BENGT BROMS Precast Piling Practice € 3PREFACE This book was iially written as a toxtbook fr the undergraduate studonts atthe Royal Institute of Technology Ia Stockholm. Also others (con Sultans and contractors) invalved in piling show- fed an intrest inthe book sineo it summarized the methods which are used today (1978) in Swe don to design and instal primarily driven procast concrete ples. Bengt Grivare at Balken Ping therefore suggested that | should tranlat this book into English to make it available fo widor ange fs proportion by pe ding Soi mestatan or pe lundaton 2 PILE TYPES AND PluNG METHODS Th Sedan Bung Code (SON 1975) Bearing eepcy of intially bot ies ‘Catan a inal ering cpa REBBNS 82200 as0e readership. | apologize fer shortcomings in tho translation apd forthe drevings which were done free hand to reduce the cot, ‘Mea Lena Wennerind has typed the manuscript. ly appreciated Hor aesistancs ‘ar Stockholm, Sweden May, 1978 Bengt B. Brom hima tengo away onde pen 9. SPECIAL PROBLENS. wo ye srg nly w6 TONY ¥. 7 Ut ‘.2. erkmucrio “he purpare ofa pie foundation sto increase the tearing cApeity-ad to voduce-the settles The pits carey te 1sde my aktal- cone pies els are used a anchor ee for docks ted hangars ope suactes o-high lateral {nde (eogseffehone-structurs. uring the last 20 yers ner pile types wit high tearing capacities and now fnstl ation wethods England (London) and the USL (Chicago) wate the ites are generally classe! with respect to ering ples, For friction eile. sn ches sails (sand andar - ferred tothe surrounding sofT mainly through skin friction alors the surface of the piles. A large Teed othe pl i trterve the sreuaig stl ain tn ple srtace tro She retton a ony ary seal pre tron cri ele wich bos @ pacity te apted Tod fe Rrmaferad fromthe pie toe e Tess soit Ts in geeral very Ys orally Tess oF the pie Tt can occount for Tes than 504 of the total baaring copictty of the pies 1f the eon friction ites tn cokesiless sos and Sayer ot sand down ta rock ora Yyer of 1 © ppt“ea Pes can also be subjected to igh tension or Tateral onde as fe oftan the case for retaining all, bridge abutments or anchor Blocks, Te l= epenent on te akin f tance along the pies ‘Gat olles. For dlsplacaent piles (ninlypretabri= ated conerate piles. titbr piles and loserwded ‘tol piles) the 2017 araund the flee 4s compacted . are often tanged so much thatthe rests tron laboratory or Fela {vestigations catnat be © vs! sivcty to caenate the altimeebearon Capscity or the sattlomnts. It generally S015 dve to renouléig. swalT-dsplaceent ites 4 not appreciably change the strength and defor- ration properties of the surrounding 2247 dur- {ng driving nd the rorules from (461d a tbo ratory teats can morally be weed directly ta eal- ‘alate the bearing capacity andthe settlements, Drop! hemes | () (2) Oriven pile (a) saekesdoun pee} Catain txamples are stl tepttes ant open-ended pipe piles. For» sondisplacnet pile the yoline of the excavated 041 correrpnds to the volume of the pile. fanples are aweres or bored pies and dT extesone. ites can also be classified with respect to the piles. Sieden, normaly prefabricated refn- ave bean wed to drive correte piles. Wpdrastic {0S are used forthe snstallation oF sacked “ow piles. For a cast-insplace pile the sot? $s first excavate for the pile ant the resuting hole t filled with coors, Ching oF drilng fc mort ly rewired tn soft clay t0 keep the ote open during the ecaation. It fr aleo (fia, 2). Soret piles are wuatly mare exgenive red tants. Piles are alae clasitied with re spect to the mterial inthe piles tnto (6) Seren ote Fig. 2 ie types with raspect to he imDeferred) lager Wedge af at Sot oe poise Fig. 3 etormtion of the sol around 9 riven anges of Soil Properties by Pile Oriving The soil arwuné a pile 15-sistrsed during the instalation oF the driving. Fg. 3 show the aisturtance of the sol araund a Fritién plein clay. wedge of stl fe formed below the Pile toe during driving, wich Fellows the ite and forces the 21 tothe sie, Nesurenents D Figs 4 pistartance of he so around & driven frition pile tn clay Indicate tht te of tsetse aon the bile 1s reed daring driving wo tate of the completely rode sil. The redition fe canter tro the pie In clays with «hgh sein lo oc lh ation of gy teelded clay seats flow op rd he pile Chace even be oeesary to ee Cherie Fo Foaing wp withthe rer. ar 16 ta 20 xi- ves the incense ofthe she strength $e oe raly suftcient to hep te ple fn he (round. Tiss primey 4 prob fn ter Terroir yan Oe esas of tapers Patican eiepieioet ea orn tore rv for ter ies thn fr coca Fite nt tn cifrece in eeabity of the @ Tig ie trend, for exele, te Peers ec eat OF Strngth been two tiber piles st 8 depth of 6.8. below the sound surface 5.5 years een driven through 2 Tayor of sity clay which piles wos 30 on at the tavestigated level. Tt can Shove ao the andra nes Shear stregth of ———— ee eeEd a Paez. 2 os $8 8 Dietansj em ee erty a Ree eee pg i the clay a aetemined by falncone tarts? ‘The reduction of Ue wer content has resulted fn an incense of the shear strength of fhe clay by fave than 100; at eke pie surface layer of etay adres to the pile en it 15 pled. The shear strength ofthe relatively un- surface, rater than the adhesion betacen the Fhe atone txt te commnly und i te fis (teh aint af he cone fe Paced SUE aig Facto ots Sapte nthe Goi Soo sah rca ttt ek Set: th ectraton oe coe ne he Seon uirtsea tate arent shen regs nssred Sy relate ets. Searing capacity of the pis i sofe clay at The gore autor pressure fm clay Sncreses con: ater pressures close tothe pile aterally {n= oases with increasing shear strength (c,) ten sure inrease 15 morally 5 6, #8 7 cy. The tata pie even exceed the total crerurden pressure én the 2011 and reduce the shear strength (tere are several samples were Tas] ides have been trigorod by pile eriving.)In varved clay the pore wator pressure can increase up to seve- ral hundred aeters frm the ples, Atanpts have bean mae ta reduce the Mish pore water pressures cause by pie driving with dager or plaste drains (Geodrains)vich are attacted to he pes be- fore they are deiven. Test ita seen to suggest reduced to 50h The average shor strongtn ef the soft clay fe pore water pressure can Toily eso nigh uring ariving tant he esl fractures ra- lay arena the pier (erase fracturing). Aissipation of the excess pre water pressures ‘ter driving, The reaction fs nitty er the raining pore water pressure conre- ‘nthe 081 In cohesive soils the grout surface around ‘he piles wi1T heave daring driving, The hese generatly sat) and tasigniicant at 10 to 15 ple diameters trav the pile Adjacent pites can be Lifted fy the heave and splices canbe pulled ance of particularly pint tearing piles on rock SR eee ea. roan The ultimate bearing capacity of ples tn coker ng driving around th driven pile ard round alacant piles. The S011 Is compacted to 4 di ard toa dept under th pile point that corre Sones to approximtely to 3 to § pile dlaetars fr {Mlustrated in Fig. 7. Ievestigations indi In silty sos the driving resistance can tempo rarfly be 10 high (co-slTed (alee set) tht the ‘often possible to rive the pile further, The ih driving resistance 1s caused by the Woh pore water pressures wich are generated aun the ‘rig driving. The high pore water pressures can he reduced by increasing He weight of the hase ‘et and by reducing the blow rte ened, suit tovertightin for Pile on Sot strata and ther strngth and deformation that the ultimie bearing capesty and te sett- Tenonts can be estimted at ferent depths and Twoaths for diferent pile types (driven pes tng castincplace ples), tat suitable metiads ‘rivieg (driven pies) and during excavation (easteinplace pies) tothe required depth, as well as the risks of teigprtag Tans ides during Sequence and the composition of the deteret phd Fig. 7 Gopactin around driven piles tn ces.on- ‘eae eosthe area, and also the distance to adsacent and heir foundation, so that nage cated by rod vate conditions within the area and the sks of Towering ofthe ground mater level The axial oad onthe piles can te increased onsiderobiy by negative skin friction wth Tange settenents. for pies sunected to hich Tater} leaiog the strength and geforation properties of te ro) close to the ground sur face dou t9 3 depth that corresponds to about 1W pile eianaters will be of interest, Th compaction caused by driving effects che bearing capacity of both single pies and of te bearing capcity wll be higher than tnt \aicn corresponds to the fnital relative dns ty oF the undisturbed 2011. tuo t0 the cnpacion the Bearing capacity oF cat-in-pace of les wit) be lover than the ultnate capacity of driven The comaction andthe sncrease of the relative density generally Sncroset ith Sncreasing mane ber of piles in pile group. The length of the piles will therefore gruely gecrasie a a= cated at te cotar of & ple group should there= In pie groups subjected to high horizontal toads Se advantageous to first drive te inclined pies ich wT mainly carry the laters? onde Since the bearing capctty of these pies w!TT be higher than that oF the piles sich were driven last. For seicion.pleso.stedaat gavel the roe tive density ofthe soil, the Teyer sequence and the thicnsts of the aifferent layers canto do= ternined from weight stuniigs!?ranswundtege an ceapositfon of the granular sot (grain size and iyatn size aistribution) by sampling. istered ut representative sanples wll then be required rent of the pile group can ve estimate. Also France my be of valve portevlry én driving (eriven ites) or the excavation (cast- ‘place piles). for cast-trpace ples it fs ‘portant ta establish accurtly the ground a= er level and the possible fvture fluctuations ‘of the around vater Tevel So that failure by ‘on, Test piles may be req'd for Targe J 50 that» suitable driving depth canbe seTected and astriculties to be eneouttared during Capacity ad the settlnents of piles at working PoP etc lbs rsa (eter termine the unaraned shear stremth af the sur- rounding soil and the sensitivity ofthe stl. A Diston semen 1s norelly iad im soft clay. The ster content andthe Attarbrg Tints (Ianié {and plastic Tints) are normaly determined. The ofthe clay, the so-cles one Hquid Tis The cone TiquidTinit 4s aproxteatly equa to iat detersinod withthe Casirande quid Tait evie, In Suton its goneay sbvantaneus 1 vse a5 lon otter posible cinco tm shar with aeth, he venetronmiee ts citer’ amneg Pete mele red every 2b oof Smee ICS stir searastag Sm Tene Soerope with friction piles shoud be ot Txst carried out to depth that corres tothe clay ts rary deteruied fra oedoneter tests ‘an uatstorted samples obtained with piston Sanple. A standard piston samoter of 80 ‘iamter 1s normally used in Sndon. 1¢ 4s also ingortant to establish with pressure gauges the eringoles. the depth to rock or to Sedan normaly determined fron ran sbundngs Oe also soH/rack sanaings are required dow tccurately. 1 the slope exceeds about 607 it is enrally ot possible to drive the piles Sato the rock, The timate bearing capacity of the rack (rraally granite or onist) is usually suf- (60 ma). From weight and rn sountogs is tt how Gifficult ft wiNl be to rive the pile and In layered sts the high pore water pressuras fron the driving can trigger 8 Tands de as wat roby the case at Sate 4m 1950. The Migh pore water pressure tht develops during the cast= ‘ng of the conerote in cast-In-place piles may ‘cause lenenng ofthe conerate, The exavation In clays witha nigh sensitivity ratio the reduc ‘on of the shear strength of the clay immediately The average retction ss watly 205 #9 905 af the Initial shear strength ofthe clay. 1 my there- fore in many eases be adrantgenus to drive the pies tefore excaation tn oder ta redce the on pile ae driven in clay the have of the round srtece fom th pie driving can teqent= 1y be large (20.5 n) soon to sot fs fread to the de daring the driving Te este corresponds von the clay {3 saturates 3 1 the cae blow redrive the pies ifthe piss ve been Tite The heave can be rece by renving clay pls tthe Intended Tocation of the pies betare Sriving a exerted inthe olouing.or by @ ttoosing 4 smi-eisplocerm: pile, eg. a steel Te ts also important to imestigate te founda ton of adicent structres to determine 17 these Existing cactsstould be demented (nhotagraphed) oF piles so that the dispa:enents (have and fetter) fron driving can be detrnind Trost ay gran fr te ora re tures tnvatar be rs at e a2. PILE TPES 80 PILING METONS Tiber piles were very cmon before 1850. Tolay recast reinforced concrete piler completely dont rate the narket. Tho total lenge of a1 piles n= stalled in 1974 fn Sweden was about 2.35 wl Tion eters. OF ths, 2.25 millon meters (58) were concrete piles, 0.63 million meters (212) were tinbar tles an 0.09 aston ater (28) were steel piles as show fn Fig. 8. bout 6 wi TTion 1970 whieh represent 855 of fhe total length of aN piles sestalied that yer any factors affect the selection of the pile type pected 18 fe of the pile supported structure, the mgnstuse, distribtion an character of the applied oat (0.9. the tatal weight of the strc tre, andthe ratio of aud and Iie Toad, the Total gi eens boa he Re, Tey Spb and ress” 4011 conditions tneling te cation and the total and aiffeentia settamnts thi the strve= ture can teri, Other tmpartan factors are Structures during riven, aid the noise, se the SKIT andthe experience of the contractor are Inortant since delaye cost noty andthe costs of test ples ané pie Toad tests) Teter ptles be several acvancages ever steel piles are primarily ued in Sudan a8 friction ples én aoft lay shen the thickness of the soft compressible clay layers exceed 40 to 80 a, as enbanknot piles and as concen piles in sand and grovel. Tnter pies ae seldow wed as end may sp1ie (roan) at the end or at the tae Fey are driven through» dees Tnyer of sand the weg ofthe hema ae by redicing the held of fall the mer of blow. er eter site th Snersare of timber piles ‘rom the southern or the mite parts of Seeden igher than for roftiode. he tae daneter of ‘aber pfs should as rule beat last 12.5 en be at Teast 15 at (Fig. 8). The maxima Tength of unspliced timber pes in Secen fs normaly out 18. tut snetines St possible #0 ob= the alaaeter of the pe pont should be at Teast 12.5 em ven the pie length axcaede 18m and atlola ramen Jom er ea Micvinncm 150 mer for point — eames) In sols contnning stones and boulders te toe ‘amiter sould be at east 18 cn. The pite toe i marmily protected by 2 steel ing’ or hoop: (5x 50 ma) which 5 f1tted © he “he mini allouble deviation tron tho center ine of the pile tstucen tuo points spaced 3 tart ts nomally TE the distance botvesn the tho pints according ta the Swedih Butlatng Code. len the pite fs 3pl%ce the