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Abstract
Population aging is considered as the most serious problem in developed countries and is going to be a threat for
developing countries. Aging is associated with various physiological changes and multiple diseases like diabetes,
hypertension, arthritis etc. which alter the pharmacological response to a drug. Moreover, elderly people are more
sensitive to frequently used drugs like NSAIDs, benzodiazepines, opioids etc. All these factors alter the drug response
resulting in adverse drug reactions (ADRs) and hospitalization, consuming 40% of health service expenditure in
developed countries. Hence it is mandatory for physicians to be aware of normal age related physiological and
pharmacological changes taking place in old people. This will help to avoid irrational prescribing, minimize ADRs
and maximize benefits of drugs in elderly patients. Above all educating the old patients and their care providers
regarding the importance and proper use of drugs to their well being is necessary to improve adherence. Hence
setting therapeutic guidelines for treating elderly patients will enhance their quality of life.
Introduction
L ife span of humans has increased in the recent years
due to social, economical and health care improvement.
Medical society has identified persons aged over 65 as
elderly while those above 75 as geriatric population. By 2050
the worldwide elderly population is expected to reach 1.4
billion which means that one out of ten people will be more
than 65 years of age. Currently population aging is most
serious in Europe and Japan. China is expected to have an
increase in the proportion of elderly people by next century.
The present elderly population in India is over 77 million,
constituting 7.7% of the total population and is expected
to rise to 100 million by 2013.1
Aging is associated with progressive decline in
physiological functions as well as multiple diseases like
diabetes, hypertension, arthritis and amnesia. These age
Fig. 1 : Factors causing ADR in elderly.
related changes associated with reduced income and
loneliness further worsen their health. 2,3 This results in the age related alterations in pharmacological response,
polypharmacy and increased incidence of adverse drug precautions to be taken to avoid ADRs and principles of
reactions (ADRs) as shown in Fig. 1. It has been found that prescribing drugs for elderly patients.
35% of ambulatory older patients experience an ADR of
which 29% require health care services. Thus 40% health Pharmacological changes in elderly
service expenditure is spent on elderly in developed Age related physiological and pathological changes play
countries.4,5 Hence it is mandatory for physicians to be aware a major role in altering the pharmacological actions of a
of normal age related physiological and pharmacological drug. The age related physiological alterations in various
changes taking place in old people. This will help to avoid organs and their consequences are shown in Table 1 and
irrational prescribing, minimize ADRs and maximize 2. Of these changes impaired hepatic and renal functions
benefits of drugs in elderly patients. This review deals with play a significant role in decreasing absorption, distribution,
metabolism and excretion of drugs. These pharmacokinetic
changes alter free drug concentration which is a major
*Senior Resident; **Director - Professor and Head; Department of
Pharmacology, JIPMER, Puducherry - 605 006, India.
determinant of a drugs potency and duration of action.
Apart from these changes, aging is also associated with
JAPI VOL. 56 JULY 2008 www.japi.org 525
Table 1 : Age related physiological changes and their consequences on drug therapy in geriatric population.4
System Age related physiological changes Consequences
General Increased body fat Vd of lipid soluble drugs is increased requiring higher
Decreased total body water dose eg. diazepam.
Vd of water soluble drugs is decreased requiring low
dose eg. aminoglycosides, digoxin.
Gastrointestinal tract Decreased gastric acidity Absorption of basic drugs is enhanced eg. propranolol.
Decreased gastrointestinal motility Absorption of acidic drugs is decreased eg. barbiturates.
Decreased hepatic and splanchnic Decreased absorption of drugs.
blood flow Decreased metabolism of drugs. eg. lignocaine.
Renal Decreased renal blood flow, glomerular Renal clearance is decreased and hence drugs excreted
filtration rate and tubular secretion through kidney should be used cautiously eg.
aminoglycosides, digoxin, lithium.
Musculoskeletal Decreased muscle mass Resulting in functional impairment and fracture
Decreased bone density requiring treatment, hospitalization, etc.
Cardiovascular system Increased blood pressure Cardiovascular complications requiring treatment,
hospitalization, etc.
Central nervous system Brain atrophy Results in forgetfulness, depression, Parkinsons,
Decreased brain catecholamine synthesis insomnia etc. requiring therapy.
Decreased dopaminergic synthesis
Decreased sleep (stage 4)
Genitourinary Vaginal / urethral mucosal atrophy Bacteriuria, increased residual urine volume requiring
Prostate enlargement hormonal or drug therapy.
