y ) alle Peper for presentetion Mow INTRODUCTION: The following outline is being precented to set the scene oF thi Fourth Cerivteen Geclogicel Conferences, to place in perspective specific pepers on Trinidsd in relation to the overell situation, ond persiculerly to provide @ background to the field exoursions which will follow the technical sessions. In omsidering Trinidad itself an accomt of the general geology end structure will be given, but no attempt will be mede to eleborate on the petroleum geology, as this will be the subject of severe) papers in the economic section. Both geogrophically and in © sense gclogically, Trinidad forms the eastward extension of the South American mainiand of Venemuele — although as we shall see later there are 2 number of striking differences. Certei: ot continuation of the Coast the fold-belt of the Northen Range is the Range of Bastezn 7 guela afd thus stands as the extrene outpost + eastern branch of the Andean mountain system. For t geology of Trinide hes many local peculii ties lergely arising from the fact thet relative to eastern Venemela it lies on the mobile northem side of the eestem Venequele besin and was characterized, perticularly during Tertisry tines, by ints tent tectonic 2c! ty which interrupted end profoundly modified the sedimentation. As a result, several locel fecies wore ‘developed which have no direct counterparts in eastern Venezuela.A generalized geological aap of Trinidsdis given as figure 1, which serves as © besis for the following discussion. net units which ere iy, Trinidad falls into five dist: closely related to the gross geological structure; from north to south these are: The Northern Range, a deeply-dissected mountain renge with 2 marked east-west srend, end composed of an upfolded, upthrust region of relatively old, low-g: je metamorphic rocks. ‘The eastem oni of the Renge will ve studied on tae second field trip to the Inco area. Mexinum elevations ere at El Mucuche, 3,075 ft. and El Cerro del Aripo, 3,083 £6. The Carcni Plains, generslly low-lying area of terraces, elluvial and sreny 4 filed eae Tertiary to recent deposits. It appears to be rply seperated from the Northera Range, the rorphologies1 boundary trends conspicuously east-west and is probably ¢ major feult. To the south the terrain rises gradually to fom the northem slopes of the next feature, the Central Renge. The Co culminetes in a 1 of low hills aligned north- eest-southwest, rmming diagonally across the islend. It is esse: tially an asymnetric?1 anticline, southvard-directed, and haviag a strongly folded core of lower Tertiery and Cretaceous rocks. The onlay; Tertiaries include recfal limestones which form several of the cons elevations as at Mb, Tenene (1009 £¢.), Brigend Hi11, and the Cua: hills.ae To the north the younger Tertiaries dip off regularly (northward) into tho Caroni eyncline, intorrupted ty severel locel flank folds, such as at Tolpero and Sangre Grande. Those north-flenk Miocene beds crop out as & series of excellent sections along tho east coust in Metura and Menzenille Boys, end vill be the objective of the first field excursion, ‘The western end of the Renge, with its ssscciated sharply folded structures end sedimentary phenonens (wild flysch") will be seen during the Zourth exqursion, in addition to a visit to the Mio-Pliocene type localities of the north flenk. The Naparina and Southem Lowlands, south of the Central Range, is a broad belt of low, rolling, rather cheracterless country. Ceologicelly, thie coneiste of rather sharply-folded Tertiery cleys end sands of mono- tonous charactor, th a few enticlinal inliers of older Tertiary or Cretaceous rocks which form local features as at San Fernando, Ben Lomond and Cherana. Still further south, low-lying, rolling country prev le, with wide alluvial belts nd sone swampy tracts. ‘This is the locus of the Southern (synclinal) basin which spans the south of the island from east to west end is infilled th younger Tertiary deposits. ‘The rims of this basin ere locally complicsted by folding and faulting which are economic— ally important es several of these form the oil-producing structures of the south of the Island.Situated on one of these subsidiary folds is the famous Pitch Lake of ie Brea (Brighton), e lergs-soale esphelt seopege whose origin will be dicouseed in @ paper on "Sedimentary Yolesnism" by #.G. Kugler, end which will be visited during field excursion No.6 to thet erea. The Southern Range, a line of low, discontinuous hills, forms the southem margin of the Islond, and is graced with the name of the "Southern Renge". ‘whe maximum elevation of just over 900 ft. is in the south eestor Trinity Hille, which ty repute were the first lend-fell sighted by Columbus on his 1496 expedition. Geologicslly, this is, broadly sp ng, on antic’ nel trond, but the structures are smell, diecontinu: s end separated by merous faults. Much of the folding is of the strong, dispyroid type, end this is the area in which most of Trinidad's active mud-voleanoes are situcted. The lithologies of the younger Tertiary beds and some of the oilf: structures will be seen on exours: SA, which will include a visit +o a mud-voleano at Palo Seco. An eccount of a recent mud-voleano eruption which formed an islend off the south coest will also be given as « p: by G.2. Higgins & J.B. Saunders. So much then for broad picture. A short, general eccount of the stratigraphy follozs, «nd reference will be made to the major subdivisions as shown in the stretigraph c chert, figure 2.