maximum deviation is ion the piles are used as anchors and are Taded ‘he mini allomble compressive stress scard- ‘ng to the Swedish ut leing Code (SH 175) ts {5 oa with respect &o the mininan eros-soction of the pile level. Te tearing capacity canbe reduced ater level due to contamination of the ground ater and the often high temeratire of te grad ter, Also Muctuations oF the groud ater Te- Yel are harmful, Also below oround water Tevet the bearing capacity of the fies canbe affected by bactaria and Teaching. The reduction 15 tora ally small. Tha orm practice #9 ut the fine level goat taper ee ta pot toons @ Taber pes canbe pratactoc above th permnent found ater level (upto aut 60 years) with piles wilt probaly inrease tn Swen nainly for ight structures e.g. sitglefasy rousing td ight Sedustrial” butting. Tinber pitas are often attaced in satt water @ (etc) fromthe Mgh mtr evel to atut cate tat Heer pies alo the Wort cst ot @ Svan canbe Stay Gert by earns borers in fv gears. It ts pss be t roar etacks ith crnttey apa fet wh vas och are Thespesia of the me a tobe sn, Is Different methods of epicin tnter pitas have eon coveloped. If Ss njortant that the ends Sle strong oF tne splices for timber piles are generally Tor. Timer pes auld Uereore not be speed fpaeible, ee eecomposite ites Composite piles with 8 bottom section of wood and 2 tap section of reinforced concrete or tee) are Sonetines wed for warts, piers and jetties whore there 15 a risk tht the piles will be attached by marioe borer, Where timber piles may rots the slice should be located below the lowest ground vater level or the lowest vatar level, Composite Pile are gomerally anecononies] and are thee= fore rarely use (1978). The splice considerably The ost cmon pite type in Seden is the pre- pile, Castrneplae ctncrate piles ore minty wed riven conrete piles are minly used tn Sede ‘8 ond bearing piles Sn dee cand, gravel ane 1 mere the Toads ave relatively ah athe bearing capacity of the piles (330 ly 450 or 60 th) can be utiaod rou water contains sulphates oF the p-value 1 Tow as can be the case in pes bge oF $n ine astral ares wre the ground uster bas ben fontanineed. Cast-in-place concrete to the relatively Tow conerte strength Sul- pate resisting cement may be require ifthe ound ater 15 aggressive. Precast canerete Pes can &0 9 cortain extant be protected by ation te pies wit ASaTE be wut or sing sulphate resist ng cant. explo tony costing can, however, easily be domed ‘uring driving when the 2947 containe stoner and tours. The ulenate strength of the pile rents used baste of the structural changes OF tho cant tht takes place with tine. An it~ vestigation of the composition of the ground t= ter my be required before the pile type (tieber, ancrete or stel piles) canbe selected. ‘ormlly spliced wen the Veith exceeds 12 to 1 n. With moern spicing syste it fs pssibte tw splice piles ro thatthe betring capacity of the piles se not reduced. Up £0100 w Tony spliced Concrete ilar hive been driven for example tn othesturg a Uppsala fw taroours s freqvently protected by 2 cast Incplace concrete shell aroind the pile tot reso the babring capcity with respect tacks ling ané to rice he danace fren ee. The side or the sister of the top segment can slzo be concrete piles in Sweden $s normaly square. The ‘ide varios tote 20 and 4 em. Alco Reagent {and circular piles are cmon. Square flex are ‘smeraily reinforced with four bars, one Sn each expen and cfr te in genara easier to fabrfeate thn hexagina for circular piles. Circular piles have the ad- Yantage that the maxima torsion in such pies suring driving willbe Tess thn in pies vith square or hexagonal crss-section ven the foil cantare stongs ant touléers and that the taate restatance in toron {3 higher than {ora square pee withthe same erass-seetiot sve inclined en the water topped in the cracks an peel off the concrete around the cracks. ‘the wth Tess than 0.15 to 0.20 me, Prefauricatd conrate pile offer the that they can be dven ant 8 predeter mined penetration resistance (penetraion/b1x) is boon reached, thatthe piles can be redriven nd tat the erivig 16 ol affected bythe ‘ground wat conditions Coestnters soils (andand gravel) are compacted during the drivin, pacity ofthe ple group and redice the setele- sont-In Wetland precast concrete pies are fre~ ‘quently provided with an enlarged f00t in order to reaice the skin friction resistance along the pile stort ant ths the ngative stin friction caused, for example, by Towering of the round prestressed concrete pile 1s at working Toad higher than for 2 onprstresse pile with the sae cross-sectional area. The oposite 1s m0 tatly te case close ta fallure. prestressed Concrete pile has thus the advantage Ut Is rormtly tre fron eracs under aorta Teading fondiions. CSreular prestressed concrete piles ‘he stress transfer in a prestressed pile during friving 42 wouily more affective than in ron= 1 the stress wave generated by the driving thot Corresponds to about 1500 times the width of the rack #0.) em wide erack vi) thus re@ice the Tength of the stress wave by 0.15 This relue> ton is large if 4 puma or a vibratory hamer fs used Prestressed concrete pfles are often damaged wien there are stones and bouTders in the so] oF hen the piles are deiven oan to sloping rock sur= fc The defarmtion at feture of such piles relatively ama] (Oritete fauna). Tho uTinate sonra with inereasing prestress level (ne shouldbe earful en 4 prestressed conerete pie ts cat. The top part of the pe can suaéenty break when he wires oF cables are cut. Tas pro= ben cane el nina by reducing the prstress level ort. mtteteetcanetplewth 9 tet an easily be displaced or tt uring the driving the soft. The intimation ofthe piles after rivin ts voraatly larger tin for 8 relatively Tong pile (5 ). The rebound of stort piles ts ft large wen they are driven to rock. Short pies nave also the dtendvantige that they can easily be tad by frst atin, pie enpth is Tess than 2 to 3m 1 the cap are st suport Iteraty by es bea The spacing Of sobs pies shou preferably notte ess @) than 1.8 to 2 so that previously driven aincent es wil? not be atected by te diving The Toad eistritution within 4 pile group wiT1 not bo uniform wen the length of the pile varies A short sti pte will sn ger carry a larger rtf the total eed than a relatively Tong and Slender pf due to the eifference in atiffess, Inthe case the shortest pile fs ony half the lemth of the Tonpest pile tna pile aroup then the axial load will be about tee tht of te long pie, It assaas tht he tor of the piles oes rot ove when the pies ee Tosa ard that @) the pile cas are rigid ‘than § m 4s reduced Vinearly according to the e Seaiaalry mn nin vac Ui cnn po ma Beene oe os and the Sabie ote are exarptes of short conroto pile. & sort steel dowel $6 sed for the MOO pile to naa 80.5 t0 1.0.8 seep hole for the pile’ ae sustrated in Fig. 10 The hate ter the dowel se then partly filled aerete pile ‘= han driven to rotusal in the he. Such pie wilt tn gee with respect to Tatar Tosding than a conen= ‘oral short pieFig, 10 Installation of 4 tan pte ro ae @ «00. cost-in-place pites are used in Sweden SS ae Bn claws a Pete n lease nt by driving of aajecent pies tefore the ancrate has hardened. Th casing 15 horefore fen Tet in the ground, cst-tnplace fer several aéventages, The Tongth af cast-in- oF the fonantion witout cutting and spit crate, Castcnepece driven coerete ples offer the adetionatasvantages tht Ue ofles can be riven to certain penetration resistance (0 tration/biow), mt the Teng of the piles an be adjusted and Ut tHe reinforcement 15 not overnad by the streses during handing of an the piles. Also the noise lve wiTl Be Tow $F ‘ermal hammer fs ved for driving of te casing, Coestoness safle me cmpacted during riving end the Toad tat cn be allowed on sucha pie ts ften higher than for a ariled One stovld be careful during driving of the ‘The spacing of the pies shuld preferably excod 2. IF the spacing is Tess than 2 0 1 may be ade vantapeous to drive frst eer second pile. The resaining piles are installed after th concrete ‘nthe les whch vere driven first hes hardened{ an expe of 8 driven cast Inoplace concede pte. This pile type fs eomonly Sveden during the 1802. They becaneaiecreatted becouee of several failures in Goterbury and Stocotn and Tately i Demark. The Fran ple f sconnicalauinly $0 Toot sand an gravel ad Tan conerate (Fig, 11) 15 étven by a heey tnter- ral boomer (2.5 t08.0 tons). Te Reght of Fa) fe. t0 5m, Lovee of ap t0 1.5 MU are fropenty The eney casing 15 pulled dom due tothe High fn place with cables, Additicnt concrete ts evel 1 15 tportan thatthe casing fs ot pie can soparate at the totam of the casing and Jo Mactan e@ is sore ctay and sn sand and si1¢ below the ground Sain Sasa GARTTol case wich $5 race in earn Ing the criving ofthe casin, There Sa an som risks with east-inplace com crete piles andor the ground water table wn the ‘easing Js not provided with 2 separate Toose Soe and te concrete 1s poured directly sgsinst the exgosed sail. Particularly An snd, #11 and ‘IML the sof belay the hott oF the casing can on silk Ts cam be prevented Sf the casing {2 Fitted with ater. The ater level the casing shule alaays tine 4845 pushed Goma For the sacle | 9. 13). The casi 15 provid vite teeth of tardnod tae) 18 can be driven sto ‘hate and sandstone, Tho dioetr of he casing ‘600, 00, 100 or 1510 me The casing is spliced ‘The materia in the casing (011 and rock) ex casing {sot plod to rapldly when the conrete 4 pourasotherice the pie can be pulled apa andthe #011 can cne in frou the side (nec bo at least 1.5 higher than the battan of the ference my be required: The concrete 15 nortally ES ee |oun to firm bottom (LTT ar rack) for bored (Fa. 1). Tas pie ype ts primarily wed in the groundwater ‘able sp that the drilling can elo the graundsater table to prevent col apse fst normally be carried aut under mater. stabi Sn order to increase the end bearing eapacy of the pile. The diomter of the bells non ‘shaft. The maxim Tenth of ths pile ype fs abut 60m, Special tots have buen developed Practice (00M 4018) the cover shuld be at Teast Se rr aPring ot theft ‘Dane of bet Fig. 16 testatlation af bores cast-in-place pile snus to provice the pile with one oF seers? Sion pies as shown in Fig. 16 ve advantage with bred piles or i1Tedcatssne Tow the sround water Tevel failure of the excavee on may accur by bottan hese and te excavation Id 19 be done below ater fored piles are norway reinforced close to the of the pile should thes be reinforced, Te et teal Tad onan eed Bearing pile 4s sainly 1s governed bythe tinite tearing capacity of the Sof below the bell. The alone Tod va es betwen 1.5 Wand 151, The alowableDes. used im Germany, France, Italy and atria piles for high Concentrated Tee (up ta 20M). The soit ts rent types of buctets and chests, OTT ing mal (bentonite) 18 used to stabiise the walls dur= Craton Te thd cone asd mst sls Saucon ape "rectre adth eget lectin of toe extern ate (Fa. 1) Tere ar mo Ti ‘ations os to maximum depth. Slurry trench walls: e Fig. 15 bored cat-inplace piles with one ar se ‘erat bata thod should ase be econoncal in Sveden priaarly for relatively avy structs on 411, The m= thoa is mainly econnicat sn cumries wth rela properties of the Sot ous #9 about 1.5 to 2 tively low Tabour costs and were Tyers th Moh Ulmer the dtamter of the ell Selon the pile ering capacity are located Slow a surface Tayer toe, Load tests my be required for Targe fobs. ach Ts easily excavatedPde La “he meted ae the advantage togetner with otter fore be ae fn utban areas. The settlenent fron the Installation of the piles 15 small and weghi= ible, Limitation: of Oe meta in Shed ts the capacity and cenprossib1sty of #4115 and tat the excavation for the wil elements and Hncrase on ara often es¢ficalt to rash ISO open cafes since there (sa risk of Tong the ben tonto slury tvaugh te vos doing dri ing. The wills of the excavation ean then co1aps6. fn editions uncertainty withthe etied 15 the The deiTVing id aisplaced by the concrete aur- ng pouring and sane ofthe di T1ing mal wT? ty stout the skin Frfction reststance slong Be covered bya thin ayer (cake) of érting au with relatively low shar strength. Test r= ult indiate, howwser, that Ue adbesion bet eon the val andthe concrete elements 1s aain= Iy govered by he shear strength of the surrout- sina, Th relatively small reduction 6s pro- aly due to the roughest of the walls. len the atl elnents are place on rock the con- ng rock stu be checked ty coring. It 1s i Fortant hat the surface of the rock has been cleaned thouroughly before uring the can- fete to refice Up etETenrts caused by any Tense s0iT between the eames and the rock. A iver my be required te Snpect the botton be Difficulties encountared during te withdrawl of he cason cabs eliniented 1 « pratt cx tng ie ead. Examples are he aged pred. File and th Upton Hosta fileA mene! a Bestia sags rere BE er sess foes oe me Be es on rte won Dea fer teretenrries i ‘normally used as reaction. The concrete elenents: | icteneeee! | ies srennes gat bit oa ca auger ral loos Gaon nei tyne nonce Bete ie pone mr sea Jeg ence et (at to 0.4 my) 62 torslly halt te fore required 1 Jack the piles ow &o Wr fina Tocafon Qe disadvantage vith tis pie type 62 thatthe bearing capacity will be redced 1F adjacent piles the sacked piesFig, 18 tnetatlation of sucteedow piles (Cisne pes) ‘The se of stool piles har fnreased during the desired enya or spied. Tho oFiving 1s nor= aly relatively easy particulary in eohestoness sos except for cloeee-end pe pies compared the soil during driving te normally conetcor- ples which are normaly Filled with caperte af- 1 driving condieione are dtticie, then eke ott canttns stones or tours 4815 oftn ade ‘antagious 9 provide the piles with point of feeia Bal we rome) ool piles, particularly Ht, I- or pipe piles, e extent on the p-value and th resistivity of the roxinan corrsion rate 5 mf 100 years oF 3 wm ‘m0 ysre, The corrosion rate tel the porna- rant groundwater Tevel and undisturbed ofl fs formtly sal? and Snegniffet, espectatly $0 {lay Cathie protection cam Be wel to protect stool piles aginst corrosion even under ¢1¢F1- alt conditfens. svete, agjcent steel cables, be damge Stee! piles can also be protectee at Tenet purty ty cating 8 pes with a eetearing capacity of the piles are thereby reauced. nen reinforcing bars ore used 2s ples the piles re Teaded. Bucking ts frequently a proslen at Tong tere Teading in ott, normally canstiaated stance of the soil gradually decreases with tine because of the comaTidtion of the 301 Aetetorcing bars hve einly buch wed tn Satden to support Hah structres and for uner- Pinning of existing structures provided