dinaridic Orogen, mainly
Maliac-Vardar branch of the Neotethys into the area of the present-day In- structured in Cretaceous and Palaeogene times, was juxtaposed with the Tisza
ner Dinarides. More easterly and subsidiary branches of the Alpine Tethys and Dacia Mega-Units along a NW-dipping suture (Sava Zone) in latest Cre-
separated Tisza completely, and Dacia partially, from the European continent. taceous to Palaeogene times. The Dacia Mega-Unit (East and South Carpath-
Remnants of the Triassic parts of Neotethys (Meliata-Maliac) are preserved ian Orogen, including the Carpatho-Balkan Orogen and the Biharia nappe
only as ophiolitic mlanges present below obducted Jurassic Neotethyan system of the Apuseni Mountains), was essentially consolidated by E-facing
(Vardar) ophiolites. The opening of the Alpine Tethys was largely contem- nappe stacking during an Early Cretaceous orogeny, while the adjacent Tisza
poraneous with the Latest Jurassic to Early Cretaceous obduction of parts Mega-Unit formed by NW-directed thrusting (in present-day coordinates) in
of the Jurassic Vardar ophiolites. Closure of the Meliata-Maliac Ocean in the Late Cretaceous times. The polyphase and multi-directional Cretaceous to
Alps and West Carpathians led to Cretaceous-age orogeny associated with an Neogene deformation history of the Dinarides was preceded by the obduction
eclogitic overprint of the adjacent continental margin. The Triassic Meliata- of Vardar ophiolites onto to the Adriatic margin (Western Vardar Ophiolitic
Maliac and Jurassic Western and Eastern Vardar ophiolites were derived from Unit) and parts of the European margin (Eastern Vardar Ophiolitic Unit)
one single branch of Neotethys: the Meliata-Maliac-Vardar Ocean. Complex during Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous times.
1 Geologisch-Palontologisches Institut, Basel University, Bernoullistr. 35, 4058 Basel, Switzerland. E-mail: Stefan.Schmid@unibas.ch
2 Geology and Palaeontology, Innsbruck University, Innrain 52 f, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria.
3 Netherlands Centre for Integrated Solid Earth Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam,
Alps-Carpathians-Dinarides 139
future palinspastic reconstructions that are required to arrive parts of the Alpine, Carpathian and Dinaridic orogens; how-
at realistic paleogeographic and paleotectonic reconstructions. ever, these sediments were later deformed in many places by
The first obvious step towards this goal consists in establishing deformation associated with basin formation and inversion.
the Early Miocene geometry of the various tectonic units of the In Plate 1, white lines give the outlines of the Pannonian and
system. A retro-deformation of the very substantial Miocene Transylvanian Basin, and of numerous inselbergs in which
rotations and translations was first sketched by the pioneering units of the basin floor are exposed. Buried tectonic boundar-
work of Balla (1987). Subsequent attempts included kinematic ies were drawn by projecting their suspected or known position
inversion of pre-Miocene rotations and translations in order to to the surface. However, in many places the location of tectonic
establish the motion and deformation of the different tectono- boundaries below the basin fill remains rather uncertain.
stratigraphic units involved in the system during the earlier In the Pannonian basin, the post-tectonic fill conceals many
Palaeogene and/or Cretaceous orogenic phases (i.e. Royden crucial contacts between Alpine, Dinaride and Carpathian tec-
& Baldi 1988; Csontos et al. 1992; Csontos 1995; Fodor et al. tonic units. The basin fill mostly consists of Miocene sediments
1999; Csontos & Vrs 2004). Moreover, numerous contrast- up to 6 km thick (see overview given in Haas 2001). The sedi-
ing reconstructions have been advanced for the opening and ments of the post-tectonic cover of the Pannonian basin typi-
closure of the different oceanic domains that form part of Neo- cally start with either Late Cretaceous or Palaeogene strata.
Tethys, including its Alpine branch (e.g. Sndulescu 1980, 1988; Note that we assigned the Cretaceous to Eocene Szolnok
Golonka 2004; Haas & Pero 2004; Stampfli & Borel 2004). Flysch (Haas 2001) to the bedrock-units rather than to the
All attempts at retro-deformation for Palaeogene and/or post-tectonic fill of the Pannonian basin, because the evolu-
Mesozoic times must consider the present-day complex three- tion of this flysch basin clearly differs from that of the rest of
dimensional configuration of the entire Alpine-Carpathian-Di- the Pannonian Basin (e.g. Baldi & Baldi-Becke 1985). In our
naridic system. Our maps and profiles attempt to provide cor- compilation the Szolnok Flysch is correlated with similar units
relations on the basis of which the paleogeographic and paleo- occurring in the Pienides of Northern Romania (Sndulescu
tectonic evolution can be deduced. The data presented here are et al. 1981a; Tischler 2005; Tischler et al. 2007) and in the Pen-
derived from literature studies and extensive own fieldwork. nine units known from the subsurface of the East Slovak Ba-
Naturally the divisions shown on the map (Plate 1) build on ex- sin (Iaovce-Krichevo Unit; i.e. Sotk et al. 1999). The subsur-
isting compilations (e.g. Sndulescu 1975; Channell & Horvath face information for this basin largely stems from drill holes
1976; Royden & Horvath 1988; Csontos & Vrs 2004; Kovcs (e.g. Flop & Dank 1987) and from seismic data (e.g. Tari et
et al. 2004), but use only primary data and own observations for al. 1999).
defining the individual units. The Late Cretaceous to Miocene fill of the Transylvanian
Starting with a brief overview of the first order tectonic el- Basin (e.g. Huismans et al. 1997; de Broucker et al. 1998) cov-
ements, we proceed with detailed descriptions of the individ- ers many of the more internal units of the East Carpathians
ual tectonic units. In support of these descriptions, a series of and Apuseni Mountains. Only recently, a wealth of information
crustal-scale profiles will be presented. These provide a three- from the floor of this basin became available from hydrocar-
dimensional picture of this complex system of orogens, which bon exploration (e.g. Kreszek & Bally 2006). Much of this as
formed by a long-lasting evolution, that started in Late Jurassic yet largely unpublished information, consisting of seismic re-
times and is still going on today (Weber et al. 2005). flection data partly calibrated by bore holes was used during
compilation of Plate 1.
The crustal-scale cross-sections given in Plates 2 & 3 were
2. Method of map compilation
constructed during the compilation the map (Plate 1). Profile
The tectonic map of the Carpathian-Balkan Mountain Sys- construction led to additional insights that significantly im-
tems edited by Mahel (1973) served as base map for the en- proved parts of the map. Note however, that the deeper por-
tire area covered by our compilation (Plate 1), apart from the tions of the crustal-scale profiles in Plates 2 & 3 are not con-
Alps, for which we used a simplified version of the tectonic map strained by geophysical or borehole data.
published by Schmid et al. (2004a). The tectonic map by Ma-
hel (1973) was progressively updated by new data. The most
3. Overview of the major groups of tectono-stratigraphic units
important sources of information are referenced. Longitudes
and latitudes are marked at the margins of Plate 1. A version The tectono-stratigraphic units described in detail below define
of this map giving 1 longitude and latitude grid points can be eight groups (Plate 1). Before going into greater details regard-
obtained from the first author. Figure 1 gives geographic and ing map compilation and individual tectonic units, these groups
geological names mentioned in the text. are briefly introduced.
The Pannonian and Transylvanian basin fills, covering large
parts of the Alpine-Carpathian-Dinaridic tectonic units, must
3.1. Undeformed foreland
be removed to understand the correlations and relationships
between the different units. The sedimentary fill of these ba- The northern and eastern flexural foredeep of the Alps and
sins is regarded as post-tectonic as it rests unconformably on Carpathians (External Foredeep) is variably floored by Va-
en
Northern Calcareous Alps Plain Szendr in
window Bkk
yF
.
Grauwackenzone Hurbanov -Diseno F.
o Mts.
Tauern B. - D.V. Fault Pienides
o
Rechnitz window
rn
window ge
an
Da
r
F.
Dra ian Rodna
a
Ea
uzu ub
rie
g an e horst
s
zon
Ra
n sd n
ica
a o ult North
Trascau
ud
Tr alat n fa
. B r i a Apuseni Transylvanian
Gi
P e r ia
t C
Prosara
Pozeska Gora Fruska Gora
Pe
Sav s
ce
one
Danubian window
a
obr
Kozara Focsani
ga og
Motajica -C oro ea
depression am gen
s
Getic depression
F.
en
aF
Dinaric o. .
r
Jad
a Int
S p l it-Kar l
ive
r ra
o
ar
Dr mo
va
Cern a -Jiu
Vlasina unit
es
sn
in ian
cF
a-
Bo
.
F.
Iv
Moesian
ovac &
W. Vardar
Durmitor Platform
anj
Zlatibor
.
o.
Mtn. West
Ran
Mtn. Balkan
ica
Hi
ok F
gh
Ka Jastrebac unit
Ti m
unit
ita
rd
Zone
Fig. 1. Index map of geographic and geological names used in the text (see also Plate 1).
Alps-Carpathians-Dinarides
141
riscan, Caledonian or Precambrian basement that is overlain al. 1979; Schmid & Kissling 2000; Pinter et al. 2005). However,
by little or undeformed Mesozoic to Cenozoic sediments. The note that the term Adria is also used for denoting the pa-
East European and Scythian platforms were essentially con- leogeographical affiliation of structural entities that had origi-
solidated during Precambrian times. More recently, the Scyth- nally formed part of a larger Adriatic (or African/Adriatic;
ian Platform was re-interpreted as the passive margin of the Channell & Horvath 1976) promontory or micro-continent but
East European craton that was strongly involved in latest Pre- later became involved in its fringing folded belts (Dercourt et
cambrian to Early Paleozoic (pre-Variscan) tectonic events and al. 1986). In this contribution the term Adria and Adriatic
that was reactivated during younger and less important events will therefore be used for the broader paleogeographical realm
(Stephenson et al. 2004; Saintot et al. 2006). The SW bound- that flanked the Alpine Tethys to the south (Apulia in the
ary of the East European Platform (Precambrian platform sense of Schmid et al. 2004a), rather than just for the present-
in Plate 1) coincides with the NWSE striking Teisseyre-Torn- day rigid Adriatic plate. Structural entities that later became
quist Zone that was repeatedly reactivated during Late Pa- incorporated into the Alpine-Carpathian-Dinaridic system will
leozoic, Mesozoic and early Cenozoic times (Ziegler 1990). be referred to as Adria-derived.
The Pre-Mesozoic basement of areas located to the SW of the
Tornquist-Teisseyre Zone consists of an array of essentially
3.2. Miocene external thrust belt:
Gondwana-derived terranes that were accreted to the margin
of the East European craton during the Caledonian and Va- This thrust belt is the only structural element that extends
riscan orogenies (Ziegler 1981, 1990; Pharaoh et al. 2006). The continuously along the margin of the Alpine-Carpathian oro-
Moesian Platform, for example, underwent significant Variscan genic system from the Western Alps through the Western and
deformation and was accreted to the Scythian Platform during Eastern Carpathians into the South Carpathians where it ends
the Late Carboniferous (Seghedi 2001). In the process of this, (Plate 1). In the Carpathians this foreland fold-and-thrust-belt
the latter also became overprinted by Variscan deformation (i.e. Sndulescu et al. 1981a,b; Morley 1996; Matenco & Ber-
(e.g. Zonenshain et al. 1990). totti 2000; Krzywiec 2001; Oszczypko 2006) formed during the
The most external units of the allochthonous East Carpath- Neogene when the ALCAPA (Alps-Carpathians-Pannonia)
ian Miocene flysch belt partly override the Teisseyre-Tornquist and Tisza-Dacia Mega-Units moved to the northeast and east
Zone. Following an Early Triassic rifting event, the Moesian into an eastward concave embayment in the European fore-
Block was probably separated from the Scythian Platform along land. Their soft collision with the European foreland (e.g. Balla
the SE-most segment of the Teisseyre-Tornquist Zone, only to 1987) was triggered by a combination of lateral extrusion (e.g.
be re-accreted to it during the Jurassic Cimmerian North Do- Ratschbacher et al. 1991a,b) and, more importantly, by the
brogean orogeny (e.g. Murgoci 1929; Seghedi 2001) that occu- retreat (roll-back) of a subducting eastern European oceanic
pies a special position within the Alpine-Carpathian-Dinaridic lithospheric slab (in the sense of Royden 1988, 1993). Calc-al-
system (Plate 1). Along the SE-most segment of the Teisseyre- kaline and alkaline magmatism within the Carpathian arc was
Tornquist Line the Moesian Platform and the North Dobrogea closely related to subduction, slab-rollback, slab-detachment
Orogen were welded along the Peceneaga-Camena Fault Zone and extension in the overriding plate (Nemok et al. 1998;
before the end of the Early Cretaceous (e.g. Murgoci 1915; Wortel & Spakman 2000; Seghedi et al. 2004). In the South
Hippolyte 2002) when intense tectonic activity along it ceased. Carpathians, where the Miocene fold-and-thrust-belt ends,
Both units are separated by the pre-Neogene Trotus fault from the inner units of the South Carpathians were juxtaposed with
the Scythian Platform (Sndulescu & Visarion 1988). the Moesian Platform during Palaeogene-Miocene time in re-
With respect to the post-Early Cretaceous tectonic activ- sponse to a combination of strike-slip movements along curved
ity, the North Dobrogea Orogen, and the Moesian and Scyth- fault systems (Plate 1) and by oblique thrusting (Ratschbacher
ian platforms are considered as undeformed foreland. Only et al. 1993; Rbgia & Matenco 1999; Fgenschuh & Schmid
minor reactivation along faults shown by thick black lines in 2005; Rbgia et al. 2007).