Endocrine Decreased BMR Resulting in Diabetes mellitus which needs life long
Vulnerable to stress treatment.
Glucose intolerance
Vd volume of distribution; BMR basal metabolic rate.
Table 2 : Age related pharmacokinetic changes in the elderly.4 Table 3 : Commonly used drugs and their adverse effects in
elderly.4
Pharmacokinetic parameter Age related changes
Drugs Adverse effects
Absorption Nil
Distribution of First generation antihistamines
Lipid soluble drugs Increased Promethazine, Strong anticholinergic and
Water soluble drugs Decreased Hydroxyzine sedative effect.
Acidic drugs Increased Low potent antipsychotics
Basic drugs Decreased Chlorpromazine Strong anticholinergic and
Metabolism sedative effect.
Phase I Decreased Prochlorperazine Extrapyramidal and orthostatic
Phase II Nil
adverse events.
Excretion Decreased
Long acting benzodiazepines
Nitrazepam Long half life resulting in
prolonged sedation,
pharmacodynamic changes like altered organ response Flunitrazepam causing falls and fractures.
to drugs. These changes are vital as they contribute to the Analgesics
variations in drug response.4 Pethidine Causes convulsions and renal
failure.
Pharmacodynamic changes Propoxyphene
Combination of NSAID with
The end organ response to a drug is increased in elderly Warfarin Increases GI bleeding.
resulting in toxicity at normal therapeutic doses. The ACE inhibitor Renal failure.
enhanced sensitivity is seen with commonly used drugs SSRI Increases GI bleeding.
like NSAIDs, opioids, benzodiazepines, antipsychotics and Diuretics Reduces the effect of diuretics.
antiparkinsonian drugs.4 Some of the commonly used drugs ACE- angiotensin converting enzyme; SSRI selective serotonin
and their adverse effects in elderly patients are shown in reuptake inhibitor
Table 3. Hence care should be taken to reduce the dose while
prescribing these drugs in elderly. Since, pharmacokinetic Oral absorption of drug is altered in elderly due to
changes are more important than pharmacodynamic fall in gastric pH, delayed gastric emptying, reduced
changes while deciding the treatment, this review gives gastrointestinal (GI) blood flow and motility. The
more details about these parameters. consequences of these changes are shown in Table 1 and 2.
However, absorption of a drug does not change significantly
Pharmacokinetic changes with age as other pharmacokinetic parameters.4
Absorption Distribution
Table 4 : Some of the inappropriate drugs to be avoided in elderly according to Beers criteria26
Drugs Statement
1. Sedative - hypnotics
a. Long acting benzodiazepines eg. Chlordiazepoxide, diazepam, flurazepam All drugs should be avoided
b. Short acting benzodiazepines eg. oxazepam, triazolam, alprazolam Night use > 4 wks to be avoided
c. Short acting barbiturates eg. Pentobarbital, secobarbital All use should be avoided
2. Antidepressants : Amitriptyline All use should be avoided
3. Antipsychotics
Haloperidol Doses > 3 mg/d should be avoided;
patients with known psychotic disorders may
require higher doses
Thioridazine Doses > 30 mg/day should be avoided
4. Antihypertensives
Hydrochlorothiazide Doses > 50 mg/day should be avoided
Propranolol All use should be avoided except if used to
control violent behaviours
5. NSAIDs : Indomethacin, phenylbutazone All use should be avoided
6. Analgesics : Propoxyphene, Pentazocine All use should be avoided
7. Dementia treatment : Cyclandelate, Isoxsuprine All use should be avoided
8. Platelet inhibitors : Dipyridamole All use should be avoided
9. Histamine blockers : Ranitidine Doses > 300 mg/day and therapy beyond 12
wks should be avoided
10. Antibiotics : Oral antibiotics Therapy > 4 wks should be avoided except for
osteomyelitis, prostatitis, tuberculosis,
endocarditis
11. Decongestants : Oxymetazoline, phenylephrine, pseudoephedrine Daily use for > 2wks should be avoided
12. Iron Doses > 325 mg/day should be avoided
13. Muscle relaxants : Carisoprodol All use should be avoided
14. GI antispasmodics : Dicyclomine All use should be avoided
GI - gastrointestinal; NSAIDs Non steroidal anti inflammatory drugs
Difficulties in setting guidelines Above all adding quality life to years should be the major
concern of a physician than mere addition of years to life.
Older generation represent a high proportion of the
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Fig. 3 : Principles of prescribing in elderly.4,16 8. Atkinson AJ. Effects of renal disease on pharmacokinetics. In: