SEG Reviews Vol. 13, 2000, p, 915-845 Chapter 9 Gold-Rich Porphyry Deposits: Descriptive and Genetic Models and Their Role in Exploration and Discovery Rica H. Surroe 27 West Hill Park, Highgate Village, London N6 ONI England Abstract Gold-rich porphyry deposits worldwide conform well to a generalized descriptive model. This model incorporates six main facies of hydrothermal alteration and mineralization, which are zoned upward and. outward with respect to composite porphyry stocks of cylindrical form atop much larger perent plutons, This intrusive environment and its overlying advanced argillic lithocap span roughly 4 km vertically, an interval over which profound changes in the style and mineralogy of gold and associated copper miner- alization are observed. The model predicts a number of geologic attributes to be expected in association with superior gold-rich porphyry deposits, Most features of the descriptive model are adequately € plained by a genetic mode! that has developed progressively over the last century. This model is dom hated by the Consequences of the release and focused ascent of metalliferous Muid resulting from erys- tallization of the parent pluton. Within the porphyry system, gold- and copper-bearing brine and acidic volatiles interact in a complex manner with the stock, its wall rocks, and ambient meteoric and connate fluids. Although several processes involved in the evolution of gold-tich porphyry deposits remain to be fully clarified, the fundamental issues have been resolved to the satisfaction of most investigators, Explo- ration for gold-rich porphyry deposits worldwide involves geologic, geochemical, and geophysical work but generally employs the descriptive model in an unsophisticated manner and the genetic model hardly at all. Discovery of gold-rich porphyry deposits during the last 30 yr has resulted mainly from basic geo- logic observations and conventional geochemical surveys, and has often resulted {rom programs de- signed to explore for other mineral deposit types. The tried-and-ested approach is thought likely to pro- vide most new discoveries for the forseeable future, although more rigorous and innovative application of the descriptive and genetic models can only improve the chances of success. Introduction Goup-Rici porphyry systems possess all essential geologic attributes of gold-poor, commonly molybdenum-rich por- phyry copper deposits (¢.g., Lowell and Guilbert, 1970; Titley and Beane, 1981). Gold like copper is present within and immediately surrounding altered porphyry stocks. The stocks are focuses of more extensive hydrothermal systems, which may form other relaced mineralization styles, includ: ing high- and lowsulfidation epithermal deposits, skarns, and replacement deposits in carbonate and noncarbonate rocks (¢.g., Sillitoe, 1991; Jones, 1992). The epithermal orebodies associated with the Far Southeast deposit, Philip- pines (Claveria et al., 1999), and the carbonate-hosted poly metallic orebodies alongside the Bingham deposit (Babcock «tal, 1995) provide classic examples of zoning around gold- rich porphyry centers. Porphyry deposits with average gold contents of 20.4 g/metric ion (t) Au may be defined, albeit arbitrarily, as gold rich (Sillitoe, 1979). These gold-rich porphyry deposits world- wide (Fig. 1) comprise a continuum of systems from copper plus by-product gold, through gold plus by-product copper, to gold-only end members (e.g., Kirkham and Sinclair, 1996; Fig. 2a). Average gold contents are generally <1 g/t, although afew deposits are richer (Fig, 2). Grasberg, for example, con- tains several hundred million metric tons (Mt) averaging >LB g/t Au. Typically, gold-rich porphyry deposits are det cient in molybdenum, but there are notable exceptions (e.g., Bingham, Ok Ted, Skouties; Table 1). The size of the de- posits varies markedly, from <50 to 4.500 Mt (Fig. 2b) Bingham, the first porphyry copper deposit to be worked asa bulktonnage operation, is gold rich; however, the gold credit did not become economically important until the rise of the international gold price in the late 1970s. Other land- marks in the exploitation of gold-rich porphyry copper de- posits include commissioning of Almalyk, Uzbekistan, in 1954, Santo Tomas If, Philippines, in 1958, Panguna, Papua New Guinea, in 1972, and Grasberg, Indonesia in 1989, Gold-only end members were first discovered in the Mari- cunga belt of northern Chile in 1982, with production com- mencing 7 yr later (Vila and Sillitoe, 1991). The large size and high grade of the Grasberg deposit raised the profile of gold-rich porphyry deposits and led to their becoming prime exploration targets for companies in- terested in gold, copper, or both metals. The potential of gold-tich porphyry deposits is underscored by the fact that onesfifth of the world’s giant gold deposits, defined as those containing 2600 t Au, are porphyry type. The six giant de- posits are Grasberg, Almalyk, Bingham, Panguna, Far South- east, and Cerro Casale (Table 1). 315316 RICHARD H. SILLITOR Fc. 1. Locations of principal gold-rich porphyry depos Note concentrations in western Pacific region and western Americas, Numbers keyed to deposit names in Table 1, Gxcled numbers indicate deposits with pastor present production, This article updates the generalized descriptive (empir- ical) model for gold-rich porphyry deposits presented pre- viously (Sillitoe, 1993), emphasizing where certain exam- ples differ from the norm. Historical advances in the understanding of porphyry copper systems are then briefly reviewed as a prelude to the currently preferred genetic ‘model for golt-rich porphyry deposits. Methods used in ex- ploration and discovery of gold-tich porphyry deposits are then discussed, with special attention paid to the relatively minor role played by descriptive and genetic models, Two typical discovery case histories are included. The article con- cludes with suggestions for further work and a series of questions and answers relating to the models described, Descriptive Model Regional tectonic setting Gold-tich porphyry deposits are generated at convergent plate boundaries during or immediately following subduc- tion of oceanic lithosphere. Many of these, as in Chile, Peru, and the Philippines, are parts of subduction-related vol- canoplutonic arcs, in which epithermal gold deposits are also widespread, Elsewhere, however, including Bingham and Bajo de la Alumbrera (Table 1), gold-rich porphyry de- posits formed in backarc settings, above the downdip ex- tremities of shallowly dipping lithospheric slabs. Many gold-rich porphyry deposits are generated during intervals when arcs are subjected to periods of weak exten- sion, as at Cerro Corona and Minas Conga in northern Pera (Petford and Atherton, 1994), and Marte, Lobo, Refugio, and Cerro Casale in the Maricunga belt, northern CI (Kay et al., 1994), Elsewhere, extension progresses to pro- duce interare rifts like the Cagayan basin (Florendo, 1994), host to the Dinkidi deposit in Luzon, Philippines (Table 1). However, large high-grade deposits, in common with their gole-poor counterparts, are more typically emplaced during regional compression (Sillitoe, 1998). Compression may be a product of subduction of an aseismic ridge, as at Far Southeast (Yang et al, 1996), or arc-continent collision, as at Grasberg and Ok Tedi (Dewey and Bird, 1970). Indeed, eight deposits were emplaced in ares either just before or after collisional events (Table 1). The giant Bingham de- posit is an exception to this generalization, however, be- cause it was generated during extension immediately fol- lowing prolonged compressive tectonism (Presnell, 1997) Crustal setting Gold-rich porphyry deposits are present in Cordilleran arcs underlain by continental crust as well as in island ares underlain by either continental or oceanic crust. Strict cor relations between gokd-rich porphyry deposits and oceanic settings and molybdenum-rich porphyry deposits and con- tinental settings (¢.g., Hollister, 1975) are clearly invalid. Observations also do not support any clear relationship betxeen gold-rich porphyry deposits and anomalously high gold contents in underlying crustal rocks, as proposed byROLE OF COLD-RICH PORPHYRY DEPOSIT MODELS IN EXPLORATION Cu % 317 Fic. Size and grade of principl gokt-sich porphyry deposits (a) copper versus gold content and (b) size (prod tion + reserves) versus gold content, Note the broad spread of copper ané gold values ‘Au-Cu, and Awonly categories; and predominance of deposits con hypogene exceptat Ok Tedi (5) and Sungai Mak (8), where important supergene chalcoct = fb) 0 °29 " 4 ° & 1200 Ga ae 00) Je are = # >| = eer ten 25 Oe oT ue ‘Au, git (ppm) formal subdivision into Cu-Au, ining <300 Mt. Copper grades are dominantly ‘nrichment is included. ‘Supergene oxidation affected Kingking (I1), Almalyk (19), Mount Polley (26), and Afton (28) but without substantial ‘changes in capper grades. Titley (1990). Gold-rich porphyry deposits are widely dis- tributed in voleanoplutonie ares worldwide (Fig. 1); they can be isolated in otherwise gold-poor porphyry copper inces (e.g., Dos Pobres in Arizona; Langton and and adjacent porphyry deposits may have markedly different gold contents (e.g., Saindak; Si and Khan, 197). Nevertheless, there is a tendency for gold-rich porphyry deposits to be concentrated in geo- graphically restricted belts, such as the Cajamarca belt of northern Peru, the Maricunga belt of northern Chile, and the Cordillera Central of Luzon, Philippines. Voleanic setting Gold-rich porphyry deposits are commonly emplaced at shallow (1-2 km) crustal levels (Cox and Singer, 1988) and, hence, are likely to be associated closely with coeval vol- canic rocks. Indeed, Table 1 reveals that threequarters of deposits retain remnants of coeval volcanic sequences. The voleanic rocks are typically andesitic to dacitic or trachyan- desitic to latitic in composition and, where volcanic land forms are partially preserved, they constitute stratovol- canoes. However, the existence of flow.dome complexes may be inferred above some gold-rich porphyry deposits, especially those associated with more felsic magmatism (e-g., Bingham; Waite et al., 1997). xe that gold in leached eapping at Ok Ted (5) is not included. Numbers keyed to deposit nesin Table 1 Data taken from references in Table l and the mining litera A few deposits emplaced at shallow depths are hosted by coeval voleanies, a good example being Marte which formed at a depth of 500 to 700 m beneath a partly preserved stratovolcano (Vila et al., 1991). Generally, how ever, the surrounding country rocks comprise older litho- logic units, as variable as serpentinite (Mamut; Kosaka and Wakita, 1978), schist (Skouries; Tobey et al., 1998), and limestone (eg., Grasberg, Bingham, Ok Tedi, Cen Corona). Structural setting Some gold-rich porphyry deposits are localized by major fault zones, whereas many have only relatively minor struc tures in their immediate vicinities. The former case is ¢: emplified by Far Southeast, Guinaoang, Santo Tomas Il, and Kingking (Fig. 1; Table 1), all localized by splays of the 1,500-kmiong Philippine transcurrent fault system (Silli- toc and Gappe, 1984). A few gold-rich porphyry deposits are inferred to lie along deeply penetrating crustal linca- ments, for example, Goonumbla and Cadia Hill on the Lachlan River lineament in New South Wales, Australia (Walshe et al., 1995). Deposits in compressive settings tend to occupy localized dilatant sites, such as that provided by strikeslip faulting in the fold-and-thrust belt at Grasberg (Sapiie and Cloos, 1995).318 RICHARD Ht, SILLITOE ‘Tame L Selected Characteristics of Principal Gold Rich Porphyry Deposit Now Lithocap — Abundant Ape Figs Name, Host eum Age Coew!