Plate 1 occurred in Miocene-Quaternary times (Trpoanc et
al. 2003; Leever et al. 2006). The northern fault segment near
3.3. Europe-derived units in the Alps and in the Dacia
Bacau (Plate 1), however, is not part of the pre-Neogene Trotus
Mega-Unit
fault, but a Quaternary northern splay of the latter (see Ma-
tenco et al. 2007). This rather heterogeneous group of tectonic units denotes al-
The term Adriatic plate often refers to the undeformed lochthonous units, commonly interpreted to have been derived
lithospheric plate or subplate (Channell & Horvath 1976) from the European continent. In the Alps these units comprise
that includes the present day undeformed areas of Istria and the Helvetic, Ultrahelvetic and Subpenninic nappes, as well as
the Apulian carbonate platform and is framed by the external nappes derived from the continental Brianonnais fragment
thrust belts of Southern Alps, Dinarides and Apennines. This that broke off Europe (Fig. 2c) in the Early Cretaceous in con-
part of the Adriatic plate acted as a rigid indenter during its junction with opening of a partly oceanic scar (Valais ocean, e.g.
collisional interaction with the Alpine and Dinaridic orogens Schmid et al. 2004a). In the Carpathians analogous allochtho-
to the north and east (Fig. 2c), respectively (e.g. Channell et nous units, but not considered as the direct lateral continuation
D
Ti
ac
s
Moesia Paleotethys
za
ia
Rhodopes
A PA
C
AL
S.
Drama
Al
Iran
ps
Ex
M
ter
el
N E O T E T H Y S
ia
na
ta
lD
-M
ina
al
ia
rid
c
es
O
ce
an
Ceahlau-Severin Ocean
b Piemont-Liguria
Ocean
V
G Da
Ti ci Moesia
sz a
a Rhodopes
AL PA
PI
NE CA Eastern Vardar
Ophiolitic Unit
TE AL
TH S.
YS Alp
s NE Fig. 2. Schematic palinspastic sketches visualizing
OT
ET concepts presented in the text and incorporating
HY
Triassic ocean floor Western Vardar S ideas mainly taken from Frisch (1979), Frank (1987),
Di
Jurassic ocean floor: (1994), Stampfli et al. (2001), Marroni et al. (2002)
es
Neotethys upper plate & Schmid et al. (2004a). Positions and projections of
Meliata-Maliac the outlines of the European and African continents
Neotethys lower plate Ocean are those given by Stampfli et al. (2001), except for
and Alpine Tethys
the coastlines of the Adriatic Sea that we assume to
Late Jurassic remain firmly attached to the African continent until
0 1000 km
Oxfordian 156 Ma Cretaceous times. G: Geneva; V: Vienna.
a) Opening of the Neotethyan Meliata-Maliac Ocean
in the Triassic (Carnian, 220 Ma).
c b) Opening of the Piemont-Liguria Ocean (Alpine
Tethys), leading to the separation of the Adria Plate
V
(including the future Southern Alps and ALCAPA),
as well as the Tisza and Dacia Mega-Units from the
a
G
uri
YS
s
ig
l
T
Va
D
-L
ALPINE TETHYS
of the Alpine Tethys (Valais and Piemont-Liguria
an
Alps-Carpathians-Dinarides 143
of their Alpine counterparts, define what is commonly referred with the opening of the eastern parts of the Alpine Tethys (or
to as the Dacia (Fig. 2) Mega-Unit or terrane in the Hungarian Piemont-Liguria Ocean; Haas & Pero 2004). With the opening
literature (e.g. Csontos & Vrs 2004). Parts of this Mega-Unit of an ocean between Europe and Tisza, the latter moved into a
consist of an assemblage of far-travelled nappes (Infrabuco- paleogeographic position comparable to that of the Austroal-
vinian-Getic-Kraishte-Sredna Gora and Serbo-Macedonian- pine or Southalpine realm. The facies of the post-rift sediments
Supragetic-Subbucovinian-Bucovinian-Biharia units; also re- within Tisza, such as radiolarites and pelagic Maiolica-type
ferred to as Median Dacides by Sndulescu 1994) that were limestones, exhibits Adriatic affinities; the faunal provinces
derived from blocks, which were detached from the European are of the Mediterranean type (e.g. Vrs 1977, 1993; Lupu
margin during Jurassic rifting (Fig. 2b). Whilst oceanic litho- 1984; Haas & Pero 2004). Much of the tectonic units of Tisza
sphere of the Ceahlau-Severin Ocean separated parts of these (Mecsek, Bihor and Codru nappe systems) are only exposed in
units from Europe, it is unlikely that oceanic lithosphere had isolated and rather small inselbergs within the Pannonian plain
separated other units from the European margin. It appears (i.e. Mecsek nappe system in the Mecsek Mountains in Hun-
that some nappes, such as the Danubian nappes of the South gary; Haas 2001). A coherent nappe sequence is only present in
Carpathians (also referred to as Marginal Dacides; Sndulescu the North Apuseni Mountains of Romania (Bihor and Codru
1994; Krutner 1996), and units such as the Central Balkan and nappe systems; Balintoni 1994). The tectonically highest and
Prebalkan units of Bulgaria (Georgiev et al. 2001) were directly most internal nappe system of the North Apuseni Mountains
scraped off the European margin (Moesian Platform; Fig. 1) in is the Biharia nappe system (Balintoni 1994), traditionally con-
response to strong collisional coupling of the orogenic wedge sidered as a constituent of Tisza (Csontos & Vrs 2004), i.e.
and the foreland (Ziegler et al. 1995). the Internal Dacides (Sndulescu 1984; Balintoni 1994). How-
ever, we correlate this Biharia nappe system with the Bucovin-
ian nappes (Plate 1) and hence attribute it to Dacia (i.e. the
3.4. Inner Balkanides
Median Dacides in the sense of Sndulescu 1984) for reasons
While the External Balkanides (Prebalkan, Central Balkan and discussed later.
Sredna Gora units; e.g. Ivanov 1988) can be correlated with
other units that form part of Dacia, the Inner Balkanides (in-
3.6. Adria-derived far-travelled nappes of the internal Alps and
ner with respect to the Moesian foreland of the Balkanides)
the West Carpathians (ALCAPA Mega-Unit):
form a distinct group of tectonic elements whose origin re-
mains controversial. Two of these units, that are not the focus This group of tectonic elements is referred to as the Austroal-
of our analysis, reach the southern margin of the map of Plate 1. pine nappes in the Alps (e.g. Schmid et al. 2004a) and as the
These are: (i) the Strandja Unit (e.g. Georgiev et al. 2001; Okay Central and Inner West Carpathians in the Carpathians (e.g.
et al. 2001) that was strongly deformed, metamorphosed and Plaienka et al. 1997a,b). In the Alpine literature these elements
thrust northward during Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous time are often referred to as being derived from Adria (or Apulia
and represents a fragment of an older (Cimmerian) orogen, in the sense of Schmid et al. 2004a). In the Alps this implies that
located near the Paleotethys-Eurasia-Gondwana triple point, their initial paleogeographical position was to the south of the
that was later incorporated into the N-vergent Balkan Orogen; Piemont-Liguria Ocean, the main branch of the Alpine Tethys
(ii) The Rhodope core complex delimited to the north and west (Fig. 2b). Presently, these elements represent far-travelled thin
by Cenozoic normal and strike-slip faults (e.g. Sokoutis et al. crustal slices found in an upper plate position above the Upper
1993; Kilias et al. 1999; Brun & Sokoutis 2007). Its bounding Penninic (or Vahic in case of the West Carpathians) suture zone
Cenozoic faults post-date Early Jurassic to Cretaceous top-S and the underlying Europe-derived elements of the Alps and
(SW) nappe stacking and high- to ultrahigh-pressure metamor- West Carpathians.
phism within the gneissic units of the Rhodope Mountains, and Note, however, that the notion of Adria as a single paleo-
they obscure the original relationships of the Rhodope core geographic entity becomes problematic in the easternmost Alps
complex with the neighbouring units (Burg et al. 1996; Turpaud and the adjacent Carpathians and Dinarides owing to the oc-
2006; Perraki et al. 2006; Mposkos & Krohe 2006). The struc- currence of branches of a second group of oceanic realms that
turally lower unit within the Rhodope core complex possibly formed part of the so-called Neotethys (e.g. Haas 2001). Neo-
represents a terrane (Drama terrane in Fig. 2a) that collided tethys formed an eastward opening oceanic embayment in the
with the rest of the Rhodopian units in Jurassic times along Adria paleogeographical realm that had opened during Triassic
the eclogite-bearing Nestos suture (Turpaud 2006; Bauer et al. times (Fig. 2a) and is referred to as Meliata Ocean in the Alps
2007). and Carpathians (i.e. Channell & Kozur 1997), but as Maliac
Ocean in the Hellenides (e.g. Stampfli & Borel 2004). Hence
the Austroalpine nappes and their extension into the West Car-
3.5. Units with mixed European and Adriatic affinities: Tisza
pathians include tectonic elements that were positioned north,
The crustal fragment, which presently constitutes the nappe west and south of the Meliata-Maliac Ocean (Fig. 2; Schmid et
sequence of the Tisza Mega-Unit, was separated from Europe al. 2004a). Sea-floor spreading continued in Neotethys during
during the Middle Jurassic (Fig. 2b), presumably in conjunction the Jurassic, but the connections between the various oceanic
Alps-Carpathians-Dinarides 145
Fig. 2c) were directly linked with the Alpine Tethys along the ocean have been ascertained in the Balkan Orogen. Figure 2b
present-day Sava-Zone mapped in Plate 1. depicts two additional eastern branches of the Alpine Tethys,
We attribute the following oceanic basins to the Alpine Te- which are proposed to kinematically connect with the Trias-
thys: (i) The Valais, Rhenodanubian and Magura flysch units sic Neotethys Ocean and whose opening led to the separation
forming a northern branch (Schnabel 1992; Plaienka 2003; of the Dacia and Tisza blocks from Europe. The relics of the
Schmid et al. 2004a), and (ii) the Piemont-Liguria-Vahicum- branch between the Dacia and Tisza Mega-Units (Fig. 2b) will
Pieniny Klippen Belt (Birkenmajer 1986; Plaienka 1995a) form the suture between the Dacia and Tisza Mega-Units in
units defining a southern branch. Both branches were at least Early Cretaceous times, only preserved in the subsurface (see
partly separated by the continental Brianonnais fragment of Plate 3, Profile 3). The branch between the Tisza and ALCAPA
the Western Alps (Frisch 1979; Stampfli 1993) and possibly by Mega-Units (Fig. 2b) forms part of the Mid-Hungarian Fault
smaller analogous units found as relics in the Pieniny Klippen Zone (Fig. 1, Plate 1), i.e. the ophiolite-bearing Intrapanno-
Belt of the West Carpathians (Birkenmajer 1986; Trmpy 1988) nian belt of Channell et al. (1979).
that probably were not directly linked with the Brianonnais. In the Alpine-Carpathian-Dinaridic system of orogens
According to our interpretation the Magura Flysch and the the westernmost branch of Neotethys (Fig. 2a) is known as
Piemont-Liguria-elements of the Alpine Tethys can be traced the Meliata Ocean (Kozur 1991) that had opened earlier, i.e.
SE-ward via the Iaovce-Kriscevo Unit of Eastern Slovakia in Triassic times (e.g. Velledits 2006). However, in our area,
and the Ukraine (Sotk et al. 1993, 1999) into the flysch units the ophiolitic remnants of the Meliata-Maliac Ocean do not
referred to as the Pienides of northern Romania (Sndulescu form coherent thrust sheets, but are only preserved as blocks
et al. 1981a). In map view, the latter form a tight E-verging arc contained in Mid to Late Jurassic-age ophiolitic mlange for-
(Plate 1) and were thrust onto the Tisza-Dacia Mega-units dur- mations. Such mlange formations occur in the Eastern Alps
ing Miocene times (Fig. 3; Tischler et al. 2007). We propose to and West Carpathians (Kozur & Mostler 1991). Remnants of
connect the Pienides with the Szolnok Flysch in the subsur- this same Meliata-Maliac Ocean are also found as blocks in
face of the Pannonian Basin. The ophiolitic Szolnok Flysch Jurassic mlange formations that immediately underlie the
belt (ophiolite-bearing Intrapannonian belt of Channell et al. obducted Western Vardar ophiolites in the Bkk Mountains
1979) can be traced westward along the Mid-Hungarian Fault (Monosbel nappe of Csontos 1999, 2000) and in the Dinarides
Zone towards Zagreb where it links up with the ophiolite-bear- (ophiolitic mlange formations; e.g. Babi et al. 2002). In the
ing Sava Zone (Plate 1). This zone consists of a belt of ophi- Dinarides these mlange formations are also referred to as
olitic (relics of the Sava Back-Arc Ocean, Fig. 2c), magmatic Diabas-Hornstein (Kossmat 1924), Diabase-Radiolarite
and metamorphic rocks that extends SE-ward from Zagreb to Formation (iri & Karamata 1960) or wildflysch with ophi-
Belgrade (North-western Vardar Zone of Pami 1993; Sava- olitic detritus (Laubscher & Bernoulli 1977). Note that all ob-
Vardar Zone of Pami 2002). The Sava Zone defines the Late ducted ophiolitic thrust sheets, which overlie these ophiolitic
Cretaceous to Palaeogene suture between Tisza and the Dina- mlange formations, as seen in the Bkk Mountains (Darno-
rides. Between Zagreb and Belgrade this Sava Zone connects Szavarsk ophiolites; Csontos 2000) and Dinarides (Western
the SE branch of the Alpine Tethys with the Cretaceous-age Vardar Ophiolitic Unit; e.g. Pami et al. 1998; Dimitrijevi 2001;
branches of Neotethys further to the southeast (Fig. 2c). At Karamata 2006), consist of Jurassic age ophiolites. We suggest
present the Sava Zone, located between the Western and East- that these Jurassic Western Vardar ophiolites, together with the
ern Vardar Ophiolitic Units (see Plate 1), represents the suture Triassic Meliata-Maliac ophiolites, once formed part of one and
between the Dinarides and the Tisza-Dacia Mega-Units. The the same Neotethyan oceanic branch before obduction began
latter are derived from older branches of Neotethys. (Fig. 2b), i.e. before Mid-Jurassic times. During the latest Ju-
The narrow, possibly only partly oceanic Ceahlau-Severin rassic to Early Cretaceous the young (Early to Mid-Jurassic)
rift opened during Middle to Late Jurassic times (e.g. tefnescu Western Vardar Ophiolitic Unit was obducted onto the passive
1995; Fig. 2b). Hence it is considered as the easternmost branch continental margin of Adria, the ophiolite mlange formation
of the Alpine Tethys rather than a branch of Neotethys. Note, defining the tectonic contact zone.