‘The oldest knom formetions in Trinidad are found in the Northem Range, which ie made up of low-grade metamorphosed phyllites, quartzites, ané recrystallized limestones generally accepted as upper Jurassic in age — slthough for the most part they ere unfossiliferous. The upper Jurassic reference stems from the discovery of a few emmonites at Cure Reservoir in the eastern pert of the Renge which were determined as Perisphinctes trensiterius, of Tithonian age. Still further east on the coast in somemsat younger beds, a Barremien ammonite faune hes been found. At the exstern ond eround Toco a more varied lithology of’ shales, phyllites, sandstones, quartzites end limestones of Cretaceous age can be subdivided in some detail and the examinotion of these rocks will be undertaken on exeu ion 5 2 to the Toco district. This eastem area also includes Trinided's only igneous rocks, some interbedded basaltic voleanies, including ashes, breccias and flous occurring among the lower Cretaceous shales. These volemics form the prominent topographic feature on the north coset eround Sens Souci from wh ich they teke thei name. n aspects of Norther Range geclogy will be covered by in his paper on the eastern part of the end also by A. Furrer in an secount of a study of thin sections from the Rio Se: and Grande Riviere Formations.Before lesving the Northem Ronge, it is notewarthy thet there is & narrow band of uppermost Cretaceous seni-phyllitic shale along much oF tho north coast and agein along the southern mergin. Closely associated with the latter outerop is the Laventille Formetion with its feebly foseilifercus limestone, which also extends westward through Pt. Gord and Gaspar Grande island. In this same trend is the gypsum deposit of St. Joseph, a small Linticuler body whose ficld relstionships are obscure, and whose origin hes been 2 matter of controversy. Further light on this problen end the stratigraphic position of the Laventille Limestone may be expected from a discussion of possibly eguivelent beds to be presented in a paper on the Paris Peninsula of Venemuele ty Gonzalez de Juana, Munoz end Vigneli. Lower Cretaceous. In sddition to the knom lower Cretaceous of the eastem Northem Renge, beds of similer age and r-ther conperable lithology occur in the eastem part of the Central Rmge forming the core of the structure. As in the north, thoy consist mainly of derk sheles, # subordinete quartzites end rare exogenous limestone blocks, end are morn fas tho Cache Formation. Sone examples of these exotic limestones end their mode of recycling in successively younger "wildflysch" conglonerates will be demonstrated bricfly in the Pointe-2-Pierre area during Exou7si Nosds A short period of disstrophism with looal folding and erosion occurs about Albien to Ceuomanian, ond resulted in the unconfomeble relationship between upper end lower Gretaccous.a7 Upper Cretaceous. ith the exception of the upper Creteceous shales end scndstones of the Norther Rengs, the predoxinent lithology in mathemn Trinidad is a curious silicified siltstone/cleystone referred to colloquially es “argiline" or "ergillite", which forms the upper part of the Haparima Hill Formation. Bluo-grey when fresh, it weathers to a light-coloured, frisbie silt-stone; it usually contains s variable proportica of shale and is locally cherty. It passes domverds transi- tionally into dark, c2lesreous sheles of the underlying Geutier Formetion which is known from wells and from smell exposures in the core of the Central Range. This lithology is quite widespread 2s it is found in munerous deep wells throughout southern Trinidad and elso occurs in the Serranie del Interior of Bastern Venezuela. It mst reflect rather uniform, quiescent conditions during upper Cretaceous times. The uppermost Crets cons (Iinestrict ian) shows gain a reversion to = uniform dark calcareous shele, the Guaysgueyare Formation. These conditions were brought to en ond 2y renewed earth-movements with local uplift snd eros: which preceded the Palaeocene transgression. She Gautier, Naparima Hill, and Guayaguayare formations contin only very searce megefoseile, but are quite rich in microfossils. ‘he plank- tonic and benthonic foreminifers suggest deposition in deep, open sour, though in the Geutier and perhaps the lower part of the Neparima Hill conditions of deposition my have been 2lmost euxinic. The biozonstion of this sequence has been erected on pl: pktonic foraminifera, mainly es species of Globotruncana.The late Cretaceous movements seen to heve left the Central Range uplift zone as a shoal area which was potenticlly active ond at times euezgent. This tectonically cotive trend persisted throughout the Ter- ‘tiary and resulted in the more or less effective separstion of the Northern end Southern basins, the sedimentary histories and biofncies development of which folloned differing courses. Whilst little is Imown of the lower Gertiaries of the Northern Besin, end the possibility is thet they may be thin ond at loast pertially absent, certainly from the Oligocene onwanis, the stratigraphy of the two areas is quite distinct. The presence end periodic ectivity of the Centrel Renge uplift is reflected in the localized development of conglomorates und "wildflysch" sedimentction in the adjocont areas throughout lower end middle Tertiary times. Paleocene. The Paleocene transgression seems to heve beon rapid end widespread. The deposits are generelly argillaccous end two distinct litho- end bio-facies cre recognized, the more open-water calcareous shalee of the Liverd Springs Formstion end the more neritic non-cslesreous shales and subordinate candstoses of the