—Altersion remnant. mignetite quart, Sec 12 location Au ()_Sesting porphyry chemistry (M8) _woleancs_with Avs Cu _preerved = hematite inlet reerence Te EndewwuraoNonh 4 AIA Qmons-KCA aR) Yes x No Ye Ye and 48, Goonumbla, ‘Austria th Endeavour and 27, 2 AIA Quon, CAA Yee K No Ye Yes Coonan, own 2 Gada Ha, 19 AIA Qmone RCA =O Yes KNAIA No Yes Ye. ‘stalin 3 Panguna, Tos Ait GA Wes ASN ves Ye Papua New Guinea 4 a) Yer Yo ° 38 C (Co Mone RGA 2 NK SK No No Yes 6 1952 (Col) Nona RCA Ree KA No Yes Ye. Indonest, 7 Gabang i, Sl Wo) QCA 29 es AKIN es Yeo. Yes Indonesia 8 Sungai Nak, Go DE CAA Yer Yes Indonesia 9 Baw His, se A Ton CA Des RN Yes Yes Ye. Indonesia 10 Samus 9% Gol) Gone KA 5 NK Ser No ves Yes Matsa 1 ingking, 07 ACA MioPhio Yes Sk No Yes Yes Philippines 12 Amu, % ACA Mio Pio Yes TAK. No No Yes Philipps 18 Dizon, wo A AA ves Yes Yes Philippines 14 Dinka, U7 WRN) Mon, Aes No Yes Yes Phitppines mone 15 SamoTomast, = 80 TAA K Xo Ye ve Philippines 16 Ginaoang, <2 TAQ CA 85a TAS ARK tes Yes Ye Palippies 17 FarSouhesst, SW QthA Eee KIN Yes Yes Yes Philippines 1 South body, Ey Qh A980 kK xo Ye Yes Sanday Pakistan 19 Alms, 989 AIA Qone «RCA 294810 No Sen No Yes Yes Usbekivan 2 Majdanpeb, 300) Qh CA LaeGret No KAR SK No Yes Wee ugontnn 21 Shourie, 2285) (Co) en ANN Xo Yes ves Greece 22 Pebble Copper, 176, cs CA m3 No kK Xo Yes Yes ‘lash 2% Galore Creek, 1 AAC Gen A 8s RK No Yes Ne BG, Canada M4 Kemess South, 126 NA (Co!) Quoned CAMB NOKIA No Yes Yeo 25 Mount Milligan, 14 AIA Mone ATKIN No Ye. No B.G, Canada 26 Mount Polley, 27 AIA Mone A087 Mek KNACK No. Yer No B.C, Canad 27 Fish Late, 38 Gh AKIN No Yes Yes BG, Canada 28 Afwon, AA A he KN No Yes No BiG, Canada 29 Bingham, 1256 mone KGA STEWS No No Ye. van‘ROLE OF GOLD RICH PORPHYRY DEPOSIT MODELS IN EXPLORATION 319 ‘Tame 1. (Cont) Nom ithocap Abundant A ype Fig Name, Hos Feo Age __Coeval Alteration remnant tagnette quar Selected 12 location Au()_Seuing porphyry chemistry (Ma) _wleanic vith Aus Ca _preened _Shematte stinkee _seteience 0 Tana, 2 OR Qh A am KA No Ye Yes Cox (985) Puerto Rice 31 Cerro Corona, % 6 Qh Aes KIA SK No Yes Yer James and “Thompscn (1997) 2m m6 Gk Aes K No Yes Yes Lost eta, (2000) 3% SSG Dac CAB EYesKSERIASK Yen Yes Yes Loss etal (2000) 99 yo deta alumbrers, 516 Go Dae KATY kK No Yes Yes Guibert 2000) Argentina Mobo, Chile wo 6) AeA Ye. Yes Yes—_Vilaand Sititoe (aot) 36 Marte Chile ss 6 om fw os ow AK Yes Yes Yes Viet al. i991) 36 Refugio (Verde), 190 GQ CA es GANT Mew Yes Yes Vila and Siioe chile (i991) 87 Cerro Casale, 60 CAB Yeo Yee te = continental magn, Col ‘montodiorte, Oe alteration with Au’ Gxt AA = advanced agile Skeskarn In summary, though, there is no specific structural set ting that favors the localization of gold-rich porphyry de- posits. Rather, the impression is gained that deeply derived magmas are capable of attaining shallow levels appropriate for porphyry deposit generation whatever the structural state and preparation of the upper crust. Intrusive rock compositions ‘The porphyry intrusions that are related genetically to all goldrich porphyry deposits belong exclusively to Ftype, magnetite series suites (eg., Ishihara, 1981). Indeed, the abundance of hydrothermal magnetite in gold-rich por- phyry deposits may be taken to suggest that their host in- twusions are highly oxidized, sulfurpoor representatives of the magnetite series (Sillitoe, 1979). Bulk-tonnage gold de- posits are also hosted by and related genetically to more re- duced, either magnetite or ilmenite series intrusions, but these are of shected-vein rather than truly porphyry type (Thompson et al,, 1999; Thompson and Newberry, 2000). Similarly, several “porphyry” copper gold deposits related to ilmenite series intrusions (Rowins, 2000) are not con- The porphyry stocks span a range of compositions, from low K cale-alkaline diorite, quartz diorite, and tonalite, through high K calcalkaline quart monzonite, to alkaline monzonite and syenite. The high K representatives gener- ally meet the criteria for classification as shoshonites (e. Goonumbla and Cadia Hill; Walshe et al., 1995; Bajo de la Alumbrera; Maller and Forrestal, 1998). The alkaline rocks may be either saturated or undersaturated with respect to quartz (Lang et al., 1995a). Clearly, intrusive composition exerts little obvious influence on favorability for gold-rich uring o following collin, A = land yuare dorite, Qmoae = quarts moneonite, Petiocheminry:A = allaline, CA ealeatkaline, KCA = high Realcaliaine hoshonl Cisticate, CR = eabonatereplacemes host porphyry: Dae = daite, Di = dior ond = quartz monaodiorite, Sen = age: Cret» Cretaceas Mi = Mlocgney Pi intermediate argilic, = Kallicate, Na = Na lien, porphyry genesis, although more highly fractionated in- trusions of granitic composition are notably absent. The ore-telated porphyries contain feldspar and mafic minerals + quar. phenocrysts in an aplitic to aphanitic groundmass. All the porphyries contain hornblende and/or biotite, to which pyroxene is commonly added in the case of the alkaline representatives. Some undersatu- rated alkaline intrusions contain pseudoleucite as a phe- nocryst phase (Lang et al., 1995a) Intrusive rock geometries Vertically extensive (1->2 km) porphyry stocks of grossly cylindrical form are the focus of most gold-rich porphyry deposits and contain all or parts of the ore (Fig. 3). Th diameters range from <100 m to >I km, Dike- and silllike apophyses project outward from the sides and tops of stocks but are typically not abundant. Stocks are generally composite, with early porphyries being intruded by inter- mineral and late-mineral phases, a mechanism that causes episodic inflation of the stocks, Progressively younger por- phyry phases are commonly intruded into axial portions of stocks, giving rise to nested geometries (Fig. 3). Inter- mineral and late-nineral phases commonly result in low- grade cores to deposits, as documented at Panguna (Clark, 1990), Grasberg (Van Nort et al., 1991), Santo Tomas IT (Serafica and Baluda, 1977), and many other localities These low-grade cores, which commonly constitute waste, may not attain the present surface and await definition by drilling (¢.g., Perol at Minas Conga; Llosa et al., 2000) Nevertheless, there are many exceptions to this stereo- ypical intrusion geometry. Early, marginally located por- phyry intrusions may be lower in copper and gold contents than internal intermineral ones, as exemplified by Gras-320 RICHARD 1, SILITOE PRESENT SURFACE ROCK TYPES ? ALTERATION-Mi =] Revent alluvium z Vugay quartz (py-energ) EES Postmineral porohyy plus § Quartz-alunite (py-enarg) [4 Diatreme breccia: Ealy/Late < Quartz-dickite/pyrophylite (py-vtenarg) [1] Late-mineral equigranular pluton Sericitic (pysbnecctcv) = | Late-mineral porphyry Intermeciate argc (nem-py-co) Pa] Inter-mineral hydrothermal breccia Chioritic/propylitic (py) [kx] Intor-mineral porphyry K silicate (rmg-cpbn) =F] Early porphyry Ca-Na silicate (mg) Volcanic walirock (Outer limit of potential Cu-Au ore ic, , Descriptive model of typical gold-rich porphyry system comprising composite porphyry stock and contiguous diaureme and porphyry plug, modified from Silitoe (1993). Rock and aleration-mineralization types young upward in the respective legends although advanced argillic zone is generated throughout the lifespan of the system. Charactet= [hc opaque mineral assemblages are shown with alteration types. Abbreviations: bn = bornite, c= chalcorite,

0.5 km wide) diatreme breccias (Fig. 3) conclude the evolution of some gold-rich porphyry systems, although they may both overlap with end-stage advanced argillic al- ‘eration and associated high-sulfidation epithermal miner- alization, as at Dizon and Far Southeast. Diatreme brecei are generally low grade or barren, although exceptions occur (e.g., Galore Greek; Enns et al., 1905). Diatreme brec- 20 vol percent, dominate the sulfide content of propylitic alteration which, with or without sericitic alteration (see below), constitutes pyrite halos to coppergold zones. Minor amounts of chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite, sphalerite, and galena are common in propy- litic zones, locally concentrated in faults or fractures as quartz-carbonate veins. Several hundred parts per million Zinc and lead, in places accompanied by anomalous silver and manganese contents, form characteristic geochemical halos to copper-gold zones (e.g., Jerome, 1966). Intermediate argillic alteration is widepread (Table 1), but underrecognized, as a pale-green overprint to K sili- cate assemblages, especially in the upper parts of porphyry stocks (Fig. 3). K silicate alteration isall but obliterated in the upper parts of some gold-rich porphyry deposits, for example, Dizon (Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984), Guinaoang (Sillitoe and Angeles, 1985), Marte (Vila et al, 1991), and ‘Tanama (Cox, 1985). Intermediate argillic alteration varies in both intensity and mineralogy. Assemblages may include sericite (fine-grained muscovite), illite, chlorite, calcite, and smectite, the last as a late-stage replacement of plagio- clase in some deposits (e.g., Cerro Corona; James and ‘Thompson, 1997). Hence the informal designation of in- termediate argillic assemblages as sericite-clay-chlorite alteration by Sillitoe and Gappe (1984). Magnetite is vari- ably martitized (transformed to hematite), and pyrite and specular hematite, with or without chalcopyrite, are intro- duced as veinlets (Fig. 5) and disseminated grains. Preex- isting quar veinlet stockworks survive, although their con- tained copper and/or gold are commonly partially to nearly completely removed. Locally, however, intermediate argillic alteration results in modest (say, <50%) increases in copper and/or gold contents over those in preexisting Ksilicate alteration, especially where monomineralic chalco- pyrite veinlets are present. In deposits where intermediate RICHARD #1, SiLITOR argillic overprinting is intense, itis often impossible termine whether preexisting copper and gold grades fered modification. Sericitic alteration in porphyry deposits is charac by white to gray quartz-sericite-pyrite assemblages ing partial to almost complete destruction of rock texture Broad annuli of sericitic alteration, common around K icate coresat many porphyry coppermolybdenum d (Lowell and Guilbert, 1970), are not widely devel gold-rich porphyry deposits and are observed only at Bij de la Alumbrera (Sillitoe, 1979), Fish Lake (Caira etal 1995), Grasberg (Van Nort etal, 1991), and Saindak (Si and Kahn, 1977); however, more localized sericitic stocks, is fairly common as an overprint to K silicate ori termediate argillic assemblages (Fig. 3) and may consti copper-gold ore (eg., Panguna, Wali, Mamut, Gui Almalyk, Perol at Minas Conga; Table 1). Many golds porphyry deposits lack appreciable sericitic alteration, cluding the D type quartz-pyrite veinlets with sericit Fig. 5) that are so common in many porph molybdenum depestus (eg, Gustafon and Hung Tourmaline is rarely developed in gold-rich porphyry de- posits, despite its widespread appearance as a componen Of sericitic alteration in many parts of the world. The sericitic zones of many goldtich porphyry deposits possess pyrite as the sole sulfide mineral, in quantities ing from 5 to >20 vol percent. Pyrite is typically in veinles some with minor quartz, or disseminated. Locally, however, copper (but not usually gold) values may be 10 10 20 ps types (c.8 ‘ny occut-as the relatively low sulGdation sate py copyrite assemblage (e.g., Almalyk; Shayakubor etal, I oras high sul Guinaoang (Sillitoe and Angeles, 1985) and pyrite at Wali (Sillitoe, 1999). Hedenquist etal. (1998) and Si (1999) treat sericitic alteration carrying high sulfidation fide assemblages as the transition between the porphyry and advanced argillic lithocap environments, Advanced argillic alteration is ubiquitous in the upper, commonly volcanichosted parts of gold-rich porphyry y tems where it constitutes laterally extensive lithocaps as thick as 1 km (Sillitoe, 1995a; Fig. 3). This alteration is pr served as remnants within or nearby 12 deposits listed Table 1 Advanced argillic assemblages can be coeval wi early K silicate alteration, but in all deposits where lt are preserved, they clearly overprint K silicate, prop and intermediate argillic alteration. At some localit sericitic alteration appears to be transitional upward to: vanced argillic alteration (e.g., Wafi; Sillitoe, 1999). Ad- vanced argillic alteration invariably continues afterall other alteration processes have ceased in gold-rich porphyry 9s tems, although in proximity to paleosurfaces the later stages may include steam-heated activity in addition to the deeply sourced advanced argillic alteration that dominates the early lives of systems. Where telescoping of high sulft dation epithermal and porphyry environments is extreme,i foldepar lyre VEINLET CHRONOLOGY > 2 ‘Magnetite-actinolite (M = magnetite) a Streaky biotite (8 = early biotite) Vitreous quartz-magnetite-chalcopyrte (A) Quartz with central chalcopyrite suture (B) g Chorte-pyrite 3 Quartz-pyrite (D) ‘showing sequential formation of early M veinlets (Clark iy 1995) with Ca-Na silicate alteration; early biotite (EB: Gustafion and Quiroga, 1995), A, and B veinlets (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975) with K silicate alteration; chlorite-pyrite veinlets with interme argillicalteration; and late D yeinlets (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975) as the sole effect of seicitic alteraion. Background alteration bemeen veinlets is most likely to be K silicate, dominated by biottesmagnetite introduc: tion, with partial intermediate argillc (sericiteilitechlorie) overprint. zoic alkaline intrusions in British Columbia, K silicate as- semblages and calcic alteration minerals tend to be inti mately mixed and difficult to resolve into separate alter- ation types (Lang et al., 1995b, c). Such CaK silicate assemblages, in which andraditic garnet may be a compo- nent (e.g.. Galore Creek: Enns et al., 1995), are reminis- cent of alteration in iron oxide-coppergold deposits (e.g., Hitzman et al, 1992), with which convergence in certain other geologic features is also apparent. Ca silicate alter~ ation in some gole-rich porphyry deposits linked to alka- line stocks displays coarse-grained pegmatoidal textures. K silicate alteration, present in nearly all gold-rich por- phyry deposits (Table 1; Fig. 3), is typically characterized by the presence of replacement and veinletfilling biotite, commonly magnesium rich (phlogopitic) in composition. The biotite may be accompanied by hydrothermal K feldspar and/or actinolite. Early, typically deep biotite veinlets (Fig. 5) are denominated "EB type” by Gustafson and Quiroga (1995). K feldspar is more abundant in de- posits associated with quartz monzonite, monzonite, and syenite porphyries, whereas actinolite shows a preference for, but is not restricted to, dioritic and quartz dioritie sys- tems emplaced into cafemic, typically andlesitic, host rocks. GOLD-RICH PORPHYRY DEPOSIT MODELS IN EXPLORATION. 