the risk of corrosion ofthe bars 1s sal. Relatorieg bars are wed Tes and Tess in Sneden because of ‘ures heh have been caused by faulty tne stalation, The bars should be rotated during Arivin to asp them straioht. Resnforcing bers sould wot be used as pies hen thee are stones for boulders Jn the sof. The bar diameter should be at Tease 32 em. However, reinforcing bars vith 19m diaeter ve Been use. I vats are sed a pies the qulity of the steet sould be emckadpartculeriy 1 ty are to be driving if the quality of the ster ts ot suitable The piles are normally splice by bole ‘ng The butt ens of the rails th eplicn shoul be straight and $n contact. erase the a Toaded, Rails are mainly use for ight structures, The so-called are frequently wed ‘in confor underpining and sumorting Tight strutares, The dianatar of the pile is 60 m. The Tenth of the pipe elenents varies frou 2m to 5 ‘sTustrated im Fig. 1% The piles provided with 4 point of hardened steel. The pile is driven with a preacher, After the straightess of the pie mas Deen checked with ght wien fe lowered don the pile, or itn shore stan pipe Be pile 1s fiTTed with event mortar through a tub wich extends tothe le pot. The searing copcity depends primar yon the stratgenere of te pile after driv= a ng, manly the angle change atthe splices. and the shear strength of the surrounding 2011. The backing strength gover normaly tn sort clay. ‘Steel trgots are primarily wed os piles in Seder Sn rock fiTle- [9 thi netot casing Se lest riven through the rock 417 and ee wera oft rediontsdoun tothe rick. The daneter fof the caring fe 125 an 930 ma The steel n= ‘nto the casing. The guts are driven to vefsal sing a drop namer. The space betveen the ia0ts Pile Ce Coamm Bile poms Fig. 9 The Sout pilefos.oiles_are sed im Saeden only in spe= lal eases. The Lidingb brigpe located just utsde Stockholm isan example, The Tod thet $s ‘Novel on tats pile type t= generally high. Large ianeter steel pipe piles re comonly sed for offeshore structures. The aTloae Toad can be 101 or nore. The pies are driven either clossd ‘or open ened, The piles are cleaned by arbbing, reverse ater circulation dFI$ng or by aie. pe pes without ving, Delval, Frodinghan ete which ate welded to- nthe. The bearing capcity of hor piles a high et Targe area and tat they can generally be riven harder than 9 pipe pie A thick wae casing whieh 1 frst driven dom ‘2issons. The casing is then excavated. A hole 1S chiseled of riled fn the underlying rock won the Hobe andthe casing, fe Filed with cancrete. Up to 189 has bee slloned on sch 3. PILE ORIVNG AN PILE CUIPNENT roe tamers with 3 to 6 metric one mass ere (Fig, 20). For tier piles ho mss te normlly 1 to metric ton. The croi-section of the The mss of the mmr stout be as high as oars= @) ‘le, Tt shuld beat least | te 2 times the total vent of te ple. Th mss shuld be at t Smetrie tons for 2 crerete pile when he pile Tengtn 1s 20 to 25 a. For very long concrete @) the weight of Ue pte per mter,proferaby 4 to S metric tons, The mis of te hamer should for Ulster piles exceed vice the total mars of the pile, telat and follover. Te length oF the fon er stauld be az Targe at poseble so that the amar wi strike the pite concentrically. The shape of the stress wave willbe wore favourable inset door Lew eva eee san bis teats Se ports of the comers. Te lr rte decrees Sn geet with Sncrason wish The mes of @ theron sil praferahly be largr tha Fhe {sone acing ston hme to 14 tan en tier ats ety one ile, ony ey @ {0 he recent ben detopets Th Yo ato {+ aprointely 36 tT bef. Theres press can azo be atid rng the omar rie ofthe har (esting 808 ba) The striking velcity fe thy feresed emptred vite rine atin eae To tn nest of th le TcteeTlor At retusa, when the pile eats rock the n= feasity of the lay can Be up to twice that sen the driving resistance 16 Tow a5 15 the cae in Sort clay. The pile can thereby be damages. The striking velocity for certain modern fel hae rors $5 m0 atfoctd by Uw diving resistance of SeDlows/nin. diesel tamer aften stalls fn s0rt clay were the driving resistance canbe so lou that the nest blow fs ot triggered. Diesel homers are primarily used to rive piles in cihesiontess Soils (candy ov siIty stle and gravel) and stiff have beon developed for driving of pipe piles or ners have Been used Sheen to dive oth concrete ad steel piles under atfreatt foundation and 011 condition, prinarily tn ort- Vel sand and sit. The best results fave been esiond in Toose to medium dingo gravel, Test capcity of piles fn sna whfh have been driven ty vibratory hnmey TT ony Be stout hal (5) of that for 8 pile driven by « drop tamer amar are the relatively To noise Tevel and hestonless soils (cand and grave). tion Seteen the Ramer andthe ite en {uired for the hand ing ana TFtO9 of the euat ic mers or ie-bamees_are used prina= The efticteny of prematic hammers ts t0 a Tage rte dependent onthe air consumption. The rate 4 100 to 0 Browne ts have bear developed én Sweden {OMT}, WSR (Raynor Internationa) and England (G5r). The advantages vith this ype of homer are te relatively Tow noise level and high aise 1s a frequent problen in pile driving. arciculerty ven peutic hamers arsed Different wethds to redice the rise Teel have een daveloped. tn Germany the regulations govern ‘mg pite driving are so rigoout that st prac- Heaiy inpossible to drive piles tn urban ares erred Holmes Pile Fg, 20 Aarne png frame A sinter develonant expected Sn Seen. Tere (oF cast-inplace piles an piles driven with an ine tarral hanner, art sctarly pipe pilessuil increase The wise Tovel can also be reduces fa vibrator Laerinants have been carried out in Sreden by eas Copo with sou absorent Boer. ewe ‘A roden cushion or packing consisting of three | liyers of 25 thick wden bards oF plyvaod ‘ oorerslly usd betwen the pile andthe nee to reduce the intensity andthe accentricity of the Blew (Fig, 20). Fd. 21 shows how 2Deptt en Gathion rem ve [TR pincee ssa 2 oo 19 2 Rectan eins Fin 2 ue of ee petrtin vnunet (hear Felons, ion A retration rate then the pecking nes replaced the penetration rata éecretied From 70 mn to 20 {or 10 biore. The corresponding change of the Shape andthe intensity af the stress wave wich the pile and. the pking was replaced Ss ‘Tust= rated in Fig. 22 Wen the old cushion ws weed hreptteaae| Before chan, of cushy Ont onine naamaenT sa" Aerpltuate, Aptos of cushions Times Flas 2 ng af sap fhe ses, ae (Giver the Swedish Pile: Gamiseton, Tose) te axial stress inthe pie fr the blow ine cresed very rapidly toa macnn vale The in retse mis mach slower when new evehon mas ed and Ue maxinum stress eas much ower, During driving fron 9. a Fosting barge {over 45 roreatly requirt wen the pie is riven below the Tevel of 8 rg, The fotlver Igedance should beat Test Targe a8 the tae pedance of te ite (impedance = AYES) e spltces, Soul according to the Sued'sh Bui Ting Code (Sm 1995) be able to resist a tension of 6.25 1. The corvesondig tensile strength for piles Class rents, The splices shoul preferably be prelod= ol inorder to eliminate any spp. A a9 will reduce the Tenath of the stress weve, A 1am 939 Wi1L rade the length by aut 1.5 6 ach con hae an appreciable effect on the efFicieny of ring e Several splice systems have been developed $n Svedene.g. Hercules (Fig. 2). ABD (P19, 2) and JF (Fig, 23). Steet spas ean corate above od ater Tel, Te carton rate Jn clay 15 normally low and canbe neglected. 1835 possible to reais the carrasion with galvani= ton and by ptating thesia Stee) piper can only be used to spice exneretepites of Cass ¢ acnrding to the Secs Bung Cage (SPU 1975). To ual thchmae sould be at east 21 4m, When stee)pfp08 ae used the aTton- able Toad tnuld be reduced by 205, Pipe splices ‘shouldbe avatdes according tothe Cole of Practice ofthe Sadish nad Bard Fr eneree pies ben they are used ae frfetion piles tn elyAccording tthe Swedish Building Code (SO 1975) for pies of Class B and tn soils containing ones and boulders a8 mentioned eariier (F192) Tor friction piles 8 1ght steel plate shor Shoes shad havea hawy sted plate tht aistri- ‘he point fram penetrating the pile uring Grivig. The heat trestnent ofthe point shoulé Ariving. Men the pots 1s chiseled Into the rock the hammer drop stouTé We reduced to decrease the stresses {nthe pile curog diving, ‘he ultimate stati bearing capacity of the pile point depends minty onthe inclination of the rock surface, the coupressive Strath of the rack nd the penetration depth fnto the rock. Fora Figs 25 ack poset tute barin cy af 4 sel at front i on ca rie sgh {qh of 20 me a ths best & tm, Set vertical eacts te ente strep ott Svinte wil cree apratey ie the sianeter of te point (0 my) the ultimate strength for grantte and sandstone wi be about 25 greater than the stresth when the pnt fs a orally governs Ue utinste bearing eapactty Uerial. For sedentary rods (sandstone, ine- ‘tone and stale) Oe tints bearing capacity oF the rock matarial ormily governs. kn aT ae Toed that corespnte to the uncntined in Drssive strength of the rack waterial 1s often sen, Tet crivig and pile Toad tsts my te required to deterine the required poetration dept into the rock on the ineination af he rack surface exceeds out 45 degrees it i ofte difficult to seat the pile in the rock since the pile will often6ormen A VUE ° A Relative hearin copeeity, 2 © Sd od GA 20d Sameer ei, Slope of rack (a) taflcnce of 16 spacing of the eras pen eee (6) Influence of de Inctinaton oF tne rex Fig. 27 Bearing capacity of “ack points (ater em, Tr. (©) tnftance oF the distance to 4 vertical rack in the rack |4. esto OF ues aera ‘The design and construction of pte faundations 4 tit) very mic an art tn spite ofthe con Siderable progress that has Deen mage uring the last 20 years, poricularly in he understanding of how Tare-dianeter pies funtion tn rt] and ofthe interaction of 2 pile an the surrounding pirical methods based on experience are itt fauired to drive 8 pile toa certain dept, the orc required to pull the casing for cast-in place piles or the effects of the installation Felated to the instalation of the pie have 2 Targe fafluence on both the skin trictionre= oe on te sett nt of sine piles and pile gros at working load and at failure. Extensive etd and Taberatory tovestgation wil bo ree ‘utr before reliable and rations design methods ave been developed for Bath Fiction and end bearing pes Tm Smedich Buding Cade (seh 1975) The attowabre Tod on driven precast cincrete piles {s Maher in SOL 1575 than in car= ‘Ver Seeieh bling codes. Te requirements in Sm" 1975 for the manatacare, hand ng ant ‘riving of concrete pies have fnereased, Aso the specifications for sof nvertgutions for pied Foundations are nore rigerve thin in of procast concrete piles Ay 8 and. Piles of Chas A, speci piles, are dssaned tor standard onde of 0.6 1 (60 metric tone) higher. The sunsty of the ples in Class A shouldbe Maher than that of piles In Class 8 oF. The design of eu piles mist te aporoved by the Svetish Planing Sour before toy can be uted. Piles of Class A shoule be proved wth an especton ta the the straightness oF the pile after driv= ‘ny_and possi damge to the pile during driving can be checked. The straightness of pile can be checked witha short ste rod or pipe or vith tion tube cast into the pie. roto pipe can he aed to check that te rts of curvature or the ample change at's splicydos not exceed a car= tain predetermined vain, If an SncTinnater fe the deviation of the pile and 8e direction can starmined for the wale length of the pile 6.45 a 0.60 1 te the standard loads for ‘icatd standard lade ave sinpSied the design special pite type. The winwun concrete strength for piles of Class B and Cte KSA and K 40, respectively. The crssntection of th pile and the reinforcenet are governed by the requireent that the standard lad for pies of Class and C shuld rat exceed BSE ands, respectively the ‘Maable load fora corretonding concrete column ‘itn a slonerms ratio (Va) of 20. The reason for this reduction ofthe Tomb Toad ts tat ‘an actual pile is never cmpletly straight. & pie will alas be ecenticaly Tosed ‘he minima dioeter of the Toogitudia) refntore sant 4212. accoring 0 the Syedish Butleing Code.the quality of the sto! shuld be at Yeast 0. For ronrestressee piles the percentage of the reinforcaant sould be a Teast 1.26 for piles of clage ® and 0.65 for plies of Class C. These deri rules shoul ¥e used when the cross- sectional area of the piles 1s between S00 cr? “The allowble Toad shou tcorting to the Sued ‘8h UuiTing Code (SO 1515) be reduced $€ the es have Been driven threigh a Teer ith very fort clay with an undratned shar strength 255 than 10 Pa, iF the nuder of piles in the pile rou ts ees thon four ant the pile eoath i Tess than Sim, The allomble Toad shoul also be ates so mich thie the Tend (nthe pie wilt exceed the design Toad by wre than 15 Ali= {tonal ptles wll then be required inorder to rece the Tosd. The Toad tat 4s allowed on pies rd Toss fora pile of Clas & are 0.35fn 0.3. tara, the United Kington and the United Sater fs fm general Mahar thn tht tn Side, ‘Towed fr different structures or on other structure vcept te ultinate bearing capacity ofthe piles. It 15 Important, ronever, that the soginer responeible for the desan spci= fier the maximum total and differential settle- st that can be allowed at sorting Tos esses during Handling end Lifting the Weight of the pie. The bending monet fn Tong pies caused hy H¢ting warmly governs the design, The makin Tenth for unspliced piles is about 16m in Seen The maxima Benen mnent s dependent an the Tocation f the 11Fting Hooks. en 2 pile 1s hooks. Ifa pile fae bean designed for © maxima ending mnent of 0.7 gL then 48 can be Tied at any pont within 9 dataner of L/4 00 L/3 fron the ands of the pile (0 $ the total neight of the pile ard L fe the total ple Tent). & pie shouldbe reected 4 fe ms Targe cracks (00.5 m) wach extends nore thn haf the a> tater around the pile oF {fore are Large Togi- tuainal cracks (220 en) ing Deiving The welactty ofthe stress wate 12 3,000 m/s to4,000 ws cancrte and wind and about 5,000 w/s ‘steel. The velocity can be calelated fram the oa o ore Ep 1S the modulus of elasticity of the pile rmterial (0.2 x 108 Wa for steel, about 0,035 110° Wee for conrata and abut 0.010» 10 for od) and 9, 15 the unt weight (density) of the The mania Intensity ofthe stress wave depends suily on the Striking velocity of the Ramr le the length of the stress wave $s primarily» fue City vg dopondsyaely onthe equivalent beight of fron fa ofthe Ra he eR @ ‘Te marina atta stress th the pie curing ‘rving occurs at the ead or atthe font of the pile, igh bending ané torsion nents are {0 ceveloped aureg ariving st the pile hat ice entricaly. The maxi axial