CHAPTER 13: GAS EXCHANGE AND TRANSPORT

Concentration & Partial Pressure of Respired Gas

- Supply of oxygen depends on its concentration and pressure in ambient air (air that we
are breathing)
> ambient air pressure: 760 mm/Hg
- Partial Pressure: percentage of concentration
> total pressure of a gas mixture
> if there is a P in front of a gas system (PO2), it is the partial pressure of that gas
> molecules of each specific gas in a mixture of gases exert their own partial
pressure in a mixture of gases, they will each exert their own partial pressure
- Daltons Law: looks at the mixture of total pressure equals the sum of the partial
pressures of the individual gases in the system.
- The mixtures total pressure = sum of partial pressures of the individual gases in the
mixture
- Nitrogen: 79% oxygen: 20% carbon dioxide: 0.03%

Movement of Gas in Air & Fluids

- Henrys Law: states mass of a gas that dissolves in a fluid at a given temperature
varies in direct proportion to the pressure of the gas over the liquid.
> when a mixture of gas contacts a liquid, each gas dissolves in the liquid
proportionate to its own solubility and partial pressures
> governed by pressure differential and solubility
1. Pressure differential: is the difference between the gas above the fluid and the gas
dissolved in the fluid
- Difference between the alveolar and pulmonary pressures
2. Solubility: determines the number of molecules that move into or out of a fluid.
- CO2 is most soluble
followed by oxygen and nitrogen
(which is virtually insoluble)

Picture A: the oxygen in the air is

P=160 while in the water, there is
no oxygen

Picture B: P=160 in air but oxygen

in water is P = 80, oxygen still
shows a net movement into a
gaseous state

Picture C: the number of

molecules that are leaving and
entering the fluid equalize
themselves.
 - They equilibrate.

Gas Exchange in the Lungs

Gas Exchange in Lungs

- The actual exchange of gases
in the lungs is a passive
process that is determined by
pressure differentials
1. Atmospheric Pressure:
pressure outside of the body
(air outside of the body)
2. Intra-alveolar
(Intrapulmonary) Pressure:
pressure that develops inside
the lungs
3. Intrapleural Pressure: pressure within the pleural cavity
- Breathing is a function of these pressure gradients but is an active process because you
have to contract the diaphragm and intercostals for inspiration (breathing in) and
expiration (breathing out)
- Boyles Law: states that a constant temperature, when pressure increases, volume is
going to decrease. Have an
inversely proportional
relationship.
- External Respiration: exchange
of oxygen and carbon dioxide
between the air in the lungs and
the blood in the capillaries.
- Purplish blue is alveoli in the
lungs and red is capillaries
- Rate of gas exchange depends
on 3 things
1. Surface area of the membrane
2. The thickness of the membrane
3. The difference in partial pressure
- Alveolar wall is designed to have
max surface area for diffusion
- Also designed to be thin for gas
to easily cross
- The red and blue arrows are
showing diffusion: (red=oxygenated, blue=deoxygenated) high to low gradient of
pressure change for each arrow.
- Surfactant: coats the alveoli and helps to reduce surface tension.
Gas Exchange in Tissues:
- Pressure gradients still rule!
- What your actual pressure is is very different from pressure in arteries
- In tissue, energy metabolism consumes oxygen and produces CO2
- Since O2 is consumed and CO2 is produced at virtually equivalent concentrations, gas
pressure will differ significantly from arterial blood
- Partial pressure of oxygen in muscle will decrease to 0 and CO2 will increase
- Oxygen leaves blood and moves into the muscle cell, CO2 flows from cell into venous