however, that in present-day map view (Plate 1) it does not The Eastern Vardar Ophiolitic Unit extends into the South
directly connect with the easternmost branch of the Alpine Apuseni and Transylvanian ophiolite belt and represents an-
Tethys of the Western Carpathians in Northern Romania and other part of the Meliata-Maliac-Vardar Neotethys (Sndulescu
adjacent Ukraine, nor does it link up with the Transylvanian 1984) that was probably obducted onto the European Margin
branch of the Eastern Vardar Ophiolitic Unit. Westward, units (Dacia Mega-Unit, Fig. 2b). Its original location with respect
attributed to the narrow Ceahlau-Severin Ocean join the Ma- to that of the Western Vardar ophiolites is still enigmatic. We
gura Flysch Unit (Plate 1) that in Miocene times was thrust to- emphasize that the Eastern Vardar ophiolitic belt does not ex-
wards the SE (Fig. 3; Tischler et al. 2007) and that connects with tend along the Sava Zone towards Zagreb. Hence, the Eastern
the Mid-Hungarian Fault Zone (see above). Southward, the Vardar Ophiolitic Unit does not form part of the Dinarides.
Ceahlau-Severin Ophiolitic Unit, which is well exposed in the Instead, it is now the most internal, structurally highest tectonic
South Carpathians, eventually appears to wedge out in west- element on top of the Dacia Mega-Unit. In turn this implies
ern Bulgaria and eastern Serbia; no equivalents of this narrow that the Eastern Vardar ophiolites cannot be linked with the
A
L
P
Maramures Mts.
lt
fau
ben
e
Bogd Gr
an V
Baia Mare
oda
fault A' Borsa
Dragos Vod
a fault
WF
20 km Rodna
Post-tectonic sedimentary
Pienides cover of the Dacia Mega-Unit External Thrust Belt
External Pienides = Magura Flysch: Burdigalian molasse Moldavites
WF: Wildflysch nappe Ceahlau - Severin
L: Leordina nappe Eocene - Early Miocene
ophiolitic unit
P: Petrova nappe
Late Cretaceous Neogene of the Pannonian Basin
Pieniny Klippen Belt
Dacia Mega-Unit Neogene volcanics
Internal Pienides:
Biharia Unit post-Burdigalian sediments
Botiza nappe
(Piemont-Liguria Ocean) Bucovinian nappes
thrust / normal
fault reverse fault fault
b.
A A'
WNW 132 107 ESE
[m] Leordina [m]
2000 nappe 2000
Petrova nappe e mid-Miocene
1000 Bas 1000
0 0
-1000 -1000
-2000 -2000
-3000 -3000
-4000 -4000
-5000 -5000
-6000 -6000
Post-tectonic sedimentary
External Pienides = Magura Flysch cover of the Dacia Mega-Unit Neogene of the Pannonian Basin
Oligocene, sand dominated Oligocene, sand dominated Mid-Miocene and younger,
siliciclastics siliciclastics undifferentiated
Eocene, sand dominated Oligocene, fine grained Badenian (base Mid-Miocene)
siliciclastics siliciclastics Dej-tuff fm.
Eocene, fine grained
Eocene Dacia Mega-Unit
siliciclastics
Upper Cretaceous -
Paleocene Bucovinian nappes
Fig. 3. Map (a) and cross-section (b) through the contact area between the ALCAPA and the Tisza-Dacia Mega-Units in Northern Romania (Maramures)
after Tischler (2005) and Tischler et al. (2007). The Pienides of the Maramures area in Northern Romania form a tight arc in map view and were thrust onto the
Tisza-Dacia Mega-units during Miocene times.
Alps-Carpathians-Dinarides 147
Alpine Tethys around the western margin of Tisza, nor do they Alpine Tethys that was attached to the European continent
extend E-ward into the North Dobrogea Orogen. In the south, (Balla 1987; Fig. 2c). Subduction of this oceanic lithosphere
i.e. between Beograd and Skopje, the Neotethyan Western and started from the Late Aptian to Albian onwards. Its covering
Eastern Vardar Ophiolitic Units parallel each other but are Late Jurassic Early Cretaceous sediments were scraped off,
separated by a narrow band of the Sava Zone that, in our view, forming the Ceahlau/Severin nappe that was emplaced about
represents a suture zone between the Dinarides and the Tisza- 75 Ma ago (Laramide emplacement of the Ceahlau-Severin
Dacia Mega-Units which, in the Late Cretaceous, included their Ophiolitic Unit; e.g. Sndulescu et al. 1981a,b). There are several
earlier obducted ophiolite sheets (Plate 1). popular models such as slab detachment (e.g. Wortel & Spak-
We conclude (1) that none of the branches of the Alpine Te- man 2000; Sperner et al. 2005; Weidle et al. 2005), slab delami-
thys and of Neotethys extends eastward into the North Dobro- nation (e.g. Girbacea & Frisch 1998; Gvirtzman 2002; Knapp
gea Orogen, although such connections have been proposed by et al. 2005), or thermal re-equilibration of the lithosphere (e.g.
many paleogeographic reconstructions (e.g. Stampfli & Borel Cloetingh et al. 2004) that have been proposed to explain the
2004). The Triassic North Dobrogea rift (i.e. the Niculitel Zone; evolution of this subduction and its present-day expression as a
Savu et al. 1977; Seghedi 2001), which formed during a Permo- near vertical high velocity mantle anisotropy beneath Vrancia
Triassic rifting event that affected also central Moesia, dies out (e.g. Martin et al. 2006). Whatever model is adopted, all of them
rather rapidly northwestward (see review by Tari et al. 1997). invoke a Miocene retreat of the subducted oceanic slab as the
We propose (2) that the ophiolitic remnants of Neotethys (the principal driving force for the final emplacement of the conti-
Triassic-age Meliata-Maliac ophiolites and the Jurassic-age Var- nental ALCAPA and Tisza-Dacia Mega-Units that occupy the
dar ophiolites) occurring in the area of consideration formed internal parts of the Carpathian loop.
part of one and the same Meliata-Maliac-Vardar oceanic basin. The Carpathian thrust belt consists mainly of flysch units
We will show later that there is no evidence for the existence of in its inner part and grades outward into progressively more
a Pindos Ocean and thereby accept the one-ocean hypoth- shallow-water strata, the most frontal thrusts involving the in-
esis first formulated by Bernoulli & Laubscher (1972). We are ner parts of the Carpathian foredeep. The most internal thrusts
convinced (3), that the different branches of Tethys found in were emplaced in Late Cretaceous time whereas the external
the Alpine-Carpathian-Dinaridic system can only be followed thrusts are of Neogene age. The age of the youngest thrust de-
eastward via the Dinarides and Hellenides into Turkey, but not formation at the front of this fold-and-thrust belt decreases
into the Cimmerian system of the Black Sea to the north. from the West Carpathians (ca. 18 Ma) towards the Polish and
Ukrainian Carpathians where the latest movements are dated
as Late Miocene (ca. 12 Ma; Krzywiec 2001). Further to the SE
4. Detailed description of individual tectonic units of the Alps,
and S along the entire East Carpathians to the bending zone
Carpathians and Dinarides
north of Bucharest the age of the youngest thrusts remains
This section provides the most important sources used for de- constant at around 11 Ma, though the amount of shortening
fining tectonic units and constructing the map (Plate 1). More- accomplished across them increases significantly in the Roma-
over, a more detailed overview of all the tectonic units is pre- nian segment (Roure et al. 1993; Dicea 1995; Matenco & Ber-
sented and supported by a series of crustal-scale cross-sections totti 2000; Krzwiec 2001). This was partly accommodated in the
(Plates 2 & 3). Names of tectonic units listed in the legend of internal parts of the Carpathians by coeval late-stage sinistral
Plate 1 are given in bold letters. The Alps will not be treated in strike-slip motion along the contact between ALCAPA and
detail (see Schmid et al. 2004a for a comprehensive review). Tisza-Dacia (e.g. Tischler et al. 2007). The external flysch belt
We provide a relatively more comprehensive overview of the in the East Carpathians is completely allochthonous and con-
Dinarides since they are the least known part of the system. tains sediments formerly deposited on continental or oceanic
crust of the Carpathian embayment. However, these sediments,
which are incorporated in the Miocene-age nappe sequence,
4.1. The Miocene fold-and-thrust belt of the Alps and
do not contain any detritus from an oceanic basement (e.g.
Carpathians
Sndulescu 1988). Hence the hypothesis that parts of the Car-
The Cretaceous and Cenozoic flysch units of the external Car- pathian embayment were underlain by oceanic crust (e.g. Balla
pathian fold-and-thrust belt underwent most, though probably 1987) remains speculative.
not all their total shortening during Miocene times. Deforma- The external Carpathian fold-and-thrust belt consists of
tion progressively migrated towards the foreland (Sndulescu three nappes or thrust systems, some of which can be traced all
et al. 1981a,b; Roca et al. 1995; Morley 1996; Zweigel et al. 1998; the way along strike. These nappe systems are best developed
Matenco & Bertotti 2000). in the East Carpathians where they are referred to as the Mol-
The Neogene evolution of this flysch belt was mainly driven davides (Sndulescu 1994).
by the retreat of the Alpine Tethys subduction slab into the The external-most tectonic unit consisting of Middle Eo-
Carpathian embayment (Royden 1988). Prior to the Late Cre- cene to Late Miocene sediments, the thrusted internal fore-
taceous onset of subduction, this embayment was occupied by deep, is called Subcarpathian nappe in the East Carpathians
Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous oceanic lithosphere of the (Sndulescu 1981a,b; Dicea 1995). This unit, which is thrust over
Alps-Carpathians-Dinarides 149
age of the term ALCAPA by previous authors, we exclude the 1986; Trmpy 1988), we prefer to attribute this rock volume to
Bkk Mountains from this Mega-Unit. The principal reason the distal European margin, that is, to the Subpenninic units.
is that the Bkk Mountains can nowadays be considered as a A direct comparison of the profiles across the Eastern Alps
piece of the Dinarides (Kovcs et al. 2000, 2004; Dimitrijevi and West Carpathians (Plate 2, Profiles 1 & 2) highlights an
et al. 2003; Velledits 2006) rather than part of the Alpine-West important difference pertaining to the northern boundary of
Carpathian chain. The Bkk Mountains were displaced within ALCAPA, which is only evident in cross sections. In the profile
the Mid-Hungarian Fault Zone (Tischler et al. 2007), a broader across the easternmost Alps (Plate 2, Profile 1) the basement
fault zone that is delimited to the south by the Mid-Hungar- of the undeformed European foreland is traced along a gently
ian Line (Csontos & Nagymarosy 1998), or Zagreb-Zemplin inclined thrust at the base of the Alpine accretionary wedge far
Line (Haas et al. 2000), and to the north by the eastern con- to the south into the area of the Hungarian Plain (Tari 1996).
tinuation of the Balaton Line. Consequently, we let the south- By contrast, the profile through the West Carpathians (Plate 2,
ern boundary of ALCAPA coincide with the southern part of Profile 2) depicts a steeply dipping dextral strike-slip zone in
the Darno Line and further eastwards with the Nekseny Fault the depth projection of the Pieniny Klippen Belt according to
(Haas 2001; see Fig. 1). These fault zones separate the Bkk our interpretation. This crustal-scale sinistral strike-slip fault
Mountains from two inselbergs that we consider as part of the zone was active during the Miocene and formed the northern
Inner West Carpathians (Uppony and Szendr Mountains of boundary of the ALCAPA Mega-Unit (Central and Inner West
NW Hungary; see Haas 2001, his Figs. 78 & 106). The eastern Carpathians) during its eastward escape (i.e. Nemok 1993;
tip of ALCAPA extends into Northern Romania where it was Sperner et al. 2002). It thus post-dates nappe emplacement in
identified from subsurface and field data (Sndulescu et al. the Inner West Carpathians. The northern parts of Profile 2
1978, 1993; Kov et al. 1995; Tischler et al. 2007). (Plate 2) suggest that the European foreland crust was imbri-
cated (modified after Roca et al. 1995) during the transpres-
sional emplacement of ALCAPA and the development of the
4.2.2. Europe-derived units within ALCAPA
Miocene West Carpathian fold-and-thrust belt. In this process
In Plate 1, and regarding the Alps, we grouped the Helvetic the Outer West Carpathian Magura Flysch Unit was imbricated
and Ultrahelvetic cover nappes including the External Mas- and accreted to ALCAPA whilst severe late-stage Miocene
sifs (Helvetic) together with the Subpenninic nappes. The NNE-SSW-directed back-thrusts affected the more internal
term Subpenninic denotes pre-Mesozoic basement units, on units in the High Tatra Mountains (Plate 2, Profile 2) (Sperner
which the sediments now exposed in the Helvetic and Ultra- et al. 2002).