stress In the pile TT approxinately dbl for 9 3800 on pile en tne eccentricity of the bla is 5 en “he striking velocity of the amen proportio= sal €07 8; yore hy (inch) the effective or uivatent eiaht of free fall. For a a ‘he maximus stress at the piTe Bnd (Spey) ON be eatianted fron the relationship Shag = WT, (es) ° en a cushion {8 not vie and fram the reltion= yong = 12 FS 3) “ MII be equal to head = 397% (a) 6 head = 1-2 0% (0a) 6 The marin stress at he pile bd fora concrete pie during driving will thas be about 19 Ha Mon the equivalent neght ct fre faIl ie 40 cn ign compressive stresses are developed at the ie tip whan the pile hits & boutder or = stone Im the so1T or when the pile tae bean driven to refusal to rock aie tothe reflection of the ini= tal compression wave at the te, The naxnn stress atthe pile toe foro sort concrete pile 1 about 1.8 Gpgg en the powtraton rate fs less than about mvblow. The maxing stage at te pie head 15 cq to oag The Temth of the stress wae can be approximately tiated from the relationhip 34 5 0 we wore oy/ 15 the weigh oF the pte per unit Tength Sng, 1 the total sefgnt oF te heme. Save stra trtbaton «ering ig 4m Fis. 20 -This wi be the case when th tte @ TRIES er Gis recy. om SER Frc oe fe Funes arent ray bo refeces cin @ AMIE Hesie ten ciy. Te vexitin Ser i he pflevit te mt he oe Tester wil et aeveoy heey tn te Pie att Mi te ftir ses are as ben Ieee 6 th pep ner fr tne ‘Grater pie Ue ste mcesry Sst the eho th ie te err Se TREAT sims wre. te om AMM Se x oe cxsies TAME ere w as pone axres. Aten Ue atlas tenon ve reas Oe TaN tiiiet co oercstn ae sea taes esting « we eos vie Bespige saber reesHammer cle, a Tension compree- Hh ¢ aa ® § § Q Gun ° compres ComprresinyoF the pile, A *clattaring* noise 1s ten crested nih fs ry characteristic of a ple saectad can be torn aptrt and tat gaps may develop in the apices $F te tensile resistance of the splices tot sufficiently high, The tension tn the piles during driving can be rasiens 8y Acrensing the Ramer drop oF by trerasing ‘he wotght of the hammer ane hue the Tenth of The stress distribution during driving wen the resistance (hard driving) fs high te ‘sTlwstrated in Fig. 296. The initial compression save from the haar won $e striker eae fe reflected sn this case a& the pile point as & stress at the pile point wiTT Ueoreeally be oublo that of the intial stress nave 1f the head it fs in turn roflectod a5 compression ounce, en the tamer is m9 Tonger én contact fn tury reflected as 4 tension nave at the pile head. Tomste stresses may ths develop 3 the ite head which can nage the pile, The reflected fenton wive my alco Ist the pile 20 Ht Toses fontact with the waerlying rack en the = ‘Frecad teeton ave ie reflected at ote Tle bint, Indieations that te point resistance igh are Tou ponetration rate (in wt) he Tt of eres 5 vel 15 ‘rach th the eonerete. The stress wave fp short= fred by open crac n oportfon ta the width of 15 Wa tha length ofthe stress wave Is reduced ‘theoretically fy about 1m fron 80.5 we wide crack, Tt hay bean assumed th the modulus of Slaticity of the canerote 4s 30,000 Pa. Pre= treaed piles wth preloaded apices thas offers fantage ovr nowprertezees piles 4 that ty ko ot hove any cracks or gaps unin con abverely affect ti shape nd the Intantty of the stress uve, atures have shown hat Oe Ineney danni um stress) can be reduced upto 405 at splice The largest Totes have been cerved ring rivieg with 16gh homers. Heavy homers shoutd ths be sed For long plied concrete piles 50 tat a Tog initial stress wave 1s obtines aro also affected by fretion along the pile sie ints ate ot at ay ter of pile. In coestonets soils the axe "et pig tt tran | en «git amor i wed to drive a tng pite, € tensile stresses wi develop the upper rection at 8 pile ween the drivin restate ts Tow Sloce te inital cnpression vate fs reflected a the ple xceds stout 2m. (eareticlly, {he mxinat tesion wil te eal the meson coroetson sf the pile Tithe roe tan fait the Tenth of the Ansel stress wave and {he doping Hs atu.) In oder to rece the ean Ini ly the ight of 1 sonata g ‘The waxinu Height of fall depends to Torge Vows in the reintorceneet andthe pont re- ‘tance, lan the length cate 13, ‘he Shed Bung Case 5B4 1975) sn such way hae tt can reset a taneion of 6,25 9a (52.5 89/ cat) for pies of clase 8 md 5.0 Pa (50 tp’) for piles of cass c “he acini Sntastty of the stress wave when & uate hammer ie aad dgenés on the striking telocity F the piston and therefore on the air Cosa tion and the codon of te Nama. tren oF concrete fx relied appreciably r=ly rasucn 1f the Retght of fa1T is resuced. The bond stresses long the main reinfozemet wl be highs particularly Jn prestressed concrete pies close to the pile head and th pile point faring driving. For sch pies there 1s 4 Fisk thatthe wire oF strands wy Toosen during Woh Flere and torsonal ments develop rat Iv in pies of squnre or neagona cross= section airing driving in soils containing ‘ones and boulders, wen piles are riven aun to 4 sloping rack surface. The pile se Sula in tnt case be cast into the pile and the percentage oF the reinforcement should te igh so that stones and small touders can be pushed to one de witout damaging the pile. The ples shai be destaned fn uch away that they fan resist bending moment cused by ah axial Toad at the edge of the rock got. Piles which fné tours sould thus be designed to resist 1 benaing manent equal 0 H+ 0.8 Fyne 0 ° ors Fyne $6 the axial Toad and 0% the side The average anf compressive stress during Grivin canbe estimated from the average elastic where fy the midulus of elasticity of the pile terial nd Lyf the pile length. For sort piles (Lye 10 a) Se maxinun conpressive stress pile (eyry) whe for piles with» Teath of 20 Aout 1.5 dq. For very Tong piles the nox cn pression cate 5 MQM a5. 2 oy The height of Fal) shod be reduced to 10 ‘2D cnn the ie reaces the rock nti] the pencteeton ofthe pint int te rock corerponts to one danetar of the rock point (about 69m) forvatly 00 to SQDbIovs vi be required. The 230 Fhe pentration resistance 15 high (21 ta 3mn/10 blows) and the penetration is de- ‘reasing. In sedinontary rocks the yontration/ Dow often 45 so igh that the driving criteria ion are army used $n Sten cant be = pacity ofthe pile will be tao Tov. Lond tats face 4S sloping and te rock 6 covered Ay soft Feintorcenont nthe lover part of th pile. Te aVowble ead stoulé be rede, when the slope fof the rock surface etcate 50” or boulders are ncoutared in the sof her the rock is covered ty clay ora thin Tayer ‘nt the rock by 200 blow at 2 Hela of fll of 18 om or by 100 Bloe at 30 en. The pene- tration of the pile should derease foreach set of 10 Blows The Haight of Fa shoe aso be reduced in stresses the pile during driving whieh ‘iui danage the ple. Te hight of fal Should be reduced 0 for enc bearing pes because of the high cowressica at the pile ies are driven to retusa! te series of 10 ows. In e111, sand and gravel the pes are riven until the bearing capacity as evaluates ya pile driving formule ix suFickently Moh In fine sand and sf the bearing capacity 13 ster pressures that develop the Sot! uring arivig. A heany hammer sho be sod 1AT1 e ples tn pie group are normaly deve ‘agortant particularly for shart piles thatthe Ariving resistance vil te approximately the ane forall pies 40 Yat th lad distribution I piles are deven tn watr “tp often ada tageus to use 8 guide pipe te prevent buckling of the piles curing diving. *edril 9g or precoring my be required on rock F111 to prevent damage the pes ring drivin ee... tCin he F371 before iving on tne atv teaperaare 15 very ow 18 night te necessary ta prataet the pies before riving to prevent the S01 fron freeing and ad- hrag to she ples durieg_srving.other- ‘ng and tho Bearing capacity of the pie wil? be resid Tnber pies shoud be vatereé before driv~ Sy if they tv buen des ut. Test rests hort W111 aprove. ancrte piles canbe damaged during driving 4 be dante strength of the conerete 15 Tow the dynamic strength increases 4n soeral with tine ate Tower rate than the static strength The pile nad canbe dangee during ariving 1f the hammer dos tat strite he pie concent ically. Ream gecentriciy te side of square pile tho mina stress Sn ‘the pile Will dovle-Conerate pier canbe do- age during driving ifthe reinforcing Pes con alse be eamages dung criving 1 the soiT contains stones oF boulders as already entiondor the rock surface & stoping. The te reduced by providing We pt les wth 9 rock shoe, ty rocing the heaht of 311 aad by Soe creasing the reinforcernt 49 the Tower port of the pile, Alco the dispter of the afte canbe hate fe mde in Oe s:1 witha doel Before the atToubte Yond was 007 I for 9 feb0rofT6 to refusal, The allowable Toad sn 196 mae 0.951. for prefabriatas precast concrete pes with S10 en crzeneectons ares toh ere deven for 2 silo in Kiping, Seden,PATe Toads of up t0 0.9 HU Dive ton discard for Granota Toes of 0.9 Mt to 1.0 MU stout a 0 be possible for very Tan concrete pies of singe piles 85 ean savestignt- fe bye. Forssell and Graratn. 1 $¢ noreal= 1y rat regutrenan t2 consider Buck! ng ‘De design except for reinforcing bars, r8fle and slender conreta piles sich tave been rivon trough a ayer with very saft clay. @ fr the expression tee RIT, o reaction. For ¢ spliced pie the theoreicaT buck "inp strength wil? be only nF oF tat of an unspliced pile when the stifness of the splices ‘Tow. The corressongingcritfal Tngth (Qalf the wave Aength ) Igy canbe calculated from the relation- 0) ee a mite Sm © See en, tyelte lading wit reduce the caeFFetent oF horizon suogade reaction aswell as the dra= ion oF the ap ied tas. Tart raruts tnseate ‘hat the coefficient of saree restion by, {at Ton tera Tooding wt apron imtely be Cau 20 Gy hor cy fs the drained shear strength of the Surrounding clay. 1015 possible that ty can under certain canditins be a6 Taw a5 8 6 Ak short tem Tosding aval of 0 6, $5 ‘Asplund, arafelt and arrholn recomend that 3 ‘nerete pile shold be designed as 2 cocentric~ My Toad conerte colin aith a slenderratio (1/8) of 20. Thi te tw theoretical buck= ng Teng wien the shear trensth of the sur= rounding so1l (,) 4 10 Ka Tost results indi= cate, however, that the chosen bucking Tenth (= 20) 1s ao high and hae the caTatatad tite strength 15 too Tou. Te requirements in the Seeish Bu14ing Cade are Based on a eau valent freo Tenth (V/d) of 20. The atTouble Toss sould according to ths code be raced whan the than 10 Pa and the thickness of the canpress ible ess than 5 Aa the pes souls be designed as ering cpucity of Initially dont Pier Pies ave ot asotutly straight after driv= {ng a¢ {Tlustrated Fig. 30 where the location of anproxinutely 70 a lng precast piles 15 show in plan after instalTatfn. The deviation of ‘he pies im es case vas very Trge since the pies wore driven through an old pile arovp of fing capity of Oe piles bad wot eon Spares Driven pes nave a tendency Uo deviate {nthe Airection of previously driven piles because of vod the pies, Inlined or raed piles are the roumess of the pile surface affects the stratghtness, Precast concrete pies deviate tn Seneral tors the ide of the ple which mas formed the upper surface dirng casting, Tis surtace sot) traped between the Flanges of steel Hepes will affect thn straightness en the piles have teen driven, far example, trough » stiff surface rut and fata Taye with soft clay. The stratght- ‘is advantageous to Tt the piles STightly o> on reinforcing tars are wed as piles they sould be rotatad airing driving to Heep the . ar straight 6 eee ‘The straightness oF the piles and the anale change ab aplices wil) affect the Ducking strength ‘he vltinate strength of a bnt pie canbe fa series of sine terme as {lustrated fn Fig. 3a hon the Seta bent pie 1s loaded axially by here 4) = MCI/0E}. 0p = UCL = PUA se | . cca a ey ent | eae are lth Tenth Lys BF corespinds to the critical Toad fora piteutth a tena Ly/2,ete. Ht as bean assed in te derivation Bt these expressions i eC° Fig, % Galevation of the Hnitta cisplacenent 6, 4% a3) ‘Te msuinan stress tn the pile can be detrninee ty expressing the Initia Bending noent in Be pte before Toadieg ab series with sine tems Tne mocinum bending seen for the Toad pie iT be proartfost to Ue itiat beating o> aac * Se Mone an ere Mag 1 Emin Initia basing mo tert ini vote ple anda tsa mage Cation factor wich canbe cleloed a = Serlndprevioury The minum hentig waent fer ree ue at eect ia 05) ere dp 1S the maxima devation OF the pile the pile axis located «distance Iy apart, ns 5 the corresponding radius of curvature The straghtnes of pile ant he maxim bending into » pipe which ts cast Into tow pte (cone terete pil) oF welaed to the pile (sted pie} he mixin Bengag noent cit then be calculated in Bh Onn Id ax eS 08) pee arasesn) may 7 PBT rt CON eer a ane eatin? ple cam be calculated fron the expression Exe Farce concrete ite (23.5125 cn) witha radius of carvature of 200, The aia) load inthe pile Ts O.6 Mh, The pile has been sriven trough 2 clay ayer witha mininun heorstragth of 10 kPa. The pie was completely straight Sefore ivi ‘The winimun critia} Tod canbe estimited fron r= 27 TET are fj the modulus of elasticity of the pilea of pile Solem © of ile ‘material (about 0.012 x 108 Wa) and 1, is the ‘monent of inertia (about 0.254 x 109 nf). The tna w lo, he mgt ea 9 it el ee rent ay = Oem) = 1.81 ay be cateuated fran Eg (18) were 4s the ares of the pile (0.072 w8) and ts O rasus of curvature (200). 