Connect Succeed’ ENGINEERING DESIGN, FIFTH EDITION Americas New York, NY 10020, Copyright © 2013 by The MeGraw-Hill Ca rrr Previous eos 200, SH and 3) Pintedin he United Ste of Arce, Nop Sezai nin sn acon my tei tenes Projet Mang lio Lele Meta Pojst Manager: Bola? Sdaroroman Typeace:[0S2 Ts Library af Congress Cataloging Pabieston Data Pe. HR ise paper ABOUT THE AUTHORS GEORGE E, DIETER is Glenn L. Martin Insitute Professor of Engineer the University of Maryland. The author seceived his B.S, Me E. deg Universiy and his D.Se. degree from Carnegie Mellon University, After a stint in industry with the DuPont Engineering Research Laboratory, he became head of “Mecallurgical Engineering Department st Drexel Universi, where he later became Dean of Engineering. Professor Diter later joined the faclky of Carnegie Mellon University as Profesor of Engineering and Director ofthe Processing Research Inst- tute. He moved to the University of Maryland in 1977 as professor of Mechanical Engineering and Dean of Engineering, serving as dean until 1994 Professor Dieter is a fellow of ASM International, TMS, AAAS, and ASE, He has received the education award from ASM, TMS, and SME, as well as the Lam “Meal, the highest avard of ASEE. He has been chair of the Engineering Deans Council, and president of ASEE, He is a member ofthe National Academy of Engi neering, He also is the author of Mechanical Mevallargy, published by MeGraw-Hill ‘ow i ts third edition LINDA C. SCHMIDT isan Associate Professor in the Department of Mectiani ering atthe University’ of Maryland. Dr. Schmidt’ general research iter- and publications are in the areas of mechanical desi theory and methodol design generation systems for use during concept and effective student learning on enginecting project design team Dr. Schmidt completed her doctorate in Mechanical Engineering at Carnegie Melon University with researc in grammar based generative design. She holds B.S. and M.S. degrees from lowa State University fr work in Industrial Engineering. Dr. Schmit is « recipient ofthe 1998 U.S National Science Foundation Faculty Early Carer Award for ative conceptual design, She co-aunded RISE, a summer research experience that ‘won the 2003 Exemplary Program Award from the American College Personnel ASS ciation’s Commission for Academie Support in Higher Education, Dr. Schmidt vasawarded the American Society of Engineering Education's 2008 Merryfield Des ‘Award Dr. Schmid is active in engineer trouky nan egiecring det project ems Sei Was te guest tor of se Baer Ie ASME four of Mechanical Design De. Sct isa menber of ASME, SME, nd ASE BRIEF CONTENTS Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapters Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 (Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Engineering Design 1 Product Development Process Problem Definition and Need Identification ‘Team Behavior and Tools Gathering Information Concept Generation Decision ind Concept Selection Embodiment Desig Detail Design c lity and the Environment sign for Sustaina Materials Selection Design with Materials Design for Manufactur Risk, Reliability, and Safety Quay, Robust Desigy Economie Decision Making Cost Evaluation ‘and Optimization Legal and Ethical Issues in Engineering Design worwmbhe.comMieter Appendices Al Autor & Subject Indexes ulDETAILED CONTENTS ae Prefice sii Chapter 1 Engineering Desig 1 LI Invoduction 1 12 Engineering Design Process 3 3) Ways to Think bout the Enginecring Ds TA Description of Design Process Consideration of a Good Design 1.6 Computer Aided Engineering 17 Designing to Codes snd Standards 18 Design Review 19 Societal Considerations in Engincering Design 1410. Summary [New Terms and Conceps Bibliography Problems and Exercises Chapter 2 Product Development Process 36 2A neocon 36 2.2 Product Development Process 3 Product and Process Cycles at (Organization foe Design and Product Development 4 Markets and Marketing 8 Technological Innovation a Summary 66 [New Terms and Conceps a Bibliography a Problem and Exercises a Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter 3 Problem Definition and Need Tak 3A notation ‘32. Menifying Cosomer Needs 33. Customer Requirements [34 Gathering information on Existing rode 3.5 Establishing the Engincering Ch 536 Quay Fantion Deployment 37 Product Design Spe 38 Summary Biblio sation 4 Team Behavior 44 cdction 4.2. What le Means o he an Bfetve Team Membr 43 Team Leadership Roles 44 Team Dynamics 443 lfective Teun Meetings 446 Problem-Solving Tole 443 Plansing and Scheduling 49° Summary New Terms and Concepts Bibtogrsphy Problem an Exercise 1d Tools 5 ing Information “The location Challenge Types of Design Information Sources of Design Informa Library Sources of Information ‘Government Sources of Tafa {6 Information From the Inter. oessonal Societies and Trade Assocation nes and Standards 59 Patents an Other Inlet! Propet 5.10. Company-Ceatered Informatio SAL Summary New Terms and Concepts Bibtography 6 Concept Generation 62 Cheung and Problem Solving63° Creative Thinking Methods am 244 Final Design Review 634 Creative Methods for Design 98.5 Design and Business Actives Beyond Detail Design 6.3 Fupetonal Decomposition and Synthesis 96 Facitating Design and Manafactaring with 66 Morphological Methods ns Computer-Based Methods 106 67 TRIZ: The Theory of lventive Problem Solvin 2 97 Sammary 408 68 Swimm 240 [New Terms and Coneops 408 Nev Terms and Concepts 24 Bibliography 409 Bibliography 2 Problems and Exec 409 Problems and Exercises an Chapter 10 Design for Sustainability and the Environment ant Chapter 7 Decision Making and Concept Selec 244 104» The Environmental Movement ail 7A ection 2 10.2 Sostsngbiy 406 72 Decision Making Ms 103 Challenges of Sustainability for Business 20 73 Evaluation Processes a 10 Bxi-OFLife Product Transformations 74 Using Modes in Evaoation 282 105 Role of Material Selection in Design fr Environment 78. Pugh Chart m9 1046 Tools Aid Design forthe Envzonment and Sistainabilty 31 16 Weighed Decision Matrix 283 107 Sommary 436 717 Analytc Hierarchy Process (AHP) 286 New Terms and Concepts bs 18 Summary aos Bibliography 36 New Terms and Concepts 295 Problems and Execies 26 Bibliography ass Problems al Bersses 235 Chapter 11 Materials Select 437 TL Insoduction 43 Chapter 8 Embodiment Design 299 112 Performance Requirements of Materials 440 BL Tnvodction 299 U3 The Materials Selection Process 4st 8.2 Product Architctre sor 118 Sounces of Information on Material Pro 455 8.3 Steps in Developing Prodet Architect 106 MS Costof Materials 460 84 Configuration Desig 3, 11 Overview of Methods of Materials Selection 162 8.5 Beat Practices for Configuration Design 38 117 Material Performance Indices 463 86 Paramttic Design xe TLS Materials Selection with Decision Mates 1 87 Dimensions and Tolerance M0 Selection with Computer-Aided Databases 76 88 Indastial Design 358 Design Examples 7 89 Homan Fetors Design 36 Seminary 4 B10 Life-Cycle Design 368 New Tes and Concepts 382 BAL Prototyping and Testing en Bibliography 3 B12 Design for X(DFX) a9 Problems nd Exercises 383 813 Summary 38 [Now Term and Concepts 32 Chapter 12 Design with Materials 487 Bibliography 382 BA Incouction 487 Problems and Exercises 33 12.2 Design fr Brite Friture tse 1233 Design for Five Fire oy Chapter 9 Detail Design 386 12:4 Design for Corosion Resistance 506 8A ntxdton 386 125 Design Agsinst Wear sil 9.2 Activites and Decision in Detail Design 38 1256 Design with Plastics 56 9.3. Commoniciing Design and Manufatoring Information 391 127 Summary aNew Terms and Concepts Bibliography Probleme and Exercises sn for Manufacturing Role of Manufctring in Design Manoficaring Functions Clasification of Manufacturing Processes Manaictring Proves Selection Design for Manufsctre (DFM) Design for Assembly (DFA) 7 Role of Standardization in DFMA Mistake-Proting sly Estimation of Msnufcturn Process Specific DFMA Guidlines Design of Castings Desigh of Forgings Design for Sheet Metal Forming Design for Machin 5 Design of Welding Residual Sueses in Design Desi for Het Treatment os Design for Pasties Processing ‘Summary New Terms and Concepts ibliogsaphy Problems and Bxercnes Chapter 14 Risk, Reliability, and Safety 14 Introdsion 14.2 Probabilistic Approach to Design 13 Relibility Theory THA Design for Reliability M.S _Faikre Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) 146 Fale Toe Analysis 147 Defects and File Modes HAS Design for Suey 149 Summary New Terms and