blood.
- Transfer of gases from pulmonary system to tissues
- Red is oxygenated blood, blue is deoxygenated
- Circle is alveolus
- At the top of the picture, inspired air (ambient air) is being taken in
- PO2 is 159 and PCO2 is 0.3
 - The air goes down the trachea and then we get tracheal air (where the air becomes
saturated with water vapor as it enters the nose and mouth and goes down into the
respiratory tract)
- This decreases PO2 by 10% and CO2 remains the same (no change in PCO2 because
it has negligible contribution to inspired air)
- Next we enter the alveolus (little sacs)
- Alveolar air: this differs from ambient air because carbon dioxide continually enters the
alveoli from the blood and oxygen flows from lungs into the blood. These values can
vary between ventilatory cycle.
- Next enter the pulmonary capillaries or the alveolar capillaries (have pulmonary
circulation (PO2 = 40 which is relatively low because the blood has just returned from
systemic circulation and has lost much of its oxygen) and systemic circulation (coming
back from the body - where tissues take oxygen)
- PCO2 is 46 now which is relatively high because the blood returning from the systemic
circulation has picked up carbon dioxide.
- In the alveolar capillaries, diffusion of gases occurs, color changes from blue to red as
we leave the alveolar capillaries, PO2 increases to 100 and PCO2 decreases to 40
blood has pumped back to the heart and to systemic circulation (aka our arteries) and as
it comes out, no gas diffusion occurs, remains at PO2=100 and PCO2=40
- Now we enter the cell at the tissue capillary level
- PO2 goes down to 40 and PCO2 increases to 46
- The muscle just took the oxygen and released CO2
- Oxygen diffuses from the blood into the cell and CO2 diffuses from the cell into the blood
- We are leaving the muscle cell and returning to the heart via the veins
- There is no change in pressure, no gas exchange occurs as we go back to the heart.

Transport of Oxygen in Body

- Blood: carries oxygen via hemoglobin or plasma (only 3%) which is dissolved gas
- 97% is carried as oxyhemoglobin which has loading and unloading
1. Loading: oxygen is loaded in the blood in the pulmonary capillaries where the oxygen
tension is 100 mmHg as a result of alveolar ventilation.
- Loading: Hb + O2 = HbO2
2. Unloading: oxygen is unloaded from the blood in the peripheral tissue where the oxygen
tension is roughly 40 mmHg as a result of peripheral tissue oxygen consumption.
- Unloading: HbO2 = Hb + O2
 Left
is Hemoglobin (Hg): an iron containing globular protein thats carried in the RBC (red blood
cells)
- Is responsible for most of the oxygen transfer

Right is Hen group

- Contains one single iron atom
- One molecule of hemoglobin has 4 hen groups
- Each molecule of hemoglobin has 4 iron atoms and each iron atom can loosely bind to 1
oxygen atom

Orienting Ourselves:
- Volume percent (vols%) - describes the blood oxygen content, it is the mL of oxygen
extracted from a 100 mL sample of whole blood or packed red blood cells (RBCs)
- Anemia: iron insufficiency: more common in endurance athletes, particularly females
> decreased iron content of your RBCs leads to decreased blood oxygen carrying
capacity because need iron to bind to oxygen
- Oxygen Carrying Capacity: in males, each dL of blood has 15 grams of hemoglobin,
however in females, that value is 5-10% less, which averages 15 grams per dL of blood
in women.
> ex: someone comes out of surgery, lost a lot of blood, all of their levels get
 measured and based on their hemoglobin level, it determines if they are allowed
to get out of bed, a man with level of 10 isnt allowed to leave bed.
- Oxygen carrying capacity: male has 15 mL x 1.34 oxygen capacity of hemoglobin = 20
mL of oxygen which is the carrying capacity, if it was female, change the number to 14
> this means that hemoglobin normally carries 20 L of oxygen of whole blood.
- Hematocrit: percentage of RBCs in whole blood
> get value by withdrawing blood from somebody and spinning it through
centrifuge
> changes with exercise (plasma is water based and when we exercise, we get
hot and start sweating, which leads to a decrease in water volume, which
leads to a decrease in plasma volume due to dehydration.)

Oxygen and Hemoglobin Saturation

- Cooperative binding: binding of the oxygen molecule to one of the four iron atoms on
Hb.
> helps explain the oxyhemoglobin dissociation graph
> each oxygen binding increases the likelihood that an additional oxygen molecule
will bind.
- Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve - illustration of the saturation of Hb with oxygen at
various pressures and PO2 values.
- Percentage saturation = O2 combined with hemoglobin x 100
 O2 capacity of hemoglobin
- Right side of the picture: volume percent describes the blood oxygen concentration
- On the left side is the percent saturation of hemoglobin
- Along the bottom is the pressure of the oxygen in the solution
- Solid yellow line is hemoglobin and dotted yellow line is myoglobin
- White line on top that goes across is the percent saturation of hemoglobin at the average
sea level of alveolar PO2 of 100 mmHg
- Hemoglobin - yellow line, only achieves 98% of oxygen consumption but doesnt reach
white line of 100%
- 40 mmHg of PO2 typical for cells in the body, hemoglobin saturation remains relatively
high at 75-80%
- Then it moves on to the flat section of the curve (plateau) so in resting condition, the
curve shows only 20-25% of hemoglobin molecules give up to oxygen in systemic
circulation, plateau is significant because it means you have a large reserve of oxygen, if
you become more active, need more oxygen and the blood hemoglobin has more
oxygen to provide
- Active PO2 falls below 40, the curve shows that as oxygen declines, hemoglobin
saturation declines as well. Hemoglobin unloads lots of oxygen into active cells since
 hemoglobin saturation is going down, needs to release oxygen into the tissue capillaries
to provide it to the cells.