16 tas been assnad in the eal ren {s 2.85. The are of the fle (fy) Mas een cht, The mato ata stress tn th pile fs ore than doubled by the Tatra defection of section of Pie Type e The selection of pie tp ts norm y governed by the fltorngreuirenets ‘HSE the uTinate strength an the factor of sa {ety for single pile and for pile group Should be suttictently Mah, that the total andthe mama At feretiaT sett Tenents OF the pile gratp shoud be Tess ‘at the total corte shuld te the Towst posible,eile 9 The piles are easy to handte ofsadvantages he pies il rot apve the coe Pee wins memee | SE ‘ahi Se ates © agente, freon on. and fan ast ly'bo cut 2 the « layers. Tne ateral dig Sein efor steel eon? ptt) ‘cantrelat ively Spiced octet or ny to aolie, elatvaly Of the concrete can be Shocked efor sriving. Not Street bythe rund a" ‘he otter itt corre, ‘ey during arte reetatiely ovensive, Aetatively ati tact, ‘na riving Gane damaged Semen wth ise “Veaeing ett inthe | Tenth cele 1) Poresy cased or (stg rearteves © ses nt watts 8 8 ys atc te mec TRE Gn oy So ee at eae oe Iriction resistance my ot be desirable for Towering of the ground mater Tovel and th piles TT carry part of De eight f the sur Founding soll. oie and vibration may cause Aittialt probleme in urban areas. ajacent struc- tures canbe damaged If certain pile types are CsI i SRE teas hotse evel, The pites con | Ge tat bere exertion Felatively expesive, Time con- inital Hengens "eT! *¥on 2 i ete ieee. isadantages of ditterent pile types Prefabricated concrete and stil pipe piles are often used in harbour or offshore constructions 1 agp water stool pipe piles are genera gre= ferred besuze such ples are easier to handle sally not possible te we cast-in-place piles for such ots Casttnplace ples are comony uted for heany ‘the bearing capacity of ariven piles 5.25 2 rule alted (el mM). Casttnepaeeconerete piles areStallation of the pile are Tor. An enlarged bare fan only be ated Sn Fira to St clay and tn stn pies to 6 very Mah bearing capacty ‘he fin salecion {s mainly tased on the toto) fs an ioartant factor since delays wi) pile types are wid oF ware the contractor less fora pile sroup than for a spread footing or 8 rate since the compressibility of mst soils in Fig. 3. Fig, 3a thos on Below a bung on spread sponds to the width (8) of the footing. The corre- “ponding stress inereese for » building support Sponds tothe wisth (8) of the pile aroup. If there are any congressible layers within this depth then Be settlennt of the pile aroup canbe high ‘ne oi1, Beh the total and ciferental attlonents are rediced. In order forthe Slee bearing capacity does nt decease een when the ot function as verti reinorceuent Sn the stl nce the bearing capacity rediené once the eianee strength has boon exceeded (ort fatlura). The ultimate strentof te cross: o. B { ae en St t+ € aM Tne Fig, 96 Load estribution fr surtace and dep A ple grou with ond bear pies mst in Wot cse be designed to carry the total weight of tho structure, The eavist. loaded pile wT? ‘Ved Toad wilt be carried by the ples ané part by the Sot enclosed by the pies. Relatively fewso escnvatad for the Oneenent of the trac ture earresponés to a significant art of the total wotgt of tho stricture, Tt fs essential that the ultimate bearing capacity of the pile soup with rerpect to pile ft lure wll be Noher than the tient Georing capctty with respect to sofl failure The ltinate strength oF the pie cap apd ofthe structure shu rays be Maher than the ultiate strength (yielé Strength) of the pile group with respect to sott tatture so that the pile group with yield 4 ‘ ovorldea, Tho conaquoncos of a posible ays be coneiered so thet te etelenets rovoulding of te Sol by the crving of piles ‘cavsd by diving, The piles will reduce he Reve (a) by tnoreasing the rimber of otloe an reeic= ‘hoe can be ured for @ pile group with end tering poe where the axiel compression of ‘he piles and the Toca! deformation of the sot? of the settlers. The reduction of te sett= eset by 0S method tn general sma) for friction pies, ic by inrens ig the pie length. Ths method $= cffective nen the coepressibie strata are Tocated relatively close t the ground surface. ce by. provid the structure wih a dep tse ton of the pore water pressure below the perminent ground water Tevel to carry There fs tendency to use Nigh capecity ples to suport meay strctures and ulth-rtorey bl ings large stanter angeres piles and dried Sere are a ‘roquently used in the United Kingdon and in the United States. Large pipe pes wth Migh Sesring [At moderate lon, there fs «tandency In Swbaen to castrineplace coerete pies because of #he Nigh tour costs, Tater tes wT probaly bo vod Gf Ybor. Timber piles will Iikely be wad ore above the ground water {able due to ieprovd bpreseration mathe (erentoing ets), particne Tanly for smal and relatively Hoke structures, Lime colume wiTt probly be comon for Tight of éamaged structures raot ples will be an accepted etd {ma fw years. This meta the *01¢ Town tn Stciote Tore is alco «tendancy to utihize the Tataat vtatance of piles im the design of pile grou to recist e.g. wl Toads anc Lateral oass caused by earth auas. Lateral Tone on structure are usualy resisted with batter oF rated pes a ustrated in Fig. 353. Daly the resstane ofthe piles in the axial direction fs theraty vei Tizod. Settle ments fron e.9, 8 Towering of the groundwater level my, toveer, domge Sete pies due the Taterat sispacenent of the pies Wy the Seoding mnont inthe piles fram even 9 moderate ‘the reinforcement. Tt may in that case be bettor to utitign the lateral resistance of the piles (Pia, 356) oF m provide te stretare witha skirt A strcture cam withstand r‘etfvely large sete: eats 1f the eettlanents are uniform, The abst tal settlonents without svers ersekeg 4s #or= aly poor. The e¢toretialeeteaneses can be Fediced by Increasing the Fees of the struc- tures or ty Inereasing the Teng of te pes (for triction after in clay) ‘The naxinun Tengen often Tints the application of many pie syste. The masinae Tenth of ut sliced procast concrete pies 1s morally 14 to Wm, f645, novever, gossi'e to drive up toited by the difficulties of puting the casiog large. Spiced precast canerete piles, stel piles and stel pipe piles are therefore often sed when the pile Tenth fr Jn excss af 20 the diftictty of replacing ples Cat have been ranber of piles the pile group is sw hen cin easily be domgia during driving the aTlwable toud on the piles should be reduced or pile sdoitiona) piles can easly be riven or installed. This is fropenty the case sere stones and bul ers are encounterad inthe 011 any factors affect the baoring capetty of simg= te piles and of pile group. For friction piles in clay » Towering of the round water level can inrease the axial Tod tn the piles dn toe the structure out alo carry prt of te wont of the soil within the pile gap. An adsacet x= tvation and the resulting lateral diptacennt see Siem staring and bIosting in the vicinity can cause Tange sett= ewer. Erosion around bridge sutnens and piers can exgose the piles and th piles my fa Tim acing of tapes donde tos term exe @ on tin sinter ante lens of th Pies 4 inden yt flowing table, Table 2, Minima pie spacing (0 45 the or the side oF pile}Te pile spacing stould be larger for friction pites Sm clay than for frietion piles {n sand or for fd bearing piles because of the recction of the shear strength andthe reaoung of the sei? that ales pled Geng a tstciastegh tat eh ave compacted during riving which Sncrsses the bearing capacity of previously driven piles but rakes subacquontpite installation dt tictt, The piles located at the center of pile grup shoud therefore be driven first, To pts shold For driven piesa distinction se mde beteon pile Teng, Yeath of the pe 6a he so and asian length. The pile Tenth 6m the so te the distance fr the pile potnt to tte ground surface. Design length normaly means the ais- tance tron the botton of tha pile cap tothe pile Fig. 36 etinstion of toms A roltively Toros eptcing of piles $= nor atly required in clay because of the surface eave The heave fs rotced ff « relatively large space fing ts chosen. The ptle spacing should also be Targe wien the piles sre driven to rock and the undriying rock surface 1s sloping or if boule fs are presont sn the rofl. The spacing an be reduced procoring or preeiTing ts seed. (ade (504 1975) senatines cases eifficulties en the pie length beznes Larger than that ssuted 8 he design andthe spactag of the piles has to ke iereased daring Snsteation, vrs shen the pe spacing rte size spacing of the piles and to redesign the pile en. ‘The ends of tha concrete alemnts fn 2 spliced pile should te straight and perpendicular to the of pile reduced appreciably by even very ‘a angle change at ozpliee if the ie har been driven throug a thick Iayer af very st ly with Yow shear strength (<10 fa). Te Tr gest permissible angle change 1s 1/75 accorsig to the Scish Building Coe (6H 1975) The aYlowble toad on an intiaty tent precast carats pile 1s normally fot reduced a8 Tong 48 fs larger then 40 far 2 nth of 10m or Fora ste pile a deviation of 1/1000 of the total Tanth of the pte fs tormllysTloned oF yatoen of the distance been te be masur= ‘ng points sf thi fe lope han 1/1008 of the Te aYTowable toad on 2 pile ts dependent on the on the pile material or on te mins In cohesive sole the Tatral deflection of ee {ng are affect by te conneation of the sur- ver, thatthe fnerease of te lateral deflection of a loaded pile with tine rormaly 45 smal, At ‘an fvestigntion carried aut ty the Sueish PileDetermination of the straightness of Pies 1s mormly determined with an Sncinneter oF eter uten 1s lowered nto a tate cast smo the pile, In the evaluation of the results 1t is ‘ormatly assumed that the pile an the taspetion tube were strfaht before the driving ‘In intinoneter consists sn principle oF 4 pen dutaewaien $e attacied to 9 Tat spring (2 th1n strip of harcene sta). The steel strip 1s o¢- ferved ty the padslon ven the inlineneter fe very enter or every second ater. The Snel n= eter fs rotated in Be faepection pipe anti! te Snel ination recher «mixin Th Tatoral ais= ar 5. SEARING CAPCITY OF HATALLY LORED PILES valuation of Ultinite earing Capacity Te altinste strength of «single pte ts Tinited ithe by the ultimate strength of the pile ma- tertal (pite failure or by 8he ultimate bearing capacity of the surrounding sl (soil failure) ‘he ultimate bearing capicity of and beerieg pes te normaly govermd hy the vitimate strength Uf the pile miterfal (pile fatlure) while the Shear strength of the surrounding S01) rormtly (verse the altimte strengtn of friction ples fn bath conesive and cabasonless sof. vant 1) Ganventonslpite ériving formulae whieh are tpt during driving. (The ltinate bear= ing capacity fs edTeuated fram the workeneray) sien fe rewired to drive a pile a givens tance, This method camot be ised i cles.) ie ériving formulae tased on stress wave theo- ryetIhis method has essentially the sane short- Coninge as convention pile diving forme) ) ite tnd teats 4) cateulation methods based on the measured or Static penetration taste ature the pushed dove into eho ea) at 9 constant rate, aes ots and Penetration Test (SPT) e eee eee a eee ores See ray isen niece a se Conventions Pee Oring Formae ite driving formioe can secertng tothe Sede {3h Buaing Cage only be used for friction pies ‘in cobestonless sols stan the lowble Toads Tess than 0.45 and he penetration (6/10 bow) 4s Tess than four tines the peetration resistance of correszondng end bering pie. The allow ale 100615 normaly one-third the cstevited inate bearing capacity of che pie. For sntank- ont piles a factor of safety of 2.0 Frequently Dyante pile foster have bien severely criticized ples tn thestoness soils the only alter raive {stood tests which are both tine consuming and expensive. Frequently 2 cabination of wathods ae used. Ayre pie eriving formas should on |y be used for eotesfoniess sts an enly whan the peetration resistance of the pile gradually tne ronses with depth during eivng. In tne sand ae a CU RTvelop suring driving close to the pile int whi affect the driving resstance. tue to these high exces pore water prossures the static eate strength can be considerably Tower than that caleated frea « dani pile driving for- inula which reflects the panatation resistance of the pile during criving. Pile driving. formiae ares however, weful a8 & check that Be bearing Caecity of a1? the pies wil be about the sae. “hey can aso be wae to chock the minus stress in the piles during driving and to prevent breshage of the piler. The uncertainty 1 the eneray delivered by the ite hamer. An ine vestigation ty the Hiehgun State Mighany Cooms= ‘Hon shoved that the actual eneraytransneted to ‘the pile as in several cater Tees than half of st tnaicated by the manufacturer. Several dstterent syantc pie driving formlae te th use todiy. These are gereratly based onthe tnoray (Qs) rewired to drive the pile a certain dstance (e) med ore 0, 1S te mss of the amor hy 15 te fertective height of £211, R 4s fhe penetration resistance af the pile § 15 te penetration/bla. (1s te elastic comession of te tushion and of te 21 Bolo the pile pint, 0, 14 the total macs of the pile and k 4s oe cettictent of restitution. The tar 0,946 the the pile considering energy losses. The tera Hs 4s the enray hich fs consmed when 18 pte enetrater te aoilynble the term (0.8 Fegopy * 40.5 8 epg) corresponds to the energy fron the elastic Eanpession of the pile, ‘he cushion andthe 201 below the fle, The ox Dression Gigs dy (VE, 65) represents ‘the energy cansed curing the Blow stun the Rat so Hnclues. part oF the enray fron the elast= ‘ec cumpression of the cushion of the pile 6 1F 18 ts assumed that the emt pentration re sfstance of the pila corresponds ¢4 the Toes wie. hes $+ 05 Gite * Faanion * tk ey (a) formula 16 1s commonly used inthe Uted Kieg- on, Canada ad the United States. fee 05 86 (uaen pte Hott ten Ea. (20) 5 stplitied to any ‘This equation {shou Sens the Kesbper ‘he Kreiner form (acconsng to the Coe oF Prac tice of the Sesh Red Bordsbean ony bo wed or the minim allouble Tens 15 0.45 Mk factor of safety of 4.0 és sary wed. The rina penetration resistance is 3 wa/blw for con ret piles and Smeal for titer pies. For aerete pies the weight ofthe hawer should Be St lost equal the cnbinat wont of the pie, ene (driving cap) and follower, wife for « tinker pile the weight oF the Ramer should at Teast auld nt be nterrpted unt the penetration resistance forthe lat 3 05 series of 10 bloue isla. The penetration should decrease for each fat or series of 10 Blow. Te Krigerpite driv ‘ing formula. can be staplied 4 6 1S assumed tnt the tem (p+ 0.25 4,71 #05) = 1 and that the elastic canpressin af the Cashion, he pile and the soft belan te pile fs constant (© fantant). Then pire, Muted Sees oa @ein ter eee on ff Sim. 8 factor of efety of 6.0 normal Ty used won fndtcates the accuracy af the ution, This equation which fs ued extensively fn he Unend Seater knoe the Frginering owe Forma It fs also possible to eralate the uitimte bearing cpncity by conigering the elastic ant, Fah ere a is 4 Toad aistribution factor (betuten (0.8 and 1s Ly fa the length of the pie, 6 is the moulus Br elasticity of the pile material ich is 0.21 x 10° ma for stet, abut 0.035 x 10° Wee or coerata and about 0.010 x 10° ma tor wot. hy is Ue cross Section arn ofthe pie tis usually assumed Ont a= 1.0 encat for ong friction piles in sand. The wltimate Bearing cape city can the be calculated fran the expression a a cies This uttion is katt the dann pile drivion ultimate bearing capacity of friction ‘The enoray of the amr (Oya) man 4¢ striker the pte ie dependent on the SousTent height of ‘ree fall of the hammer (the effective height) ‘te efficiency (n) and the panna total netaht of fall (h) according to the relationship hye sy) The stticlncy and the equivalent height of free 11 can, weer, 86 law for drop harms. Ba = vestigntion