Concept Bibliography Problems and Exercises Chapter 15 Quality, Robust Design, and Op ISL The Concept of Total Quality 152 Quality Consol and Assurance Chapter 16 Chapter 17 680 630 a3 153 154 156 1s 159 1510 Ec 161 162 163 16s 167 168 169 16.10 at 162 nomie Decision Maki Statistical Process Control Quality Improvement chi Meth Opgiization Methods Design Optimization Summary New Terms and Concepts Bibligeaphy Probleme and Exesses Tnocton| Matheniisof Tine Value of Money {Cost Comparzon Taxes Other Aspects of Profitability Ination Seaiivity and Break-Even Analysis Uncertainty in Economie Analyse Benet Cost Analysis Summary New Terms and Concepts Bibliography Problems and Exercises Cost Evaluation m4 m2 m3 m4 ms va 8 no Insoction Categories of Costs The Cos of Ownership Overead Cost Activity Based Costing Methods of Developing Coat Fsimates Make-Buy Decision Produ Pott Model Refinements to Cost Analysis Method Cost Quah Design Cost Value Anaysis in Costing Manufacturing Cost Mode Life Cyte Costin 74 am m tis 761Chapter 18 1716 Summary 20 New Tes and Concepts a Bibliogsphy ma Problems and Exercises m1 Legal and Ethical Issues in Engineering Design (Gee wien mbbecomiietr 1841 Taoduction 182 The Origin of Laws 163 Connects TRA Lishiliy 185 ToreLaw 186 Prods Listy 18:7 Protecting Inlet! Property 188 The Legoland Ethical Domains 189 Codes of Eis 18.10- Solving Ethical Coats IIL Sommary [New Terms and Conceps Dibiogaphy Problem and Exercises Appendices ‘Author & Subject Indexes i PREFACE TO FIFTH EDITION ‘THE FIFTH EDITION of Engineering Design continues the reorganization and expansion of ropes introduced in the fouth edition, Major reorganization of topics to improve flow of information and increase learning have been made in Chapter 3, Problem and Need Identficaon; Chapter 6, Concept Generation; and Chapter 7, Decision Making and Concept Selection. A new, progressive example has been intro ‘duced snd is continued ehrough these three chapters. A new Chapter 10, Design for Sustainability andthe Environment, has been added. The book continues its ration ‘of being more oriented to material selection, design for manufacturing, and design for quality than other broad-based design tex ‘The tex is intended to be used in either a junior or senior engineering design course with an integrated hands-on design project. At the University of Maryland we present the design process material, Chapters | through 9, 0 junior students in course introducing the design process, The whole txt is used inthe senior capstone design course that includes a complete design project, starting fom selecting a market to creating 8 working prototype. Students move quickly through the frst nine chapters and emphasize Chapters 10 through 17 in making embodiment design decisions, ‘The authors hope that students will consider tis book to bea vaktable part ofthe professional library. Toward this end we have continued and expanded the practice of ving key literature references and referrals to useful websites. Many new references have been added and all websites have been verified as of Tune 201. Refer the design handbooks and design monographs avilable at knovel.com have been sed to this edition. We have also used the extensive series of ASM Handbooks 10 extend topics in Chapters I, 12,13, 1, and 15. These ae also avaiable at know New to This Edition + Reorganization and new material in Chapters 3, 6, and 7, including a prog ‘example throuzhout these chapters *+ New Chapter 10, Design for Sustainability and the Environment+ Chapter 16, Boonomic Decision Making, brought nto the book fom text website Section on Costof Quality added to Chapter 17, Cost Evaluation {Many additonal connections o useful design information onthe Internet Updated and new references including Tinks 10 handbooks available through knovel.com PowesPoint lecture slides available ¢o instructors through McGraw-Hill Higher Education ‘We want to acknowledge the willingness of students from our senior design course for permission to use material from their repor in some of our examples. The JSR Design Team members are: Josiah Davi, Jamil Decker, James Maresco, Seth MeBee, Stepien Phillip, and Ryan Quinn. Special thanks to Peter Sandborn, Chandra Thame, and Guangming Zhang. our colleagues in the Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Maryland, for thelr alingness to shave their knowledge with as, Thanks also 0 Greg Moores of the DeWale Division of Stanley Black and Decker, Ine. for his wilingness to share his industrial viewpoint on several ties. We also thank the flowing teviewers for their helpful comments and suggestions: Brace Foersheim, United States Military Acad ty: Mark A. Johnson, Michigan Tech University; Jest Kreiner, California State Uni Sonity at Fallerion; David N- Kunz, University of Wisconsin, Pateville; Marybeth Lima Louisiana State University; Bahram Nassersharif, University of Rhode Islands Thrahim Nisanei, University of Arkansas at Little Rock; Keith E, Rouch, University Of Kentucky; Paul Sterank, West Virginia University Insitute of Technology’ M.A. Wahab, Louisiana State University, Jobn-David Yoder, Ohio Northern University D_ A. Zambeunnen, Clemson University. George E. Dieter and Linda C. Schmidt College Park, MD or 1 ENGINEERING DESIGN Ld INTRODUCTION What is de 17 you search the literature for an answer to that question, you will Find about as many definicons as there are designs, Peeps the reason is that the pro ‘ess of design is such a common human ex ‘Webster's dictionary says tht to ‘design is “to fashion after a plan” but that leaves ou the essential act that to design is to erete something that has never b design by that definition, bt so does an artista cura compose, playwright, or any another creative member of our society. - That ahough engine ae note only people who design hing itis that te penal pate orang ana rough technique in this tet, bat the artis best learned by doi ‘and methods to be covered Tes for this reason that your experience “The emphasis that we have given to the ereation of new things in our introduction ‘© design should not unduly alarm you. To become proficient in design is «perfectly altainable goal for an engineering student, but its attainment requires the guided ex- Derience that we intend this text to provide. Design should not be confused with dswhen Columbus discovered America or Jack Kilby made the fist microprocessor. We ‘an discover what has already existed but has not been known before, but a design is the product of planning and work, We will presenta structured design process (0 as sist you in doing desig in Sec 15. Veto SSE = patent on a inenion requires that fe design Fea step Beyond the Tis ofthe exist Ing Knowledge (beyond the state ofthe ar), Some designs are cruly inventive, but most Look up the word design in a dictionary and you wil find that it can be either a ‘noun ora verb, One non detinitio is “the form, parts, or details of something accor ing to. plan,” asin the use ofthe wor design in “My new design is ready fr review.” ‘Avcommnon definition of the word design a a verb is “to conceive orto form a plan foe” as in have to design three new models ofthe product fr three different over eas markets” Note thatthe verb form of design is also writen as "designing." Often the phrase“esian process” is used to emphasize the use ofthe verb form of design. It js important to understand chese differences and to use the word appropriately. “Goo! design requies both analysis and synthesis. Typically ve approach complex problems lke design Yo manageable parts, Because we feed fo understand how the part will perform in service, we must be able to calculate ts much about the pat’ expected behavior as posible before it exists in physical form by using the appropriate disciplines of science and engineering science and the neces Sirycomptl ol TS ofthe re world trough models " combi move f niliar and comfortable with analysis. You have dealt with courses that {ally disciplinary. For example, you were not expected {0 use thermodynamics and fue mechanics in course in mechanics of materials. The problems you worked in the course were selected to ilustrate and reinforce the prineiples. If you could con struct the appropriate mode, you usually could solve the problem. Most of the input tata and properties were given, and there usually was a correct 1 prob lem. Hovever, real-world problems rarely ae that neat and circumscribed. The real problem that your