Arterio-mixed-venous oxygen difference (a-O2 difference)

- arterio-mixed-venous oxygen difference (a-O2 difference): describes the difference
between the oxygen content of arterial blood and mixed-venous blood.
- a-O2 difference at rest normally averages 4-5 mL of oxygen per deciliter of blood
> the large quantity of oxygen still attached to hemoglobin provides an automatic
reserve so cells can immediately obtain oxygen should metabolic demands
suddenly increase.
> at rest, your a-O2 difference is 4-5mL and have a reserve (plateau)
> at rest there is 20 mL of oxygen per 100 mL of blood in the artery
> in the vein, we have 15-16 mL of O2
> AV O2 difference is 4-5 mL of Oxygen
- Tissue PO2 decreases as the cells use of oxygen increases in exercise
- this causes hemoglobin to immediately release a larger amount of
oxygen
- during intense exercise when extracellular PO2 decreases to nearly
15 mmHg, only about 5 mL of oxygen remains bound to hemoglobin.
> during intense exercise, we have 20 mL of oxygen in artery and in venous blood,
oxygen goes down to 5 mL of oxygen, so AVO2 difference is 15 mL of oxygen.

Bohr Effect
- Also known as the shift to the right
- Has to do with the oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve
- The solid yellow line of hemoglobin, which is happening at resting physiological
conditions, pH is 7.4 and temperature is room temperature
- Increased acidity, decreased pH and increased temperature causes curve to shift down
and to the right
- Conditions that cause the increase in unloading of oxygen of Hb
1. Increased PCO2
2. Increased temperature
3. Increased 2,3 DPG
4. Decrease pH
- Shows that hydrogen ions and CO2 alter the hemoglobin structure to decrease its
oxygen binding affinity
- Usually occurs between 20-50 on the PO2 range
- Ex: a skeletal muscle contracts, cell needs more oxygen so we need to make more ATP,
this produces more waste (CO2), which releases heat, which increases temperature
- more CO2 means lower pH and then a lower PO2 leads to the RBC
producing more 2, 3 DPG
 - All of these things decrease the affinity, causing hemoglobin to give up or unload its
oxygen. A shift to the right means more oxygen is being released by hemoglobin, which
is needed by the cells in active tissue.

2,3 DPG
- RBCs dont have mitochondria so need to get energy from anaerobic glycolysis
- This is the by-product of RBC glycolysis
- Binds loosely to hemoglobin, reducing affinity for oxygen.
- Causes a release of oxygen to tissues for a decrease in PO2
- This can increase with intense exercise and may do so with training
> an increase of intense activity would reflect an increase in glycolysis and activity
of the RBC which should occur with exercise and as such facilitate the Bohr effect.
- Oxygen goes down, PO2 goes down, so RBC should respond
- Females tend to have higher amounts
> this is to compensate for their lower blood volumes and lower hemoglobin levels

Myoglobin:
- Muscle version of hemoglobin (cardiac and skeletal muscles)
- Iron containing iron protein
- Difference is myoglobin has only 1 iron atom while hemoglobin has 4
- Has 240x greater affinity than hemoglobin
> more readily binds and retains oxygen
- Facilitates transfer of O2 to mitochondria
> at onset of exercise and when intense
> responds to rapid cellular PO2 decline
- No Bohr effect: hemoglobin has nice S curve because it shifts down and to the right

Carbon Dioxide Transport

- Three mechanisms for transport
1. Dissolved in the plasma (7%)
2. Combined with hemoglobin (23%)
3. As bicarbonate (70%)
- Carbonic acid