carried out by the Swedish Pie Can- sisson shad Cat the efficiency varie 6.9 etaen Sf far MaHE hamers (0.87 trie ton) and 60 to 7 fora 178 ton drop howmer. uring drive sng of rated pites (7:1) the eFFicieny (a) mas fficlney dereaes ith decreasing wight of the hmer and with increasing faceation of the pies, Test data have also ston that the losses fan vary appreciably for different driving ge ant that the Tosses for very Vakt haters are mainly aes by the nora of operand winch. toe Gee teat Gls. 1o Ue er Slaton ofthe wera (ts) are te fit pre He thy thr ton sce @ {8 Sate tr aro cc cores tthe date ptaten rine ot te ie Saree eee eat Tnrolons othiigaepleaaal oe {Hig I cn be cert hee a tem tern sate heaigcncty bcs of te Vigor tar retest eo te et ‘ing ri. Th mtn vo Shy ager an tht an pe srr The akin friction resistance of piles ts atfect= ving fs probebly considerably Tower then tint ‘uring 2 subsequent Tone test, The difference can be large for piles that have been ériven through {ayer with clay. A pte car got stuck aftar& Short ineeraption fn driving. Several blows are sua required to “ala” the pe teat. me @ pacriten eal ed fr nfo oe Cte esol tt ose for er Wiles 74 pe pie erg fom (ede Snows ergy Toes fo ck crs ties enreson of can the ie an of he onmar sould be about the zane oF the wets Of the ple, Mon pnewstic oF aie hamers are used ne has to consider the shape and the length of the stras nae. hn eautalont pile Tet bug ce then be used in the eatenation of te uftimate beg = bo @)1 te evaluation of the eneray Tosses wen the hamer strikes the pile $€ 4 generally asuned that all losses besides ase cated by the Sa freray Tosses in 4, (19) are fncluded twice, The Feat penetration rertstance will Us be sooevst Tower than that calculated fram Eq. (09) 1 the tor Oy (1-K2)/ (0p) considered Measure ‘The elastic camprassion of the euthion the pile tr the sof cant determined as nacated tn Fig. 37. A wooden board attached to to Fig. 7 faluation of she elastic compression of eashin * Foie * S501) 2 blow corresponds tothe elastic compression (= tte * os Danie pie driving forma are primarily vs fom nal abe ore florets pile Toad tests rate of the aitferent rane pe driving formulae refussl that the pile Reed at not Seen domged ‘rig driving since tM wil! appreciably affect tie ettictncy of te Blow, Freqontly 18 16 = casary to out off the damsel part before the pile ts driven terete Pradetarmined depth, Nao friction piles in san form lya certain pentration resistance shoul te reached before the driving {stopped riving Formslae 15 the eneray (yg) transtted to the pile ding driving, particularly with fray indicated by the anufacturer 4s actualy adrving se ofton required to chick that the Be: by the erivig of subsequent pies. fadriving is and SiTE whore igh otess pore water pressures Tong tere Bearing capacity of the piles. Aedriving can also be required 1 the pies ave em displaced laterally oF ave heated during the Ariving af subsequent ples fd Daring piles are necessary ta redrive such piles even $f they hve not Been affect by the eriving of subeanvent ation and the elevation of the piles ringThe too resttanee tn eadientary racks ty decrease wth tie, The redriving should there= fore be carried out 0 Tess than 24 hours after the Unital driving of the pites. ile Driving Formulae based on Stress ve Theory A stress vave {6 generated when he hamar striker the pile. The velocity oF stress mae can be c+ Vinay en mors E15 the modulus oF elasticity of the pis “The mixin intensity (rtrest) and the shape oF the stress wave are affoctd by the mass of the tamer, the Holgnt of fall andthe cross-sectional area of ‘te pile. The relationship shen 6m the Sudish But {ng Cad(SBh 1975) between bearing capacity and pene= Tetensily Om Tne ° 1 Relative length of cheat weve, 2 s e ‘The maxinun tntnsity of the stress ave decrees nproriately 0.5/0 Sn clay as the me travels ow the pie. Inthe caeultions of the mixin that the efficiency 0.6 fora sinale ioe drop haar Inthe ast of fron fang hamer the values oven fn te tab shout be reduced by 205, The inicetet heights of fl in @ canscites the SsishBuT4ig Cte (S84 1575), 1 stould alse be notes that the condition of the packing will appectaby affect. the ob= served penetration resistance ofa pe. It Mas | ie ee mone Sin Bis th e : « poem QO ence 2Table 12.2. selatonshiptetuen allele Toad, set, height oF FAT, Tenth and cross-sections ane ct pies (efter Nefoany 387) Eee mn/10 blow Tight" of fal en) and erws-ectiona ares (a stone ct | on x? co ea? 20 cao a? suo cx? 90 fa? 4 et 50 en? 90 on 1s 2 cee op ipa ee pect nee w beet see | 0 ae «os |) 9 9 0 1) Single part (n= 0.6) and tne the cashian has Been struck at last 300 times ty the tamer. The Height of Fl should be 40 ox ile Los Tests rate bearing capacity ofa site pies fs wit ile Yond eests. Primarily pes whch hve shoud be tested, It is often also desirable to test ples tna rormily consolidated clay. The purpose of a load tart for friction piles tn rand an be to aternine the settlements a working Toads and theultimate Bearing casey. he larger part of the settlonent fs obtained berconsltsitated clay since the larger part of the settlenents wT take place when the pile 1s loaded for tie frst tne. The Botta of the ox cavation my have Been loosened during ox before casting of the concrete. This looeeing Ine cost of single load test normally 5000 to 10 000 Suedseh Crome er pie. For piles with « high ultimate strength (1 MU) the costs an be appreciably higher Because of the J Fi- ie, Pile Toad tests can therefore only be Susti- ‘ed econaicaly for Targe 3005. For snl jos Ayanie pte driving formulae are wed az contol Pie Toad tests are normaly carried out in eed {0 Pile Comission (Table 41. Tuo different Taade Table 12.4 Pie Toad tests (after the Sued ite camssien, 1370) Shape ple afvancod pile “mer piles x ‘coarse pier Seb Seton nar oF fevers) x ow tanerete piles Salad end tearing pile sie" a wh ‘ wo "warm * Sapered Snts) x ‘rietion piles sand only x o Clay on sand x a Layered ros x clay only x o End bearing pile * o‘ing (Me) and constant rate of penetration (0) [At maintained Tesding (ML) the Toad fs spied ant up to the estinuted allowable lat is nome ally 255 of this oad. Thereafter the ‘nerants fre raced At the est nated sTfowble tering capacity the applied load ts Rept contant fr 24 ours. Ae each Toad creme, the setlonnt 1nin, 2 inet. The pile 1s ulead ence ar twice daring the ter. The pile my also be Toles cgeieatty (e.g. 10 Toad eyes) at tw estmmtad ‘utr foreach test andthe high cost Solve Te fe possible to reduce the tine for 4 ond test and to faciitate the interpretation of the re sults ty oping tw ti foreach Toad increment onstant (20 07 30 sinter). hon the ponsration rate fs kept constant dung 2 Toad test (the CRP-mthod) the corresponding force ronaily 0.5 movin. 8 higher penetration rate can be sed for friction les tn sand (1.5 a/at. A relatively large total penetration is roratly required to reach the ultima bearing capacity of oratly stopped when Oe utinate bearing has boon roached er the appli Toad t= to ta tree ‘ines the sign Toad. In row cates Tower factor of safety can be Jurtiied, A Tond test ona fric= ‘ation of the pte fe a Teast 20 mw larger nan ton of friction plas 4n snd should beat lest mn. The rebound sould be measured 5, 18 and 20 | oad test shuld be caries ovt some tine af = the eartest three wents after eriving. Con Unt tur weeks after diving reaction piles (tension ples), Also rock snes an bo usd, a8 vell as dead loads (ras, Toad fr steel ingots or 9 water tank). TES preferable 1 wae dead Toads (n long tm tats since it Is rot necessary t adjust th Tadd, For large diac ster castineplace pf les wlth 9 high bearing car Pclty shect piles are ofte used to resist the Fraction. The wtift capacity of sheet piles fe gh ue t the urge surf area, The reaction piles shouts not be driven a0 lone fo the test pile, Otherwise Ue test realts can be affected The ésstance betcen the tet and the reection ‘should beat Teast 1.3 The axiat Toad $= normaly appied with one or ore hydraulic Jacks. It 4 preferable to wae fm electrically driven ofl camp to activate the 1 teprateIoud call or a mntneer. Also 9 separate calforated before and after Tod tet. The accu Friction along the ran of the hydraulic Sack. This ‘riction 1s often 3 ta St ofthe appli Toe ‘he ala eisplecennt of the pile hand ts ore Of the retings shold be 9 eet .4) m0 1 four aa gpges me be “eure 30 ha the rotation {oat cane) af se pie head can bo Corrected. Te dst ioe sould be mooted on separate rsiering bs, wich shld be pro= tected ssint rect sunt The aifernce a can terse affect the tert raves, te sports @ Of te aesiring beam sol be Tested at ets 2 and) waespoctivey sr te tart pil an te weigh a iam of eg Teast 1m. nen sal gupes ae sed te ote head sould be ehh ty Tevtlng Bore ad ater streteted tightly bebmen ti piles 35 reference, The sccuray of the reading should be 0.5 The results froma Toad test an 28 end bearing pile ve frequontly ai¢ticlt to Inerpretysarticularly hen the pile has been drivin through a thick Tayer te app ed Tad wil be trator to te sroune ‘ng Soll through skin friction slong the pile ile Bi Besa ie uh ol ee ee ee eeonly sma part of the applied load ts transfered Appliwd load, MN ng he Toa part OF the aplied ead wil Be trans- ° Ca ferred ta the pile point. the relative captacannt required to mbilize the maxima skin friction resistance 1s sea? (a feu ai feeters}. The aispacenent cased by the elastic compression {5 noreally sufficient: For example at 3 oad test of an 87 m long end bear= the pile at the pile point after erivig the pile after the Dlw te restraea by che friction along the pile. The gosttive skin trex ‘he rests} Toad after unloading can affect the results ina Toad test. The restdil Tend at the ite posnt after antoeding canbe lage particie larly for eart-neplae piles even for relatively sort piles. The axial deformation of the ite en st is relonded vil) then be contseraby Stier in comparison with that shen the ple was first Toned. Ts redial load fm the pie wil ‘fect eg. the evaluation of the Toe Attettu- toe pile, Th axial deformation of tho pile can be determined witha tell-tale syste consisting alu since the bearing capacity will fncreae thosen forthe proretation of the reruts will Tso tn nny eases taFuence We cleutatesuiet- Sotaeeetiea 8 5 40 ° on Oe la ° 40 <3 & sles froma pile tose test is here shown ‘in fo different scales. (© appears that the vlti= rate strength af the piles teen rence in imate load, Other definitions are also used. The ‘leita bearing captcty ix sontines defined 3s ead {5 0.9. 25 m oF 010 £10 0.25 0, ohare D {se sitar orth side of te pie (Fig. 4) tt esi2 ixpereciionay ey om OrDse asd Settement Fig. AD Definition of the fature load for fric= the radios of the Toné-deforation relationship to the First and Tast parts of te measured Ta aforation relationship. Tho results are normal= 1y corrected for the elastic eeapreszion (PL/EA) of the pile Also other defiasions of the ulti= Tar eriction pies in cleo syn ar tee (193) hs eter tat th alate toon tn etn stranth af tho pte PS, She tte Ind Pan pits nd Gy 8b exoraand by Gn reso penning =o fie) en hers 9 4 actor whch depo he spe of the Toeé-eformtion elton. ten the UP sts ind i elute relat osh betveeh Tm (1 P/E) andthe settlement of te pile ABI re vat of PETE at aves 2 Tear rations correspnds according to van der Figs 1 aleulation of ton cleat en te applieg Toad $e snrensd im steps (the MLonetad), tm dation of ach Tad tnerenent sould profersly be kage corstant (202 30 ni- res). The uleinate Toad cr thn be determined (creep) af the pie airing cin inrenent when the Tou the eroap init the erp rate dirfng the Tose ‘nremmats increases approximately Viearly with A combination of te ML and the CP methods as L-netad. Te tin foreach Teed sncromnt thor enstane (20 to 30 minutar). Thereafter the CHP etn ts used. The Toning rata $e 0.5 9 1-5 em) ‘init, In com cases 18 can bo desrable to reduce tn (1- P/ Pu) Sas ——— be Le Aiinnady, 7 ore carol pte on (otedetorttton core afar vn do Neon, 185)‘inorder to get an indication of te eect of 6 eformtion rate on the bearing capacity. TMS 1s tiny of terest for friction pies tn clay ried aut rapidly ake tat the ultimate losd for frictin pies im clay 15 In general sagntide of the creep ané tts effect on the ule rate capaciey the conditions at the point oF execution of the ‘nan ars.) 18 $6 smportane tat ho tne Seton Spt Displacement of pi 1 os cular for friction pites fn clay. 18 this ase the change of the Searing capacity with tine can be Teroe especialy For normaly consolidated lays with 9 high senesivityratie. Algo a Toad east tagacity of ites ‘The ultimate Bearing capacity can also be caeu shear strength paraaeters af the surreunaing 941, ‘be cohesion andthe angie of Sterna friction properties that take place airing oriving a ultimate Searing capacity 1s normally calculates 2 the stn oF the point resistance (agg a Driver pile Point Teishence, a, pomie ben) San Skin Fichon veetelencethe skin friction resistance (yyiq) fom the ree lationship atte s , +, fie + Pakin * Faint The relationship between the point resietance, skin friction resistance andthe axial deformation of the piles sTlutrated in Fig. 42. very smd relative displacemnt ts normaly required (2 t0 5 mn) independent "of the pile material to mot itze the skin friction reststance. ‘he distribution of We skin friction resistance can sam [=m 64 gi] cop nny ‘4 the mine sin friction restetance, wie 22Rhcient, gy Je the relative dtormtton Of the pie with reps tothe eurrocnfig soit Sng, 0 formation rota to meniize the ga in tretion rentatae anger for cobestontos than that for sore normally consltdatedtay. The skin friction reeistane f2 often reduced wien the oak reritance has been exceded.The cerease 15 formatly seul for coestonless soe (sans and (ravels) na for soft etay A relatively large axial ctspacenent te required to moiitze the point resistance. This taplacnent Is Cansderaby Targr for east-i-place piles than for driven pilesparticalerly tn cobstoness 20s, bacase of the conaction oF the Sot] below the ile point caused by driving. Tho eeplaconant stn increasing dlaneter of th pile, A relative: Ty large deformtion $s thus require cstefrplace lle which is previed with on en= Targed fot (Be). In s86FF clay there (32 isk at the minus akin frfetion resistance ce when he maxiun point resistance 1s wobiTized (oresressive failure) so tat the tata beariog cactty wT be Tops an the sim of the maxi he etna te ca pn rsa UPskin + Ppoint?- Th skims bras sty of bro Hoa he net neuer en thse rye be Pek en et the interna pierre Niece as ec earn Sor pio po‘ st rie ty 0 rc ay ven ct eee an eee et ‘The Toad taat can be allowed fs in this case « imine ator fe ae tet fe Te ner he aig ln tad re Citar ot et aro thee ‘ty the depth of penetration of the rock point. The e ‘Tsoi ad on ant" rea frat tig wth geen meraeoer prt etl of Ge oa taal gar ‘Sit tanec fe ah peg testy om eT a Te cite on atte a soar ven IR ns et Te etme Naugmmact «hal wy rs gar en hacer e Semper atte, ce yt Cilaions de tothe risks of pragressivefatlre eed on the theory of elasticity has been developed ring the Tat fon years to calatate the Toad distribution betwean the pitas pile troupe andthe stress istration along single Pes. Ope atffculty with an elastic analysis 15 the evaluation of the elastic constants. The lve ‘ulated eng # splacenentwodulus Ky fran the relationship 5, = Ky Sy mere 5, 15 the shear Stress along the surface of the ple and 5 2 the relative ofeplaconent of the pile wt respect to the surrounding 21 Results from Tod test on riven friction pies fn clay are sumarized fn Fi. 42, The mezured shin friction refetanco (edhoston) nis been strength of the clay (<4)- Won the shear strength ‘less thn 50 Ifa the adheston corresponds te surrounding clay. hon the shear streogth ‘larger than atout $0 KP hon the adesion for tuber and conrate piles tT in general be cansderably higher than that of ste) pes “he scatter of the tert results (6 large. Tas itternce i adhesion is probably caused part= Iv by Tateral vibrations of the piles airing the ariving watch ereate 3 seal ap betwen the pes andthe surrounding so. Mow the shear Strength of the clay 18 igh the clay wiTT ot flow back around the driven piles snd close the sao. Tha contact withthe surrounding stl will Tow shear strength ( ica in Table 5. For spliced timer piles an ahesion egal to S05 of the undrsined shear reap fe used inthe ealevlations for the top rk the adhesion for tinbor and concrete Soar strength. For steel piles an adhesion af 206 of the shear stray {s used in the caleule= éThe Shusish Busing Code (SOK, 1975) taker Snto {Cathe corresponds ¢0 BO ofthe undrined shear strent (cq = 98 cy) for 4/5. of the Tenth of the pile seausured fron the pile point. Te adhesion for the tap 1/5 af the pile 4s neslactd. This Tength shuld not be Text thin 3m. For spliced oF the clay (€y = &y) forthe wale Tnath of the Toatnson (1870, 1971) has pointed out that the a heston fora pie unich has bean driven hraigh Tayor with san Sato an underying lay Tayer can be larger than the udratned shear strength of the Clay The sand dragued com by ho le airing of canpacte sand or a miature of san and clay wilt itary « layer of soft clay will surround a pile at has been deiven through & layer with soft elay ‘nto an unerlaying layer with sti clay. The heston wil be rodicad&9 2 depth that core sponds to atout 20 pile ataetars, hen the Toning rate ts between 0.001 sya and 1 a/nin the adhesion along a pile wil? increase out 15 to 25 for enh tenfold increase of the Teading rate. The largest increase as been ebsery= for clays witha relatively Tow ntti shear strength (7 #0 10 Ka). For very lng pies it 15 possible that the ade heaton canbe Torr thin the values fnateated in Table § bacaute of the compression of the pile on 1 4s loaded, The skin friction reristance is first mositaed clare to the ground surface since 4 ery ma axial displacenent 1s required to mobilize he mexaun skin frietion. tn cays with 2 ah fs resid value, which {2 Towbetore he mexican shin friction rortrtance hs Seen wobzed atthe ile point. For spliced piles the adhesion for the top seonont can bo lw Hf the diaeter op side of the top section fs sealer than for the bottonsep- ‘eit. The adosion for the top segnent should there- fare not be included tn the cAletation oF the be Tine fe required after driving to reach the values of adhesion indicated in Tale 5. For tnbor piles four weeks ts nomaly Sufficient white for con= crete piles ap to 2 to 3 moths my be necessary, The tine required for steel piles fn & noratlly ceonsoticated clay $s abut Gnome, For heaity ovorcansol ated clays the tine required canbe Plasticity index (lp <0) upto 6 months may be 1 the ples have bean costed with asphalt. for protection ageinst corotion the adhesion will te siderably Tover thn the vals fdicated in arepoane ae oe area in ceativin te om ewe 1h pape ‘Sse eaten cain vie at ag fais ole, he caro tn Sst be eset aut, rey ont Say ye fo an) enone ie Rape ee a cs caren ee Tho atasion c, for diven piles im clay ca a so be related tothe effective overburden pres sure (Burland, 1973; Clark and Neyer, 1973) + Bf Hy ce dove Gey the effectie oerborden restore, aE rest andy ts the friction angie of the sil teh respect ta tho pile surface, Tt fs required hat fy and 4, can be detained, Test deta seen ‘3 supfest Ute the factor K€ gy for soft clay varies betwen 0.25 and 0.4018 ¢ recoamended tata value hy 09 fy = 0.30 fe ead inthe cal celtions 20 tne a1 ts interesting ta ote that the factor 0.3 Corresponds approxinately 10 the c/poratio af the clays that are fund tm Suede. (The c/p- OF 2 mormly conoriéated clay Yoerases with tenth.) The factor Ky t9 fOr mation to SPF cay with shear strength lest than 6D kPa Se effect by the rerconsol ation ratio. TE fe fot possible at present to give any reliable value on the Factor fy to fy for overconsl touted clays. This cooffh= lent 19 affectet, for example, ty arching round « pile during the consol ication of the clay ater driving. The increase of the Tater) fective pressure aroun 8 fle wi probably ba ess than the reduction of Ue pre mater pres fore recomnded for large obs vere such tests can be Sstitiegeconoiealy. ta calculate tae allowable Toad, tn sme cases actor of safety of 3.015 chosen with resect the point resistance and 1.5 wlth respect to the ein. resitanee of a pte 1s sometines cal= ‘lated fron the fofTovig goers? equation which has been developed by Terzagh (1863) primarily for shaw foundations point "Kee Me # Hy ep Dy Ky yg Ly CH) 1h this equation the factors Kgs Ky a hy ane shape factors tht take Snto secourt the shape of the Toaded are, the factors Nes My and are searing capacity factors whieh only depend on the ng of interno friction of the x01] (6), is the dtanter or width of the Tonded area, L is the eg totor the ground surface and. By abd Fyre the unit weight of the sof] above and below the ple pote, respectively, Test results indicate th Be hm Fr fe yh ym ‘he pint resistance af friction pile tn lay an be ealealated from 69-(2). Fora pile tn clay te bearing capecsty actors and Wy wiTl be 0 fn 1.0, rsseetvely. Te goal betriny cope then be rveitton a5 oine 213 yh sigs os) For clay, te coesion a1 by oat to Ue undratn= fd shear trengtn of the clay es whic can be fvtunted fram F614 vane, f11cone ad unained Girect shear tests op fran te unconfined compre iN correspond to te ifference Betueen the potnt resistance amd Ue waht of the pile. IF 1615 ‘Sssaed tat the init weight of Be pile mterial Coresponds to the anit went of the soil then om ¢ Te bearing capcity factor Hf that cludes the ‘influence ofthe shipe of Be Toaded area can be eterna from the theory cf plasticity. Thore= dicate thatthe bosring apelty factor HE = 8.0 en he Toaton of the pie pint below the round surface exceeds 4.010 5D andthe (oF the pile (0) ts Tass tha about 20 en, The value Of the bearing eapaety facar aernses sae stat with increasing pile saeeter. A value of Ton Wis recomended for 24es with» cionter etueh 20 cr and 6B cw and HE = 6 for piles witha diaeter Targer than 60x ¢ the sin of the point and th skin frecion re> sistance. The point resistance corresponds general to 5 10 1% ofthe total bearing capacity. the otal baring capactty fA relavely large ‘in deforaation 15 required to mibiize the point resistance tn comparison withthe skin realected Sn the caTeuation ofthe vieimateDear= ‘ng eapactty of 2 pile in clay eam Caveutate the time bearing capacity of 218 0 trough a 4 dep clay Tar with an average shear tregth of 100 Ks and nto « dep layer of clay aith an average undratneg shear strength of 0 ba The Tigutd Toate of the clay 2 901, The shear strong as Been determined by field vane ters The crossesection oF the piles square. (250 250 a). The skin fection resistance can be estimated from a (31). Tho maxima skin friction for the top part of the pile will be about 30 Pa (Table 5). For the Tower part of the pile the skin friction wil ‘orrespand to 0 of the undrained sear strensth resiced in Sweden fn caleutations if the Heute nit of the soil clay as determined tron tele ve tasts 16 larger than 80. rection conf cont af 0.9 sr nomaly ured $# the gu Tit of te sol ts Benen 0 and 10D. The unit skin be 21.6 MP (0.00 x 0.9 x 30) which crrerponds to {skin friction rststance of 258 HN (12029) The point resistance of the pie can be caeulated fran Eq. (38). TE depends on De reduced shear strength of the clay whieh {5 27 Pa (0.9 x 30) The point resistance apd the total bearing 50) be used iractlywtthout coretion ony wen the Sanater or the side of the afle fe less than out 50cm The skin friction restatence (5) can 130 be bint restatancectn be estimated from E9. (27) eyertat (1986) has recomended Wat value of int resistance fron static penetration test ‘an be uted fn the calculations. Hessorenents n= iene, bawver, that Oe skin fHetion cam be con erably Maher than es sue ‘he relationship between the point resistance 9, and ow friction resistance“, for 2 penetrometer masured with a separate friction sleeve located Suet stove te oerstroneter pain 15 shown 18 ravel 1s considerably ltr than te pine re= reststance and the shin frsionrestance are esured parately, [t 46 ferthreore pats ble ta Toreel, sand, silt ar clay) Enon Te skin fretion depends leo on the pie material td on the shape of the pile It can be ert imine fram the piri relationhip («2Skin friction, MPa Tes Siete Pet tance'a tue Gare P= ‘Etrnetey {steer segomnny 188)" 4G) 4s ov 0.08 Ove ou © On O« (1969) stron results of load tests, proposed te | relationship intcatd in Fig. 48. A relatively Tow value on the coaficion should this be sed to ealevlate the akin Friction for piler hit Rave Been riven Into» layer of sand or roel in caapartaon with clay or sit. A Toner value shod be sod for sm? teplaceent ites (tee! Hepes) than fap 3. taper timber pies. Segaann sea foun that the skin friction restst- Wit be Tor than that of sanerete pes with point ‘he tearing capacity of friction pies in and can also te estinated from weit soundings ac ‘Mustrated im Fig, 90, The fSgure shove for precst concrete piles and tinber ites Silly Sana, Sand, a eetel oe le Reduchon coefficient ~« (5.7/4) Fi tee each i Tenetromaet ahd fa skin rriction resistance (sq) for piesa Sond arte Bepennn, 163)te relationship betnen th otints bearing pecity (UE), the setae ren of te pile (WHE) an the pestration resistance of the stl as tefresed ty te nmber of al fars/20 cm fercrcion, Te frcated relatos bu te rete tron pte Tod ets, In th tie piles tave etn wepected,toaay the olnt revstoceacconts for ast nf the a) fearing cmerty. Te elton sow Sn Fla. tncte that he uit baring t= fect wit be abort 20 ger for «tier pe than for «precast conerete ple of te stn S= face are of the piles andthe se inital rele tive censtty of th so, Mon the relative ene Sty of the sei) flow (65a Ftre/20 cn) ho Shin friction vesttance wit be set 2 8 for crate pte Menthe relive dehy {5 on (eto T8hafturn/20 co) te stim $tty 15 high (5 bu ara en) imate load peilt re SS hin angie 1 Caleulate the uitimate bearing capacity of 9 15 a ora precast concrete pile (25 25 cn). The pile ‘un sand vith on average pietration resistance of 12m fram 0.98 m (3.75 0.25 cn) above te pile point down to 0.25 below tho pile pont The skia friction resatance canbe cnculated fro Eq (37). The coottictet K, wilt be equal to Table 6. The unt waht of tesa belo the ground water level ts extinted to 1.1 n/a? The corresmnding angle af {stars fiction angle 4, from Table 7 will be 22.5 degrees (3/4 + 20°), 1 these values are ued the estinated skin ric~ lon resistance Pig W113 HM The in friction resistance an azo be art ited frat bp, ° 5 10 Fig. 50 catealation of ee igs 30 Shoe: Creston Bite Comite, 1923)the penetration resistance (g,)- Ata pentration festatance of 498s the akin friction wil be about 20 ha (0.5 Of) whlch corresponds to 8 ota? ‘shin friction resttance of 200K. This resist= ace is cnstdersbly lover thon thet caleusted fron the estimted angle of interral friction of te 221 ‘The point bearing capac af the piTe is eon tation retstance exceeded 10 HPO. The maxim point reststonce andthe ultimate boring capacity WrTT Use 625 KF and 108 mH (513 + 625 HN), 1 a factor of safety oF 31s uted Une alowbTe Toad on the pile wilt Be 380 14. Tt has een stuel in ie coilations that th pile itself is capable of carrying tne applied 1084. A hiher tan enfarged pile point compared witha pile of sample 2 stints the uitinste bearing capatty of & ister pile appronaately 10 Tang wich itl be ariven Festatance of 15 halflns/20 cn. The dtanoter of the pie pine $5 125 mn nee the average dlamter ofthe ite wi? be about 1 eT ee tied tat the santr Srer {estimated to be 0 Ws fron FQ. 50 won the peetra- ton resistance fe 15 buifturs/20 on, The estimted Telnte bearing capectty wil thus be 260 The ‘Tremble Yad on the pie 15 100 KU Fa factor of ntety of 2.5 to wed inthe cleulatons, The mixin treat at the pile head will Be aporoxnately 3 We Tne uttinate booing capacity of friction pies in aberiontess soils can a1g0 be estimated fron Stand fr Penetration Teste (SFT) or fron fan Sunetngs. In SF the mar of lows (W) shioh are re- ott of a bore Hole wits a 6.5 by free f {ng hammer are counted. Te Reght of fa11 {5 en (Trzag and Peck, 196) eyertot (1956) hs found from’a cmparison Of re= ‘Its from kd tests on friction piles dn sand,that tion resistance (bloe/0.3 8). Ths relationship 1s nonever, affect by te prticle size a8 ‘Mustrated fm Fig. SD. For silt the gemmt resistance can be as Tw a 0.254 (Ha) nao or gravel the average point resistance iT bw about 0.61 (2) € The point resistance cam 160 be estinated fromthe relative density of tho soit using certain ning values (Terzght and eck) hen the pene- tration resistance /30 en penetration is betwen 0 etn dense betas 10 and 20 Blws/30 en and tense when 920 blons/30 Meyer has pro posed tht the skin friction resistance for criven ples canbe asined to te 0.002 W (Pa). 