helvetic nappes were originally deposited, as well as more
distal parts of the European upper crust, and its metamorphic
4.2.3. Remnants of the Alpine Tethys in ALCAPA
cover, as exposed in the Tauern window (Schmid et al. 2004a;
see Fig. 1). The most internal Europe-derived nappes are Most authors accept the existence of two branches of the Al-
paleogeographically assigned to the Brianonnais, a crustal pine Tethys, the Piemont-Liguria and Valais Oceans, respec-
block that was detached from the European passive margin tively. However, this division can only be made where remnants
during the Early Cretaceous opening of the Valais branch of of the intervening Brianonnais micro-continent are present.
the Alpine Tethys (Fig. 2c; Frisch 1979; Stampfli 1993). The This is no longer possible east of the Engadine window. Hence,
easternmost Brianonnais nappes are exposed in the Enga- at first sight a paleogeographic separation of the Alpine Tethys
dine window (Fig. 1). into two separate branches (Froitzheim et al. 1996; Schmid et
However, according to our interpretation Subpenninic units al. 2004a) becomes redundant in the Eastern Alps (see discus-
extend in the subsurface much further to the east. For instance sion in Kurz 2005 and Schmid et al. 2005) where these branches
Subpenninic units, referred to as Penninic in the crustal-scale apparently merged into one single oceanic basin. Nevertheless,
profile across the easternmost Alps by Tari (1996), are needed we make a distinction between the eastern equivalents of these
to fill the space between the base of ophiolitic nappes attributed two branches since an evaluation of the timing of accretion of
to the Alpine Tethys (as exposed nearby in the Rechnitz win- these oceanic units (Late Cretaceous vs. Cenozoic) to the Aus-
dow) and the Moho (Plate 2, Profile 1). However, we suspect troalpine, respectively to the West Carpathian Tatric-Veporic-
the presence of such Subpenninic units in the subsurface also Gemeric upper plate, is an important criterion for distinguish-
further to the east, namely in the West Carpathians (Plate 2, ing between the equivalents of the two branches of the Alpine
Profiles 1 & 2). Information on the deep structure of the West Tethys east of the Engadine window (for additional criteria see
Carpathians is provided by a seismic transect presented by discussion in Schmid et al. 2005). Consequently, we correlate
Tomek (1993) who assigned a large rock volume below the the Valais Ocean with the Rhenodanubian Flysch since accre-
Alpine Tethys suture (Vahicum; Plaienka 1995a,b) to the Bri- tion of both units the to the Alpine nappe sequence occurred
anonnais. Yet, as the Brianonnais paleogeographic domain in Eocene times. The lateral equivalent even further east and in
proper terminates west of the Tauern window (Schmid et al. the West Carpathians is the Magura Flysch accreted to the Tat-
2004a), except for some small analogous crustal slivers found in ric-Veporic-Gemeric orogenic wedge during Late Oligocene to
the Pieniny Klippen Belt of the West Carpathians (Birkenmajer Miocene times.
Alps-Carpathians-Dinarides 151
Plaienka et al. 1997a). Very probably the rocks in the Leitha to the final closure of the westernmost parts of the Neotethys
Mountains of the easternmost Alps SE of Vienna extend east- oceanic realm. A SE- to E-dipping subduction zone developed
ward into the Hainburg Hills and the Mal Karpaty Mts. of the within and/or near the western termination of the Neotethys
West Carpathians near Bratislava (Plaienka et al. 1991). Struc- oceanic embayment into Adria (Fig. 2), possibly along a Juras-
turally, the Tatricum represents the lowermost Adria-derived sic strike-slip fault (see discussions in Schuster & Frank 1999;
nappe that consists of Variscan basement and its sedimentary Frank & Schlager 2006). In the Alps and along this intra-conti-
cover and that was derived from a position adjacent to the Va- nental subduction zone located at the western end of the Meli-
hic (= Piemont-Liguria) Ocean (Dumont et al. 1996; Plaienka ata Ocean, crustal rocks were transported to great depths some
et al., 1997a). As revealed by deep seismic transects, the Tatri- 90 Ma ago (Thni 2006).
cum forms a tabular, upwards slightly convex and more than
10 km thick thrust sheet (Plate 2, Profile 2) that extends into (3) The intra-continental, partly eclogitic, former subduc-
the lower crust below the Veporic units (Tomek 1993; Bielik tion zone, referred to as Eoalpine high-pressure belt in Plate 1,
et al. 2004). subdivides the Upper Austroalpine basement nappe sequence
Subdivision of the Upper Austroalpine nappe system and into two parts (Schmid et al. 2004a): the Silvretta-Seckau nappe
its West Carpathian equivalents into northern margin of Me- system in its footwall (northern margin of Meliata in Plate 1,
liata, Eoalpine high-pressure belt and southern margin of Me- together with the Northern Calcareous Alps and the Grau-
liata units, as proposed in our compilation (Plate 1), follows wackenzone) and the tztal-Bundschuh and Drauzug-Gurktal
essentially the new subdivision of the Upper Austroalpine units nappe systems in its hanging-wall (part of the southern margin
of the Alps as proposed by Schuster et al. (2004) and Schmid et of Meliata in Plate 1, together with the Southern Alps).
al. (2004a). Note, however, that this concept, as briefly outlined Correlation of the Upper Austroalpine units of the Alps with
below, applies strictly only to the West Carpathians and the east- the major tectonic units of the West Carpathians (Plate 1) has
ern parts of the Eastern Alps since the oceanic Meliata-Maliac to contend with considerable difficulties, since major changes
embayment did not extend into the Austroalpine domain of the occur along strike in the architecture of the Cretaceous-age
more western areas. This applies also to the related Eoalpine (Eoalpine) orogen. Hence, individual Upper Austroalpine
high-pressure belt, the westernmost parts of which are present units cannot be cylindrically traced eastwards. The absence of
in the southern tztal basement (Schmid et al. 2004a). exposed Eoalpine high-pressure rocks east of the Alps, possi-
bly due to their burial beneath the fill of the Pannonian Basin,
This new subdivision is supported by the following data presents an additional difficulty.
and/or concepts: We correlate the Drauzug-Gurktal nappe system with the
Transdanubian ranges since we interpret both of these units to
(1) The sedimentary nappes of the Northern Calcareous structurally represent the hanging-wall with respect to the Eo-
Alps were derived from the northern passive margin of the Tri- alpine high-pressure belt. Therefore Drauzug-Gurktal nappe
assic Meliata Ocean that formed a branch of the Neotethys. The system and Transdanubian ranges paleogeographically rep-
most distal parts of this margin are characterized by the classical resent realms along the southern margin of the Meliata-Ma-
Hallstatt facies (e.g. Mandl 2000; Gawlick & Frisch 2003). We liac Ocean. The Transdanubian ranges are made up of weakly
do not share the view of Neubauer et al. (2000) who proposed metamorphosed Variscan basement that is overlain by a non-
that within the domain of the present-day Northern Calcareous metamorphic Permo-Mesozoic cover. This cover exhibits close
Alps a Meliata suture separates two conjugate passive mar- similarities to the Drauzug and the Southern Alps (e.g. Kazmer
gins. Instead, we interpret the stratigraphic evidence for Late & Kovcs 1985; Haas et al. 1995). This correlation is also war-
Jurassic compressional tectonics in the Northern Calcareous ranted on structural grounds; the Transdanubian ranges are
Alps (Gawlick & Frisch 2003; Gawlick & Schlagintweit 2006) located immediately N of the Balaton Line, the eastern ex-
to be related to the development of an accretionary wedge at tension of the Periadriatic Line, along which the Austroalpine
the front of an obducted Jurassic-age ophiolite body (Vardar units (Drauzug and Transdanubian ranges) escaped to the east
Ocean). This obduction event followed an earlier pulse of intra- (Kazmer & Kovcs 1985). Hence, the Drauzug-Gurktal nappe
oceanic subduction (see chapter Dinarides) during which the system and the Transdanubian Ranges are interpreted as al-
Triassic parts of the Neotethyan oceanic lithosphere, namely lochthonous tectonic units that structurally overlie the postu-
the Meliata Ocean, were consumed. lated eastern extension of the Eoalpine high-pressure units
(Plate 2, Profile 1).
(2) After this obduction event, major deformations accom- Conversely we correlated all units of the Central and In-
panied by the stacking of the Austroalpine nappe units started ner West Carpathians with the Silvretta-Seckau nappe system,
during the Late Valanginian (ca. 135 Ma). This is indicated by the Northern Calcareous Alps and the Grauwackenzone. We
the development of the syn-orogenic Rossfeld sedimentary ba- propose that the easternmost parts of these units were de-
sin in the Northern Calcareous Alps (Faupl & Wagreich 2000) rived from the northern margin of the Meliata-Maliac Ocean.
in the Northern Calcareous Alps. It is this shortening, referred These units form the lower plate with respect to the Eoalpine
to as the Eo-Alpine tectono-metamorphic event, that we relate high-pressure belt of the Alps and include the thick-skinned
Alps-Carpathians-Dinarides 153
a) N (present-day coordinates) S
W-Carpathians: Gemericum Silicicum Torna Bodva Bkk
Meliata
Eastern Alps: Tirolicum Hochjuvavikum Tiefjuvavikum southern margin of Meliata
b)
future thrust Silicicum over Gemericum
future out-of-sequence thrust
Jurassic ophiolite bearing melange
wedging of
obducted
oceanic crust
c)
future thrust Tirolicum future thrust Gemericum over Veporicum
over Bajuvaricum Jurassic ophiolite bearing melange
Fig. 4. Conceptual model for Late Jurassic and Cretaceous thrusting affecting the former passive continental margin adjacent to the Meliata Ocean in the
Eastern Alps (Northern Calcareous Alps) and in the West Carpathians. a) Former passive margin of Neotethys and terminology of the various paleogeographic
domains and tectonic units as used in the West Carpathians (top line) and the Eastern Alps (bottom line). b) Late Jurassic thrusting in the Alps (left) and in the
West Carpathians (right: triangle structure). c) Overprinting during Early Cretaceous orogeny in the Alps (left) and in the West Carpathians (right).
Carpathians. Moreover, these data indicate that this high-pres- dian Dacides. In the Hungarian literature, the Outer and Me-
sure belt probably wedges out eastward (Plate 1). In addition, dian Dacides are referred to as the Dacia Mega-Unit or terrane
these findings provide further evidence for the existence of an (i.e. Csontos & Vrs 2004), whilst Burchfiel (1980) refers to
important tectonic boundary that separates the non-metamor- them as the Rhodopian fragment.
phic Transdanubian Ranges, derived from south of the Meli- The Danubian nappes, also referred to as Marginal Dacides,
ata-Maliac Ocean, from the Veporic Unit of the Central West however, were originally part of the Moesian foreland. The
Carpathians that we place to the north of the Meliata oceanic Outer and Median Dacides of the Dacia Mega-Unit, together
embayment. with more internal units located below the Transylvanian Basin
and cropping out in the North Apuseni Mountains (Tisza Mega-
Unit; e.g. Haas & Pero 2004, referred to as Internal Dacides by
4.3. East Carpathians, South Carpathians, Transylvanian Basin
Sndulescu 1984), moved into the Carpathian embayment dur-
and Carpatho- Balkanides (Danubian nappes and Dacia)
ing Cenozoic times (i.e. Royden 1988; Fodor et al. 1999; Mrton
2000; Wortel & Spakman 2000; Csontos & Vrs 2004; Horvth
4.3.1. Overview
et al. 2006). These internal units were finally docked against the
The internal tectonic units of the East and South Carpathians, European foreland during the Miocene, controlling the evolu-
which are fringed to the E and S by the external Miocene thrust tion of the earlier described external fold-and-thrust belt that
belt, were emplaced in Cretaceous time (i.e. Sndulescu 1984, involves Cretaceous to Tertiary-age flysch units.