Chandiere formation, which occu generslly in proximity to end over the old Gentrel Range Uplift. Tectonic activity along the old Greveceous exes cf uplift ocou-red during the deposition of the Cheuliere and Lizard Springs Formations evidenced by the occurrence of "wildflysch” conglomerates with exotic locks and large slip masses of different Creteceous Formetions includ: numerous fossiliferous lower Cretaceous limestones not kmom in situ in Trinided.The osloareous shales of the Lizard Springs Formation contain @ rich foreminifere] fauns of planktonic ond benthonic types; the bio- 8 of Globorotalis. The non-calearecus zonntion is baged mainly on spec: shales of the Choudiere Formstion, on the other hend, carry © predomin- antly benthonic erensesous foreminiferel assemblege which soos to indicate relatively deep turbid mater conditions. The Pelleccene eppeors generally transitional to the overlying Zocone. Eocene. This is charecterized by widespread deposits of highly foraminifer®l marls snd calcareous shales of the Nevet Formation during lower end middle Eocene times, representing # continuation of the quict depositional conditions established during the Paleocene. Along the old Centre] Renge uplift a non-caleareous shale and gritty sandstone facies occurs, the Pointe-a-Pierre Formstion; this is @ flysch type deposit with evidence of turbidity current action ond carries an entirely arena- ceous foraminiferal fame. Although it has sometimes been considered @ shellon-water deposit, these factors suggest 2 deeper water environment. Further south the light coloured chalky marls of the Nevet Formation are wideepresd. They contain a rich, mainly planktonic feuna which has been used to establish a detailed biczonation. In Upper Eocene tines certh movements agein set in with tho reective- tion ond erosion of old uplift oress. Shellor-water neritic deposits of the Upper Eocene folloved, this phase being generally correletable with the widespread "Jeckecnien" transgression. Coarse clastics and congloneratss ocour in local uplift ereas, snd rapid leteral facies changes are charac teristic of thie phace. Sone exanples of the varying lithologies will be studied in the San Fernando area during excursion Ho.d.soy opeplog Sy ymnoy syuadias 34, | Fg 00 N awa QVGINIWL oe 9S vesqgiien sono sad exe ETE] svoveues wiz aeaes (I oa a seyay 69) 90 epug ysoow 5.uebo1g uy ey id 2 AES AU 108 c1eteyi é é Sia vaoway “ Pena ioe vate Zz [ aisinaves g syuania on 5 wedo 4 rT annoy] —SoNvE aonva | wnanzawan_nusises Nive NUBHLNOS VINO NASHIHON wianz3n3aa | | Ql iS eeoe Oligocene. Fairly widesprecd but irregul-r movements soem to have interrupted deposition between Eocene eni Oligocene with disconfornity in som: arees cnd apparently continuous deposition in others. About this time, tho Central Range uplift seoms to have been active and now forms a more or less persistent terrier between the northern end southern deposit- ional basins, which is reflected in the differing stretigraphic succession in the two areas (see figure 2). In Oligocens also there is 4 third facies — the Nariva Formation — peculier to the immediate neighbour of the Centrel Range itself. In general s rather repid deepening of the seas seems to have occurred in both basins with initielly the deposition of feirly deep-water m: ne foreniniferal cleys and marls of the lower part of the Cipero Formation. Thereafter, the two besins becone different: ed; in the Northern Basin progressive shallowing occurred with the es! ablishing of open-shelf conditions, whilst deep-water conditions persisted in the Southern Basin. In the Northern Basin the lower Cipero is followed by the Brasso Formstion, predominently celesreous clays end silts with ebuniant micro- and megs-fossil fauncs. The 1: er suggests deposition in the outer neritic zone of an open-shelf environuent. Around the Centre! ge the Werive Formation of non-oslearoous sands and clays occurs and appesrs to interfinger both with the Bresso facies to the north and the open water marine facies to the south.The Nariva Formation agsin demonstrates the occurrence of renewed tectonic activity in the Central Range cree os it contains zones of “ldflysch" Zacies deposits including large slip-uesses of older formstions sone of which include seconderiiy derived components fron 4 earlier Peleocene wildflysch. In the typical Nariva deposits the microfame consists mainly of venthonic forominifere with 2 preponderance of erenaceous types. The environnent of deposition is still not clearly understood but it may heve been relatively deep with turbid water conditions which inhibited the planktonic species. In the Southern Basin the persistent open marine facies is reflected in the rether uniform celeerecus cleys and marls of the Cipero Formation with their abundent foraminii al founes. The latter suggest upper vathyol conditions of deposition. Both the Cipero end Srasso formstions contein rich microfaunas, imoluding plenktonic fo: inifera, besed on which a detailed end procise biozonation hss been established which enables 4 correlation between the txo facies provinces to be made. ples fron the Cipero Opportunities to collect type locality Formtion will be afforded on Excursion No. 33 © more generel review of the strotigraphy will be given on Zxoursion No.4, which will aiso include © visit to sone Bresso Formition localities.Miocene. Over recent years the range of the Miocene has been considerably extended domwerds; the base is now defined palaeontologically a5 sedimcntation is unbroken. 