8 value [renter than 0,1 Pa shld ot be are i the <3 caatos For csi pes tw sin ies | ‘lon restntance willbe spprxieately eq} t0 (6.006 (fe. veers te skin friction stale g te seo poibte to get a raugh nctcation of the tearing capacity of fiction piles tn att Clay from SPT-teste, caparison with test ta clay will increase with increasing Novslue. The | Undratned shenr strength in We $= roughly eal ta NSD. Recording to Terzght and Peck (198) the shear strength is apraximately eq to W/O (00a). Fran the eetiated shear strnath of the flay the point ad the skin Friction verStances an than be evaluated fron Ege (21) an (25). ‘ng eapctty of friction pites Jn sand frou dome- lc soundings. Fig. 52 stow the relation the surface are of the pile Ayjn am the emanic0 Fig, SY Reletioghp nian ng Stn Pee penetration vesstance a8 mnsure, by Ra Sount= Tn pe A Gdersnarig pte tote relationship nas been eralated fron pile Toxd tests, The altinte bearing captcty was found be Mahar for tion pies than for precast concrete » Fa soundings are commonly used tn the Seandt- In wathod Aa fre6 falling weight (73.5 0a) i= tronetar 2 cm are cota. The method 1s stané= Ardized by the SuabionGaotchnical Sect 1 fs alo possible to calculate theultimate bear= ‘ype A (eleus/20 cm) corespnds to the Novel (tow/30 en pontration) on Pte The sane exleuls= too precast conerata pile (10 x30) which has average penetration resistance of §blow/30 ex 235 measured by SPT. The groundwater levels Ton fed nie wetant of the soit 12 be, the relatfonahipe y+ 0.002 (Hs). RE A= 15 teepee as © Aflen the Norwegian Pile Commn thee C1975) oo io Gil Bee /O:20m poration Fig, 8 Gatevltion ofthe marin capctty of SPhcton pies sued fran dame verge sin friction wit? be at Teast 0.02 Po (15« .n2).the total skin fietion resistance for a ite witha surace ares of 18 af yTT tha Be 0.58 1 (1.2 x 18x 0.03). The point resistance can to estimted fron the relationship, = 0.98 (Wa) as canbe een fran Fig. 81. wil be equal to 5:1 9a (0.35 x 15). The estimated point resistance OF the pile afTT tht be 0.46 Mand the total bear ing capacity 1-00 mt, Tf 2 factor oF safety of 3.0, is chosen the extinited aloe Toed {= 0.354 le 2 Calatate the besring capac of #15 m Tong titer ie wich ae been ariven through » deep sand Tay- fr with an average ponetration resistance of 9 blows/ 21-8 (San Seung Yethod A). The point andthe butt toner of Ue ple fs 20 cu and 36 a ree spectively. accoring fig. 52. Tort Cater pile wth © surface ars of 13.2 eaetated timate © Sear coacty wit os be 0,78 The aoe able aed 0.26 MHF efector of seety af 3.0 st 2 ee6. LATERALLY Lome rues Pres can be subjected to high Tater Tans shiek are caused e.9, by save and wind forces 25 general flection of a latereTy Todd pile at relatively Yow aes nerves eeu fel TinatPy wth the applied Toad. The Tater deflection fs often cl sled using 4 coeffictnt of horizontal sbarade reaction fy deftnod by the equation my 3) ere p15 the lead per uit aro traatorra frou the pile to the surrounding 2011 andy ts Ue feral deflection of the pleat the same level. 1 has thus betn asuned Ut the soi] cane replaced bya series of linearly elastie springs (9.53 ) YCateral, detleehion oF ply Fig. 52. betintion of tne coettietent of bori= SEnLt Saerase'esetfon by List the coefFctent of subgrade reaction corre= “onde tothe sittnes of the springs. Tas co feticlent $e nota materiel constant since tt varies With the ze of the Tose area and ths withthe For cohesive sis the coefficient of horizontal Subarade reaction ly at srt term Tang WIT ‘increase with incretsng ous of elasticiy (Bron, 1958) and Us wit creasing undraines shear strength oF the soi. Since the shear strength fora noraaltyconsoaates clay wit sncrease with Aeoth 1815 expected tat te coetTictent of sub- rade reaction wiIT za Sueraase with depth For the Heavily overanst date clays vich are found of horizontal sgrade reaction {= expected to be {the shear strength. In clays wth 9 dy surface pected tht the coefFetant af suagrade reaction Wi decrense with dep. slow the dry crust the The coeFicient of horizontal suborag reaction (hy) for cabasontess sols wT also be progort= fon to Be nodule of elrtitty of the surround- ‘ng soil. Since the modal af elastitty depenis fn tho relative density ane on the effective over- orden pressure, the mils of subpraze reaction In this cave the coeFiciert by cam be calculated +200 a hestonles soils Tt is generally assumes that the ceatfictent my {8 only a fnetion of the relative strength ofthe lay with depth, Teroht (1985) hs vecommnded he folowing ‘alec tm For ober fnless fsTable 9 cootficint my according to Terzaghi (ims) eatin, eatty tore wig ise grout ater [2.57.08 a | et ormemter 58 1 ese values are used fm calculations the cal= clad Tataral aplecaent of the pile will as fie be larger than the real Taterl displacement Tho natcated values are conservative, In aire the coefficient of subgrade rection crease with Snereasing size of the pile group The confFictent fs recued in @ coestoness sot] son the spacing ofthe piles inthe erection of the applied Toad te Tess than 60 to 8, wtere 0 {the tamter af the pile. then the spicing $8 spproxinately 3 0 the cot Ficfent of hurizotal ‘bord resetion will be about 258 of the value creasing nutter of Youd cycles 44 largest wen the relative density of the sof) 1s Tou, AE Dp¢ 0.35, fa recomanded, The corresponding values a8 0, <065 1s 395 and SOF at Dy 0.65. For cohesive sails he coetticfent of horizontal fof elasticity. (ts value depends partly on the Flew ral stiffness of the ile and party on th éeform= ‘on properties of the surrauning 20:1. For 8 ple seth 4 eagtn exceeding five pile sianoters (L>5n) hy at thor tor Toeding can be ort ient= From EN relationship by myo «s) ie to creep and consi eation of the surrounding soi) the Lateral deflection of the pile wil ine crease uith tine, For Inorganic clays the lateral ge EE MON CEU Gps cuts us isl ili] aflection wilt nomaly 86 to 6 tines at short tert loading. For erpnie clive and clye with 3 igh plastieity fen te te dependent settle seta canbe Inger thn thre fndicated above. Tit fs arse the the average Tater ooflec- tion at tong tom lating willbe sx tines Targer ‘oan the dformtions at short tern Yadira the cfticient of subgrace reaction can bo estimtae ( + mayo es sinc only a rough estimate of te cetticlnt fy 15 otto requires The Tater dtslacenet of « Ttoraly Toad sno ‘ATL Soha af short pile in ecahestonless sot? onthe doerstntors Temp ofthe pile Le 2 a fndicated in Fig. $8. The factor nts etinad by the relationship os a ore Eyl, 14 the Menus rigidty (stress) Of the Bie, The Tatra deflection y, at the round surface of 4 feerested shot pile {ie + 2) canbe caleulated fan the equation wears) i & % In this equation Ps the Tatra oad onthe pie ts the distance from the land point eo the ground furfice and ithe Teagta ofthe pile Inte case n> 4 the Tater deflection at the ing relationship (Fig. 518) ’ Pet) “) 0) 35a mG)4 DAN e fe AY L / / 4 * ® eu eiemadinny Free hensteel pie tong pite wil that be stout AOE of the Tater flection oF a shart ite withthe sane dinensions in effective method to reduce te literal deflection The Tateral deflection at the ground surface of 3 sore rettranad pile (nb = 2) 18 0 oy point of finity #3 Tachtad at the coud surface. The tern deflections of «short laterally load ‘ef pie which hasbeen driven nto a Tayer of co= heatve so witha constant coefficient of subgrade tesction is show én Fig. 542. In the case vbore the Ginensioniess Tngta of the pile Bot Vy 0/4 Fl fe tess than 1.5, the literal displacement of 8 pie at tho ground surface can be caleulates tron Reebamed pile tO) aie oy loaf to he groud surface and D is the side oF iomcor of the pe ‘he corresponding Tater deplacnent of & Tong pie free-hadedanen the daemons Tenath BL Ss larger enon 2.5,2an bs elcid from he - -2emees 1 RT Stans) Te Tater displacement for 3 ong restrained io won the eiensioness Tengen sL< 1.5 can be ep then rey a restrained pile will thus 38 only 25 ofthe forressoning laters! cispacennt of a fre-headed ile wien the lateral oud {5 applieg at the around length ofthe pie does aot affect the TatarelAe ection yay On the other banda ctange of For short laterally Toded pe in lay (Fa, 54) with dinenstontss Tegth gL <0.5,te Tatars} % aL zo ot ae this cate the entre pile wilt aove Taterally without rotation. Tie lateral splacenent wl? fecrense with increasing pile Tenth Fora Yong pile Jn cobesive softs the Tater placangat will be proportional to the coefficient f= Va, OF elpTor a ling tle fete th only necetany £8 get 2 rough value of the om fficent of harizantal subgrade reoction snc Strang 3 Lataraly Lane ple 1 the pile te aecidentsly overloaded. The Uthaate lateral resistence ©” « pile depends on the strenuth of the pile material, the sinan- sons of the pile andthe shar strength of te ‘ne failure S011 located Front of the pte LITT move omar tomar the ground surface Beto a certain level (for catesive site abut tives pie dtaneters) the soi will be displaces terelly from the front to the back side of the Pi 6 The Tateral resistance of tho soil wl? increase with tnereaing Tater dispeceant nti the Aisplacenent corresponds ta ayproxinately 208 of the claneter or the sigh oft pile. Ten the) passive earth pressure of the st] fs sobized ‘The correspontingaistritutior of the Tater arth presure 2 sTlustrated in Fig, Sib and Se for cohesive and coesioness soil, respectively or cohesive soils (clay) the passive earth press sure at the aroun surface at short tern Tondtng {that for an infinitely Tog wat, The passive arth pressure wiTT increase ripicly with depth ete 6 iz] fi ES e i \ iF i = 1 = it > ° l i Fig. 8 arty pressure atstritution at fatture,us Uo arching around the pe AL 8 depth oF 30 the lateral earth prossure will be atout 8 to 12 ts the drained shear strength of the cay lor eke dpth is larger than about tive pite dae raters the Tatare earth pressure will be constant fe sear strength 15 constant with depth For cohasonless soils 4 seas resonable to ‘sue thie the Tatera] earth pressure wi be proportion to the passive Rankine earth pressure Test resis inseate tae the Taterat earth Rankine ear pressure. The lateral earth pres sure at the ground surface wil be ow and wl) ‘crease approxaately Hnearly with depth In order to simplify the caeutations the Tater ‘arth pressure shown in Fig. 55 tas bean replaced by Shae shown im Fig. 56. For eabesive sofis tt pressure wil) be small and negli9}ble dom to 15D. delow this depth it has boon assumed that ‘he Tateral earn pressure f= 8 cj. If this asrune arth pressure distribution {5 use then the cal= tent in the pile. This calevltion ated wT the passive Rankine earth presure. This axsined value correspon to the minim Tateral earth therefore conservative. Yossible failure modes of 3 laterally loaded pte fare shoun in Fig. 5T-The fat ure ca after be & fof) fatlure (Fig. 5Te and Sto) or a pte falure (fig. 57, SYe ana S74). At so fate the wwxt= tun itera reststance of th sot will govern the Tater resstanceanile a pie faflure ten one or Several plastic ages cevelep inthe ple 50 the yield strength of te pile seetion wi stfece the Tateral retatane, {8 show in Fg. 58 for a start freeseaded pile For te ile tn clay Shas Been assumed that he pressure fs constant below this depth (2c). Tow the canter of rotation the airection of the is, 6 Asuna ar grssre distribution forey © Reeheinest pies € Fig. 57. Failure aechantens of Iteray Tonded pies, arth pressure wT? change, The ulteate Iateral a= Tinearly with depth. At the centar of rotation, the forcen neti th pe, Tantra) earth pressure will ehange itz airection ‘he dtatrbution of Teterat earth pressure lang stance the igh concentrated Tateral ear pres apie in sand {s shou in Fig. S8c, For the port sure at Ue pile toe has ten replaced by 8 on Centrated Toad Rat the te a5 Hnfiated fnFig, Ste, The error will normally be anal P hs R at! > sco] poco Zea ° & Clay &) Send oo sight: Later Earth preseure displacement — dietributien Fa, ah pee astrotin for» sreip? @ @ Lebeat diee fplateersh opt =| Pee Pg aig © Sand Earth pressure distributer ‘0 erbrteedpite Gott fatioe)e ‘he distribution of the Tater} eareh pressure tong a restrained pile at sit faflure is shi ‘in Fig, $9. Th pile wiTl be aiepaced laterally parallel with the ground surface. It actz as 8 Gove The Tatara earth pressure wil Be saat? 20 the ground surface daun to 8 depth of to cy. Te utiante lateral resistance can be calealsted tron Op ot sriun of tw afte Paw Pa, 50 ho x 2» 10 ° o 4 8 @ le 20 Pile length, L/D Fig. Gan utente laters resistance of a pile in lay"eott atte) The uitinate Tater resstance has lated n Fig. 60 for cohesive soils as a fnction of the dienstonesspite Tewth L/D and the sceontriity of Oe Yad (e2)- The coresponing es sott ts shun in Fig, 60D. Tt canbe ten ferved tht ft a been arsmed that. the maxim 1a strength of the pile section, Pay/0'tg kp 2007 to +e 9 20 we a ‘ik aig 40 e 7 ° o 4 en % Pile length, L/D Fig. 6tb Utimie Teter sistance of a pile in find {cos failure)The fol mechanism of 2 long freo-tesded pile 4 stown sn Fig. 61a. The pil wilt fat) sen 2 plastic "hinge" te formed fn he pile, Tas will ‘occur sen the maxnun nnont the pile corre- onde tothe yteld stronoth of the pie section Myaeyg Ah flenare at a stance ¢ below the ground headed pie Sn cohesive soil (lay) {8 stown $n Fig. 610. The lateral earth pressure has been assued fo be small and negligible dow to 2 cepth pressure Je assed tobe conetant (8 6). Te Corresponting sar8h pressure distribution far co- hestonless coils {5 shown in Fig, le, The Tateral areh pressure 11 increase approinatly Viner Ty with depth, [reaches # mximun st the depth pressure. The time Tateral resistance mas been Caleulated from te eq] sori of al) freee Aeting on the pile, The Bonéing noon wi reach The fale mechanism for song restrained pile ‘8 stow in Fig. 628. The pie wil? fall when to The corresponding ¢istriution of tho Tateral earth pressure 1s show in Fig. 62 fora pte tn clay Te ultimte lateral resistance of the pile can be calealated from te equilibriua of the pile and the assumed earth pressure dtatribution, The alt= tate Tater raristance of a retained pile wl ‘hie bo appreciably Maher than thet of «free The failure mode for pile of intermediate length 4 stow Sn Fig. 604, Failure of te pile will cc when the matmae negative Sending nomnt reaches the yield strength of the pile section Myiera mere the pile 15 restrained at the pile ‘The pie rotates around» poi located ust pretsre fr a pile in clay 2 shom 18 F16. 630 The lateral earth pressure wl! change sts ree tsD ) + a cD B¥gh GD & dey © Sand Cie es Lala! die Earth Placement aistibutken Fig, 61 cart pressure ast sreeteuue pile (i rng €15d £ cud BtgfkpD e @ ® Clay) Sand oe e Lateral dis- Earth pressure placement dite bution fe @ eiinieer ite give nstieed ‘on at the canter of rotation, The dstrituion ral sath pressure WIT HnerseTpary th of Teer erin pressure for pie i cteson- depth. It wT beat Teast tren tems te pss ie Tess sof (und) fsa nigel. The ater kane een pressure u Dh sqodld oe.o f staf? oS & clay ©) Sand Laleral dis- Earth preseure Placement distribliken Fig. 6 farth pressure atetitutin for re- gat intermediate fegth (otte ttt)