CHAPTER 14: DYNAMICS OF PULMONARY VENTILATION

Ventilatory Control
- Normal breathing rate is 12 to 20 times per minute
- Specialized group of neurons in the medulla oblongata and pons (specifically
responsible)
> Both inspiratory and expiratory phases of breathing
- Respiratory center - medulla oblongata
 - Factors that influence breathing
1. Chemical input: looks at hydrogen ion concentration, neurotransmitters, and changes in
osmolarity
2. Stretch input: this is called the Herring-Breuer Reflex lunge stretch.
3. Higher brain center input: the hypothalamus and the medulla
4. Temperature: which looks at skin temperature
- Phrenic nerve

> controls diaphragm and intercostal muscles

Picture has different lines which goes to different factors that affect medullary control of
pulmonary ventilation
- The 4 factors/inputs that affect the brain (chemoreceptors, receptors in lung,
proprioceptors in joints and muscles, core temperature and the chemical state of the
blood)
- Just shows various inputs and factors that affect it
- This is all integrated in the thalamus and related to the hypothalamus
- Deals with decision making

Influences of Breathing
1. Chemoreceptors: sensitive to CO2 concentrations
- Found in the carotid bodies and aortic arches.
- They detect changes in the concentration of oxygen and CO2
- Also detect arterial hypoxia (or reduced oxygen pressure)
- **** CO2 is known to more heavily influence breathing rate than oxygen (due to the
effects that CO2 may have on an acid-base balance)
2. Stretch: Hering-Breur reflex
- This is the reflex that prevents the lungs from over inflating
- These receptors send impulses back to the medulla to stop inspiring and start exhaling
(stop breathing in and need to start breathing out) can only go to a certain point and then
need to stop breathing in, prevents lungs from over inflating
3. Higher Brain centers:
- These act to override the medulla in certain cases
- Ex: hold nose and hold breath, some people are better trained
- Need to override these things with higher brain centers
4. Temperature - body temp
- When you exercise, body temp goes up, so with that happening, the breathing rate
increases as well
- Need to blow off more
CO2

- Chemoreceptors are
represented by the black dots.
(detect changes in CO2 and O2)
- Baroreceptors: detect
changes in pressure.

Regulation of Ventilation
during Exercise
- Neither chemical
stimulation nor any other single
mechanism entirely accounts for
the increase in ventilation (hyperpnea) during physical activity
- Two contributing factors:
1. Chemical Control:
Metabolic by-products (CO2 and Hydrogen ions) causes increases in ventilation
Takes into account the chemical aspect of metabolic acidosis
Metabolic acidosis occurs when the body produces too much acid.
 This can happen due to dehydration, ketoacidosis in diabetes, lactic acidosis due to
lactic acid buildup and kidney malfunction.
When this metabolic acidosis happens, the chemical reactions in your body dont work
properly (chemical factors)
2. Non-chemical Control
Neurogenic factors
1. Cortical: neural outflow
- in anticipation of physical activity, regions of the motor cortex stimulation
respiratory neurons (located in the medulla) to initiate an increase in exercise
ventilation
2. Peripheral: propriorecption
- sensory input from joints, tendons, and muscles that influence the ventilatory
adjustments
throughout exercise.

Integrated Regulation:

- This is the 3 phases of

exercise hyperpnea (an increase
depth of breathing when required
to meet metabolic demands of
body tissues such as during or
following exercise or when the
body lacks oxygen)
- This chart shows us the
dynamic phases of minute
ventilation during moderate
exercise and recovery
1. Phase 1: really tiny on this
chart (light blue)
- Rapid increase from rest
and a brief plateau from central
command drive and input from
active muscles.
- Theres neurogenic stimuli
from cerebral cortex combined with feedback from the active limbs that stimulates the
medulla to increase ventilation.
2. Phase 2: orange color
- Began exercise
- Theres a slower exponential rise that begins approximately 20 seconds after exercise
onset.
- Central command is going to continue along with feedback from the active muscles plus
the added effect of short term potentiation of respiratory neurons.
- After short plateau minute ventilation rises to achieve a steady level
 - Working to achieve steady state
3. Phase 3: yellow
- Major regulatory mechanisms reach stable values and added input from our peripheral
chemoreceptors fine tune the ventilatory response.
- Achieved that steady state

Regulation during Recovery

- The abrupt decline in ventilation when exercise ceases which leads to:
1. Removal of the central command drive and the sensory input from previously active
muscles.
2. Slower recovery phase results:
- gradual diminution of the short-term potentiation of the respiratory center
- reestablishment of the bodys normal metabolic, thermal, and chemical baseline.
- we want to get back to normal, with no oxygen debt.