4s @ result, the major pert of the Cipero Forastion is now referred to the lower Miocene. However, in the northem asin the Brosso Formation does not begin until lower Miocene. Although the Narive facies first spears in upper Oligocene, it is predominantly lower tiiocene (seo figure 2). Within the Upper Cipero Formation of the southern besin an economically important group of sands occur — the Herrera sands, which are often oil-bearing. The sedimentology of these sands is of considcrable interest and will be discussed in @ peper by ¥.G. Poole. ‘Towards the upper part of the loner Miocene another diastrophic phase oceurs with widespread folding and local emergence. In the Southern Basin deposition was renewed with the rel=tively deep-nater clays of the Lengua Formation, while in the Central Range area the more neritic Tanana. Formetion (clays) are essocieted with small reef limestones in the shoal areas — as at Gusrecera, Mayo, Tamana, Tabsquite, and Srigand Hill. It scous thet at this time the Central Range uplift formed a clear separation between the Norther and Southern basins, which persisted throughout the reneinder of the Mio-Pliocene and is reflected in their differences in facies and depositional history. In the Northem Besin the Tansna clays are succeeded by the lover, silty Sen Jose meuber of the Manzanille Fornetion, followed in tum ty the Telenaque member, the greater part of which consists of evon-bodded sandstones with subordinate clsy layers.BES ‘The San Jose silts contain e rich molluscen end foreminiferel feune which indicates deposition in the inner neritic zone. Plenktonie foran= inifere are rare, possibly due to restricted ocean water circulation consequent upon the shallowness of the environment. Between the Sen Jose silts and the Telemeque member occurs the Monserrat Glsuconitic Sendstone member. This is an interesting rock, being in fact not really e sandstone but 4 glsuconitic "pellet rod! It was evidently a shoe] deposit as the 2bundance of Amphistegina testifies, whilst the abundance of reworked foraminifera points to en erosional period. These members of the Manzanillo Formation will be seen during Exeursion No. 4 to the Western Central Range. The Manzanilla sequence will elso be studied in sone detail on the east coast on Exoursion Ho. 1, with particular reference to the sedimentary features end environmental character. Im general, the Manzenilla sequence reflects o progressive infilling and shallowing of the Northern Basin, and it is followed by the neritic Springvale Formation consisting of shallow water silts end sands w loselly gleuconitie and in places have @ rich molluscan fauna. the type area of the Springvale Formstion will be visited on dxoursion Noe de In the Southern Basin the Lengus Formation is followed by deposits predoninntly of the cloy-silt-send fscics, thich record the progressive infilling of the tein 22 reflected in an increasing content of sandy sediments of succassively nore shallow-water aspect. ‘he process, however, was not uniform, but wes mode up of several transgressions ondregressions which form the besis of the subdivision of the series. Thus, in ascending order there are the Lengue, Cruse, Forest and Morne or fo: an dons. With the exception of the entirely deep-water Lengua Formetion, each starts with an open-water clay phese and pro- gresses through incressing sand content to a predominontly sendy end phese. A fuller discussion of these and other aspects will be given in 2 payer on Forest Reserve Oilfield ty T.H. Bower. This series hts received @ good deal of attention, as it is from the sands of the Cruse ond Forest formetions that the bulk of Trinidad's oil has been produced. The foraminiferel faunss of the Forest end Cruse formations are the subject of @ poper ty D.A.J. Batjes, while their particuler development in the Forest Reserve Oilfield erca is discussed ty V.F. Hunter in TH. Bower's paper. The Cruse and Forest fora.tions are Iso notuble for interesting sedimentation festures, submarine slump structures being plentiful in sone ereas. Sone extmples of these will te seen during Sxcursion Wo.6A. The upper Wocene More 1'Zafer formation consists mainly of well-bedded sends with clays interbeds of shellow ater origin. an account of scme of the associated sedimentsry phenomena will be presented in = psper ty J.B. Saunders ond J.5. Kennedy dealing with the coasts] exposures weet of La Brea. This shellow-water deposition persisted into the lover Pliocene in the southern besin with only © minor diseonfority.2555 Pliocene. The lower Pliocene records the final infill phese in both the Northern and Southern Besins, although the lithofecies differ markedly Ap the two areas. About mid-Pliocene the fine] eni culminating phase of the Andean orogeny took place, when the finol molding of the structures of nortnem, central end southern Trinided tock ploce, bringing to en end ‘the long, ond only intermittently broken, depositions] history which began in Paleocene times. From unper Pliocene onwards the history is chiefly one of successive periods of uplift end erosion, with the formotion of terrece end flcod plain dgposits in lom-lying aress. In the case of the Northern Renge, it is probable thnt most of the structures pre-date thie lete-ndesn episode end tt nt the effect there was mainly cne of consolidsticn snd wnlift. Elsewhere, the older structures wore re- emphasized and the fo ded structures around and within the Northem and Southern basins were developed. These movenents also set in motion the hydro-dynamie processes which led to the accumulation of oil in the Tertiary sedinents within the nerly-formea structures. Following closely upon these movements, or perhaps concomitant with thea, as ¢ result of the release of the accumilated stresses, © number 0 Jeteral wrench feult movements took plece which appeer to heve cut end Gisploced several of the recently-forned structures. ‘The most prominent of these is the Los Bajos Fault crossing the southwestern part of the islend. the effects of these fault movenente will be further discussed in the section dealing mith structure.