design is expected ta solve may not be eeadily apparent. You may heed to draw on many technical disciplines (solid mechani, fu mechanies, ecto magnetic theory, ete) fo the solution and usually on nonengineering dscipines ‘wel economies finance, aw, ec). The input data may be fragmentary at best and the scope ofthe project may’be so huge that no individual can follow i all. IF that is ot difficult enough, usually the design must proceed under severe constraints of time andlor money. There may be major societal constraints by environmental nergy regulations, Finally, inthe typical design you rarely have away of knowing the Correct answer. Hopefully your design works, but sit the bes, most eicient design that could have been achieved under the conditions? Only time will ll. ‘We hope that ths has given You some idea ofthe design process and rent in which it occurs, One way’ to suramarize the challenges pres Al by the de- n environment is thik of cgi Oe thing hac shouldbe lear (RII ion ccsamshing tn hasnt xi tle ast exited in the designer's mind before ss ‘many variables and parameters Making choices berween many possible solutions at all levels, from basic concepts tothe smallest detail of shape by now show gineering design extends well beyond the boundaries of science. The expanded boundaries and responsibilities of engineering ereate almost unlimited op- portunities for you. In your professional career you may have the opportunity to create dozens of designs and have the satisfaction of seeing them become working reali "A scientist will be lucky ifhe makes one creative addition to human knovledge in his hole life, and many never do, A scientist ean discover anew sar but he cannot make one. He wold have to ask an engineer todo it for bmn" 12 ENGINEERING DESIGN PROCI ss “The engineering des process che wie to achieve Several ferent outcomes. (One isthe design of rots whter hey be consumer goods such as rete poner toss or BVD players or highly comple pots such su mise ssc of bailing oa br phasis nth ext ison prdct design bee ners lappy thr design sill Moreover, examples taken from this rea of design re ip witout extensive seca knw In Seton 1 he design metod is contrasted wth the sete method, an design is presented as fiestep problem-solving ethology. Seton 1 kes the eoisposed of in an environmentally safe way. Chapter 2 extends the engineering design provess (0 the broader ise of predict development by introducing more business ‘oriented issues such as product positioning and marketing. 1.21 Importance ofthe Engineering Design Process In the 1980s when companies in the United States fist began to seriously Feel the im pact of quality prodacts from overseas it was natural for them to place an emphasis on feducing their manufacturing costs through automation and moving plats to lower Tabor-cost regions. However, it as noc until the publication of a major study of the National Research Couneil (NRC) that companies eame to realize that the real key t0 ‘workd-competitve products lies i high-quality praduct design This has stimulated a Fash of experimentation and sharing of results about better ways to do product design ‘What was once a fairy cut-and-dried engineering process has become one of the ct i progress, This (ex aims at providing you with insight into the curren best practices for doing engineering design. “The importance of design is nicely summed up in Fig. 1. ‘This shows that only a small fraction ofthe cos to produce a product (=5 percent is involved with the de Sign process, while the other 95 percent of cost s consumed by the material, capita fnd labor to manufacture the product. However, the design process consists of the ‘accumulation of many decisions that result in design commitments that affect about 70 0 80 percent ofthe manufactured cost ofthe product. In other words, the decisions made beyond the design phase ean influence only about 25 percent of the etal cost, TF the design proves to be faulty jst before the product goes to market. i will costa “The second major impict of design is on product quality The old concept of prod uct quality was that it as achieved by inspecting the prodit as it came off the pro- Action line, Today we realize that true quality is designed ito the product. Achieving ‘quality trough product desig will he a theme that pervades this book. For now we point out that one aspect of quality 8 to incorporate within the product the perfor mance and features that ae truly desired by te customer who purchases the product. Tm aon. the design must be Cased ont so hat the prac an be made witb ao “Trsnmoric! You anno’ compensate i manafecturing "The third area where e is product cycle time, Cycle time refers to the development time required to bring 1 new proguet to market. In many consumer areas the product with the latest “bells and whistles” captures the customers’ fancy, The use of new organizational method, the widespread use of computerided engineering, and rapid prototyping, methods are contributing to redacing product cycle time, Not only does reduced eyele time design determines product competitiveness g | i — a FIGURE LI Product cos commitment during phases ofthe design process. (Aer Ulta) itty product, but reduces the cost of product development, Furthermore, the longer produc is available forsale the more sales and profits thet willbe, To summarize: 1.2.2 ‘Types of Designs gineering design can be undertaken for many different reasons, and it may take diferent forms. design is at he tp of ew achieve a need, Some- ‘may be original, A truly original design involves invention. Suceessil or rarely, but when they do occur they usually disrupt exists e they have in them the seeds of new tech- {Te Merarchy. employs an original, innovative con times, but rately the need its 1 of design occurs when the design team adapts a known, solution to satisfy a diferent need to produce a novel application. Fer example, adapting the inkjet printing coneept t spray binder to hold particles in place in a rapid prototyping machin engineering design is employed to improve tay Bet edesign a component ina pro hat si ing in sexes ot eds acme so fo tices tt of mame ten redesian is accomplished witontany change inthe working pipe concept of the © orl ignal design. For example, the shape may be changed to reduce a entation, ora new material substituted to reduce weight or cost. Whenredesign is achieved by changing some of the design parameters, tis offen called 1 designs employ standard components such as bearings all motors oF pumps that ace supplied by vendors specializing in their man facture and sale ‘Therefor, inthis case the design task consists of selecting the {components with the needed performance, quality, and cost from the catalogs of potential vendors. 13 WAYS TO THINK ABOUT THE ENGINEERING DESIGN PROCESS Wie often talk sbout “designing a sytem” By’a system we mean the entire combina tion of hardware, information, and people necessary to accomplish some specified tusk, A system may be an electric power distribution network for a region of the na: tion, a complex piece of machinery like an sigcraft jet engine, ora combination of provetion steps to produce automobile parts. A large system usually is divided into Mibsystems, whic in turn are made up of components or pars 1 11. A Simplified Heration Model “There i no single universally acclaimed sequence of steps that leads to a workable de w ifferent writers or designers have outlined the design process in as few as ive the first owt introspeetively abba design was Morris 1 of the design process as consisting of the elements steps or as many 2825, On Asimov? He viewed the show in concepts Cha COU tel ofthe best system concept, (3) specifying specie parts to construct a subsystem, and {@ selecting 4 material from which to manufacture a part. Each operation requires Information, some of it general technical and business information that is expected trite uained professional and some oft very specific information tht is needed to proce a successful outcome, Examples ofthe later kindof information might be Piya manufactures eatalog on miniature bearings, 2) handbook data on the proper ties of polymer companies, or (3) personal experience gained from trip t0 observe a mew manufacturing process, Acquistion of information is a vital and often very ei Tel sep inthe desian proces, but fortunately itis a step that usually becomes easier trith time. CNe call this process experience, The