1994; Krutner et al. 1988; Krutner 1996). Sndulescu (1984, Along the western margin of the Moesian Platform the
1994) referred to these units as the Marginal, Outer and Me- South Carpathian units can be traced further southward into
Alps-Carpathians-Dinarides 155
latest Cretaceous (presumably Maastrichtian). The basement (e.g. Popescu-Voitesti 1929; Krutner 1938; Krutner 1980)
of the overlying Ceahlau-Severin Ocean crops out in the Sev- (see Plate 3, Profile 3). It represents the lateral equivalent of
erin nappe and consists of strongly dismembered ophiolitic the Getic-Supragetic nappe sequence of the South Carpath-
lithologies (Savu et al. 1985; Maruntiu 1987) such as harzbur- ians (Sndulescu 1984, 1994) (see Plate 2, Profile 4). This nappe
gitic ultramafics, gabbros and pillow basalts. The basalts show sequence has the general geometry of a large antiform and
ocean-floor tholeiitic affinities (Cioflica et al. 1981). The over- consists of low- to medium-grade metamorphic rocks of Late
lying sediments are much thinner compared with units in the Precambrian to Cambrian age (e.g. Balintoni & Gheuca 1974)
East Carpathians with which they are correlated and include separated from each other either by pre-Alpine thrusts or by
Late Jurassic radiolarites (Azuga beds) followed by Early Cre- Triassic to Lower Cretaceous sedimentary series (Balintoni
taceous terrigenous turbidites (Sinaia and Comarnic Flysch) 1981). The uppermost Alpine tectonic unit is the Bucovinian
(see Codarcea 1940; Pop et al. 1997). nappe whose Mesozoic cover series grade upward into Early
The tectonic units derived from the Ceahlau-Severin Cretaceous wildflysch that lies structurally below the over-
Ocean were thrust eastward in two stages (tefnescu 1976; riding ophiolite-bearing Transylvanian nappes (Patrulius et
Sndulescu et al. 1981a,b). During the earlier Aptian to Albian al. 1969; tefnescu 1976; Sndulescu 1984). A similar Paleo-
event (referred to as Austrian in the Romanian literature) zoic basement composition and Permian to Early Cretaceous
they were accreted to the overlying Getic nappe related to sedimentary cover characterize the underlying Sub-Bucovin-
west directed (in the East Carpathians and in present-day co- ian nappe. The Infra-Bucovinian nappe, the lowermost unit
ordinates) subduction. The Baraolt and Black Flysch nappes of the thrust succession, contains medium-grade metamorphic
of the Eastern Carpathians were emplaced over the more ex- basement overlain by a Permian to Jurassic sedimentary cover,
ternal Ceahlau nappe during the first stage, as dated by their which was locally metamorphosed in Cretaceous times (Krut-
Late Albian to Cenomanian post-tectonic cover (Sndulescu ner 1980; Grger 2006; Dallmeyer et al. in press). This lower-
1984). The second (Laramide) event occurred in the latest most nappe crops out only in small isolated tectonic windows.
Cretaceous, when the Ceahlau-Severin Ophiolitic Units were Following Sndulescu (1984, 1994) we correlated the Infra-Bu-
thrust above more external units: the most internal flysch units covinian nappe of the East Carpathians with the Getic nappe
of the Moldavides (Convolute Flysch nappe) in the East Car- of the South Carpathians, whereas the two higher units of the
pathians and the Danubian nappes in the South Carpathians Bucovinian nappe sequence are correlated with the Supragetic
(Plate 3, Profile 3). The age of this second event is constrained nappes of the South Carpathians.
by a Late Campanian to Maastrichtian post-tectonic cover (e.g. The Bucovinian nappe sequence of the East Carpathians
Sndulescu 1984; Melinte & Jipa 2005). and its lateral equivalent, the Getic and Supragetic nappes of
The Ceahlau-Severin Ophiolitic Unit can be followed the South Carpathians (Murgoci 1905; Streckeisen 1932), con-
southwards into the boundary region between eastern Serbia sist of Europe-derived continental crustal material (Dacia) that
and western Bulgaria based on the compilation by Krutner & was separated from the European foreland along the Ceahlau-
Krsti (2002, 2006). However, no traces of this ophiolitic unit Severin oceanic rift. To the south, in Serbia and western Bul-
(including the associated Sinaia-type turbidites) are present garia, we also included the structurally highest unit, referred to
further south in the Carpatho-Balkan Orogen or further east as Serbo-Macedonian Massif (e.g. Dimitrijevi 1957, 1997),
in the Balkan Orogen. Hence, the oceanic Ceahlau-Severin rift, into this nappe sequence. However we do not imply that this
which represents a branch of the Alpine Tethys according to also applies to a unit that carries the same name in Greece and
our interpretation, ended eastward within continental units of which experienced a severe Alpine metamorphic overprint
the European foreland and was not connected to any of the (Kilias et al. 1999).
branches of Neotethys. This Ceahlau-Severin oceanic rift split The Getic-Supragetic nappe sequence (see Plate 2, Pro-
off a narrow continental ribbon (Dacia), which later formed file 4) involves a medium- to high-grade metamorphic Neopro-
the Cretaceous-age Getic to Supragetic (or Bucovinian) nappe terozoic to Early Paleozoic gneissic basement and sub-green-
pile of the Carpathians described below (Fig. 2b). Because the schist to epidote-amphibolite grade Paleozoic successions.
Ceahlau-Severin Ocean ended to the east, the equivalents of These are unconformably overlain by Late Carboniferous to
this nappe pile in the Balkan Orogen (Central Balkan and Permian continental clastics and Mesozoic strata (Iancu et al.
Sredna Gora units; Ivanov 1988) are thrust above the Prebal- 2005). The Mesozoic rocks contain Middle Triassic carbonate
kan Unit and the Moesian Platform without an apparent inter- platform deposits followed by detrital Early Jurassic strata
mediate oceanic suture. Moreover main thrust contacts formed (Gresten facies). Locally sedimentation ended with Middle Ju-
during the Cretaceous were reworked during Eocene times in rassic radiolarites, but was elsewhere followed by Late Jurassic
the Balkan Orogen. to Early Cretaceous pelagic series. Post-tectonic strata begin
with Albian to Cenomanian Molasse-type deposits, proving
that this nappe sequence essentially formed during the mid-
4.3.4. Getic-Supragetic (Bucovinian) nappe sequence
Cretaceous (Austrian) orogenic pulse. However, Late Cre-
The east-facing Bucovinian nappe sequence of the East Car- taceous series were locally also affected by latest Cretaceous
pathians developed during Early to mid-Cretaceous times Laramide deformations (Sndulescu 1984, 1994).
Alps-Carpathians-Dinarides 157
appears to be of Jurassic age. According to Ssran (2006) and The Sava Zone separates this ophiolitic unit from the Western
our reconnaissance work, the contact between these volcanics Vardar ophiolites of the Dinarides (Plate 1). Hence the unspec-
and the continental Biharia basement is sealed by Late Jurassic ified term Vardar ought to be abandoned. In Plate 1 we trace
(Late Oxfordian-Early Kimmeridgian) to Early Cretaceous plat- the Eastern Vardar ophiolites of Macedonia and eastern Serbia
form limestones and, thus, must have formed prior to their de- in the subsurface of the southernmost Pannonian Basin across
position. As these platform carbonates are not metamorphosed, Vojvodina into the ophiolites of the South Apuseni Mountains
the low-grade metamorphism of the Biharia nappes system must (Kemenci & anovi 1997; anovi & Kemenci 1999). As men-
be Jurassic rather than Cretaceous in age, at least locally in the tioned above, the Eastern Vardar ophiolites, and their equiva-
Trascau Mountains. In this context it is interesting to note that lents in the Guevgeli ophiolites and the Circum-Rhodope Belt
Jurassic metamorphism, pre-dating the deposition of Late Juras- of northern Greece (Kockel et al. 1971, 1977; Michard et al.
sic platform carbonates that have not been metamorphosed, is 1994) were metamorphosed and tectonically emplaced east-
also known from the ophiolite-bearing Circum-Rhodope Belt of ward on the Serbo-Macedonian Massif during the Late Juras-
Northern Greece (Michard et al. 1994) that we correlate with sic, probably by obduction. However, final emplacement of the
the Eastern Vardar Ophiolitic Unit as mapped in Plate 1. We Eastern Vardar Ophioltic Unit (including the South Apuseni
interpret this Late Jurassic deformation and metamorphism as and Transylvanian ophiolites) occurred during Early Creta-
related to the obduction of the Eastern Vardar Ophiolitic Unit ceous east-facing nappe stacking that primarily shaped the Da-
onto parts of the Dacia Mega-Unit in latest Jurassic times (see cia Mega-Unit (Romanian Carpathians and their continuation
Fig. 2 and later discussion). The final east-directed emplacement into the Carpatho-Balkan Orogen).
of the Transylvanian ophiolites (the eastern continuation of the The Eastern Vardar Ophioltic Unit in Serbia (Central
South Apuseni ophiolites) over the Bucovinian nappes (the Vardar Subzone of Dimitrijevi 1997, Main Vardar Zone
eastern equivalents of the Biharia nappe system), however, is of Karamata 2006) represents a piece of MORB-type oceanic
younger and did not occur before mid-Cretaceous times. lithosphere. Following their emplacement on the Serbo-Mace-
Radiometric dating by Dallmeyer et al. (1999) and fission donian Massif these ophiolites were overstepped by Late Juras-
track studies by Schuller (2004) indicate a poly-metamorphic sic reef limestones (Karamata 2006) that are succeeded by a
history for the Biharia nappe system as a whole, with ages fall- Cretaceous flysch (Paraflysch; Dimitrijevi 1997). The Late
ing into two groups, namely Jurassic (186156 Ma) and Early to Jurassic emplacement of the Eastern Vardar Ophiolitic Unit
middle Cretaceous (124111 Ma). Thus, a Middle to Late Juras- onto at least parts of the Biharia nappe system and its lateral
sic tectonic and metamorphic event, followed by Early Creta- equivalent, the Serbo-Macedonian Massif, is probably related
ceous top-E nappe stacking within the Dacia Mega-Unit, need to the obduction of the Eastern Vardar ophiolites onto parts
to be distinguished. The final emplacement of the nappes in of the Dacia Mega-Unit, i.e. the European margin. However,
the North Apuseni Mountains involving top-W to NW super- no metamorphic sole has yet been found at the base of the
position of the Biharia, Codru and Bihor nappe systems (see East Vardar ophiolites. The age of the Eastern Vardar ophio-
Plate 3, Profile 3), did not occur before Turonian time. This is lites is constrained by modern radiometric dating in northern
documented by the Late Turonian Gosau unconformity (e.g. Greece only, where igneous rocks with ages between 164 Ma
Balintoni 1994; Schuller 2004). This youngest tectonic event and 155 Ma are present (Guevgeli ophiolites; Anders et al.
was preceded by two earlier thrusting events of latest Jurassic 2005). These ages are very similar to those reported from the
and Early Cretaceous ages. Dinaridic and Western Vardar ophiolites (see later discussion
The W-ward continuation of the Biharia nappe system concerning the Dinarides). However, the ages stem from gran-
beneath the subsurface of the Pannonian Basin as shown in itoid igneous rocks that intrude the Guevgeli ophiolites and
Plate 1 is based on subsurface data compiled by Bleahu et al. hence, are slightly younger. The presence of granitoids within
(1994), Tari et al. (1999) and Lelkes-Felvari et al. (1996, 2003, the Guevgeli ophiolites indicates that the latter formed in an
2005). We excluded, however, the Upper Codru nappes from island arc or back-arc setting (Brown & Robertson 2004).
the Biharia nappe system since they form an integral part of The ophiolite-bearing units of the South Apuseni Moun-
the Tisza Mega-Unit. On the other hand, we included parts of tains are grouped together with ophiolitic nappes that occur
the Algy basement high into the Biharia nappe system. This is beneath the Neogene sediments of the Transylvanian Basin and
based on the finding of Lelkes-Felvari et al. (2005) that in bore- those that are exposed in the Transylvanian nappes of the East
holes drilled on the Algy basement high of southern Hungary, Carpathians. This group of ophiolitic nappes is also known as
units characterized by a high-grade Cretaceous metamorphism Transylvanides (Sndulescu 1984). Neither a metamorphic
(Dorozsma Complex) occur in the highest tectonic position. sole, nor associated Jurassic ophiolitic mlanges have so far
been reported from this group of ophiolite-bearing nappes.
Only parts of the South Apuseni ophiolites represent MORB-
4.3.5. Eastern Vardar Ophiolitic Unit (including South
type oceanic lithosphere formed during the Middle Jurassic.
Apuseni Ophiolites and Transylvanian nappes)
Other parts represent Late Jurassic intra-oceanic island-arc
The Eastern Vardar Ophiolitic Unit is part of the Carpatho- volcanics (Savu et al. 1992; Bortolotti et al. 2002a; Nicolae &
Balkan Orogen (or the Rhodopian fragment; Burchfiel 1980). Saccani 2003; Bortolotti et al. 2004a). The latter include basalts,
Alps-Carpathians-Dinarides 159
limestones, Hallstatt-type limestones; Sndulescu 1975) suggests eastern parts of Tisza and adjacent Dacia (e.g. Patrascu et al.
that the Transylvanian nappes as a whole were presumably de- 1994; Panaiotu 1999; Mrton 2000, 2001). The western parts of
rived from a continent-ocean transition of a Triassic-age Meliata- Tisza, however, were highly mobile, particularly during Tertiary
Maliac-type ocean. Note, however, that the structural position of times, and show small block rotations in opposing directions
the Transylvanian nappes, which according to our interpretation (Mrton 2000).
is similar to that of the Jurassic-age ophiolites occurring beneath The pre-Triassic basement of the Tisza Mega-Unit consists
the Transylvanian Basin, indicates that both Triassic and Jurassic of various Variscan high-grade metamorphic series including
ophiolites form part of one and the same oceanic Meliata-Ma- anatectic granites and migmatites (Kovcs et al. 2000). Recently
liac-Vardar Neotethys that is referred to by Sndulescu (1994) as Kltzli et al. (2004) provided evidence that the Late Paleozoic
the Main Tethyan Suture Zone. granitoids of the Mecsek Mountains likely formed at a loca-
Suturing of the Transylvanian nappes to Dacia (Bucovin- tion S or SSW of the Rastenberg granodiorite of the Bohemian
ian nappes) occurred during mid-Cretaceous times and is Massif. This basement is therefore considered to represent a
documented by the sealing of the nappe contacts by an Al- former part of the Moldanubian Zone.
bian- to Cenomanian-age post tectonic cover. However, top- The nappe succession that forms the Tisza Mega-Unit com-
E compression had commenced already during the Late Bar- prises, from external (NW) to internal (SE) the Mecsek, Bihor
remian and was accompanied by the deposition of wildflysch, and Codru nappe systems (see Plate 2, Profile 2 & Plate 3, Pro-
now occurring beneath the Transylvanian nappes (Sndulescu file 3). In general, thrusting occurred during the Turonian; it lo-
1975). As shown in Profile 3 of Plate 3, we interpret the North cally affects Early Turonian sediments and pre-dates the latest
Apuseni units (Tisza) to represent the upper plate with respect Turonian onset of deposition of the post-tectonic Late Creta-
to this mid-Cretaceous suture. Note however, that the Transyl- ceous Gosau sediments (Balintoni et al. 1984; Schuller 2004).
vanian and South Apuseni ophiolites, that tectonically overlie The Triassic cover sequences show substantial facies variations
the North Apuseni units, appear to be rootless in a present-day (Burchfiel & Bleahu 1976; Bleahu et al. 1981, 1994; Kovcs et
cross section view. This is the reason for depicting a large back- al. 2000; Haas & Pero 2004). A Germanic Muschelkalk-type fa-
fold and -thrust, respectively, shown schematically and concep- cies of the most external units grades into more massive Mid-
tually in Profile 3 of Plate 3, very similar to an interpretation Triassic carbonate build-ups that are overlain by a Late Triassic
that was advanced much earlier by Sndulescu & Visarion Keuper facies (Haas & Pero 2004), and finally into the Schrey-
(1977). This structure developed presumably during a Turonian eralm-Hallstatt-type facies of the most internal and structur-
compressional event that post-dated the top-E mid-Cretaceous ally highest units such as the Vascu nappe of the Codru nappe
emplacement of the Transylvanian ophiolites but which is not system (Bleahu et al. 1994). Hence, as pointed out by Burchfiel
documented at all within Dacia. During this Turonian event the & Bleahu (1976), Triassic facies changes and nappe emplace-
NW-facing North-Apuseni nappe stack developed, that is so ment in the North Apuseni Mountains are reminiscent of what
characteristic for the Tisza Mega-Unit, as will be described in is known from the Central and Inner West Carpathians. A dra-
the next chapter. matic change occurred during the Bathonian, as documented in
the Mecsek Unit by an increase in depositional water depths that
can be related to the separation of the Tisza from the European
4.4. Tisza Mega-Unit of the southern Pannonian Basin and the
continent, presumably in connection with the opening of the
N-Apuseni Mountains
Alpine Tethys. Oxfordian radiolarites, followed by Rosso Am-
monitico and Calpionella Limestone, combined with the faunal
4.4.1. Overview
characteristics, indicate that Tisza had now become part of the
The Tisza Mega-Unit (Haas & Pero 2004; Csontos & Vrs Adriatic paleogeographic realm. Paleomagnetic data (Mrton
2004) comprises a sequence of nappes consisting of basement 2000) indicate, however, that rotations and translations of the
and its Mesozoic cover with some common characteristics. Ac- Tisza micro-continent did not substantially depart from those
cording to our interpretation this Mega-Unit is surrounded of the European continent until about 130 Ma ago. This coin-
by mobile zones, most if not all of them probably represent- cides with the Valanginian to Barremian volcanic activity of the
ing oceanic sutures. It was recognized early on that the fau- Mecsek Mountains (Csszr 1998). Interestingly, this event also
nal assemblages (European faunal province) contained in approximately coincides with the opening of the Valais-Magura
the Triassic and Early Jurassic sediments of units exposed in Ocean (e.g. Frisch 1979) and the onset of Early to mid-Creta-
the Mecsek Mountains, located near the northern rim of this ceous (Austrian) crustal shortening in the neighbouring Dacia
Mega-Unit, strongly contrast with those found in the northerly and ALCAPA Mega-Units, as described earlier.
adjacent series that are exposed in the Transdanubian ranges
(Mediterranean faunal province) which form part of AL-
4.4.2. Tectonic contacts between Tisza and neighbouring units,
CAPA (Vrs 1977, 1993). Moreover, paleomagnetic evidence
timing of nappe stacking within the Tisza Mega-Unit
indicates contrasting rotations and translations for Tisza and
ALCAPA. Rotations during Cretaceous to Miocene times are The Mecsek nappe system consists, according to Haas & Pero
generally counter clockwise in ALCAPA but clockwise in the (2004), of the Mecsek and Szolnok Units. Since exposures are
Alps-Carpathians-Dinarides 161
while the intervening continental blocks were regarded as ter- ongoing Late Miocene thrusting of the High Karst Unit onto
ranes that separated them (e.g. Karamata 2006). the Dalmatian Zone. Also the Split-Karlovac transpressive zone
According to our interpretation, however, we have to was active later since it affected Miocene-age strata in intra-
deal with one single Jurassic ophiolite sheet in the Dinarides, montane basins. Merlini et al. (2002) report ongoing thrusting
namely the Western Vardar Ophiolitic Unit that was obducted in the subsurface of the foreland of the Dinarides until Quater-
onto the passive margin of Adria during latest Jurassic times nary times for the Trieste area. All this indicates that shortening
(see Figs. 2 & 5). In this interpretation the Drina-Ivanjica and continued during Late Miocene to recent (?) times, as clearly
Jadar blocks simply represent tectonic windows below a single documented in Albania (Carminati et al. 2004), and off-shore
ophiolitic thrust sheet in which the most distal paleogeographic Montenegro within the Dalmatian Zone (e.g. Picha 2002).
domains of Adria are exposed. Furthermore, we suggest that in Although many authors claim that the Pindos Trough of
map view the present-day separations between ophiolitic and the Pindos-Olonos Zone was underlain by oceanic lithosphere
continent-derived tectonic units resulted from Cretaceous to (e.g. Stampfli & Borel 2004) no ophiolitic basement flooring
Cenozoic out-of-sequence thrusting, severely modifying the this deep-water through is exposed anywhere. Moreover, it is
originally rather simple geometry that resulted from obduc- clear that the so-called Pindos Ophiolite Group of the Pindos
tion (Plate 3, Profile 5). This view is not new and was already Mountains in Greece, including its metamorphic sole and un-
proposed by Bernoulli & Laubscher (1972) and Baumgartner derlying, presumably Jurassic-age mlange formation (identi-
(1985) for the southward adjacent Hellenides. Similarly, Smith cal with the typical Diabase-Radiolarite Formation of the
& Spray (1984), Bortolotti et al. (2004b) and Bortolotti & Prin- Dinarides), tectonically overlie the Cenozoic Pindos-Flysch,
cipi (2005) more recently emphasised the similarities between that is, the youngest sediments of the Pindos Zone (Aubouin
the ophiolitic belts in the Dinarides and Hellenides. 1959, Bornovas & Rondogianni-Tsiambaou 1983). This, and
the fact that the Budva Zone has no northward continuation
in Dalmatia, strongly argues in favour of the one-ocean the-
4.5.2. External Dinaridic Platform: Dalmatian Zone,
sis that was first formulated by Bernoulli & Laubscher (1972).
Budva-Cukali Zone and High Karst Unit
We propose that the so-called, and in our opinion misnamed
The proximal parts of the Adriatic margin are characterized Pindos ophiolites, form indeed the southern continuation of
from the Triassic to Cenozoic times by carbonate platforms that the Dinaridic-Mirdita ophiolite belt, but that these far-travelled
are interspersed by intervening narrow deep-water basins (e.g. ophiolite sheets have a more internal paleogeographic origin
Bernoulli et al. 1990; Bernoulli 2001). One of these deep-wa- with respect to the Pindos Zone. Thus, the term Mirdita-Pin-
ter basins that are floored by crust of uncertain composition dos Ocean is totally misleading and ought to be abandoned
(thinned continental or oceanic) is the Pindos-Olonos Zone of (see also Burchfiel 1980 who reached the same conclusion).
Greece (e.g. Aubouin 1959) that is referred to as the Krasta- In Albania, the thin-skinned Miocene thrust belt of the
Cukali Zone in Albania (Aubouin & Ndojaj 1964; Robertson & Ionian Zone (Frasheri et al. 1996; Robertson & Shallo 2000;
Shallo 2000) and as the Budva Zone in Montenegro (Gorian Carminati et al. 2004) is characterized by deeper marine slope
1994; Dimitrijevi 1997). and basin facies (Bernoulli 2001). It is external with respect to
The Budva-Cukali Zone of the Dinarides (Nopcsa 1921; the Dalmatian Zone but does not reach the area of our map
Dimitrijevi 1997), the sedimentary record of which starts and strikes north-westward into the Adriatic Sea. The carbon-
with Triassic deep-water facies and ends with Cenozoic flysch, ate platform of the Dalmatian Zone is the northern equivalent
separates the relatively more external carbonate platform of of the more internal Kruja Zone of Albania (Aubouin & Ndo-
the Dalmatian Zone from that of the more internal High jaj 1964; Robertson & Shallo 2000) and the Gavrovo-Tripolitza
Karst Unit (Aubouin et al. 1970). However, the Budva-Cukali Zone of Greece (Jacobshagen 1986), which also crops out in
Zone wedges out to the north between Kotor and Dubrovnik the Olympos window of the Pelagonian Zone (Aubouin 1973).
(Plate 1). Further north the Dalmatian Zone and High Karst Moreover, in northeastern Albania, the Kruja (= Dalmatian)
Unit can still be separated by a thrust between the Dalmatian and Cukali (= Budva) zones, including Eocene-Oligocene sedi-
Zone and the High Karst Unit (Cadet 1970) that can be traced ments, are exposed in a window below the Korab (= Pelago-
northwestward into the area of Split (Blanchet 1970) where it nian) Massif and overlying Western Vardar ophiolites south of
runs offshore, interfering with the NS striking dextral Split- the area mapped in Plate 1 (Bortolotti et al. 2005). The carbon-
Karlovac transpressive zone (Chorowicz 1970, 1975, Fig. 1). ate platform of the High Karst Unit of Dalmatia, on the other
According to the 1 : 100'000 Geological Map of former Yugo- hand, probably wedges out in Albania. In Greece, we interpret
slavia (Osnovna Geoloka Karta SFRJ) thrusting occurred ex- platform carbonates that are exposed in the Parnassos window
clusively during the Late Eocene to Early Oligocene (so-called of the Pelagonian Zone (Aubouin 1973; Jacobshagen 1986) as
Dinaridic phase of the Southern Alps), as documented by the probable southern equivalents of the High Karst Unit. The exis-
accumulation of flysch-type sediments in an evolving flexural tence of all these windows was the rational for extrapolating at
foreland basin from the Middle to the Late Eocene (e.g. Tari depth the external Dinaridic platform units over considerable
2002). However, De Capoa et al. (1995), also found Miocene distance (about 120 km) eastward beneath a Cenozoic thrust
faunas along this flysch belt and hence provided evidence for at the base of the more internal Dinaridic units (Pre-Karst
Alps-Carpathians-Dinarides 163
(1997), but includes also more internal tectonic units such as low-grade Paleozoic sediments (i.e. Foa and Lim Paleozoic).
the Lim Paleozoic and overlying Triassic-Jurassic strata. The The Triassic (i.e. Rampnoux 1970) is either characterized by
Triassic-Early Jurassic carbonate platform, which constitutes thick platform carbonates, such as those found in the Durmi-
a large part of this unit, was drowned in Early Jurassic time tor sub-unit, or by more distal slope or basinal facies typical
and sunk below the CCD in the Middle Jurassic (Bajocian; for the more internal Lim sub-unit, which are occasionally
eri pers. comm.) when the deposition of radiolarites started characterized by siliceous thin-bedded limestones (Ladin-
(e.g. Rampnoux 1970). The radiolarites give upward way to a ian-Carnian age Grivska Formation defined by Dimitrijevi
Late Jurassic ophiolitic tectonic mlange (Diabase-Radiola- & Dimitrijevi 1991). This slope facies is very reminiscent of
rite Formation) that was deposited during the obduction of the so-called Ptschenkalk-facies of the Eastern Alps (e.g.
the directly overlying West Vardar Ophiolite Units. Hence the Gawlick 2000) or a coeval deep-water limestone in Central
East-Bosnian-Durmitor thrust sheet is a composite tectonic Greece Adhami Limestone; Baumgartner 1985) and is also
unit; it consists in its basal part of Paleozoic and Mesozoic for- found in the more internal Drina-Ivanjica and Jadar-Kopa-
mations detached from the Adriatic passive margin in Ceno- onik thrust sheets. Mid-Triassic rift-related volcanism is wide-
zoic times, and in its upper part of the Western Vardar Ocean spread throughout this unit (Pami 1984). Very thick (>100 m)
ophiolites that were obducted during the Late Jurassic to earli- Jurassic radiolarite successions (Rampnoux 1970) are typical
est Cretaceous. An out-of-sequence thrust, that post-dates the for the more internal Lim sub-unit in southern Serbia (Zlatar
Late Jurassic obduction of the Western Vardar Ophiolitic Unit area) and resemble those of the late Middle Jurassic to ear-
over the East-Bosnian-Durmitor Unit, is also found in the liest Cretaceous (Vishnevskaya & eri 2005) Radiolarite
hanging wall of the East Bosnian-Durmitor composite thrust Formation of the Bosna Valley section (Pami 2000) much
sheet. It juxtaposes the more external East Bosnian-Durmitor further to the NW, which are also part of the East Bosnian-
composite thrust sheet against a more internal structural unit, Durmitor thrust sheet and were deposited prior to the Late
the Drina-Ivanjica Unit, which is also a composite tectonic Jurassic to Early Cretaceous obduction of the Western Vardar
unit (Plate 3, Profile 5). According to Dimitrijevi (1997) the ophiolites onto the distal Adriatic margin. Note that most pre-
East Bosnian-Durmitor thrust sheet represents a far-travelled vious authors (e.g. Dimitrijevi 1997; Pami 2000) erroneously
(>45 km) thrust sheet that corresponds to the Zone Serbe interpreted these radiolarites, which according to our obser-
of Rampnoux (1970) and Aubouin et al. (1970). Note that on vations tectonically underlie the obducted Western Vardar
Plate 1 only the Paleozoic-Jurassic series, which underlie the Ophiolitic Unit, as part of the ophiolitic succession.
ophiolitic mlange, were mapped as the East Bosnian-Dur-
mitor thrust sheet, while the previously obducted ophiolites
4.5.5. Drina-Ivanjica thrust sheet
and associated mlanges were mapped as part of the Western
Vardar Ophiolitic Unit; the same holds for the more internal The Drina-Ivanjica thrust sheet contains even more distal
Drina-Ivanjica and Jadar-Kopaonik composite thrust sheets, parts of the Adriatic passive margin. It was probably emplaced
respectively. in Early to mid-Cretaceous times on top of the East Bosnian
The NW-SE striking external thrust contact between the Durmitor thrust sheet and, similar to the East Bosnian-Durmi-
East Bosnian-Durmitor thrust sheet and the Bosnian Flysch tor composite thrust sheet, also carried passively the previously
is strongly deflected towards NS in the Sarajevo area (hence obducted Western Vardar ophiolites (i.e. the Zlatibor ophiol-
the term Sarajevo sigmoid for the underlying and more ex- ites; see Plate 3, Profile 5). The front of this thrust sheet was
ternal Pre-Karst and Bosnian Flysch Unit). N of Sarajevo, the mapped by compiling the 1 : 100'000 sheets of the Geological
Paleozoic to Triassic formations of the East Bosnian-Durmitor Map of former Yugoslavia (Osnovna Geoloka Karta SFRJ).
thrust sheet laterally wedge out towards the NW. We regard, NE of Sarajevo (Devetak area), Triassic to Middle Jurassic
however, the so-called Radiolarite Formation (Pami 2000), strata form mainly the frontal parts of this thrust sheet. SW-
that is exposed in the Bosna River section and extends north- wards, in the Zlatibor area, the sole of the thrust front locally
westward into the Banja Luka area (Plate 1), as forming part ramps up into the previously obducted ophiolites. This caused
of the East Bosnian-Durmitor thrust sheet as well. In the Banja a duplication of the ophiolitic units since the footwall of the
Luka area this Radiolarite Formation consists exclusively of youngest rocks of the East Bosnian Durmitor nappe also
late Middle Jurassic to earliest Cretaceous radiolarites (Vish- consists of ophiolites (see Plate 3, Profile 5).
nevskaya & eri 2005; eri pers. comm.) that are tectoni- The more internal parts of the Drina-Ivanjica thrust sheet
cally sandwiched between Vranduk Flysch in the footwall and consist largely of low-grade metamorphic Paleozoic for-
an ophiolitic mlange at the base of the Western Vardar Ophi- mations (Milovanovi 1984) that form the basement of the
olitic Unit in the hanging wall. Drina-Ivanjica Mesozoic. The facies of the Mesozoic strata
The East Bosnian Durmitor thrust sheet can locally be shares many similarities with that of the East-Bosnian-Dur-
subdivided into second-order tectonic units, such as the more mitor thrust sheet (Dimitrijevi & Dimitrijevi 1991). Local
external Durmitor sub-unit of Montenegro and the more in- occurrences of red nodular Late Anisian limestones (Han-
ternal Lim sub-unit of adjacent southern Serbia. These are Bulog facies; Sudar 1986), siliceous thin-bedded Ladinian to
involved in a number of domal anticlines that are upheld by Carnian limestones (Grivska Formation) indicate that these
Alps-Carpathians-Dinarides 165
together with the Jadar block and more southerly occurrences lectively referred to as Western Vardar Ophiolitic Unit. Also in
found in the Kosovo, as having been derived from the distal Albania (Mirdita ophiolites) a traditional distinction between
Adriatic passive margin. Southwest of Belgrade, the tectonic different ophiolitic belts cannot be made on structural grounds,
contact between the Drina-Ivanjica and Jadar-Kopaonik thrust although geochemical and petrological differences have been
sheets turns in map view NW-ward, owing to some differential documented (see below). A high-grade metamorphic sole
rotation between the southeastern and northwestern Dina- typically underlies the obducted ultramafic massifs. We also
rides; this is one of the reasons for not extending the Kopaonik included the ophiolitic mlange underneath the metamorphic
ridge into the Belgrade area in Plate 1. sole, as well as the post-obduction overlapping younger strata
According to a cross-section published by Grubi et al. into this same tectonic unit on Plate 1.
(1995) and our observations, the Kopaonik window is a late- In the territory of former Yugoslavia two belts of largely
stage antiform structure that folded the previously obducted isolated ultramafic massifs forming klippen overlying the ophi-
Western Vardar Ophiolitic Unit preserved on both sides of olitic mlange (Diabase-Radiolarite Formation) are evident in
this structure (see also Sudar & Kovcs 2006). On the eastern map view (Plate 1). These belts are separated by a structural
flank of this antiform, which was later intruded by an Oligocene culmination of the continental Drina-Ivanjica thrust sheet. The
granodiorite, occurs a strip of Senonian flysch. This flysch rests more external belt, referred to by most authors as the Dinaridic
unconformably either on the Western Vardar ophiolites or on ophiolites (or Dinaridic ophiolite belt; Pami et al. 2002a; Kara-
the underlying continental units of the Kopaonik window and mata 2006), is also known as the Central Dinaridic ophiolite
is over-thrust by the Eastern Vardar Ophiolitic Unit that was belt (Lugovi et al. 1991). Most of the ophiolitic klippen of this
earlier obducted onto the Serbo-Macedonian Massif (Profile 5, external belt overly the external parts of Drina-Ivanjica thrust
Plate 3). We regard the corresponding E-dipping thrust fault as sheet and a few the internal parts of the East-Bosnian-Durmi-
a first order tectonic contact that marks the suture between the tor thrust sheet in Serbia and Montenegro. The more internal
Dinarides in a lower-plate position and the Carpatho-Balkan belt is referred to as Western Vardar ophiolites by Karamata
orogen in an upper-plate position. Towards the hangingwall this (2006), but also referred to under a variety of names such as
Senonian flysch contains huge olistoliths, as well as abundant Inner Dinaridic ophiolite belt (Lugovi et al. 1991), External
detrital material that was eroded from the overriding Eastern Vardar Subzone (Dimitrijevi 1997, 2001) or simply Vardar
Vardar Ophiolitic Unit, thus dating the closure of this flysch ba- Zone (Pami et al. 2002a). We propose that the collective term
sin as Late Senonian. We interpret this strip of Senonian flysch, Vardar should not be used any longer, as the Eastern Var-
which here marks a suture, as the southerly extension of the dar Ophiolitic Unit is part of the Carpatho-Balkan Orogen
Sava Zone (Plate 3, Profile 5). (or the Rhodopian fragment; Burchfiel 1980) and structurally
The continental units underlying the Western Vardar ophio- separated from the Western Vardar Ophiolitic Unit by the Sava
lites in the Kopaonik area, as well as in the W-ward adjacent Zone (see below). Note that we excluded ophiolitic occurrences
Studenica area, largely consist of Triassic carbonates, often in the Fruka Gora Mountain NW of Beograd (Dimitrijevi
transformed into marbles, and associated meta-basites (Zeli 1997) and in the northern parts of the Kozara Mountains in
et al. 2005). Sudar (1986) determined Carnian and Norian ages Bosnia (Karamata et al. 2000a) from the Western Vardar Ophi-
for some of the carbonates occurring in the Kopaonik area and olitic Unit as we consider them as forming part of the more
in other areas of the adjacent Kosovo (metamorphic Trepa internal Sava Zone (Plate 1).
series), proving their Mesozoic age. They stratigraphically rest The SW ophiolite belt (Dinaridic in the sense of Kara-
on Early Triassic Werfen beds and Paleozoic schists. Sudar & mata 2006) of the Western Vardar Ophiolitic Unit is dominated
Kovcs (2006) estimated the temperature of this metamor- by fertile mantle rocks (lherzolites), though harzburgites occur
phism to be slightly higher than 400 C based on the colour locally as well. Extrusive rocks are relatively rare (Lugovi et
alteration index established for conodonts and on microstruc- al. 1991; Trubelja et al. 1995). Depleted mantle rocks (harzbur-
tural observations. The exact age of this metamorphism, which gites) predominate in the NE ophiolite belt (Western Vardar
pre-dates the unconformity at the base of the Senonian flysch, in the sense of Karamata 2006) of the Western Vardar Ophiol-
is still unknown (Jurassic or Early to mid Cretaceous?). itic Unit that contains abundant extrusive rocks with a supra-
subduction geochemical signature (i.e. Karamata et al. 1980;
Spray et al. 1984; Lugovi et al. 1991). Most authors concluded
4.5.7. Ophiolites obducted onto the Adria margin: the Western
that the ophiolites of the western belt are predominantly of the
Vardar Ophiolitic Unit
MORB-type, whilst those of the eastern belt represent supra-
In former Yugoslavia the mapping of the Western Vardar ophi- subduction oceanic island-arc type ophiolites.
olites shown on Plate 1 is based on the 1 : 100'000 geological In northern Albania both belts merge into one larger thrust
maps of former Yugoslavia (Osnovna Geoloka Karta SFRJ) sheet, the Mirdita ophiolitic thrust sheet (e.g. Bortolotti et
whilst for Albania we used the 1 : 200'000 map of Albania al. 1996, 2005; Gawlick et al. 2007) that was thrusted over the
(Geological Map of Albania 2002) and an overview presented Budva-Cukali Zone into a relatively more external structural
by Robertson & Shallo (2000). We mapped all ophiolitic occur- position southwest of an important transverse zone known as
rences west of the Sava belt as the same unit that is here col- Skutari-Pec line (Plate 1). This ophiolite unit, and other smaller
Alps-Carpathians-Dinarides 167
Triassic - Jurassic boundary
a) NW Dinarides - Tisza - Bohemian massif (I)
proximal- II
SSW continental margin Mecsek NNE I
distal- Bihor
Meliata Codru
Europe:
Bohemian
Massif
III
Island Arc:
Jurassic or
Cretaceous
latest Jurassic
d) NW Dinarides - Tisza - Bohemian massif (I)
SSW NNE
Dinaric W. Va
rdar
Alpine Tethys Europe:
Tisza Bohemian
Massif
Fig. 5. Schematic serial sections depicting the plate tectonic evolution of the Alps-Carpathians-Dinarides system in pre-Cenozoic times. Given the complexity
of the structures depicted in Plate 1, the sections were drawn in 3 different directions (see inset for location of the sections in present-day map view): a, b, c, d
along section I; e, f, h along section II; g, i along section III. Note that important out-of-section translations of some of the units must have occurred (see Fig. 2).
Furthermore, associated vertical axis rotations cannot be appropriately depicted in the sections alone. See text for detailed discussion.
Late Cretaceous
h) central Dinarides - Tisza - Dacia - Europe (II)
SW Dinaric W. Va Sava NE
rdar
Island arc Banatites
Cenozoic thrusts
Fig. 5. (Continued).
tation locally resumed (e.g. Bosna River section) with fluvial Jurassic times. Hence, final obduction onto the Adriatic margin
conglomerates and sandstones (Pogari Formation; Blanchet et closely followed, within some 10 Ma, intra-oceanic subduction.
al. 1970; Pami & Hrvatovi 2000; Neubauer et al. 2003). These However, since the age range of radiolaria in the underlying
Tithonian to Berriasian conglomerates contain reworked ophi- radiolarites of the continental East Bosnian Durmitor thrust
olitic as well as continental crustal material, including Late sheet extends into the Berriasian and Valanginian (eri &
Permian granites (Neubauer et al. 2003). A similar over-step Vishnevskaya 2006; eri pers. comm.) this obduction possi-
sequence that consists of mixed continental and ophiolitic de- bly did not come to a halt before Early Cretaceous times. Our
tritus and ranges in age from Tithonian to Valanginian is known kinematic analysis in the Zlatibor area (Rudine locality), per-
from Albania (Simoni mlange; Bortolotti et al. 2005). In for- formed on the weakly metamorphosed matrix of ophiolitic m-
mer Yugoslavia platform carbonates and reefal build-ups of lange immediately underlying the metamorphic sole, indicated
Late Jurassic (Kimmeridgian-Tithonian) and Early Cretaceous top-WNW thrusting. Thus, also the final stages of ophiolite ob-
age are more widespread. These overlie erosionally truncated duction involved transport oblique to sub-parallel to the pres-
ophiolites and interfinger laterally with the Pogari conglomer- ent-day strike of the Dinarides.
ates (Pami & Hrvatovi 2000). These overstepping formations After the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous period of al-
indicate that the final stages of obduction occurred during Late luvial to neritic sedimentation, the overstep basin was involved
Alps-Carpathians-Dinarides 169
in Early to mid-Cretaceous folding and thrusting, subjected to mitted). These younger ophiolites indicate that oceanic island
erosion and subsequently unconformably covered by the Seno- arc-type crust (Sava Back-Arc Ocean in Fig. 2c) was generated
nian series which locally rest on the non-ophiolitic parts of the during Late Cretaceous time within a remnant of the once much
Drina-Ivanjica and Jadar-Kopaonik thrust sheets. These series larger Neotethys Ocean. This confirms the view of Karamata et
grade upward into latest Cretaceous flysch that immediately al. (2000a) that a remnant of the Vardar Ocean stayed open until
predates the Palaeogene development of the major tectonic Campanian times. Northward these Late Cretaceous ophiolites
contacts between the different units of the Inner Dinarides. are covered by Maastrichtian to Eocene siliciclastic flysch (Cre-
taceous to Early Palaeogene flysch of Pami et al. 2002a). Still
further north, this flysch becomes progressively metamorphic
4.5.8. Sava Zone: the Cenozoic suture between Dinarides and
(Pami et al. 1992). This latest Cretaceous to Early Palaeogene
Tisza-Dacia
metamorphism reaches lower amphibolite facies (Ustaszewski
According to our interpretation, the Sava Zone marks the posi- et al. 2007) and is followed during the Late Oligocene by the
tion of a suture between the upper plate Tisza and the Dacia intrusion of S-type granites (Ustaszewski et al. 2006). This is
Mega-Units to the NE and SE, respectively, and the lower plate in line with Pami (1993, 2002) who provided evidence that
internal Dinarides (Fig. 5 and Plate 3, Profile 5). Originally this the Sava Zone formed during the Palaeogene final collision of
belt of ophiolitic, magmatic and metamorphic rocks that ex- the Internal Dinarides with the Tisza Mega-Unit. The next and
tends from Zagreb to Belgrade was referred to as North-west- more easterly located inselberg occurs west of Belgrade in the
ern Vardar Zone (Pami 1993) or Sava-Vardar Zone (Pami Fruka Gora and exposes a very heterogeneous suite of blue-
2002a). It was interpreted as a Late Cretaceous to Early Palaeo- schist metamorphic and non-metamorphic ophiolitic and non-
gene volcanic (back-) arc basin that had remained open until ophiolitic rocks (Milovanovi et al. 1995; Dimitrijevi 1997).
the Mid-Eocene collision between the Dinarides and the Tisza According to Milovanovi et al. (1995) this metamorphism is
Block by Pami et al. (2002a). Since the Western and Eastern Barremian in age (123 5 Ma) and thus, documents an earlier
Vardar Ophiolitic Units were closed by obduction in Late Ju- stage of ongoing subduction of the Vardar Ocean.
rassic times (see above) we prefer not to use the term Vardar South of Belgrade, a narrow strip of Senonian flysch rep-
for the Sava Zone, which contains relics of a Cretaceous age resents the suture between the Dinarides and the Eastern Var-
back-arc ocean (Fig. 2c) and presently represents a Palaeo- dar Ophiolitic Unit that we consider as an integral part of the
gene-age suture zone. Southward from Belgrade we extend Carpatho-Balkan Orogen, and which, together with the Serbo-
the Sava Zone as a narrow belt of Late Cretaceous ophiolite- Macedonian Massif, forms here the upper plate during end-
bearing flysch (Senonian Flysch of Dimitrijevi 1997). There Cretaceous-Palaeogene suturing (Plate 3, Profile 5). Further
the Sava Zone separates the Dinarides (including the Western to the east, a window through the Serbo-Macedonian Massif,
Vardar Ophiolitic Unit) from the Carpatho-Balkan orogen (in- the Jastrebac window (Fig. 1; Grubi 1999; Krutner & Krsti
cluding the Eastern Vardar Ophiolitic Unit) (Plate 1; Plate 3, 2002), exposes low-grade metamorphosed Late Cretaceous to
Profile 5). Palaeogene flysch that is overlain by greenschists, marbles and
Unfortunately, near Zagreb there are no exposures of the meta-pelites. These rocks, which we attribute to the Sava Zone
Sava Zone in the area of the junction of the Mid-Hungarian (Plate 3, Profile 5), clearly demonstrate that the previously
Fault Zone that includes the ophiolitic Intra-Pannonian Belt E-facing thrust succession of the Carpatho-Balkan Orogen
(Channell et al. 1979) and the westernmost parts of the ophio- formed the upper plate with respect to the Dinarides during
lite-bearing Sava belt of the Dinarides. Furthermore, the tec- their Palaeogene final suturing. Furthermore, mantle xenoliths
tonic position of the Moslavaka Gora inselberg, characterized occurring within Palaeogene magmatic suites in the Carpatho-
by Cretaceous-age gabbros (109 8 Ma, Balen et al. 2003) and Balkan Orogen of eastern Serbia are evidence for deep reach-
Late Cretaceous metamorphism and magmatism (Starija et al. ing subduction of the Dinarides lower plate, causing magma-
2006), is not very clear. Although traditionally attributed to the tism in the upper plate according to Cvetkovi et al. (2004)
Tisza Mega-Unit, we interpreted the Moslavaka Gora insel-
berg as part of the Sava Zone, guided by the fact that areas with
5. Summary and outlook
a strong Mesozoic metamorphic overprint are unknown from
the adjacent internal Dinarides and the Tisza Unit. The bewildering geometric complexity of the Alpine-Carpath-
The best exposures of the Sava Zone are present in north- ian-Dinaridic orogenic system largely results from its long
ern Bosnia and Eastern Croatia (Kozara, Prosara, Motajica and lasting deformation history and local changes in polarity of
Poeka inselbergs; Pami 2002). In the northern part of the Ko- subduction and thrusting. This led to multiple overprinting of
zara Mountains the southernmost and structurally lowest part older deformations by younger ones. In Figure 6 we attempted
of the Sava Zone is thrust SW-ward over the Western Vardar to group the age of tectonic contacts within this orogenic sys-
Ophiolitic Unit and its Cretaceous to Palaeogene post-obduc- tem into six time slices. We are aware that such a subdivision is
tion sedimentary cover. The structurally lowermost unit of the rather artificial, particularly for those parts of the system that
Sava Zone consists of Late Cretaceous ophiolites with bimodal underwent a progressive and rather continuous history of de-
volcanic suites (Karamata et al. 2000a; Ustaszewski et al. sub- formation. In contrast, in other parts of this orogenic system,
Alps-Carpathians-Dinarides 171
AGES OF MAJOR ACTIVITY OF MAJOR TECTONIC CONTACTS IN THE ALPS, CARPATHIANS AND DINARIDES
1
Fig. 3
n
alato
L. B
4
Neogene 23 - 0 Ma
Paleogene 65 - 23 Ma
latest Cretaceous 75 - 65 Ma
Fig. 6. Ages of main activity along major tectonic contacts in the Alps, Carpathians and Dinarides are colour-coded. Six time slices are depicted. Although some contacts were repeatedly active, only
the age of the main deformation is shown. This figure also shows the locations of the traces of cross-sections given in Plates 2 and 3 and the area covered by Figure 3.
the lithosphere, giving rise to an Oligocene to Early Miocene naride orogenic system. For instance, the oceanic Valais and
high-K calc-alkaline and shoshonitic magmatism (Pami et al. Piemont-Liguria units, including their eastern counterparts,
2002b; Harangi et al., 2006). As already pointed out by Laub- were apparently only partly separated from each other by such
scher (1971) in his pioneering paper that addressed the Alps- ribbon continents as the Iberia Brianonnais micro-continent
Dinarides connection, a change in subduction polarity takes (Fig. 2c) and narrow elongated continental fragments found
place between Alps and Dinarides. This change presumably oc- within parts of the Pieniny Klippen Belt (too small to be de-
curs somewhere in the area now occupied by the Mid-Hungar- picted in Fig. 2c). In present-day map view, the strike of the
ian Fault Zone, i.e. the eastern continuation of the Periadriatic Piemont-Liguria main branch of the Alpine Tethys changed
Line. However, this change in subduction polarity cannot be sharply in the Maramures area (area of the Pienides, see Fig. 1).
understood before the rather dramatic effects of Neogene de- From there, after turning south and southwest, it followed the
formation have been unravelled and palinspastically restored. Mid-Hungarian fault zone to finally link up with the Sava Zone,
The Neogene tectonic setting of the Alpine-Carpathian-Di- the ophiolitic constituents of which represent a back-arc basin
naridic orogenic system is rather closely constrained. Contin- of the Meliata-Vardar Ocean. The Ceahlau-Severin Ocean of
ued crustal shortening in the Alps was accompanied by N-ward the Eastern Carpathians represents an eastern branch of the
movement of the Adriatic plate, dextral wrench movements Alpine Tethys, which in contrast, terminated eastwards and
along the Periadriatic-Sava Zone of the Dinarides and E-ward did not reach the present-day Balkan Mountains of Bulgaria
lateral extrusion of the ALCAPA Mega-Unit along the Alpine (Fig. 2b).
Periadriatic-Mid-Hungarian Fault Zone. Retreat of the sub- Therefore we conclude that (1) none of the branches of the
ducted European lithospheric slab beneath the inner Carpath- Alpine Tethys and Neotethys can be followed E-ward into the
ians facilitated the advance of the ALCAPA and Tisza-Dacia North Dobrogean Orogen, although such connections have
Mega-Units into the Pannonian embayment and controlled been proposed in the past (e.g. Stampfli & Borel 2004). Instead,
the development of the back-arc-type Pannonian Basin (i.e. in the area of the Sava Belt the main branch of the Alpine Te-
Horvath et al. 2006; Cloetingh et al. 2006). Simultaneously, the thys was connected with the Neotethyan Meliata-Maliac-Var-
ALCAPA and Tisza Dacia Mega-Units invaded the still partly dar Ocean, representing the only oceanic realm that can be
oceanic Carpathian embayment, involving substantial amounts traced via the Dinarides and Hellenides eastward into Turkey
of strike-slip faulting that interact with extension. Furthermore, (Fig. 2c). (2) We propose that all ophiolitic remnants of Neo-
the formation of this basin was kinematically linked to short- tethys found in the area under consideration formed part of
ening in the external Miocene thrust belt of the Carpathians one and the same oceanic basin that started to open in Triassic
(Royden 1988). times and continued to open during the Jurassic, though its clo-
Conclusions drawn from our correlations have serious pa- sure commenced during the Middle Jurassic at the same time
leogeographic implications. Alpine Tethys and Neotethys de- as the Alpine Tethys began to open.
note two separate groups of oceanic basins that opened during It is hoped that the correlation of tectonic units presented
the break-up of Pangea (Fig. 2). The Neotethys opened during here will provide a solid basis for future research into the ki-
Triassic and Early to Mid-Jurassic times whilst the Alpine Te- nematics and dynamics of the Alpine-Carpathian-Dinaridic
thys started to open during the Mid-Jurassic (Fig. 2; Figs. 5a-d). system and to better-constrained sequential palinspastic recon-
Remnants of the Triassic parts of the Neotethys, referred to as structions of the various deformation episodes. Such research
the Meliata Ocean, are preserved only in ophiolitic mlanges. and testing of our interpretations will finally lead to a better
Jurassic opening of the Alpine Tethys was largely contempora- understanding specifically of the kinematics and dynamics of
neous with partial closure of the Neotethys oceanic lithosphere pre-Neogene orogenies, orogenies that, in contrast to the Neo-
and the obduction of its Jurassic parts represented by the East- gene deformations, still remain rather enigmatic.
ern and Western Vardar Ophiolitic Units (Fig. 5d). Both, Trias-
sic and Jurassic ophiolites formed part of one and the same
Acknowledgements
branch of Neotethys, referred to as the Meliata-Maliac-Vardar
Ocean (Fig. 2; Fig. 5b). By rooting the Transylvanian and South
We benefited from a close cooperation with: D. Balen (Zagreb), I. Balin-
Apuseni ophiolites beneath the Tisza Mega-Unit, we postulate toni (Cluj), T. Berza (Bucharest), L. Csontos (Budapest), C. Dinu (Bucha-
that a branch of the Jurassic Neotethys had separated the Tisza rest), N. eri (Belgrade), D. Egli (Basel), L. Fodor (Budapest), W. Frank
and Dacia Mega-Units. Erroneous interpretation of the com- (Vienna), N. Froitzheim (Bonn), H.-J. Gawlick (Leoben), N. Gerzina (Bel-
plex geometries that resulted from out-of-sequence thrusting grade), F. Horvath (Budapest), H. Hrvatovi (Sarajevo), S. Karamata (Bel-
grade), A. Kounov (Basel), S. Kovcs (Budapest), K. Krenn (Graz), C. Legler
during the Cretaceous and Palaeogene deformations underlies (Pristina), R. Lein (Vienna), M. Marovi (Belgrade), E. Mrton (Budapest),
a variety of multi-ocean concepts that were advanced in the K. Onuzi (Tirana), J. Pami (Zagreb) D. Plaienka (Bratislava), M. Sndulescu
literature. We propose that such models are incompatible with (Bucharest), E. Sasaran (Cluj), M. Sudar (Belgrade), V. Schuller (Tbingen),
field evidence we have gathered and/or synthesized from the B. Tomljenovi (Zagreb) and many others. Clark Burchfiel (Cambridge Mass.)
and Peter Ziegler (Binningen) are thanked for their detailed and constructive
literature. comments; their reviews substantially improved a first version of the manu-
Moreover, different branches of the Alpine Tethys must script. Peter Nievergelt finalized the figures. This study was financed through
have opened throughout the complex Alpine-Carpathian-Di- the Swiss National Science Foundation grant Nr. 200021-101882/1 (Tisza and
Alps-Carpathians-Dinarides 173
its role in the framework of the tectonic evolution of Alps, Dinarides and Car- Anatomy of an orogen: the Apennines and adjacent Mediterranean ba-
pathians). sins. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 307327.
Bernoulli, D. & Laubscher, H. 1972: The palinspastic problem of the Hell-
enides. Eclogae geologicae Helvetiae 65, 107118.
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