Ventilation and Energy Demands

- Exercise places the most profound physiologic stress on the respiratory system (so out
of everything, exercise places the greatest stress on the respiratory system)
- Theres increased alveolar ventilation that maintains the proper gas concentrations to
facilitate rapid gas exchange.
- ventilation increases linearly with oxygen consumption and CO2
production
- Ventilation in Steady-Rate exercise (steady rate is critical because it's easy for the body
to adjust
During light to moderate exercise ventilation increases linearly with O2 consumption and
CO2 production
Ventilatory equivalent (Ve/VO2) describes the ratio of minute ventilation to oxygen
consumption.
Healthy adults maintain the ratio of 25 L during submax exercise of up to 55% of VO2
max.
- Normal value - 25 L in adults up to about 55% VO2 max
- 25 L air breathed per L of O2 consumed

Ventilatory Threshold (Vt)

- Describes the point at which pulmonary ventilation increases disproportionately with
oxygen consumption (there is a marked and precipitous increase in the e/O2 ratio during
graded exercise
- Different from steady rate where oxygen increases linearly
- Pulmonary ventilation is no longer linked to oxygen demand so the excess ventilation
comes from CO2 release from buffering lactic acid that accumulates from increased
glycolysis (is due to decrease in NAD clearance, because clearance has to equal
production or else there will be lactic acid build up.
 - Looks at ventilation in Non-Steady Rate exercises
- Ventilatory threshold is associated with lactate threshold

- In red is minute ventilation and yellow is blood lactate.

- In the bottom, the arrow before it spikes up, thats the point of the lactate threshold and
right above it is ventilatory threshold.
- Lactate threshold represents the highest exercise intensity not associated with blood
lactate accumulation (at that point in threshold, clearance = production)
- Ventilatory threshold, ventilation and oxygen have a linear relationship, however when
we hit this threshold, this is where things will change and have disproportionate values.
- This is not necessarily the threshold of anaerobic metabolism.

Onset of Blood Lactate Accumulation (OBLA)

- During steady-rate exercise, aerobic metabolism matches the energy requirements of
the active muscles
> Little or no blood lactate accumulates because any lactate production equals lactate
disappearance.
> The term lactate threshold describes the highest oxygen consumption or exercise
intensity achieved with less than a 1.0 mM increase in blood lactate concentration
above the pre exercise level
> OBLA signifies when blood lactate concentration systematically increases to 4.0
(associate this number of when OBLA can happen.)
 - Levels will be different for trained vs untrained individuals

Why does OBLA occur?

- A threshold of lactate appearance can result from 4 different factors.
1. Imbalance between the rate of glycolysis and mitochondrial respiration
2. Decreased redox potential (increased NADH relative to NAD+) - important for clearance
of production
3. Lower blood oxygen content
4. Lower blood flow to skeletal muscle

Energy Cost of Breathing:

- At rest and light exercise the cost of breathing is small (so just sitting at rest, breathing
isnt too hard, not using respiratory system much)
- During maximal exercise the respiratory muscles require a significant proportion of total
blood flow (~15%)
> Upto 15% of total blood flow sustains the metabolic demands of respiratory muscles
during maximal effort.
> Can limit the amount/available oxygen delivered to the muscles
- Cost of breathing: respiratory muscles are still muscles so they need to be trained to
adapt just like skeletal muscles

- Does this limit performance? (Aerobic training)

- The pulmonary system adapts at a lesser extent than our skeletal and cardiovascular
systems (which are better at adapting to these demands)
- Healthy individuals, they can overbreathe (hyperventilation- this decreases the alveolar
PCO2 and increases PO2) at higher levels of oxygen consumption.
- At max exercise, there is a breathing reserve, thus ventilation is not a limiting factor in a
healthy individual (we dont just stop breathing altogether)

Exception:
- Exception: endurance athletes (may have some issues) because their other systems
have a greater capacity because pulmonary adaptations may not keep up with muscular
or cardiac changes
- Pulmonary system adapts at a slower rate so their respiratory is a limiting factor despite
rest of muscles since lungs are not a muscle (cannot have hypertrophy)
- Because the lungs are not muscles like cardiac or skeletal, can lead to exercise induced
exercise hypoxemia (arterial desaturation)
> inequalities in ventilation-perfusion ratio in lung
> shunting of blood flow by-passing alveolar capillaries
> failure to achieve end-capillary PO2 equilibrium

Acid-Base Regulation
- Offsetting the effects of exercise to prolong session
- pH below 7 acids donate Hydrogen ions, base above 7, accepts Hydrogen ions
 - Buffering is reactions that minimize changes in hydrogen ion concentration
- Buffers: chemical and physiological mechanisms that prevent this change, regulate pH
of internal environment
- Chemical Buffers:
1. Bicarbonate buffers
2. Phosphate buffers
3. Protein buffers
- Ventilatory Buffers: 2nd line of defense, function only when a change in pH has already
occurred.
- Renal Buffers: 2nd line of defense, function only when a change in pH has already
occurred.