importance of sources of informa tion is considered more fully in Chap 5. ‘Onoe armed with the necessary information, the design team (or design et rif the task is rather limited) carries out the design operation by using the 1 SRRSE ten dete peste it ihe sas asec of onal eens o—~ { sre Se design process. (Aer Aso appropriate technical knowledge and computation this sa andlor experiment tos, A Construct a fullsize prototype model and test itto destruction a roving ground, many fr can be aD megs data ona meray sick a ough sxc with Shel dimension, or a 2D CAD model Ath sage he ds be evlatd fen by em of inp acquire a h yand d i : yor Hh lerance for failure and the ena and determination to persevere problem out one way or the other1 iterative nature of design provides an opportunity 19 improve the design on the basis of preceding outcome. That i turn, Teads to the seaeh forthe best pos sible technical condition—for example, maximum performance at minimum weight {or cos). Many techniques for optimizing a design have been developed, and some of them ae covered in Chap. 15. Although optimization methods are intellectually peas ing nd technically interesting, they often have limited application in a complex de- ‘tation. Few designers have the luxury of working on a design task fons and with Tarpe enough budget wo crest an optimal system. Inthe usual situation the tlesign parameters chosen bythe engineer are a compromise among several alterna tives There may be too many variables to include all of thes in the optimization, oF fpontechnical considerations like available time or legal constraints may have t0 be Considered, s0 that trade-offs mast be made cies fuser foe the design ae then close to but not at optimum vals. 1.32 Design Method Versus Sefentifie Method In your scientific and engineering eduction you may have heard reference to the scx tae method, logical progression of events that leads tothe solution of scientific problems, Perey Hill has diagramed the comparison between the sini method fd the design method (Fig, 2th ie method ars wih By fee ten tin ef ei een, ne hyputesh sje io stata ae errr Ofte amis fewals favs or inconsitenles, be accepted as proof by fellow scientists. Once accepted, it i communicated (0 the Community of scientists and itenlarges the body of existing knowledge. The know ¥y vilge loop * eee od starts with knowledge of the State ofthe a m tific knowledge, but it alo includes devices, com- ponenis, materials, manufacturing methods, and market and economic conditions Rather than scientific curiosity, i is really the needs of society (usually expressed through economic factors) that provide the impetus. When a need is identified, it must be conceptualized as some ind of model. The porpose of the model is to help us predict the behavior of design once its converted to physical form. The outeomes Of the model, whether its « mathematical of @ physical model, must be subjected toa feaubilty analysis, almost alvays with iteration, until an acceptable product is produced or the project is abandoned, When the design enters the production pase Ic begins to compete inthe world of technology. The design loop is closed when the pr —. a 1 — aa ‘et a ot is accepted as part ofthe curent tech the ar of the pata are of echnoogy. A more pilsophicaldilfeentaion between science and design has ben a vanced bythe Nobel Prize-vinning economist Herbert Simon’ He points out that scence is cmcemed th creing Knowledge about aturlyoccerrng pheno a objets he design Jp concerned wih creating knowledge abut phenomena QGP tose eae made by humans ate hn nature, Ths sienee is Based on stds of the served, while design i sed on tifil concepts characterizedin ers of functions, gals an adaption Inthe preceding bref outline ofthe design meth, iia (GUWERUHER GGA ccts are idenied at many points ina business oor Gato Mest orpunteafons have esearch or developmen departments whose fb itis orate Meas that re evan othe gal of he oganizaton. Avery iporon rove for earning abou end is the cuss fr he pod ose et te Company sl Managing his inputs usualy he ov ofthe marketing osanzaion of the company. Other needs are generated by government or the att and thereby advances the state of nies, trade associations, ‘oF decisions of the general public. Needs usually arise from dissats faction with the existing situation. The need drivers may he to reduce cost, inrease reliability or performance, or just change the product, because the public has become bored with3 A Problet ving Methodology Designing can be approached asa problem to be solved. A problem-solving methodol ogy tha is useful in design consists ofthe fllowing steps! “This problem-solving method can be used at any point in the design proces, wt at the conception ofa product or the design of & component Definition of the Problem this step seemingly requires such a small part of the total ime to reach a solution, its importance is often overlooked. Figure L4 illustrates how the final design can difer {greatly depending upon how the problem is defined. The formulation of the problem should start by writing down a problem state~ ‘ment. Tis document should express as specifically as possible what the problem i. It Should include objectives and goals the current state of affairs and the desired state !ny constraints placed on soliton of the problem, and the definition of any special technical terms. The problem-defntion step in a design project is covered in detail in SS TTS the needs clearly atthe beginning of a design process, it should be understood that this is ficult to do forall ut the most routine desiga. Ic isthe nature of the design process that new needs are established as the design process proceeds because new problems arise asthe design evolves. A this pont, the analogy of design as problem Solving is less fing (Ram NSE ONNOHG re ese na eo es Tg ose parts ofthe design that have been completed, then penalties are incurred in terms of cost and project schedule. Experience is one of the best remedies for this aspect of designing, but modern computer-based design tools help ameliorate the ef fects of inexperience. ce Perhaps the greatest frustration you will encounter when you embark on your first design project will be either the dearth or the plethora of information. ‘Your assigned problem may be in a technical area in which you have no previous ‘iuon and ol Engineering Design and Des for Manon Pet stone Pulses Convoy MA 190. rn Bt sry sir ble sling prose sig TOM os 36 gE dh ve we ee y 7 FIGURE La Note how the design depends onthe viewpoint Sndvda who defines the problem und, and you may not have even a single basi reference on the subject, At the other extreme you may be presented with mountain of reports of previous work, and your task will be to Keep from drowning in paper, Whatever the situa tion, the immediate task ist identify the needed pieces of information and Find or develop that information, ‘An important point o realize is tat the information needed indesign i different from that usually associated with an ac an be supplied by an Internet search, or bya telephone call or an ell 1. hey Sopolieriscssons wi in-house experts fen in the corporate R&D cee) and enti constants may prove hell i information What doT need to find out? ‘Where ean I find it and how can 1How eredible nd scourat isthe information? How should the information be interpreted for my specific need? When do Ihave enovgh information? ‘What decisions result from the information? Some suggestions for finding elevant information can be found in Chap. 5 4 Sener hg aerRERe fig concep involves the use of creativity stimulation methods, the application of physical principtes and qualitative reasoning, fan the ability to find and use information. OF course, experience helps pretly in this task. The ably (0 generate high-quality alternative solutions is vital 1 a sucessful Alesign. Tis important subject is covered in Chap. 6, Concept Generation The evaluation of alternatives involves systematic methods for among several concepts, often in the face of incomplete information. Es ‘analysis procedures provide the hass for making decisions about service Design for manufacturing analyses (Chap. 13) and cost estimation (Chap. 17) provide cher important information, Various other types of engineering analysis also pro- ‘ide information, Simulation of performance with computer models is finding wide tage. Simulated service testing of an experimental madel and testing of fllsized prototypes often provide critical data, Without this quantitative information itis not possible to make valid evaluations. Several methods for evaluating design concept, or Jooting the est "Lelie sme cassave doth wheter th answer Sem ah” Yl ben temper ey design parameters (see Chap. 15) (Commantestion ofthe Results) Ik must alvays be kept in mind thatthe purpose of the design isto satisfy the roeds of customer or client. Therefore, the finalized design must be properly com ruicated, or it may lose much of its impact or significance. The communication is sincering drawings, computer programs, 3-D computer models, and working models are Frequently among the "deliverables" othe customer [Note thatthe problem-solving methodology does not necessarily proceed! in the ‘onder just listed, While i is important o define the problem easly on, the understand ing of the problem improves as the team moves into solution generetion and evaluation To fact, design is characterized by is iterative nature, moving back and forth between partial solutions and problem definition. Ths is in marked contrast sith enginerin nals, which usually mow ly progression from problem setup to soliton, There is a paradox inherent in the design process between the accumulation of problem (domain) knowledge and freedom to improve the design. When one is ereating an orginal design, ver lite is known about is solution. As the desig team proceeds ‘with ts work, it acquires more knowledge about the technologies invelved and the pos sible soluions (Fig, 13), The team has moved up the learning curve, Howe nahietal, technology approaches, perhaps to let contracts for longlead-time equipment, find so on, Thus, s Fig. 1.5 shows, ee freedom ofthe team to go back and start over wvith their newly gained keowledg vcrcases geatly as their knowledae bette. The paradox comes from the fact that when the design team finally masters the problem, thet design i essentially frozen because othe great penalties involved witha {ange The solution i forthe design team to lean as much about the problem as early in the design process ast possibly can. This also places high party on the team mem bers learning to work independently toward a common goal (Chap. 4), being skilled in sahering information (Chap, 5) , cating relevant knosledge to ther teammates. De acquire, Figure 15 also shows why itis important document in detail what has been dane, so tha the experience can be used by subsequent teams in future projects 1d DESCRIPTION OF D tivities that rake up the ist thee phases of design: conceptual design, embod ment design, and detail design. The purpose of this graphic isto remind you of the Togical sequence of activities tha leads ftom problem definition tothe detail design SSIGN PROCES: a) Conceptual design isthe proess by which the design is ntted, carried to the point of erating a number of posible sluions, and narrowed dawn oa single best con- ent It is sometimes called the feasibility sty. Conceptual design isthe phase that Fequires the greatest creativity, involves the most uncertainty, and requires coordi tion among many function in the business organization. The flowing are the dis bret activites ht We consider under conceptual design, * “fimo rs is avy incon onde d manunicate them othe design team. ‘emer ss yee ene tt ese " plished fo satisfy the needs ofthe customer, This involves analysis of eompetiive products, i Tsting of constraints and trade-ofTs. Quality Function deployment (QFD) is aval able tool for linking customer needs with design requirements. A detailed listing of the product requirements is called a product design specification (FDS). Problem definition, init all seope, i treated in Chap. 3 ence elon FIGURE 16 ‘The design activites that makeup the fest this phases ofthe engineering ap that potentially satisfy the problem statement. Team-based creativity methods, ombined with eficint information gathering, ae the key activites. This subjects Evaluation ofthe design concepts, modifying and evolving into Single preferred concept, are the activites in his step. The process usually re quite several iterations. This s covered in Chap. 7. RIPE 0 sn resin i reise econ epthus Been selected. The design team must commit to achieving certain eiical values of design parameters, usally called eritical-to-quality (CT) paran And to living with tradeoffs between cost and performance. * GRABBER cermin finds om ote nex dese pase, spn ne design review will assure that the design i physically reliable and hac is econamically worl. Ke will also lok aa detaled prodc- development Schedule. This i neded to devise a satay to minimize prodct cele ime at den Ufy the esources in people, equipment, and money needed to complet the projet Struetured development of the design concept occurs in this engineering. design Phase, It isthe place where flesh is placed on the skeleton af the design concept. Anof all the main functions that must be performed by the product must eth, mate embodine be undertaken. It is in this design phase that decisions are: made ons Fial selection, size, shape, and spatial compatibility. Beyond this design pase, major become very expensive, This design phase is sometimes called pretiminary nis concerned with three major tasks —produet architec chan ‘design. Embodiment desi ture, configuration design, and parametric design + Determining product architecture: Product architecture is concerned with divi the overall design system info subsystems or modules. In this step we decide «land combined 0 hh the physical components ofthe design ae to be arn carry out the functional dates ofthe desi + Configuration design of parts and components: Parts are made up of features like holes, ribs, splines, and eurves, Configuring a part means to determine what fea tunes will be present and how those features are to be arranged in space relative fo each other, While modeling and simulation may be performed inthis sta checkout function and spatial constraints, only approximate sizes are determined to assure thatthe part satisfies the PDS. Also, more specificity about materials and manufacturing is ziven here, The generation of « physical model ofthe part with rapid prototyping processes may be appropriate. 1 Parametric desigh of parts: Parametric design stats wih information onthe con figuration of the part and sims to establish its exact dimensions and tolerances. Final decisions onthe material and manufacturing processes are also established if this has not been done previously. An important aspect of parametric design is to examine the part, assembly, and system for design robustness, Robustness refers to how consistently a component performs under variable conditions in is serviee fnvironment. The methods developed by Dr. Genichi Taguchi for achieving robust ‘nes and establishing the optimum tolerance are discussed in Chap. 15. Paramet- ‘ie desig also deals with determining the aspects ofthe design that could lend 10 Failure (Gee Chap. 14). Another important consideration in parametric design isto design in such a way that manufoctorabilit i enhanced (see Chap. 13), 14.3 Phase IIL, Detail Design In this phase the design is brought wo the stage of comple sripton fof tested and prodocible prod, Missing information is aded on the strangemen, form, dimensions, tolerances, surface properties, materials, and manufacturing pro- cesses of each part, This resis ina spectfication foreach specia: purpose part and for each standard part tobe parchased from suppliers. In the detail design phase the following activities are completed and documents are prepared «+ Deuiled engineering drawings suitable for manufacturing. Routinely these a computer generated drawings, and they often inclodedree-cimensional CAD model «= Vetfcaton testing of prototypes is successfully completed and verification data is submitted. Alleritea-to-quality parameters are confirmed to be under contro Usually the building and testing of several preproduction versions of the product willbe accomplished, «+ Assembly drawings and assembly instructions also will be completed, The bill of materials for all assembles will be compl +A detailed product specification, updated with all the changes made since the con- ‘eptval design phase, will be prepared. «Decisions on whether to make each part internally o to buy fom an external sup. plier will be made + With the precedi catied ot ig information, a detailed cost estimate for the product will be «+ Finally, detail design concludes with a design review befor the decision is made to ass the design information on to manufacturing. Phases 1,11, nd TI take the design from the ream of possibility tothe real word of practically However, the design process is not finished with the delivery ofa set of engineering drawings and specifications to the manufacturing organization. Many ‘other technical and business decisions must be made to bring the design to the point where it can be delivered tothe customer, Ciel among these, as discussed in Sec. 9.5, are detailed plans for manufacturing the product, or planning is laune into the ma Ise afer posing fin an envionment safe way ert his ome Ls CONSIDERATIONS OF A GOOD DESIGN Design js @ multifaceted process. To gain a broader understanding of engineering desig, we group varius considerations of good design into three categories: (1) achiev ment of performance requirements, 2) life-cycle iss and regulatory and (3) sci 1.5.1 Achievement of Performance Requirements Itis obvious that oe feasible the design must demonstrate the required performance, Performance measures both the function andthe behavior of the design, that s, how well the device does what it is designed todo, Performance requirements can be di ided into primary performance requirements snd complementary performance re ‘quirements, A major characteristic ofa design i its function. The Function of a desis Ts how itis expected to hehave. For example, the sign may be required to ‘object of certain mass and move it 50 feet in one mint are usually expressed in capacity measures such a Fors ray po serie environmen (ee Chap. 5). relly ee Chap. 19, and case, econamy i operon must be coniered ial che design mus conor all eg reirembodiment ofall the main functions that must be performed by the product must be undertaken. I is in this design phase tht decisions are made on strength, mate ‘al seleetion, size, shape, and spatial compaiblity. Beyond this design phase, major ‘changes become very expensive. This design phase is sometimes called preliminary ‘Embodiment design is concerned with three major tsks—produet architec ‘onfigurtion design, and parametric design + Determining product architecture: Product architecture is concerned with divid ing the overall design system into subsystems or modules. In this step we decide hove the physical components ofthe design are to be arranged and combined to carry ou the functional duties ofthe design + Configuration design of parts and components: Parts are made up of features like hoes, ribs, spines, and eurves. Configuring a part means to determine what fex tures will be present and how those features are to be arranged in space relative toveach other, While modeling and simulation may be performed in this stage to ‘check out function and spatial constants, oaly approximate sizes ae determined to assure that the part satistes the PDS. Also, more specificity about materials and ‘manufacturing is given here. The generation ofa physical model ofthe part with ‘api prottyping processes may be appropriate «+ Parametric desigh of parts: Parametric design starts with information onthe con- figuration of the part and aims to establish its exact dimensions and tolerance Final decisions on the material and manufacturing processes are also established if this bas not been done previously. An important aspect of parametric design is to examine the part, assembly, and system for design robustness. Robustness teers to how consistently a component performs under variable conditions in is service environment. The methods developed by Dr. Genichi Taguchi for achieving robust hess and establishing the optimum tolerance ae discussed in Chap. 15, Paramet Fie design also deals with determining the aspecs of the design that could lead to failore Gee Chap. 14, Another important consideration in parametric design is 0 ‘design in sueh a way that manufacturaifity is enhanced (see Chap. 13) In this phase the design is brought to the stage of a complete ‘ofa tested and product proc, Missing information is added on the ara form, dimensions, tolerances, surface properties, materials, and manufacturin cesses of each pat. This resus in a speciation foreach spe for each standard part © be purchased from supplies. Inthe deta de following activites are completed and documents are prepare: + Detailed engineering drawings suitable for manufacturing. Routinely these are computer generated drawings, and they often inca three-dimensional CAD models. + Verification testing of prototypes is successfully completed and verification data is submitted. All eritcl-o-quality parameters are confirmed to be wn Usually the building and willbe accomplished, of several preproduction versions ofthe product cuaeren : Engineering Design ” ‘Assembly drawings and assembly instructions also will be complete, The bill of ‘materials forall assemblies will be completed, + A detailed product specification, updated with all the changes made since the con ceptual design phase, willbe prepared. + Decisions on whether to make each pat internally orto buy from an external sup- plier willbe made, + With the preceding information, a detailed cost estimate for the product will be carried out + Finally, detail design concludes with a design review before the decision is made to pass the design information on to manufacturing Phases IH, and IIT take the design from the realm of possibility t the real world of practicality. However the design process isnot finshed withthe delivery of set of engineering drawvings and specifications to the manufacturing organization, Many other technical and business decisions must be made t bring the design to the point wher itcan be delivered tothe customer. Chief among these, a discussed in Sec. 95, led plans for manufacturing the prod for planning is launch int the mat Ketplace, and fr disposing of iin an environmentally safe way alter it has completed a useful life 15 CONSIDERATIONS OF 4 GOOD Dt SIGN Design is @ muitifaceted process. To g desig, w xin a broader understanding of engineering ood design into three categories: (1) achieve ment of performance requirements, (2) life-cycle issues, and (3) social and regulatory LS Ad sments jement of Performance Req cis obvious that tobe Feasible the design must demonstrate the required performance, Performance measures both the function andthe behavior of the desig, that is, how well the device does what itis designed to do. Performance requirements can be di- ded into primary performance requirements and complementary performance 1 guirements. A major characteristic of a design sits action. The function ofa design is how it is expected to behave. For example, the design may be required to grasp a abject oF certain mas and move it S0 fet in one minute. Fanetional requirements ae usually expressed in capacity messures such as fores, strength, deflection, or en ‘or pier output or consumption. Complementary performance requirements a {concerns such asthe useful life of the design its robustness to factors oceurring inthe service environment (see Chap 15), its reliability (see Chap. I), and ease, economy and safety of maintenance, Issues sucha builtin safety Features and the no in operation must be considered. Finally the design must conform toa egal requiee ‘ments and design codes8 NoMeEnNs 9es0 A produet! is usually made up of a collection of purts, sometimes called piec parte. A part is «single piece requiring no assembly. When two oF more parts are Joined it called an assembly. Often large assemblies are composed ofa collection of ater assenlies called subassembles. A siila (erm for partis component. The two terms are used interchangeably in tis book, but in the design literature the word Component sometimes is used t describe a subassembly with a sa numberof pars Considers erdinary ball bearing It consists ofan outer ring, inne ring, 10 of more bulls depending on size, and a retainer to Keep the balls from rubbing together. A ball bearing soften called a component, eventhough it consists of «number of pats ‘Closely related to the funetion of a component in a design is its form. Form is what the component looks like, and encompases its shape, size, and surface finish These, in turn, depend upon the material tis made from and the manufacturing pro cesses that are used to make i “A variety af analysis techniques must be employed in ariving atthe featores of 4 compenent in the design, By fearare we mean specific physical attriptes, such as the fine details of geometry, dimensions, and tolerances on the dimensions.