323, Epidote and carbonate also appear as minor alteration minerals in some such calcie systems. Anhydrite is a wide- spread and abundant disseminated and veinlet constituent in Ksilicate assemblages, as well as occurring in association with the other alteration types described below. Coarse- grained anhydrite veinlets are characteristically late and cut coppergold mineralization. A variety of quartz veinlets, introduced in several gener- ations, typically comprises 10 to >90 vol percent of K silicate alteration. The veinlets may occur as multidirectional stock- works and/or subparallel arrays suggestive of enhanced structural control on emplacement. The most abundant veinlets, from a few millimeters to several centimeters in width, are composed of vitreous, granular quartz, are pla- nar to slightly sinuous, and in places, discontinuous in form, and commonly lack prominent alteration halos, al- though K feldspar and/or biotite may be observable (Fig. 5); they are reminiscent of the A veinlets described by Gustafson and Hunt (1975) from the El Salvador porphyry copper deposit, Chile, Some veinletsare banded as a result of either repeated opening and quartz introduction or con- centration of magnetite and or pyrite in certain bands, gi ing them a darkgray coloration. The latter variety, com- mon in gold-only porphyry deposits in the Maricunga belt (Vila and Sillitoe, 1991; Vila et al., 1991), as well as else- where, may possess translucent centers and dark margins or vice versa. Laterally more extensive planar quartz ve lets, typically with center lines, are invariably later than A ype veinlets but also lack prominent alteration selvages (Fig. 5); they possess similarities with Gustafson and Hunt's (1975) B veinlets but are not common in most goldrich porphyry deposits. In contrast, however, some, but not all, gold-tich porphyry deposits associated with alkaline intru- sions, such as those in British Columbia (Barr et al,, 1976; Lang et al., 1995b), are deficient in quartz veining. This is, presumably because the magmatic hydrothermal fluids were undersaturated with respect to quartz. Hydrothermal magnetite, averaging 3 to 10 vol percent in many K silicate zones, occurs in veinlets with or without ‘quartz, in irregular clots, and as disseminated grains and grain aggregates (Sillitoe, 1979; Cox and Singer, 1988). Magnetite-only veinlets may be considered as M type, whereas those containing quartz are essentially A type (Fig. 5). All but three deposits in Table 1 are estimated 10 contain 23 vol percent magnetite, a quantity exceeding that present in all but a very few gold-poor K silicate alteration zones. The magnetite both precedes and accompanies cop- perbearing sulfide introduction but, contrary to recent claims (Clark and Arancibia, 1995), does not everywhere predate K silicate alteration. Ghaleopyite and pyrite ae the principal lypogene sul fides ate alteration, although bornite is present in some eps Chalcopyrite typically occurs as finely dis- seminated grains in quartz veinlets, in association with mag- netite, as well as alone in veinlet and disseminated forms. Pyrite contents are typically fairly low, with pyrite/chal- copyrite ratios ranging from <0.5 to 3. The core zones of some deposits, however, are essentially devoid of pyrite.ROLE OF COLD RICH PORPHTYRY DEPOSIT MODELS IN EXPLORATION advanced argillic alteration may pervasively overprint K sil+ icate alteration, destroy all preexisting silicates and sulfides, and preserve only barren quartz veinlet stockwork (e.g., Wali; Sillitoe, 1999). Advanced argillic alteration may also extend down faults for tens to hundreds of meters beneath the subhorizontal, roughly planar bases of lithocaps, as ob- served at Marte (Vila etal., 1991) and Guinaoang (Sillitoe and Angeles, 1985). Chalcedonic quartz, alunite, pyrophyllite, diaspore, dick- ite, and kaolinite are abundant advanced argillic minerals, The chalcedonic quartz may comprise massive replace ments or vuggy residual masses resulting from extreme base leaching (Stoffregen, 1987; Fig. 3). Barite and native sulfur are late-stage, openspace fillings. Pyrite + marcasite, ‘commonly as exiremely finegrained (melnikovitic) aggre gates, make up 10 to 20 vol percent of advanced argillic zones, especially as accompaniments to chalcedonic quartz and quartzalunite. Locally, semimassive pyrite bodies are present. Enargite + luzonite replaces the iron sulfides in restricted parts of some advanced argillic zones, especially along fauitlocalized feeder zones. High sufidation state pyrite-covellite, pyrite-chalcocite, and pyrite-bornite as- semblages tend to increase at the expense of pyrite-enar gite + luzonite near the bottoms of advanced argilliezones, where pyrophyllite and/or dickite predominate ove quartzalunite (Fig. 3). Such mineralization may continue downward into sericitic alteration (Fig. 8). These high su fidation state sulfides are intergrown with, coat, and par- tially replace disseminated pyrite grains which, in turn, are deposited after hypogene dissolution of low sulfidation state pyrite-chalcopyrite or chalcopyrite-bornite assem- blages, as observed at Guinaoang and Wali (Sillitoc, 1999). Gold mineralization Most of the gold in gold-rich porphyry deposits isi duced with copper during formation of K silicate alterat and, as a general rule, the gold and copper contents vary sympathetically. Gold contents also correlate well with the intensity of A type quartz veinlets. Ore zones are normally upright cylinders or bellshaped bodies. Intermediate argillic zones commonly also constitute ore where they overprint gold £ copperbearing K silicate assemblages. Locally, as Aoted above, sericitic and advanced argillic alteration zones may also constitute gold # copper ore. Gold contents (and Au/Cu ratios) tend to increase, even double, downward over distances of several hundred meters in some gold-rich porphyry deposits, at leastin their upper and middle parts, as typified by Grasberg (MacDonald and Arnold, 1994) and Cabang Kiri (Carlile and Kirkegaard, 1985); however, they may also remain esssentially unchanged (e.g., Guinaoang; Sillitoe and Angeles, 1985) or even increase upward (e.g., Ok Tedi; Rush and Seegers, 1990) Gold in gold-rich porphyry deposits is mainly fine grained (commonly <20 pm, generally <100 pm) and present as high-fineness (>800) native metal. Subsidiary amounts of coarse gold, recoverable in gravity circuits, isalso present in a few deposits. Minor amounts of auriferous tellurides are also reported from several deposits, and the Almalyk de- 925 posit is reported to average 0.3 ppm Te (Shayakubov etal, 1999). Native gold is closely associated with coppersiron and iron sulfides (generally pyrite, but marcasite at Ok Tedi) as cither intergrown, overgrown, or nearby quartz-encag lated grains. As much as half the gold in pyritic deposits is generally associated with pyrite, whereas in pyrite-poor de- it is commonly associated with chalcopyrite or bor- In bornite-tich zones, bornite and gold are character istically intergrown and gold grades tend to be higher than elsewhere (cf. Cuddy and Kesler, 1982). Many gold-rich porphyry deposits are deficient in molyb- denum (<20 ppm; e.g,, Barr etal., 1976; Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984), whereas others possess recoverable amounts (100 ppm) and fall within Cox and Singer's (1988) por- phyry CirAu-Mo category. Molybdenum shows a distinct t dency to concentrate as halos to the molybdenum-poor, cop- pergold core zones of many deposits (Ok Tedi, Batu Hijau, Santo Tomas II, Far Southeast. Bajo de la Alumbrera, Sain- dak), although the molybdenum-rich core to Bingham (21,500 ppm Mo; Phillips et al., 1997) provides a notable ex- ception. Silver in gold-rich porphyry deposits tends to cor- relate with gold, but the low average values (0.54 ppm) add litle value. Platinoids, especially palladium in the form of merenskyite and sperrylite, are also reported in close associ- ation with gold and copper in several of the deposits (c.g, Mamut, Santo Tomas II, Ok Tedi, Skouries, Majdanpek; Tarkian and Suibrny, 1999; Economou-Eliopoulos and Eliopoulos, 2000). Palladium contents average as much as 0.05 g/t (Tarkian and Stribrny, 1999), hence providing ap- preciable added value at current world prices. Supergene effects Gold-rich porphyry copper deposits characteristically lack economically significant zones of supergene copper enrichment because of the relatively low pyrite contents and high neutralization capacities of most copper- and gold-bearing K silicate zones. Consequently, resultant Ieached cappings are goethitic andl some contain appre- ciable copper as malachite, chrysocolla, neotocite, pitch limonite (cupreous gocthite), and associated copper oxide minerals (cf. Anderson, 1982; Fig. 6a). However, notable exceptions are provided by the chalcocite blankets (Fig. 6b) at Bingham (Boutwell, 1905), Tanama (Cox, 1985), Ok Tedi (Bamford, 1972), Sungai Mak, Almalyk (Shayakubov et al., 1999), and Majdanpek (Herrington ev al., 1998). Leached cappings developed from interme- diate argillic zones richer in pyrite contain more jarosite than goethite (e.g., Marte; Vila et al.. 1991). Gold enrichment is abnormal in leached cappings over gold-rich porphyry deposits but is claimed to have occurred at Bingham (Boutwell, 1905) and Ok Teei (Danti et al., 1988). At Ok Tedi, a subsiantial proportion of the gold is coarser than that in subjacent sulfide zones (Rush and Seegers, 1990). Gold enrichment at Ok Tedi may have been appreciable, given that 46 Mr of leached capping averaged 2.7 g/t Au, more than four times greater than the average gold content of subjacent hypogene ore; however, the con- tribution from hypogene zoning remains uncertain.326 In common with most porphyry copper deposits sub- Jected to supergene alteration, leached cappings over gold- rich examples display widespread kaolinization of silicates (especially plagioclase), martitization of magnetite, and re- ‘moval of anhydlrite. Anhydrite hydration and eventual dis- solution of the resulting gypsum take place to the lower limits of ground-water penetration, which is generally sev- eral hundred meters beneath the surface within hypogene ore (Fig. 6a, b). Blasting and caving characteristics of sul- fide ore are markedly different beneath the sulfate front, which constitutes a roughly planar or trough-shaped inter- face (cg,, Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984; Clark, 1990; Fig. 6a, b). Supergene alunite is developed in and beneath leached 00m —pophyry stece— quartz veinlet stockwork——> ic, 6, Schematic supergene profiles oxer gol-xich porphyry deposits. 2. Oxidized zone developed over pyrite-poot K silicate alteration without appreciable chaleocite enrichment. b. Coppespoor leached capping mature chaleocite enrichment zone developed over more pyrtic alteration types, such 28K silicate part ‘oxerprinted by intermediate argllic or serictc. A sulfate front resiting from anhydrite removal is present at depth within ion irespective of deuals of supergene profile and sulfide conten. See text for further explanation, hhypogene miner RICHARD H. SILLITOE cappings over more pyritic parts of some porphyry deposits (illitoe and MeKee, 1996), except in tropical regions where excessive rainfall dilutes the sulfate concentrations of supergene solutions and inhibits alunite precipitation. Genetic Model Historical background ‘The genetic model for porphyry copper deposits, which is directly applicable to the gold-rich examples under con- sideration, developed progressively over the last century. ‘As reviewed by Hunt (1991) and Hedenquist and Richards. (1998), advances until about 1970 stemmed mainly from parm Sptesiincane S500°-700°C, 40-60 wt % NaCl equiv) coox- isting with low-density vapor, whereas the later fluid that caused sericitic alteration was lower in both temperature (<850°C) and salinity (5-20 wt % NaCl equiv). Henley and McNabb (1978) concluded that the coexisting high- and Tow-density magmatic fluids are the producis of phase sepa- ration during depressurization of asingte moderately saline magmatic fluid that exsolved directly from the parent magma chamber at depths of 4 to 6 km (Burnham, 1979). Results of early light stable isotope studies confirmed that K silicate alteration is formed from magmatic fluid whereas, later feldspar-destructive alteration assemblages appeared to involve a substantial meteoric water component (Sheppard etal., 1971). This conclusion, in conjunction with modeling studies (e.g., Norton and Knight, 1977), led to the widely held notion that meteoric water is instrumental in copper precipitation (¢.g,, Taylor, 1974). Indeed, some workers ex- trapolated these results to imply that the copper is leached from the wall rocks of stocks by convectively circulating me- teoric fluid cells, a conclusion nicely refuted on geologic grounds by Gustafson (1978). Subsequent oxygen, hydro- gen, sulfur, lead, strontium-neodymium, and osmium iso- lope studies, reviewed by Hedenquist and Richards (1998), also support the original contention that the fluid and con- tained metals possess a dominantly magmatic origin. Stimulated by the advent of plate tectonic theory, Sillitoe (1970, 1972) noted that porphyry copper deposits are tegral parts of subduction-related volcanoplutonic arcs of calc-alkaline composition worldwide. He proposed that their copper and associated metal contents are extracted from hydrated tholefitic basalt and pelagic sediment com- prising the upper parts of downgoing slabs of oceanic lithosphere. The metal-bearing melt product then ascends into the overlying mantle wedge where it induces a second stage of partial melting to generate calc-alkaline magma. In contrast, the gold and molybdenum contents of porphyry copper deposits were assumed to reflect crustal composi- tion and thickness (Kesler, 1973). Petrogenesis Numerous studies support the concept that volatiles, in- cluding water, chlorine, and boron, along with metals, as- sociated with suprasubduction zone magmatism are recy-928 led from the downgoing stab, especially from its veneer of pelagic sediments (e.g., Plank and Langmuir, 1993; Stolper and Newman, 1994; Noll et al., 1996; Fig. 7). The metal-bearing hydrous melt product derived from the sub- ducted slab ascends into the mantle wedge where it causes flux melting to produce a variety of calc-alkaline magmas that construct principal arcs (Fig. 7). Much lower degrees of partial melting, especially of metasomatized litho- spheric manile, promote the generation of shoshonitic and alkaline magmas in backarc and postsubduction-are settings. Volatiles and metals contained in the mantle-de- rived partial melts are transported, with varying amounts of crustal interaction and assimilation, to the upper crust, where they are potentially available for concentration in goldrich porphyry deposits. Gold and copper enrichment of magmas is not considered to be a prerequisite for for- mation of gold-rich porphyry deposits (Burnham, 1979; Cline and Bodnar, 1991), but, if present, their formation should be favored. Several recent studies have emphasized the importance of very small degrees of partial melting of metasomatized por- ons of the lithospheric mantle Wedge (Fig. 7) in the gen- eration of mafic alkaline magma (¢.g., Gibson etal., 1995). Such magma, which is both oxidized and enriched in volatiles, potassium, and chalcophile elements, appears 10 be parental to most “alkalic-type” gold deposits (Richards, 1995). Keith et al. (1995) and Waite et al. (1997) proposed that alkaline mafic magma is ako critical in the generation of the gold-rich Bingham porphyry deposit. On this basis, goldtich porphyry deposits elsewhere may be expected 10 reveal a similar linkage between abundant calcalkaline or alkaline magma and small volumes of specialized mafic melt ‘emplaced at the time of mineralization. Solomon (1990) noted that arc reversal events, conse- quences of changes in subduction polarity, presaged forma tion of some gold-rich porphyry copper deposits (e.g., Pan- guna) in the southwestern Pacific region. He attributed this relationship to the remelting ofa mantle wedge already par- tially melted during previous subduction, thereby oxidizing mantle sulfides to release their contained gold. McInnes and Cameron (1994) similarly suggested that oxidation of gold- bearing sulfide phases in metasomatized mantle by slab-de- rived alkaline melt is responsible for chalcophile element en- richment of magma parental to the alkalic-type epithermal gold deposit and precursor goldrich porphyry copper min- eralization at Ladolam on Lihir Island, Papua New Guinea (see Moyle et al., 1990). Subsequently, metasomatized mantle rocks enriched in gold, copper, platinum, and palladium were encountered as xenoliths derived from beneath the Lihir Island alkaline volcanic center (McInnes etal., 1999). Subvoleanie magmatic evolution Calcalkaline and alkaline magmas accumulate in the upper crust to form the chambers (or systems of chambers) that are parental to gold-rich porphyry stocks. Field obser- vations and theoretical calculations suggest that these chambers, represented by equigranular plutons, possess minimum sizes of ~50 km' (Cline and Bodnar, 1991; Dilles RICHARD 1, SILLITOE Large parent chamber, voluminowe magmate Suid Metaliterous sediment ‘beneath ocean Suppressed volcanism Compressive tectonism Partial meting of oxidized 5 “and metasomatized Detyration of subducted slab = to generate hydrous, metatch ‘uidimet| Fic, 7. Selected parameters influential in formation of large, high grade, gold-rich porphyry deposits at convergent plate boundaries (mod ified trom Silltce, 1972, 1998). Hydrous melt containing ligands and met- als critical to gold-rich porphyry formation is extracted from the downgoing slab and rises into the mantle wedge causing metasomatism. Subsequent parial meliingof this fertile, oxidized material generates calc- alkaline and alkaline magnras that carry the ligands and metals to the sib- voleanic enviroment. There, under compressive tectonic conditions, vol canism tends t9 be suppressed and large parent magma chambers ‘overlain by few or single stocks are able to form: an ideal sitiation forthe emus of voluminous magmatic uid to create exceptionally large, high ‘grade deposits (black spot). See text for further explanation. and Proffett, 1995; Shinohara and Hedenquist, 1997), al- though much larger sizes seem likely. For example, a >5,000-km® parent chamber is proposed at Bingham on the basis of an aeromagnetic anomaly (Ballantyne et al., 1995), although what percentage of this fed the Bingham stock and its associated gold-rich porphyry deposit is unknown, The cylindrical porphyry stacks are cupolas on the root, commonly the shoulders, of the parent plutons, through which magma and hydrothermal fluid are delivered to the voleanic environment: in essence, “exhaust valves” atop magma chambers. At depths of roughly 6 km, in the upper parts of parent chambers, a single-phase magmatic fluid separates, ascends, and is focused through the conduits provided by the overlying stocks, In compressional tectonic settings, Sillitoe (1998) specu- lated that parent chambers tend to be larger than in trans- tensional to extensional arcs because magma eruption to ‘cause volcanoes is inhibited by a deficiency of steep exten- sional faults (Fig 7). The paucity of steep faults could also minimize the number of stocks on the roofs of parent cham- bers, implying that clusters of gold-rich porphyry deposits may be more typical of extensional tectonic settings (e.g., the 12 porphyry centers at Goonumbla; Heithersay and Walshe, 1995). All else being equal, larger parent chambers exsolve greater volumes of magmatic fluid which, if dis- charged through only a few stocks, or preferably a single stock, is theoretically able to generate larger and higher grade deposits. Grasberg may be cited asthe classic example. Field evidence shows clearly that magma and hydrother- mal fluid, the latter in most cases probably already parti tioned into high- and low-density phases, ascend phyry stocks either alternately or together for periods of several hundred thousand years and perhaps for >1 my. ‘Since porphyry phases typically young horizontally inwardROLE OF GCOLD-RICH PORPHYRY DEPOSIT MODELS IN EXPLORATION from the margins, stocks must expand progressively dur- ing magma emplacement. In the absence of deformed wall rocks, expansion implies that the stocks occupy localized dilational sites even where the overall setting is compres- sional. Individual pulses of magma ascent and crystalliza- tion in stocks appear to be separated by restricted pauses because chilling is generally absent between porphyry phases; however, more extended cooling intervals ar dicated locally by the presence of narrow chilled margins. Where observed (e.g., Guinaoang; Sillitoe and Angeles, 1985; Wafi; Sillitoe, 1999), the tops of porphyry stocks are domelike in overall form, implying that magma is not nor mally erupted from the cylindrical cupolas once gold-rich porphyry formation commences. Indeed, ponding of mag- matic fluid beneath the tops of stocks may be a prerequisite for effective development of porphyry deposits. It may be suggested further that impermeable wall rocks cause addi- tional fluid impoundment and, in extreme cases, may lead to development of abnormally high gold (>1 g/t) and cop- per (>0.8%) grades within stocks by minimizing lateral and vertical dissipation of magmatic fluid. The permeability of ‘wall rocks is commonly reduced by contact metamorphism (hornfelsing, marbleization) consequent upon initial stock emplacement. In this manner, marbleized limestone in the upper preserved 1 km of the stock at Grasberg may have enhanced ore grades (Sillitoe, 1997). Although thereis local evidence for an absence of magma discharge from cylindrical cupolas once mineralization commences, a number of systems undergo late-stage resur- gence of magmatism that may reach the paleosurface. The magmatic products are postmineral plugs and diatremes, which are thought to be represented at the paleosurface as dome complexes and maar volcanoes, respectively. Indeed, occurrence of subaerial products, including base surge de- posits, lake beds, and carbonized wood, in diatremes con- firms a surface connection (Sillitoe, 1985). Diatreme for- mation is typically late in the evolution of gold-rich porphyry systems because it is only then, once magmatic. hydrothermal activity has waned, that appreciable amounts, of meteoric water are able to access magma bodies, a re- quirement for phreatomagmatic magmatism, Indeed, there 'Sa strong suggestion that diatremes in mid to late Cenozoic gold-tich porphyry copper systems are more common in Southeast Asia and the southwestem Pacific region, where pluvial climatic regimes prevailed at that time. Metal-enriched magmatic fluid generation Magmatic fluid discharges from parent chambers either continuously or intermittently and tends to pond beneath the early consolidated apices of stocks and their enclosing wall rocks. Continued crystallization of stocks causes second boiling, fluid expulsion, and generation of the mechanical energy to create stockwork fracturing and hydrothermal brecciation (Burnham, 1967, 1979). Pressure quenching consequent upon second boiling creates the characteristic fine-grained groundmass of porphyry intrusions. Formation of major gold-rich porphyry deposits, how: ever, may be critically dependant upon extemal events that 929 seriously perturb the stock environment and cause massive fluid expulsion. Such events might include the followin; 1, Emplacement of a body of hot mafic magma into the parent chamber, possibly into the roots of the stock itself, causing heating and expansion of the contained volatiles and even introduction of additional sulfur and metal-rich volatiles (Hattori, 1993). This model is called upon to ex- plain observations at Bingham (Keith et al., 1995; Waite etal., 1997) and elsewhere (Clark and Arancibia, 1995). 2. Catastrophic paleosurface degradation, either by land- sliding or volcano sector collapse, resultingin dramatic de- pressurization of the stock and its parent chamber (Sillitoe, 1994). Sector collapse instantaneously removes rock masses 1250 kmSand is promoted by the weakening of volcanic ed- ifices caused by argillic and advanced argillic alteration (e.g., Lopez and Williams, 1993). 8. Rapid intrusion of magma from parent chambers into overlying stocks or eruption of magma from elsewhere on the roofs of the parent chambers, both of which would also cause abrupt depressurization (Lowenstern, 1993). 4. Seismic events which may be fault related or triggered by mechanisms (1), (2), or (3). ‘The magmatic fluid, whether expelled or sucked out of the parent chamber, is channeled upward through the magma as a bubbleich plume to the cracking front along the roof of the magma body, Ascent of bubbles is most effi- cient where the water content is high relative to other volatiles, the degrees of magma crystallization is low, and the pressure is low (Candela, 1991). Formation of gole-rich porphyry deposits requires that the gold (and copper) contents of upper crustal chambers par lition efficiently into magmatic fluid, This requirement is fulfilled when the fluid is released before chalcophile ele- ments (including platinumgroup elements) are sequestered from the melt by segregation of immiscible sulfide liquid (Candela, 1992; Candela and Blevin, 1995). This condition is favored by one or more of the following: (1) magma with a fairly high water content, thereby attaining volatile satura- tion sooner; (2) magma with a high oxidation state, whereby sulfur is present mainly as sulfate rather than sulfide; and (8) magma that is relatively depleted in sulfur, therby sup- pressing the removal of appreciable quantities of metals. Gold and associated metals certainly are not sequestered by - immiscible sulfides ff magma is highly oxidized and able wo crys- tallize sulfates or sulfate-bearing feldspathoids (Thompson, 1995), an apparently common condition in calcalkaline and alkaline arc magmas. Moreover, even if sulfide saturation does occur loss of sulfur and waterrich fluid during eventual volatile saturation may cause oxidation and resorption of the magmatic sulfide droplets and release of the contained metals (Keith et al., 1995). Destabilization of magmatic sul- fides causing metal liberation also may be caused by upward SO, fluxing of a magma chamber during intrusion of less fractionated, more mafic magma (Hattori, 1993) or simply to volatile release resulting from depressurization during magma acent (Lowenstern, 1993).330 Hydrothermal alteration proceses Alteration zones in gold-rich porphyry deposits are typi: cally zoned upward and become progressively younger in the sequence; CaNa silicate, K silicate, intermediate argillic, sericitic, and advanced argillic, although the last ‘can begin to form at shallow depths in the early, K silicate stage (Figs. 8 and 9). Propylitic alteration is the lateral equivalent of both Ca-Na silicate and K silicate zones, with which it is transitional. With the exception of propylitic, CaNa silicate, possibly some K silicate alteration, and the shallower parts of advanced argillic lithocaps, the other al- teration types develop at the expense of previously altered, 8 opposed to unaltered, porphyry and wall rocks (Fig. 9) Hence the alteration minerals, including sulfides, in pre- existing assemblages are reconstituted under different, generally progressively lower temperature, more acidic, and higher sulfidation state conditions (Fig. 8) to form the ‘successively younger alteration types. Therefore, a rock vol- ume affected by deeply penetrating advanced argillic al- teration may have consisted previously, in turn, of sericiti, cermediate argillic, K silicate, and CaNa silicate assem: blages. This progressive overprinting of alteration type— telescoping—may be due to continued degradation of the paleosurface during alteration and mineralization or sim- ply to waning of the magmatic hydrothermal system that ‘would accompany downward propagation of the brittle- ductile boundary as temperatures fall (Fournier, 1999). However, massive telescoping of advanced argillic over K silicate alteration, as observed at Marte, Wafi, and else- where (Sillitoe, 1999), is thought likely to require more than just natural waning of systems and seems best inter- preted as a consequence of exceptionally rapid surface n with or without gravitationally induced collapse toe, 1994; Fig. 9). Different investigators have claimed that most of the gold and associated copper in gold-rich porphyry deposits is introduced either early during K silicate alteration (e.g., Bingham; Babcock et al., 1995; Batu Hijau; Clode et al., 1999) or later with intermediate argillic alteration (Corbett and Leach, 1998; Leach, 1999) and/or sericitic alteration (e.g., Far Southeast; Hedenquist et al., 1998). At Guinaoang (Silitoe and Angeles, 1985) and Wali (Tau-Loi and Andrews, 1998; Silitoe, 1999), however, broadly similar ore-grade cop- per and gold contents span the deep K silicate through in- termediate argillic and sericitic to shallow advanced argillic zones, albeit constituting distinctive sulfide assemblages dic- tated principally by sulfidation state in association with each of the alteration types (see above). There is general agreement that the gold and copper in K silicate assemblages are introduced by magmatic brine (e.g., Candela, 1989; Bodnar, 1995); however, there is still mi- nority support for metal scavenging from upper crustal rocks by surface-derived fluid (Sheets et al., 1996), a notion that fits poorly with geologic observations, as noted previously (Gustafson, 1978). Propylitic halos result by dilution of the outwardmoving magmatic brine with meteoric or connate fluids circulating through wall rocks (e.g., Bowman et al., RICHARD H. SILLITOR ‘SHALLOW Advanced argillic ~4km k siticate| EARLY <—— ~0.5 -1my.——> LATE, Fc 8, Schematic depthtime plot wo show typical obened sequence and posions of CaNa slcate Kaicate(induhng prope hal) te termediate agile, serie, and advanced argilieseraon, The dhe Arto generalizes tne progresve incense in saldation sate and acy of the aks responble 1987). However, the lower temperature and lower salinity fluid responsible for copper and gold precipitation within in- termediate argillic or sericitic assemblages is considered on the basis of light stable isotope data, fluid inclasion studies, and geologic considerations to be either an admixture of ‘magmatic and meteoric fluids (e.g., Bodnar, 1995), or alate- stage, lower temperature magmatic fluid (Hedenquist etal., 1998) that ascends directly from the parent chamber as crjs- tallization advances and the contained magma stagnates (Shinohara and Hedenquist, 1997). Whichever explanation is correct should be compatible w termediate argillic and/or sericitic alteration s transitional downward to K silicate alteration in all gold-rich porphyry deposits, andl that K silicate alteration formed under lower redox conditions than prevailed during the overprinted in- termediate argillic alteration, which ubiquitously contains martitized magnetite + specular hematite. Notwithstanding which of these alternative fluid sources proves to be correct, I support the concept that gold and copper in the shallower, later, lower temperature alteration zones are successively reconstituted and variably remobi- lized from their original sites in K silicate alteration, as pro- posed and modeled for Butte, Montana, by Brimball (1980). Little variation in copper and, in some cases, gold contents over vertical intervals of approximately 1,000 m, spanning transitional K silicate, intermediate argillic, seticitic, and advanced argillic zones (Fig. 3; see above),ROLE OF GOLD-RICH PORPHYRY DEPOSIT MODELS IN EXPLORATION Lithocap ae aoa ee *s « 2 331 ee seas x k Intermineral ‘ porphyry 2 Pp we? Pp P lee P P el *|k P. Las mas e Pp Fic.9. Simplified genetic model to show interpreted evolution of ph =p Late-mineral Porphyry ALTERATION TYPES. Advanced argillic Sericitic 2 Intermediate argillic Propylitic K silicate Ca-Na silicate 2km 2. ical yolbvich porphyry systema. Ealy porphyry intrusion with development of barren Ca-Na silicae alteration from high-temperature magmatic brine, propyltic ater- ation on margins and earlylithoeap by condensation of magmatic volatiles, b. Magmati brine cools to form K si alteraton, with introduction of most of gold and copper into the system, while propyltic haloand lthocap continue to Aevelop.¢. Intermineral porphyry intrusion causes Mock inflation and continued f silicate abcration ane golcopper ‘mineralization but with resulting intensity and grades lower than in early porphyry and its immediate wall rocks. Pro- _gressve cooling of system, probably with meteoric water incursion, causes development of intermediate arillc al teration at expense of upper parts of K silicate zone. e. Catastophic palcosurface degradation causes telescoping of the ‘system. with advanced aril sericitic, and intermediate agile altertion progressively overprinted on toK siicate sone ‘causing major reconstitution and partial remobilization of prvexist igsullide assemblages. f. Late-mineral porphyry in tnusion causes further stock inflation and development of a barren propylitic core, See text for further explanation. argues strongly for reconstitution of initial metal invento- ries rather than development of similar metal tenors dur- ing four different alteration events. Furthermore, metal re- mobilization seems to be the simplest means of explaining why intermediate argillic, sericitic, and advanced argillie alteration may be essentially barren or higher in grade with respect to the preceding K silicate al- teration, even within the confines of single deposits. Alter- natively, however, the relative timing of metal release from the magma could be called upon to account for the associ- jon of metals with either early K silicate or late interme- diate argillic and sericitic alteration, Nevertheless, gold and copper remobilization is assured in many deposits where K silicate alteration containing chalcopyrite and bornite is overprinted by patches of barren pyritic intermediate argillic or sericitic alteration, or where porpiyry cut by bar- ren A type quartz veinlets showing evidence for removal of sulfide grains is pervasively sericitized and contains dis- seminated pyrite, chalcocite, and covellite. Controversy alco surrounds the cause of CaNa silicate alteration that formed during the early stages of at least some gold-ich and other porphyry deposits. Lang et al. (1995c) advocated magmatic fluid as the cause of sodic and ealcic alteration in the gold-rich porphyry copper deposits associated with alkaline intrusions in British Columbia. Clark and Arancibia (1995) shared this opinion for gold-ROLE OF GOLD-RICH PORPHYRY DEPOSIT MODELS IN EXPLORATION trolled by conditions and processes in parent chambers (Ulrich etal., 1999). Nevertheless, the suppression of cop- per deposition in gold-only porphyry deposits, such as those in the Maricunga belt, remains contentious. Based on geologic evidence for unusually shallow emplacement of some of the diorite to quartz diorite porphyry stocks in the Maricunga belt, for example, only 500 to 700 m beneath a stratovolcano summit at Marte (Vila et al,, 1991; Sillitoe, 1994), gold rather than copper may have been preferen- tially transported and precipitated (Sillitoe, 1992). This is because early magmatic fluid liberated at low pressures (shallow depths) is likely to be of relatively low salinity (Cline and Bodnar, 1991; Cline, 1995) and, therefore, less capable of carrying copper in chloride form but able to transport gold efficiently as a bisulfide complex (Seward, 1991). This proposal is supported further by the fact that low-salinity vapor rather than brine exists under lithostatic conditions at depths of <1 km (Candela and Blevin, 1995), in keeping with preliminary fluid inclusion results from Marte (Vila et al., 1991). An alternate explanation would simply invoke a copperdeficient magmatic fluid. ‘Overprinting of K silicate assemblages by intermediate argillic or sericitic alteration may cause differential remo- bilization of copper and gold, with the latter apparently more commonly depleted than the former. This observa tion is perhaps not surprising given that late fluids are more likely to be dilute and, therefore, better able to re- dissolve gold rather than copper. Such remobilized gold is available for concentration in epithermal deposits beyond the main porphyry deposits, either in the suprajacent high sulfidation lithocap or in marginal, lower sulfidation zones (Sillitoc, 1989). The close correlation between gold and PGE, especially palladium, in gold-rich porphyry copper deposits and the sympathetic relationship between gold, PGE, and chalo- pyrite provide good evidence that PGE are transported by chloride complexes and precipitated under similar condi- tions of K silicate stability, including high oxidation states, to gold and copper. This conclusion is supported by theo- retical and experimental evidence (e.g., Wood et al, 1992). Molybdenum halos, which partially overlap the outer mits of the coppergold cores of some gold-rich porphyry deposits, give the impression of being zoned with respect to copper and gold, Therefore, it seems reasonable t0 as- sume that the three meals precipitated from the same overall magmatic fluid, in keeping with the presence of molybdenum, copper, and gold in brine from the same fluid inclusions (Ulrich et al., 1999), However, little is known about the paragenetic position of the molybdenite concerned. In contrast, the exceptional molybdenum-rich core at Bingham appears to be the product of a relatively late, partly superimposed event characterized by B type veinlets (Phillips et al., 1997). Study of fluid inclusions from quartz veinlets in the K si icate alteration zones at Grasberg and Bajo de la Alumbrera shows that highssalinity brine, and not the coexisting vapor, contains most of the zinc, lead, and silver, in concentrations greatereven than that of copper (Ulrich etal., 1999). How- 333, ‘ever, none of these metals is appreciably concentrated in. the deposits themselves. Cooling of magmatic brine as itre- acts with wall rocks and becomes diluted with convectively circulated meteoric or connate fluids in propylitic halos may be the main cause of the zinc, lead, and silver precipitation (Hemley and Hunt, 1992), giving rise to geochemical halos of these metals and, in some cases, localized vein concen- trations. More substantial concentrations of zinc, lead, and silver are confined to some systems with receptive carbonate host rocks, such as Bingham and Cerro Corona, where fluid neutralization induces precipitation of the base metal sul- fides (Seward and Barnes, 1997). Exploration and Discovery ‘Models in exploration ‘Thompson (1993) argued that a combination of de- scriptive and genetic models is used more widely in por- phyry copper exploration, including that for gold-rich ex- amples, than in the search for many other mineral deposit types. This situation stems from the fact that the genesis of porphyry deposits is reasonably well understood, leading to effective underpinning of the descriptive model by rela- tively unambiguous genetic parameters. This state of affairs is very different from that of many gold deposit types, for which there exist multiple competing genetic hypotheses Notwithstanding this favorable situation, the descriptive model for gold-rich porphyry depesits has been applic a generally unsophisticated manner to exploration. Only very generalized geologic features are widely canployed. For example, gold-rich porphyry exploration is conducted in well-defined volcanoplutonic arcs, typically in belts or districts with known deposits and prospects and, therefore, demonstrated potential. Zinc-lead occurrences and geo- chemical anomalies are often interpreted to suggest the peripheries of porphyry systems. More detailed exploration attention is focused on altered porphyry stocks, in which characteristic quartz veinlet stockworks are used to confirm the presence of porphyrytype mineralization and outline principal targets (¢.g., Leggo, 1977). Zoning of alteration inward from propylitic to K silicate assemblages, possibly with an intervening sericitic zone (Lowell and Gulbert, 1970), is used commonly as a broadscale vector. Enrich- ment of stocks and their immediate wall rocks in hydro- thermal magnetite isa sign that systems are likely to be gold rich (Sillitoe, 1979). More recently, it has become quite widely accepted that advanced argillic lithocaps may overlie and conceal por- phyry deposits, including gold-rich ones (e.g,, Sillitoe, 1995a). Lithocaps have become increasingly popular ex- ploration targets since opportunities to encounter out- cropping porphyry deposits have decreased. Telescoped systems are required if gold-rich porphyry mineralization is to be found at economically viable depths. Nevertheless, unless quartz veinlet stockworks in advanced argillicaltered rock are observed in outcrop, it is generally difficult to determine the degree of telescoping without considerable drilling.334 Although explorationists are usually familiar with some or all aspects of the genetic model for gold-rich porphyry deposits, these are rarely brought to bear directly during exploration. Genetic interpretation simply provides a meas- ure of intellectual support for field observations and acts as a comfort factor for the explorationist. Influence of models on geochemistry and geophysics Geochemistry and geophysics are widely used in explo ration for porphyry copper deposits, including gold-rich ones. The interpretation of geochemical and geophysical responses depends heavily on the erosion level of the por phyry system and, hence, the mineralogy of the alteration zones exposed and concealed at shallow depths (Fig. 10) Conventional geochemistry is normally very effective in ning outcropping gold-rich porphyry prospects, espe- ialy where pyrite-poor K silicate alteration is exposed. Geo- chemical values in rocks and soils (including talus fines in arid regions, Maranzana, 1972) typically exceed 500 ppm Cu and 100 ppb Au. Copper anomalies may attain several thousand ppm where pyrite contents are extremely low, but they become progressively more subdued as pyrite/copper- beating sulfide ratios increase (e.g., Leggo, 1977). Never- theless, gold remains equally effective as a pathfinder in pyrite-rich and pyrite-poor situations (¢.g., Learned and Boisson, 1973). Molybdenum tends to define partially over- lapping geochemical halos to many gold-rich porphyry de- posits (Fig. 10, c), whereas zinc and lead constitute patchily dleveloped outer halos. Arsenic values are not normally anomalous unless enargite- or luzonite-bearing sericitic and/or advanced argillic alteration in the roots of or within lithocaps are preserved. Drainage geochemistry, using -80# to -200¢ silts, bulk leach extractable gold (BLEG), or panned heavy mineral concentrates also highlights most gold-rich porphyry de- posits, In tropical regions, where drainage geochemistry is especially effective, stream silts in high-order drainages com- monly contain hundreds of ppm Cu and hundreds of ppb Au within 2 km or so of gold-tich porphyry deposits. Copper wansport may be largely mechanical over and around oxi dizing systems characterized by extremely low pyrite con- tents, but partly in solution and potentially over greater dlis- tances in the case of systems containing more abundant pyrite. The fine grain size of much of the gold in porphyry deposits implies that stream silts provide an effective sample medium, By the same token, placer gold accumulations are not widely developed downstream from gold-rich porphyry deposits, although small examples are reported at Panguna, Ok Tedi, Kemess South, and Bingham. Sexeral gold-rich porphyry deposits generate prominent bullseye aeromagnetic anomalies (Fig. 10c), as at Grasberg (Potter, 1996) and Bat Hijau (Maula and Levet, 1996), as well as clearly defined ground magnetic highs (e.g., South body at Saindak, Sillitoe and Khan, 197; Skouties, Tobey et al,, 1998; Chailhuagon at Minas Conga, Llosa et al., 2000), because of the abundance of hydrothermal mag- netite in K silicate zones. Nevertheless, other deposits gen- erate magnetic rims to central lows (¢.g., Endeavour 48 at de RICHARD H. SHLITOR magnetic susceptiity chargeabiity conductiviy radiometties (K channel) I Bip en c__—_——. —————— soillrock geochemistry Asa eee aaa aaa wugoy arte Nquarte-tunite magnetic susceptibilty chargeabilty conductivity radiometrice (K channel) soilrock geochemisty ‘magnetic susceptbity chargeabilty conductivity radiometrics (K channel) solltock geochemisty Inermineralgorpayry Late oF eis S eel as Fic, 10, Idealized geophysical and geochemical responses at three le ls (A-A’, B-Band C-C’in Figure 3) ofa typical gole-rich porphyry de- Post (a) within the lithocap where pyrite contents are hight (b) wihin the upper parts ofthe underlying porphiyy stock overprnted by seicitc and intermediate argillc alteration, also with appreciable pyrite contents and (©) within deeper levels ofthe porphyry stock dominated by pyrite: oor K silicate alteration but containing low-grade and barren porphyry phases in its aval parts, Thickness of bars depicting magnetic. charge- abiliy, conductivity, radiometric, and geochemical responses is roughly Proportional to intensity of predicted anomalies. Section legends corre- spond to those in Figure PropylticROLE OF GOLD RICH PORPHYRY DEPOSIT MODELS IN EXPLORATION Goonumbla; Heithersay et al., 1995) or no readily identifi able anomaly at all. Intermediate argillic, sericitic, and ad- vanced argillic overprints will all cause magnetite destruc- tion and, hence, suppress magnetic suscepibility, with the recorded response depending on the depth to magnetite- bearing K silicate zones. It is difficult to use regional aero- magnetic surveys to explore effectively for even magnetite- tich porphyry deposits, however, because the areally restricted magnetic signatures are difficult to distinguish from responses given by numerous other geologic features common to arc terranes. Indeed, extensive aeromagnetic surveys in the central Andes, southwestern Pacific region, and elsewhere have so far failed to discover a gold-rich por- phyry deposit. Nevertheless, the first recognition of cop- per mineralization at the Mount Polley porphyry copper- gold deposit resulted from followup of an aeromagnetic anomaly (Fraser et al., 1995). Parts of gold-rich porphyry systems commonly give rise to chargeability highs or act as conductors or resistors, How- ever, as illustrated schematically in Figure 10, the response provided by electrical geophysical surveys must be corre- lated carefully with geologie and alteration features before valid drilling targets can be selected. For example, de- pending on crosion level and, hence, total sulfide content and disuibution, a chargeability high may encompass an entire porphyry system (e.g., Saindak; Sillitoe and Khan, 197) orsimply denote its pyritic halo (e.g., Mount Milli- gan; Skeichley et al., 1995; Fig. 10), whereas pyrite-poor ystems may lack an appreciable response altogether. De- posits characterized near surface by extensive intermedi- ate argillic alteration (e.g., Perol at Minas Conga; Llosa et al., 2000) or supergene kaolinization accompanying ox- dation and chalcocite enrichment may give rise to resisti ity lows (conductivity highs), although the opposite effect is commonplace, especially in lithocap seuings, where quartz introduction is important. The semimassive sulfide accu- mulations that accompany silicic rocks in lithocaps would, however, act as conductors. Where altered rock or rock fragments occur at surface, gold-rich porphyry systems may give rise to ground or air- borne radiometric anomalies in response to potassium ad- ditions during K silicate, sericitic, or aluniterich advanced argillic alteration (Fig. 10). However, concealment of de- posits by dense vegetation or even under thin postmineral cover results in suppression or elimination of the potas sium count. Model predictions The descriptive model for gold-rich porphyry deposits has predictive power that may be brought to bear in dis- riminating between economically attractive and unattrac- tive exploration plays. As a consequence, exploration fund- ing may be focused on more promising systems. ‘The best gold-rich porphyry deposits are those that pos- sess wide, coherent, singlephase, well-mineralized intru- sions spanning several hundred vertical meters. Normally, these are the early intrusions containing the highest copper and gold values, which have suffered minimal dilution by 335 lower grade inter- and latemineral phases. Recognition and mapping of inter- and latemineral phases, using the criteria summarized above, are prerequisites for selection of ystems with the greatest potential. Furthermore, delimitation of inter- and late-mineral intrusive phases is important if re- connaissance drilling is to avoid lower grade, commonly centrally located parts of systems. These are commonly not well defined with soil and, sometimes, even rock-chip geo- chemistry, which are the techniques often used to site initial drill holes. Late- to postmineral diatreme emplacement may also result in destruction of parts of porphyry deposis (e.g., Dizon; Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984), thereby reducing the amount of available ore. Porphyry stocks emplaced into rocks of relatively low permeability, especially marbleized limestone and poorly fractured hornfels, are believed to be particularly favorable targets for high-grade gold-rich porphyry deposits because of their capacity io prevent lateral and, in some cases, also vertical dissipation of metalliferous fluid. Gold and copper grades also seem likely to be higher in deposits generated beneath, rather than within, volcanic edifices hecause of more efficient retention of magmatic fluid. Gold-rich porphyry prospects in which bornite (+ digen- ite and chalcocite) is a dominant sulfide in K silicate zones are particularly attractive exploration objectives both be- cause gold contents tend to be higher and because the close bomite-gold association leads to high gold recoveries, commonly >80 percent, by conventional flotation (Sillitoc, 1993; Simon et al., 2000), In contrast, less deeply eroded prospects, in which intermediate argillic and/or sericitic alteration assemblages are developed both pervasively and intensely, are commonly less attractive propositions than those dominated by K silicate assemblages. This is because intermediate argillic and sericitic overprints cause recon- stitution of sulfide assemblages and result in close associa tion of some of the gold with introduced pyrite. As a result, gold recoveries tend to be <60 percent compared to 370 percent in ore dominated by pyrite-poor, K silicate as- semblages, because of loss of auriferous pyrite to the tails. Nevertheless, where intermediate argillic or sericitic alter- ation dominates, the likelihood always exists that K silicate alteration containing higher metal, especially gold, values may exist at depth (e.g., Wafi). Shallowly exposed gold-rich porphyry prospects showing, appreciable degrees of telescoping commonly preserve the roots of lithocaps, in the form of sericitic and/or advanced argillic alteration, superimposed on preexisting K silicate and intermediate argillic assemblages containing quartz veinlet stockwork (Figs. 3 and 8). Such zones, especially the shallowest parts of them, commonly contain enargite + luzonite as a major sulfide mineral (e.g, Wafi, Guinaoang), thereby downgrading economic potential because of the dirty arsenicrich flotation concentrate that would result. Enargite-bearing zones could become of interest in the fu- ture, however, if copper and gold grades were sufficiently high to justify bioleaching of the flotation concentrates. ‘The economic potential of gold-rich porphyry deposi like that of all other porphyry deposits, is profoundly336 fluenced by the interplay between alteration type and depth of supergene weathering. Where oxidation is deep (200 m), as is commonly the case in the western United States and the central Andes, the copper-bearing sulfides plus minor pyrite typical of K silicate aeration zones oxi- essentially in situ, resulting in widespread develop- ment of copper oxide minerals. The copper may be readily recovered from such material using heap leaching-elec- trowinning (SX-EW), but gold would be lost. Conversely, the copper oxide content would preclude effective gold re- covery by cyanidation. Therefore, where prospects are dominated by K silicate alteration, limited sulfide oxida- tion is advantageous, implying that systems in tropical en- vironments (western Pacific region, Southeast Asia, north- em Andes, central America) or glaciated regions (British Columbia, Alaska, southern Andes) possess the greatest po- tential. Nevertheless, even there, problems may result be- cause of admixed copper oxide minerals and gold in shal- low ore zones to be mined first. Exploitation of gold from the leached capping at Ok Tedi was less than successful be- ‘cause remnant oxide copper caused serious problems dur- ing cyanidation (Rush and Seegers, 1990). Suill higher cop- per contents (20.5%) in oxidized rock at Kingking (Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984) may entirely prevent extraction of the as- sociated gold. If pyrite-rich sericitic or advanced argillic alteration is, widely developed, however, deep oxidation may induce total copper leaching and, if gold contents are high enough (2~0.8 g/t), result in gold ore suitable for cyanida- tion. Leaching is favored by high acid-generating capacity caused by high pyrite/copper-bearing sulfide ratios com- bined with low neutralization capacity stemming from de- ficiency of feldspars and mafic minerals. The leached cop- per would accumulate at the top of the underlying sulfide zone to generate a zone of chalcocite enrichment, in which gold contents would approximate hypogene values. Such gold-bearing chalcocite enrichment comprises much of the ore at Ok Tedi (Rush and Seegers, 1990) Discovery methods Notwithstanding the existence of fairly sophisticated de- seriptive and genetic models for porphyry deposits, discovery of gold-rich examples during the modem era, say the last 30 yr, is generally marked by a lack of sophistication, Rather, the tried-and-tested methods—geologic observation and geochemistry, either separately or in conjunction—haxe ‘een most instrumental in discovery (Table 2). Remote sens- ing studies did not result in discovery, although six deposits were first spoted from the air or the ground because of prominent color anomalies. Geophysics, which contributed. to just wo discoveries, also played a surprisingly minor role. ‘Two deposits (Wafi, Guinaoang), hoth concealed, were dis- covered by drilling witha different sort of target in mind. In- deed, nine (36%) of the discoveries stemmed from pro- grams designed to explore for deposit ypes other than gold-rich porphyries (able 2). These conclusions mirror those for discoveries of porphyry copper and a variety of gold deposit types in general (Sillitoe, 1995b). RICHARD H, SILLITOE Itis anticipated that future discoveries of gold-rich por phyry deposits will follow the same pattern. Certainly; no evolution of the discovery process is apparent over the last 30 yr (Table 2). If this prognosis is accepted, the explo- ration methodology to be employed is clearcut. Neverthe- less, application of some smarter geology, dictated by cur rent descriptive and genetic models for gold-tich porphyry deposits, should help to discriminate between well- and poorly endowed prospects and thereby maximize the chances of exploration success. Discovery case histories ‘Two case histories are summarized as typical examples of the discovery of gold-rich porphyry deposits: (1) Cerro Casale at high altitudes in the arid Maricunga belt of north- ern Chile, which entailed initial recognition as a color anomaly during an overflight, followed by geologic map- ping, geochemistry, and drilling; and (2) Batu Hijau in the tropical rain forest environment of Indonesia, which in- volved drainage geochemistry followed by soil geochem- istry, restricted geologic mapping, trench sampling, and drilling. Both programs were designed primarily to search for epithermal gold deposits! Cerro Casale: An extensive zone of hydrothermal akter- ation was recognized in 1980-1981 during fixed-wing over- flying of an extensive area in the high Cordillera of north- ern Chile. Ground followup revealed an area of potential interest, denominated Aldebaran, which grid soil (talus- fines) and rock-chip geochemistry showed to contain three separate areas anomalous with respect to gold-copper- molybdenum, zinclead-siler, and arsenic-antimony- mercury, respectively. The gold, copper, and molybdenum anomalies in talus fines exceeded 0.1, 100, and 9 ppm, re- spectively (Vila and Sillitoe, 1991; Fig. 11). Geologic in- spection of the gold-copper target, Cerro Casale, at the low- est elevations (maximum: 4,130 m asl), determined it to be a gole-rich porphyry prospect, based on recognition of an outcropping porphyry stock containing K silicate alter ation and stockwork quartz-specular hematite-magnetite veining (Vila and Sillitoe, 1991). In contrast, the arsenic- antimony-mercury anomaly coincided with an advanced argillic lithocap >500 m higher in elevation, with the zine- lead:silver anomaly being caused by a vein zone at the base of the lithocap and alongside the porphyry target (Vila and Sillitoe, 1991). Trenching of the exposed quartzspecular hematite-magnetite stockwork outlined an area for testing by means of reversecirculation drilling. The drilling was restricted to the oxidized zone, in which an average grade of ~0.6 g/t Au and ~0.06 percent Gu was determined. After several years of inactivity, the major company controlling the property optioned it to a junior, which proceeded to delimit and drill off the oxide gold zone, resulting in anex: panded geologic resource of 56 Mt at 0.84 g/t Au. Since holes drilled to appraise the oxidized zone bottomed in sulfides containing copper as well as gold values, the ju nior explorer took the decision to drill a deep hole to test the gold and copper potential at depth. The hole inter sected extensive gold- and copper-bearing K silicate akerROLE OF GOLD-RICH PORPHYRY DEPOSIT MODELS IN EXPLORATION “Tums 2. Discovery of Gold-Rich Porphyry Deposits since 1969) Date of dicovery 337 Name, location by driling Main discovery method Exploration rationale Reference Endeavour 22 and 27, 1977 (22), ‘Auger geochemistry Perceived VMS potential Heithenay etal Goonumbla, Australia 1979 (27) (4996) Endeavour 86 North and 48, 1979 (26 North), RAB driling (26 North), Seareh for additional Heithersay etal. Goonumbla, Australia 1992 48) acromagetis and deposts in porpiyry (4996) RAB dling (48) coppergold eluser (48) Cada i, Ausra 1992 ‘Geologie reappraia and Investigation of old ood and Holliday soil geochemistry mining district (1985) Wali, Papu New Guinea 1990 ore dri ‘Testing higharade epithermal “TawLoi and s gold target in epthermal Andrew (1998) fold prospect ‘Ok Tedi, Papua New Guinea 1969 Drainage geochemistry Porptnry copper exploration Bamford (1972) (Boat and=808 ancmalies) in igi san force feral and geology Gasbeng, Indonesia 188 Renewed geologic Testing tongsknown Power (1996) inspection and rock porphry copper prospect chip geochemistry ibang Kiri, Indonesia 1975 Drainage (-80#) geochem- _Propoed extension of Lowder and Dow ist, geology and soil and Philippines porphyry copper_—_(198) rockehip geochcmity province into North Sulawes Sungai Mak, Indonesia 1981 Drainage (-80#) geochem- Further exploration of Cutiteand istry, geology, and soil and known porphyry Kirkegaard (1985) rockehip geochemiary coppengold dict Banu Hijau, Indonesia 1991 Drainage (BLEG and Epithermal gold exploration Meldrum etal, -80# anomalies) and in pootly explored rain (1994) auger gecchemistry forest errin Dinkidi,Phitppines 1989 Inspection of high- Prospecting in Luzon, Garrew (1986) grader gold workings Philippines Guinaoang, Philippines 97 Core driling “Testing hyposhetial fle Sititor and a Jmersecion for lade Angeles (1585) coppergolt FarSoutheas, Philippines 1980 Testing grologi concept ch for porphyry Silitoe (19950) coppergold depests in oll mining disc Ssindak, Pakistan 174 Geologic mapping and Investigation of ont Sititoe and rock-ehip geochemistry cropping copper oxide Khan (1977) ‘mineralization Pebble Copper, 1990 Followup of coloranomaly Area perceived to be Beuley etal. Alaska ntfied from aire, tmetallogenically favorable (1995) rockehip sampling for epihermal and intusion- (gold anomaly) related gold Kemess South 1984 Soll geochemistry Explontion in vicinity of Rebagtiat etal, BG. Canada Kemess Nout porphyry (1995) coppergold prospect Mount Milian, 1987 Soil geochemistiy, Perceived fivorabiity of Sketchley eta B.C, Canada rmagnetis IP region for goldrich (995) porphyry deposits Cerro Corona, Pera 1980 Geotogie inspection and Part of ongknown geochemistry Hualgayoc mining district Minas Conga, Peru 19095 Drainage (-75H) geochem- Exploration for gold within —Lasa etal. istry, geology and soll and 20k of Yanacocha high (2000) rock-hip geochemiary sulfidaton gold deposit Bajp deta Alumbrera, 1969 Geologic napping and Imestigation of prominent (19980) Argentina rock-hip geochemsiry color anomaly338 RICHARD H. SWLLITOR Tame 2 (Cnt) Date of discovery Nane, location by drilling Main discovery method Exploration rationale Reference Lobo, Chile 1983, Followup of color anomaly Exploration for Ellndio high