-16- As noted above, the Northern end Souther 5: © rentined distinct, with differing sediment deposition. In the Northern Basin, the shallow woter Springvale Formation is succeeded with sharp transgressional uncon fomity by the Telpero Poraetion, o predomincntly cleyey series, but conteining several thick and persistent send members in its lower port. These are locally important as fresh-water eguifers which heve been topped £ s water supply purposes. In the Southorn Basin a minor wiecn- formity separetes the lower Pliocene Erin Formtion from the underlying Morne 1'Enfer Formation but thecherscter of the sedimentation’ is almost unchenged and in places it is very difficult to distinguish the two for- mations lithologically. ‘The Brin Formation consists mainly of thick, predoninently regularly bedded sands with interbeds of grey silty clay. In detail, however, many of the individual eand layers are current bedded. The silt layers are comonly lignitic, ani sometimes contain well- preserved leaf impressions. Of porticuler interest are the nuzercus oceurrences of neturslly turnt clays, locally termed "porcellanite", which are bright brick-red in colour ond epp to be due to the spon- teneous combustion (protably by oxidation of pyrites) of the Lignitic beds along the cuterop. The resulting hard, tut rether brittle, rook is used locally for road metal. Plant leef impressions are often excellently preserved in these porcellanites. An exemple of this unusus] lithology will be seen in the Brighton area on Excursion No.6h.ag By mid-Pliocene times buth the Northern end Southern Besins were virtually filled; the ares then came under diestrophic control and mas folded ond uplifted. The subsequent history is not well documenteds probably most of the upper Pliocene was = per: of uplift and erosion, and sone of the high-level terr-ces of the Northern Range mey belong to this period. During the following Pleistcceno end sub-recent periods there were doubtless several major chonges in see level, some of which are recorded in the various terrece levels on the flanks of the Northern, Central, ora Southern Ranges. STRUCTURE: As already noted, there is = simple relationship between the gross structure end the morphology of the islond, with the five-fold subdivision into the Northern Range uplift complex; the synclinal Northern Basin; the Centre Renge uplift, ond sssucisted "foothill" complex of the Naparina belt; the Southem Basin, again synclinel, and the Southern Range anticlinel compl The structures south of the Northern Range show © general tendency tovarle southnand-directed seymetry, expressed in southward overfolding and in sono eases overthrusting of the individual structures. In eddition to fanlting directly associated with the fold novenents, later systems of faulting occur which in severe] cases sppear to be in the nature of lateral or "wrench" fault movements. Some of these are probably related to regional systems.ary The general situetion is llustrsted ty H.C. Kugler's 1/100,000 scale mp of Trinidsd snd scocupenying cross-sections. ‘he generalized goclogical map (figure 1) the schemstic cross-section (figure 2) appended will serve to illustrete the following discussion. We may now consider each of these units in a little more detail. 1) me thes ieee This is composed of lon-grade, regionally metamorphosed sedinentory rooks, which throughout much of the ronge dip rether uniformaly southwerd at about 30° to 40°, However, there is frequently an increase in dip, together with locel structural disturbence along the couthem edge. It is thought thet this southern morgin, with its very consistent east-nest eligment is strongly faulted and is in fact an extension of the regional Bl Filer feult system, generslly regerded os a right leterel wrench fault. New evidence bearing on the nature of the Bl Piler Fault system in Venozuele rill be given in @ paper by HL. Metz. Although in Trinidad the contact between the Northem Range metamorphics ond the younger Tertiaries to the south is everywhere masked by terraces ond alluvial deposits, there can be Little doubt thet a feult of lerge magnitude is involved, with effective domthrow to the south. A branch of this systen — "the Ariza fault" — separstes the Lover Cretaceous Leventille Formation with its importent limestone masses of Leventille, Point Gorie ond Gasper Grande from the older Northern Range series.oe The structure of the Northern Range itself is ty no neans satis- factorily resolved. Throughout the westem end centre] perts the dip is weltommly southwards however, the minor structural features end to some extent the lithologies suggest that it is not a simple monocline but may contsin overfolded, even recumbent structures. With this goes the possibility that, in contrast to the central end southem parts, the structure may be esymnctric towards the north. This may imply some con- flict with regional concepts, but in truth further work is required to resolve this problem. H.C. Potter's peper cn the eastern part of the range 1s expected to add to this discussion. Torerds the eastem end of the renge the structure steepens, becoming