* Typisl geometrical features would be fills, hols, walls and ribs. The computer has had e ajr impact in this area by providing powerful analytical tools based on fit ment analysis. Calculations of stress, temperature, and other fekd-dependent var Sbies can be made rather handily foremplex geometry and loading conditions. When these analytical methods ate coupled wth interactive computer graphies. we have the heting capability known as computer-aided engineering (CAB): see Sec. 1.6. Note that with this enhanced capability for analysis comes greater responsibility for provid- ing better understanding of pradict performance at early stages ofthe design process Environmental requirements for performance deal with €%0 separate aspect “The fmt concerns the service conditions under which the product must operate. The xtremes of temperature, humidity, corrasive conditions, dirt, vibration. and pose fnust be predicted and allowed for inthe desig. The second aspect of environmen: {al requitements pertains to how the product wil behave with regard to maintaining {Tsafe and clean environment, tha is, green design. Often governmental regulations force these considerations in design, but overtime they Become standard design prac tice, Among these issues is the disposal of the product when t reaches its useful ie Design forthe Environment (DFE) is discussed in detail in Chap 10. Aesthetic requirements reer to the sense of the beatiful.” They are concerned. with how the product i perceived by a customer because of ils shape, color, surface Texture, and also soch factors as balance, unity, and interest, This aspect of design {ovatly ithe responsibility of the indusivial designer, as opposed to the engineer ing designer, The industrial designer is in part an applied artist. Decisions about the tppearance of the product should be an integral part ofthe inital design concep. Tr Anover en or rode s dev, snethingdevied conse fr para purpose, ke @ cio he proc F tetas fr power acl be ase ear thet Choiegy to aire tha he design can be operated een by humans. I aplies physiological and anthropometric data o sh design estes a visa and aory {py ses ad coo yrs al concer wih an mace power and responce times. The india designer often is responsible for considering the human factors, For further information, see Sec. 8.9, * fens ‘Manufacturing techology mast be eoey integrated with product desig. There ny be rerietons on the manfacturing proctses hat canbe used, because oe sSktion of material or valli of equipment within the company “he final major desig requirements cost Every design hus requirements of a connie mature. These ine sich sues product development cot nil po cst, cycle protest ooling cost and eturn on investment Th a ost the mon import design requirement. If pelininary estimates of product Cost ok unfavra,the design projet mayne of th design proc be initiated. Cost enters into every 1.52 Total Life Cyele The tie eee ofa pat starts wth he conception ofa need and ends with the Tent and spose pst Matra sco sy cent in taping the toi ec Gee Chap. 1 htng mati oa gen appeaton. test ep neato of serie con Sitios Nex he pets oti tht ie st ie totes ee Imes st be dtrmined cep nam vil Sonos the neve sme "ltonbetvcn service prance an materi oper. The des ty sar withthe omseraton of sated stent at pets at re mow fea a Salts srs fges cee. ghnes dc acoso ean my hve tobe conleed, Wenecdo Gow sheer he marl se ue he nonen tl ono: Des te monte change with emperatre and eee change he properties? Does the material corode slowly wear at an unsceeplable rate? seria seston canna be spate rom mame ee Chap. 1). isaninierent conection between sgn an mac seo si ah. faring proces. Thecjestne nhs areas trade betwen topos of minim ost a ax ably, Dey ie ieeased 0) Sesenng soto minimize mater dterraton by cots, pry of te po ae yen or ey fies a Ste related ety, a ech xm thats mes by te pba Seeing spected service ie Cent snc urs of enaycongraon, e tral conservation, and preset ofthe envionment el new preset ‘Ses of tras nd manfactrng poses neg) cos once ney insane ow among te mos prominent designcomraton Dest rials recycling also is becoming an important design consideration. - The if yl of prodion an consumo tha characteris ofl pros is imate the ais ete shown np 17 This are he misng a nored- 7 \ ~ ‘mineral or de dling for oil or che harvesting ofan agrcularal is Thes rhust be processed to extractor refine a bulk material (eg, an aluminum ingod that is further processed into a finished engineering material (e ‘an aluminum shee) AC this stage an engineer designs & product that is manufactared From the material andthe parti pu into service. Eventually the part wears out or be comes obsolete because a better product comes on the market. AL this tage, one option isto junk the part and dispose of it in some way’ that eventually returns the material ithe earth. However, society is becoming inteasingly concerned with the depletion ‘of natural resourees and the haphazard disposal of solid materials, Thus, we look fox ecodomical ways to reeyele waste materials (¢, aluminum beverage can) 1 3 Regulatory and Social Issues Specifications und standards have an important influence on design practice, The stan dards produced by such societies as ASTM and ASME represent volunary agseement among many elements (users and pradoces) of industry, As such, they often represent ‘minimum o€ las-commen-denominator standard. When good design eequires more ‘han tht, it may be necessary to develop your own company ar agency standards, On ihe other hand, because ofthe general nature of most standards, a standard sometimes quires a producer to meet a requirement that not essential to the particular Fune jon ofthe design, The codes ofeics of all professional engineering societies require the engineer (protect public heath and safety, Inreasingly, legislation has been passed to federal agencies to regulate many aspects of safety and health, The requirements of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) place direct constraints on the designer in the interests of protecting health, safety, and security. Several aspects of the CPSC regulation have fareaching influence on product design. Although the intended pur Pose ofa product normally is quite clear, the unintended uses of that product are not always obvious. Under the CPSC regulation, the designer has the obligation to fore See as many unintended uses as possible, then develop the design in sucha vay as to prevent hazardous use of the product in an unintended but foreseeable manner. When unintended use cannot be prevented by functional desig, clea, complete, unambigu ‘us warnings must be permanently attached to the prot. In addition, the designer must be cognizant ofall advertising material, owner's manuals and operating instruc- ions that relate to the product to ensure that the contents ofthe material are consistent with safe operating procedures and do not promise performance characteristics that are heyond the capability ofthe design. {An important design consideration is adequate atenton to uma factors engi- sof biomechanics, ergonomics, and engineering psy chology to assure that the design can be operated efficiently and safely by humans. 1 applies physiological and anthropometric data to such design features as visual and auditory display of instruments and control systems. I is also concer human muscle power and response times, For further information, se Sec. 816 COMPUTER-AIDED ENGINEERING ‘The advent of pletifl computing has produced a major change inthe way engine se comput their needs the early aplations ciel were compationall cae coring aighteel language lke FORTRAN. The st compute el ino recondue in ach mod, with te code pepared on punch ears. Over ent pccme common andthe egies ould enzae nitrate Gist 1) {tutto The Jevelopet ofthe microprocessor ab the poifertion of personal cut pole soving abd design {Fu gee nyc of compra ening en ean Sere Ahi to mae changes ad to ase parts of of deans ne davings mee le walle on desiop computers. Thee-inensionl slid modeling ro aa eee te geonstic anathema escripion of th part geomet Sok Sat be sceuoned to eed ino das or they ean be realy converted Hr Sega optinzation, simulation apd prototyping, ad ranuicturng, For saann,peometic tee-dimensioal modeling tes nicely wit he exesie te Fane clement modeling (PEMD and makes pose nace simulations sich froblema ar sues ama id flo, the Kinematics of mechanical Hnkages, and vray conold too path generation for machining apeatins. The wkimate aa sultion viral reaiy where he viewer fs he a pat fhe ap “Te computer ends the desir’ capable in several wa. Fs by ore a rate on more complex deg take Scand, alos the designer o analyze ‘Snes pbs taster and moe completely, Both ofthese fotos make possible tees ie manufcurng engines, process planer ol ad die desley and pr hig aan Te nk even cmputeaidd deen (CAD) ad compre alte tekepimumicaton, these persons can be on ferent continents 10 Gime zones away ‘Concurrent engineering is greatly facilitated by the use of computer gineering. Concurrent engineering i x team-based approach in which all aspects of the product development process are represented on a closely communicating team, Team memibers perform their jobs in an overlapping and concurrent man. her so as to minimize the time for product development (see Sec 2.44). A computer sided en Boeing 777 The boldest example ofthe use of CAD is with the Boeing 777 long-range trans- port. Started in fall 1990 and completed in April 1994, this was the world’s Rist, completely papesless transport design. Employing the CATIA 3-D CAD system, i inked all of Boeing’s design and manufacturing groups in Washington, as well ‘8 suppliers of systems and components worldwide, Att peak, the CAD system erved some 7000 workstations spread over IT time zones ‘As many as 238 design teams worked on the projet ata single time, Had they been using conventional paper design, they might have experienced many interfer ‘ences among hardware systems, requiring costly design changes and revised dra ings. This is a major cost factor in designing a complex system. The advantage of being able to see what everyone else was doing, through an integrated solid model aun digital data system, saved in excess of SO percent ofthe cha work expected fora design ofthis magnitude. “The Boeing 777 has more thin 130,000 unique engineered parts and when rivets and other fasteners are counted, there are more than 3 milion individual | parts. The ability ofthe CAD system to identify interferences eliminated the need to build a physical model (mockup) of the airplane, Nevertheless, those exper- enced with transport design and construction reported thatthe parts ofthe 777 fit better the fist ie than those of any earlier commercial ailner. ders and re- database in the form of solid model that can be accessed by all members of the design team, asin the Bosing 777 example. is a vital tool for this communication. More and more the Internet, with appropriate security. is being used to transmit 3-D CCAD models t tol designers, part vendors, and numerical-contol programmers for iy newworked global design and manufscturing omputer-aided engineering became a reality when the power of the PC work tation, and later the laptap PC, became great enough stan acceptable cost to free the design engineer from the limitations of the mainframe computer. Bringing the computing power of the mainframe compute tothe desktop ofthe design engineer has created great opportunities for more creative, relihle, and cost effective designs. (CAE developed in io major domains: computer graphies and modeling, and ‘mathematical analysis and simulation of design problems. The ability to do 3-D ‘modeling is within the capability of every engineering student. The most comaon ‘computer modeling software packages a he undergraduate level are AutoCAD, ProE, and SolidWorks. CAE analysis tools run the gamut from spreadsheet ealelations to complex finite-element models involving stess, het tansfe, and Hid low Spreadsheet applications may seem quaint to engineering ste sheet programs are useful because of the tions without requiring the user tn Xs, but sprea ability to quickly make multiple calcul ter all of the data, Each combination of row and column in the spreadsheet matrix is called a cell, The quantity in each cell can represent ether a number entered as input or a number thatthe spresdsheet programcatetates according oa preserved equation! The ower ofthe spreadshes is sed ona o toma ese els wn mew at ve Bea eed Wand the impact on he cut eral observed. The well 7 Satcutaron Ii also posto use the solve problem merical aalysi ie salon of am equation tha spreadsheet eqs atthe equation be Sons Waren fr metal be abl fo solve for any variable. Therefore acs of “han soving programs has een developed fr snl comptations on the personal inp The backnawn exanplsse-TK Soe, MalhCAD. and EES (Engineer ing Equton Soke). Ante important set of computational ols are the symbolic ‘Muetnatige, Maple and MATLAB, MATLAB: has foond a special nee in many eogrammabl and thus replace Fortran, Basic and Pssl ay programming fm edges ite graphics ares, excelent bility to solve diferent eqstions, Ente eval of mre than 20 olxss in aro aplication rts Speciatzedppticaton programs to support engineering design ave appea aa rpilate Tse include stare fr fne-clement modeling. QFD.eeativiy ling Use sftware packages of tis ype wil be mentoned a these opis are induce throughott he txt variables are c ness of spreads 47 DESIGNING TO CODES AND STANDARDS While we have often tale about design being a creative process, the fats that mich of design isnot very differen fom what has been done inthe past, There ate obvious Bens cot and time ed ifthe Rest racic are ape ad mo forall to use. Designing with codes and standards has two chet aspects ‘and ayo iy problems with connecting plugs and electrical voltage and Frequene “eas a elton of ls nd rus tht ashi government ey n reeling its obligation t protec the general welfare by preventing damage t0 prop- {ry oF injury of los of ie to persons. A Mana BEReRaRBRereppans acer Tota Wy Soe Sie serie ATLA for Enger et Mr, New Yor 208 EB rum properties of materials, or an agreed-upon rocedute to measure a property like The terms standards and specifications are sometimes wsed interchangeably, The sistinction is that standards refer to generalized situation, while speciiations refer o specialized situations, Coes tell the engineer what to do and when and under what crcumstances todo it. Codes asin the building code for the fire code. Standards tell the engineer how to do it and are usally regarded 15 recommendations that da not ave the force of lw, Cades often incorporate na tonal standards into them by reference, and inthis way standards become I sally ble. There are two broad forms of code SEENON pres i e hese are issued by agen cies (federal of sate) to spell out the details forthe implementation of vaguely writ n laws. An example isthe OSHA regulations developed by the US. Department of Labor co implement the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA), belts, lumber, and auto crash safesy. Test method standards st forth methods for mea- suring properties such as yield strength, thermal conductivity o electrical resistivity Most ofthese are developed for and published by the American Society for Testis auc Materials (ASTM), Another important set oF testing sada fax prod ae developed by the Underwriters Laboruores (UD, iii casa ign repetitive technical problems such as the design of piping, heat ex ‘hangers and pressure vessels. Many ofthese are developed by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code), the American clea Spee Ss Eaginos use, They address such things as dimensions, tolerances, forms, manufacturing pro and inbhes. In-house standards are often used by the compan purchasing de Partment when outsourcing. The next level of standard preparation involves proups of companies inthe same industry arriving at industry consensus standards. Otten these ate sponsored through an industry tae association, such as the American Insitute of Steel Construction (AISC) or the Door and Hardwaee Insitute Industry standards of this type are usually submitted to the American National Standards Insite (ANSD) fo formal review process, approval, and publication, A similar function is played by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) ia Geneva, Switzerland portant set of standards are government (ederal, state, and foal) speck Standards. Because the government is sucha. large purchaser of goods and services itis important for the engineer to have aocess to these standards. Engineers working in high-tech defense areas must be conversant with MIL standards and hand books ofthe Department of Defense