Vila and Sillioe identified from aircraft, sullidation vein-fype gold deposits (1991) geology, rockchip and talus in virgin voleanic terrain fines (808) geochemistry Mane, ss, Followup of color anomaly Exploration for ElIndio high Vila andl Sillitoe identified from aircraft, sulfation veinaype gold deposies (1991) geology, rockchip and talus in virgin voleanie terrain fines (-808) geochemistry Refugio, Chile 1985 Followup of color anomaly Exploration for ElIndio high Vila and Silitoe lentiFied trom aiverat sulfidation vein ype got «ase1) geology, rockehip and talus: depositsin virgin soleanic terain fines (-808) geochemistry Cerro Casale, Chile 1986 Followup of color anomaly Exploration for ElIndio high Vila and Silltoe lentified from atrerat, sullidation vein-sype gold (ag91) geology, rockchip and talus depositsin virgin voleanic terain fines (-80#) geochemistry ation and led to a major program of core drilling to inves- tigate the size and grade of the gold-copper resource. The program led to estimation of 791 Mt at 0.71 g/t Au and 0.28 percent Cu, The original owner had by this time been diluted out and the junior optioned the property to one of the major gold companies which undertook addition! Grilling to bring the resource to 847 Mt at 0.72 g/t Au and 0.29 percent Cu. A feasibility study is completed, but the fu- ture plans for Cerro Casale have yet to be announced. Batu: Hijau: A major gold company commenced system- atic drainage geochemistry in the rain forest terrane of Sumbawa Island, Indonesia, in 1986. The BLEG technique ‘was combined with -B0# stream silt, panned-concentrate, and float sampling. The firstpriority BLEG anomalies did not include Batu Hijau, which gave rise to a second-order response (10 and 15.3 ppb Au) along with 135 ppm Ci the correponding -S(# stream silt samples (Meldrum etal. 1994). Eventual follow-up drainage sampling in 1989 re- vealed a 5-km? anomaly (Fig. 12), including 169 ppb Au in BLEG and 580 ppm Cu in stream silt samples taken 1 km north of the discovery outcrop (Meldrum et al., 1994). Weakly copper-mineralized bedrock and copper-rich in- trusive float samples were also found, In fact, as early as 198i, field crews had identified copper-bearing sulfides in Giorite float from near the island’s southern coast in a creek draining the Batu Hijau area (Meldrum et al, 1994) When the drainage anomaly was followed up in 1990, spec- tacular malachite-stained outcrops were encountered in an area of sparse forest vegetation (Meldrum et al., 1994). The surface extent of the mineralization at Batu Hijau was out- lined by alteration mapping and ridge-and-spur auger geo- chemistry to the top of bedrock (Meldrum et al., 1994). A large zone of K silicate alteration contained >1,000 ppm Gu at the top of bedrock. Detailed sampling of 629 ran- domly oriented, 5-m-long trenches dug within this anom- alous zone revealed >8,000 ppm Cu and >0.2 ppm Au over ‘upper parts of the Batti Hijau hill. Molybdenum values de- fine an annulus around the coppergold core. Drilling com- menced in 1991 to generate a geologic resource of 334 Mt averaging 0.80 percent Cu and 0.69 g/t Au. Further drilling resulted in an expanded mineable reserve of 914 Mt grad- ing 0.53 percent Cu and 0,40 g/t Au, which was the basis for open-pit mine development and first production of gold-bearing copper concentrate in late 1999. Some Outstanding Questions The descriptive and genetic models for gold-rich por- phyry deposits are reasonably well defined so that major knowledge gaps do not exist. Nevertheless, continued high- quality field mapping of geologic relations, especially in- trusion, alteration, and veinlet relationships, comple- mented by petrographic, fluid inclusion, and isotopic studies will further refine our understanding of this im- portant deposit type. Ata practical level, we need to document the following situations better: 1. Why gold-rich porphyry deposits occur in discrete bekis or disiricts, although also existing as isolated centers in generally gold-poor regions. If the formation of gold- rich deposits reflects emplacement of highly oxidized ‘magma, as supported herein, how do relatively isolated in- trusions difler so markedly in redox state from neighboring ones? Is the redox state of magma determined at the man- tle wedge source, following Carmichael (1991), or can crustal composition cause redox states to change? 2 Any contrasts between gold-rich porphyry deposits formed in extensional versus compressive settings at con- vergent plate boundaries. How do transverse across-arc lin- €aments influence deposit localization under different re- gional stress regimes? 3. The nature of the deep, commonly uneconomic parts of gold-rich porphyry deposits, as carried out in gold-poor systems at Yerington (Dilles and Einaudi, 1999) and El Sal- vador (Gustafson and Quiroga, 1995). Results will help in recognition of root zone characteristics for use in explo- ration as well as throw more light on the Ca-Na silicate al- teration type and the nature of early, high-temperatureROLE OF GOLD-RICH PORDHIYRY DEPOSIT MODELS IN EXPLORATION magmatic fluid. For example, is single-phase supercritical fluid commonly present as proposed for Island Copper, British Columbia, by Arancibia and Clark (1996) 4, The details of alteration and mineralization in the zone of transition between the main porphyry depositand the base of the overlying lithocap, in situations that display different degrees of telescoping (e.g., Sillitoe, 1999). 5. The mineralogic and geochemical parameters of ad- vanced argillic lithocaps that may denote proximity to un- derlying gold-rich porphyry deposits. For example, does molybdenum concentrate above porphyry centers? More precise means of targeting porphyry-type mineralization beneath areally extensive lithocaps are urgently needed. At an academic level, about the following points: would be useful to know more 1. The true intrusive plus hydrothermal lifespans of gold- rich porphyry systems, from first intrusion through to end- stage advanced argillic alteration. Employment of the U-Pb method on zircons and Re-Os method on molybdenite should, in combination, be capable of solving the problem. The latter method discriminated between the timing of Band Dveinlet events at El Salvador, Chile (Watanabe et al., 1999). 2. Causes of fluid discharge from parent chambers to generate gold-rich porphyry deposits. Is the Burnham (1967, 1978) model adequate and necessary, or are external triggers required? Theoretical modeling studies on the ef fects of various proposed external causes, such as intrusion 339 of mafic magma, catastrophic paleosurface degradation, rapid magma ascent, or seismic events (see above), would provide a useful start. 3. Whether fluid ascends continuously or as intermittent pulses from the parent chamber into composite porphyry Fic. 11. Soil (-80# talusfines) geochemistry for gold, copper, and molybdenum over the Cerro Casale gokd-rich porphyry deposit t Alde- baran, Maricunga belt, northera Chile (taken from Vila and Sil 1991). Zine, te arsenic, antimony and tween Cerro Casale and Cerro Catedsal. The molybdenu slightly offvet southwertward with respect to the gold and copper. copper response is relaively subdued compared with many gold-rch por phyry deposits because of the relatively low hypogene copper content I). The maxima talusfines gold value i 10.4 ppm. Note tha talus fines geochemistry effectively pinpoints the deposit in thie highaltinide (4.050~4,430 m as), arid environment, a Cu, ppm in -80# <40 oti — 5 sé Au, ppd in BLEG —— 40-100 —— 5-20 mmm 101-500 mmm 21-50 ME =500 ME =50 Fic 12, BLEG geld and -80¥ stream-sediment copper anomalies obtained during followup sampling of erceks di ing the Eats Hijau gold-rich porphyry deposit, Sumbavea Island, Indonesia (taken from Meldrum etal, 1994). BLEG wal ‘ues decay from 196 ppb near the deposit to 7 ppb about 10 km downstream, whereas 808 sits range from 2.9 percent near the deposit (exceptionally high because of copper oxide mineralizaion outereppins inthe di nage) to 110 ppm about 10km downszream (Maula and Levet, 1996). Note that both drainage geochemical methods clearly define the de~ postin this deeply incised, tropical in forest environment340 stocks, and itsinfluence on the mineralization processs. De- tailed study of intrusion-veinlet relations may help to solve this problem. 4. The temperature, salinity, and composition of fluid re- sponsible for early Ca-Na silicate alteration and is varianws Is the fluid always magmatic, as favored above, or can it sometimes be externally derived (¢.g., Dilles et al., 1995)? 5. The fluid(s) responsible for overprinted intermedi- ic and sericitic alteration. Fluid inclusion and light stable isotope studies, like those carried out at Far Southeast-Lepanto by Hedenquist etal. (1998), will be re- quired. If a late-stage, low-temperature, low-salinity mag- matic fluid rather than influx of meteoric water is the cause of the overprinting (Hedenquist et al., 1998), such fluid should be present in veinlets that cut A type quartz veinlets (containing high-salinity brine) in underlying Ksilicate alteration. The late magmatic fluid cannot have ascended from the underlying parent chamber without leaving telltale signs. 6. The causes of advanced argillic alteration to form lithocaps in porphyry systems. What are the relative roles of ionization of all acidic components during uid ascent and cooling, and of absorption of acidic volatiles, including HCl and SO,, in meteoric water? 7. The origin of the fluid responsible for high sulfidation gold and copper mineralization in the lithocap environ ment. Do the metals in this fluid exit the porphyry stock i magmatic brine or volatiles? How much metal is remobi- lized from the underlying porphyry environment? Acknowledgments Numerous friends and colleagues around the world are thanked for stimulating discussions on gold-rich porphyry deposits and their gold-poor counterparts over the years. Gratiurde is due to the reviewers, Rich Goldfarb and Jeff Hedenquist, and SEG’ editorial staff, Alice Bouley and Lisa Laird, for somehow managing to get my late manuscript to the publication stage. 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During field work you find in outcrop a quartz dior- ite porphyry cut by sparse vitreous quartz veinlets contain- ing seal-brown limonite (goethite) and minor malachite, but your samples return an average of only 0.1 g/t Au What would be the next step? 5. During field work you encounter sof, whitish, yellow (jarosite)-tained rock outcrops crisscrossed by vitreous quartz veinlets that appear to be essentially barren. You conclude that the veinlets are A type. What could the oc currence signify? 6. During geologic mapping and ridge-and-spur soil geo- chemistry you determine that a zone of weathered porphyry displays patchy remnants of recognizable biotite-K feldspar (Ksilicate) alteration containing vitreous quartz veinlets in which you observe malachite and specks of lustrous brown limonite displaying conchoidal fracture (pitch limonite, a cupreous goethite). The porphyry coincides with soil values of ~2,000 ppm Cu and ~209 ppb Au. What would you ex pect to encounter when you drill i? 7. In drill core, you recognize chalcocite and covellite as coatings on grains of pyrite disseminated in highly akered (sericitized or kaolinized) porphyry. What could be its sig- nificnce? 8. Aground magnetic survey reveals that a kaolinized por- phyry stock containing vitreous quartz veinlets is marked by only modest magnetic susceptibility. You notice that what appears to be magnetite in veinlets and disseminated grains gives a red streak indicative of replacement by martite (hematite). How could this have happened? Answers, 1, Mehing of subduction-modifed mantle, generally daring or immediately following active subduction, is required to generate the hydrous and oxidized calcalkaline to alkaline ‘magmas that may give rise to gole-rich porphyry deposits, 2 Magmatic sulfides form and remain stable during cxystallization of reduced magma and act as an effective sink for gold and copper. thereby limiting availability of these metals at the hydrothermal stage; nevertheless, large gold deposits of nonporphyry type deficient in copper ac- company some reduced intrusions. 3. They are generated within or beneath volcanic cen- ters, which themselves form linear arrays above zones of subduction-related mantle melting. Such zones typically ex- tend for hundreds of kilometers parallel to oceanic trenches, but are only 10 to 20 km wide. Nevertheless, gold-rich por- phyry deposits generated in backarc or postsubduction-are settings tend not to occur in linear belts.