apparently more complex in that 2 series of well-defincd anticlins) atmuctures have been delineated. At the same time there is @ general northeastward swing of the structurel strike. This, it has been suggested is the result of the gradual "righting" of the overturning element coupled with a swing towards the trend cf the Antillean island are. A well-defined right-laterel mrench feult crosses the eastem end of the renge and brings the strongly-folded lower Cretaceous series of the Toco district against the Northern Range metanorghics. Some of the structure] features in this area will be seen during the Second Wield gecursion. Unfortunately, tine does net permit a visit to the central/westem part of the ronge. Anyone with time to spare ean obtain a good impression of the western section on the drive along the North Coast Road to Maracas Boy, where the reguler south-dipping series is well displayed in rond cuttings.-20- Synoline ) The northern rim and axial parts are almost entirely obscured by terraces, alluvial end swamp deposits; however at Melejo, e shelly beach deposit of upper Iiiocene age rests with strong unconformity on up-turnea Northem Hange phyllites. To the south of the geographic exis the southwerd sing foothills comprise tho north-dipping limb of the syncline which becomes the north flank of the Central Range structure. A line of en echolon subsidiary anticline] structures interrupt the flar ‘the Freeport, Maheics and Sengre Grande anticlines, with sharp, loctl dip reveracle. Continuing southward the dip of the flak increases stesdily to 40°-45° es the core of the Central Range is approsched. The extent of this north flank and the progressive southward steepening of the dip will be seen on the Manganilla (Hest) Coast Sroursion (Wo.1) end egein on the West Gontral Range Sxoursion No.4. 3) The Central Range In the eastem sector, centering on Mt. Harris, the core of the structure is composod of en extensive outcrop of lower Zoocne, Peleocane and upper and lower Cretaceous rocks, lying unconformably below the unper Tertierics, and in places sho y end severely folded. The oldest, lover Cretaceous beds — mainly strongly sheared and disturbed sheles — crop-a- out along the southern mazgin of the range, end the asymotric errenge- ment implies strong faulting clog the south flank. This feulting appears to be in part southward-dizected thrusting, but there is sone evidence that letoral foulting muy olso be present. In the western part of the range the prosTertiery core is lecking — represented only by large ellochthoncus nogses in the lower Tertiary "wiléelyseh". Several miner structures exe present — the sharply-folded Forres Perk anticline, the Gucrecara syncline, the Montserrat anticline and Basin Hill Syncline. Some of these, especially the Forres Park struc- ture appear to bo in tho nature of seemnd onder folds possibly releted to a first order shear along the scuthem margin of the range. Thie feature, referred to es the Contral Range Fault, is nct yot fully understood; it has the cherccteristics of a wrench feult in sume areas or of @ scuthvend thrust in others. It ney be on cld wrench modified by later tectonics. In the western sector the structure becomes sherply pinched together with dips locally approaching vertical. Immediately to the south of the Central Range is © belt of steovly northwerd-dipping and in part st: mgly folded succession of Oligocene and lower Tertiary beds, sonetimes referred to es the "Naparins Fold Belt" and about 4 to 6 miles in width. Whilst severe folding and foulting ere at with few present, structures tend to be smell end discontinuous, so exceptions the area lacks structure] character. The exceptions are & well-defined series of southward overthrust enticlines which run as 9 discontinuous chain corsss the island — the San Fernando structure (to ve seen on Excursion No.4) the Corial-Ben Lonond, ond Biche-Charumaeae anticlines, 211 of which expose lower Tertisries, snd in the case of thi first the upper Cr: ceous is also exposed. In this area siso the coubination of folding end the "wiléflysch"” Litnclogy with its exotic slip-masses hes produced sone pseudo-tectonic lenses of 2 vorioty of clder formations. arlier attempts to explain these ea thrust seales led te an over-conplication of the tectonics with complex zones ¢ imbrication. The recognition of the "wildflysch” origin of these exotic — largely due to the we of H.C. Kuglor — 4on as far as the structure is conceme has greatly simplified the situ: The Noperimn Fold Bolt terminates in an irreguler line of sharp folds which in effect form the northern edge of the Southom Basin — the Sineria-Ortoire Smeline, end the older fometicn dips steoply into the depths of this basin. Along the ria cf the busin, 2 series of westward-pitching folds occur, snd these fo become the economically importent oil-bearing structures of the south ond southwestern part of the island. the northernnost fold of this syste, quite gentle as fer as the superficisl Miocene bods ere concerned, but overlying © buried, sharply folded Cretaceous structtre, is the locale of the fancus Pitch Lake of Brighton (La Br which will be visited on Field (4&3). ‘This tuge asphalt seepage, undoubtedly derived fron the under- lying Cretaceous rocks, has mary curicus features which will be discussed in H.G. Kugler's paper and will be seen during the visit to the Lake. ‘The presence cf numerous asphelt dykes ond sills, as we 2s the old overflow channels from the lake, hes resulted in 2 great deal of soil instability with frequent troubles to brick buildings and to the reads in the neighbourhood.Seis The next wave of folding to the scuth of the Brighton structure is the Forest-Fyzeted anticline, which, vith its reoriented continuation as the Point Fortin anticline, is the most important end prolific oil- bearing structure in the south of the islend. In passing, it may be noted that a general eccount of the oilfields of Trinidad will be in- eluted in the seotion cm econcnic papers, 2s well as more deteiled des- criptions of certain specific fields, eo thet no attempt will be made to elaborate on the petroloum geology at this stege. Tho Foreat-Fyzebed structure is 2 sonewhet esymmetricsl anticline th a more steeply-dipping south flank, associcted with mumerous secondaxy ip strike foulte. The brood antielinal trend is characterized by severe domal culminations. Strutigrephically, the middle Miocene, Forest Forn- ticn is the oldest exposure. The oil-beering formstions comprise the well developed sends cf the Forest and ruse fommtions, which exhibit a high degree of lenticulerity and leteral variation. In addition to such nomal variations, localized submarine slumping hrs produced contortion end Gisorientation of the beds, som © on 8 quite spectacular sonle. Taken es @ whole, the middle ena upper Mlocene deposits thin nortimard and northwestward tovards the Brighton uplift which seems to have been an axis of intermittent uplift during Miccene times. ‘The stretigrephy ond structure of Forest Reserve Field is the subject of a paper by .H. Bower. A more general account of the oilfields of the south will be given in 4 paper by K. Ablewhite and G.2. Higgins.eS Towards the wost, tho enticlinal tren’ cones un against the Los Bajos feult and appears to bo deflected te rm parallel to the fault as the Pt. Fortin Anticline, which then continues cut to sea west of Pt. Fortin. Towards the east the Forest-Fyz:bad enticline becones more sherply- folded and merges in the generel fold complex along the southern margin of the Naparima fold belt. The rim of the southern basin is then taken over by snother distinct fold trend, the Penal-Berzackpore anticline which contimes somerhst disjointly 2s the Teblelené end Belate anticlines towards the east coast. The south flank of thie fclé trond is again sporadically oil-bearing ot Penel snd Barrackpore. In edditicn to the oil measures of the middle Miocene Forest/ Cruse Fornctions, the lower Miocene Herrera sands ere also locally cil-bearing. 4) The Siparie-Crtoine Symoline and Southern Range anticline This well-defined syncline oan be traced right eeross the south of tho island from Meyero in the east, passing south of Barrackpore, th: en Siparia extending westwara to cross the north Cedros coast in Grenville Bay and pessing seaward into the Gulf of Paria. To the south If san irregulsr line of anticlinal folds broadly referred to es the Southern Range Anticline. The largest single element ie the broad uplift of the Rock Dene-Herrera anticline which exposes lower Miocene beds in a brosdly elongste core. The north flank is very reguler, the south flenk is strongly faulted and overthrust towards the south. Towards the cast this structure dies ewsy and give plece to the series of en echelon folds ofBo Singuins , Lizerd Springs and Mayaro, south of which lies yet another trend of sharply-folded, pertly diapyroid structures from Guayegusyare 4o Moruge, with essocisted mdvolcances. To the west © sharp diapyroid anticline takes over ruming close to the south coast from Nome Diablo to Erin and striking out to sea across Brin and Islote Bay. userous mudvolcances lie along th pis trend, including those responsible for the periolic sutmarine outbursts in Erin Bay, a recent example of which will be described in a paper ty GE. Higgins & J.B. Semders. The structure re-crosses the lend at Icacos Peint and then continues west southwestward tovard the Pedernales anticline of $.B. Veneauele. South agsin of the Southern Renge enticline geophysical work suggests that the south flank descends steadily end regularly towards a deep synelinal axis lying sone 6 to 8 miles offshore. This whole structural pattern is cut and disrupted by a major right jatoral wrench fault — the Los Bajos Fault which rune ecross the south- western part of Trinided from Pt. ligoure to neer Pt. Negra on the south coast in en east-sontheasterly direction, cutting end displacing ell pre-oxisting structures in @ right-leteral sense. The meximun dis- plecement along the fault anounis to sone seven miles which is amply dononstrated by the displacement of outorops and structural axes, end by the renerible correlation of sone of the wells on either side (€.¢. Wilson, Jour. Inst. Petr. Vol. 44 (No.413) 1958 pp.124-136)-The seaward extension of the fault into the Gulf of Paria has been traced ty geophysicel surveys and was a decisive factor in determining the oil-prospectiveness of the southern part of the Gulf, as it wea found thet the western extension and counterpart of the oil-bearing Porest Reserve-Fyzsbad atructure could be defined on the weatern side of the feult. This structure has subsequently been developed as the Scldado Field, which has contributed significantly to the island's production, at present accounting for epproximately one-third of the daily output of some 110,000 3.0.P.D. A visit to the surface installations of the Scldedo Field by lomsh has been arranged as on alternative Sxour: No.5, in the latter part of the program. So much then for the general structure of the island, and it now resains to say something of the regional relationships. ‘The broad structural features of Trinided and the surrounding sree are shown in figure 4, on which the trend of the regional negative gravity axis is also given. It is at once evi 44 thet the Northern Renge is the extension of the Coast Ranges of eastern Venezuela, where comparable low-grade metamorphic rocks also occur. ‘Towards the cast the negative gravity axis swings northeastward passing through Barbados snd slong the outside of the West Indien islend arc. Trinided thus seens to lie et 2 structurel hinge point where the predominantly east-west structures of northern and eastern Venezuela turn sharply towards the generally northward-trending are of the West Indies. However, when the time fuctor is introduced the relationship may be less direct; the Venezuelan CoostRenge-Worthem Renge rocks are Upper Jurassic to Cretaceous in ge, whereas the oldest Imom fometion of tho lessor Antillesn are proper eve Eocene, elthough there is evidence of Cretaceous components in wiléflyech dep: ‘ts in Barbados. J wcthelees, it ia very protable that the Horthem Range trend wis tectonicslly active at intervals in post-Cretaceous times and thus some continuity between the Antillean azo ond the coast range structure ney be inferred. It is therefore possible that soue of w x to be mai ked lateral faults which op: late Tertiary te subrecent in age may heve boon generated as relief feults consequent upon the reorientation of the stress pattern between these two fold @irections. Among the later eveute to affect the area were a series of strong east-west directed lateral wrench feults which appear to have doninated the lete Pliocene period. ‘These are expressed in the east-west El Pilar fault system along the southern mergin of the range. The remarkably aligned north coasts of Trinidad and eastern Venezuela may eleo imply the presence of compersble east-nest wrench feulting clong the north the unge. Analogous wrench faulting also exists on the northern uargin of the Caribbeen and si prominent oceanogrephic Zevutres es the Barlett Trough and the Puerto Rico Trench may in part be directly related to wrench foults 2s sug~ gested many years ago ty Hess (1938). This concept envicaged the general cestrard novenent of the centrol Caribbean reletive to its al of interest in the margins. Of recent years there has been @ ren idea of continental érift, in which very broadly speakine the "drift" of Wegener's original concept is replaced by the more positive processof convection currents in the mantle. This line of thought opens up numerous possibilities as far as the Ceribbean in gonerel, and Trinidad in particular. are concomed which ufortunately ere beyond the ecope of this peper, but which perheps may cone in for sone ais— cussion arising from papers which are to be presented in subsequent sessions. One or two questions miy perhaps be posed at this stage — for instance — do the structures of Trinid=d end particularly of the fold system of the Northern Range swing northvard into the Antillean are or may they link up — vis the mid-itlentic ridge with north associated with ile leteral wrench feulting could well continental movement, and the presence of munsrous, well-defined fracture zones in the deep ocean besins is eurely significant in this respect, Ewing and his colleagues of the Lemont Geological Leboratory, we argued (on the basis of much excellent dete) for the oxistence of tension phenonena, with associated graven fometion, es being @ major factor in the gross structure of the Ceribbesn region. (Sting et sl. 1948 to present). This scons particularly significant in reletion to some of the linear deeps — ono thinks of the Bartlett Trough — which could have originated in this nenner. And lastly, the convection hypothesis implies zones of ccnvective dowm-turn and up-welling as well 2s horizontel movement. It seeze possible therefore thet the voloanicity of the intillean arc, and the evident severe tectonics associated in pisces — such as in Barbedos — may be related to one or cther of these zones in which movement in 6 vertical sense has predominated. Perheps some of the deta presentedand the ensuing discussion during this conference may bring us a little nesrer to 2 solution to some of these larger problems.~ 30- Text es Figure 1 - Generalized Geological usp of Trinided Figure 2 - Sunery Stratigraphic hert of Trinidad Formations Figure 3 - Schematic North-South Cross-section of Trinidad Figure 4 - Regional Map showing generelized structure], relationships of Trinidad and surrounding ress +, WAITZ, 5.7., “The mode of O11 Occurrence in the Miocene WILSON, C.C. 1958 of Southem Trinidad, West Indies” AAPG Symposium “The Eebitat of Oi: BAL.G. Weeks. pp. 535-550. KUGLER, H.C. 1953 ‘Jurassic to Recent sedimentery environments in Trinidra", Bull. Ase. Suiss. Geol, Ing Petrole, Vol. 20 Ho. 59, pp. 27-60. e 1956 “ppinddad" in ‘Hendbook of South American Geology" 38 9.2. Je Geol. Soc. Ancr. Hemoir 65, pp. 353-365 - 1959 Geological Hap & Crose-seotions of Trinidad (eceie 1/100,000). SUTER, H.E. 1960 "The Generel end Zoonomie Geology of Trinidod, 3.7.1." +H, Stationery Office, London. 2nd Edition (revised). OFFICaR, C.B., SWING, J., "Geophysical Investigations in the Bastem et al. 1959 Caribbean: Sumsery of 1955 end 1966 Cruises". In "Physics and Chemistry of garth". Perguncn Press. London. Review of Msrine Geophysics" Marine Geol. Vol. 2 No. ~Zpp. 29 - 6 TALAANT, ¥. 1964 WILSON, CC. 1958 "the Los Bajos Peult and its reletion to Trinidad's oilfield structures". J. Inst. "Petrol. Vol. 44, Ho. 413, pp. 124-236. ‘The above publicctions cont: lographies to which reference may be made for further details.