Effects of Short-and Long-Term Exercise

- Exercise decreases pH as CO2 and lactate production increase
- Acid-base buffering becomes really important and yet more difficult especially as
exercise becomes more intense (the more intense exercise becomes, the higher the
CO2 level, the more the acidity, the more we need help from buffers)
- Low levels of pH are not well-tolerated and need to be dealt with quickly (can be
problematic)
- High levels of acidosis result in nausea, headache, and dizziness. (when levels dont
stabilize)

CHAPTER 15: The Cardiovascular System

Components of the CV System

- Pump - the heart
- High-pressure distribution system - arteries
- Exchange vessels - capillaries
- Low-pressure collection and return circuit - veins
- Out of all of these, the majority of the blood is contained within the small arteries, veins,
and capillaries (75%)
- Heart contains 7% of the blood (blood needs to be in circulation at areas of gas
exchange to provide O2 to our tissues)
- Hearts major goal is to pump blood so at any given time, there is more blood in
circulation.
 Blood Volume
Distribution: just
know blood volume
numbers

- In systemic
circulation, the
smallest veins have
largest blood volume
(46%) and large
veins have 18% and
large arteries have
6%.

- Right atria, left atria, right

ventricle, left ventricle
- Red = blood with O2
- Blue = no O2 in blood
- Purple = gas exchange
- Gas exchange occurs in
capillaries
- Heart is central, extends
to lungs to oxygenate blood

The Heart
 - Four-chambered organ that lies to the left of the sternum
- Beats approximately 40 million times a year providing 500,000 gallons of blood!!
- It depolarizes to cause a contraction
- Remember the heart is a muscle and its muscle is known as the myocardium

Properties of Cardiac Muscle (Myocardium)

- High capillary density and numerous mitochondria
- Striated
- Located in heart and adjacent portions of great vessels
- Intercalated discs: act to connect muscle fibers, and they also transmit the impulse of
depolarization, due to these, depolarization spreads rapidly which is important for heart
- Type of activity: strong, quick, and continuous rhythmic contraction
- Stimulation -
involuntary

Functional
Components of the
Heart
- Right side of heart: receives deoxygenated blood returning from throughout the body,
also pumps blood to the lungs for aeration through pulmonary circulation
- Left side of heart: receives oxygenated blood from the lungs, pumps blood into the aorta
for distribution throughout the body in systemic circulation
- Function of atrium/atria:
1. Right atrium: pumps blood into the pulmonary artery
2. Left atrium - oxygenated blood from the pulmonary vein returns here
- Ventricles:
1. Right ventricle: pumps blood into the pulmonary artery
2. Left ventricle: ejects blood through the aortic valve into the aorta for transport in systemic
circulation
- Valves:
1. Semilunar valves - prevent blood from flowing back into the heart between contractions
2. AV valves (atrioventricular): one way blood flow between atria and ventricles: bicuspid
aka mitral valve: left side and tricuspid (AV valve) - located on right side of heart - valves
prevents blood flow from going backwards.

Functional Significance of Heart Valves:

-
- Diastole: AV valves are open, blood can flow from atria into
ventricles - aided by gravity passive process - semilunar valves are
closed
- Systole - when blood needs to go from ventricles to systemic
circulation, semilunar valves are open opening and closing result
from pressure gradients in heart.
Arteries and Veins
- Capillaries - only have one layer
- Arteries and veins contain 3 layers
1. Outer layer tunica adventitia
2. Tunica media - always thicker in arteries than in veins
3. Tunica interna

- Arteries known as resistance

vessels because they can alter their
diameter to increase or decrease the
resistance to the flow of blood - happens
because made up of smooth muscle that
regulate diameter, also the arteries are
highly elastic in order to handle different
blood volumes
- Arteries branch into smaller
portions known as arterials
- Arterials can regulate blood flow
because of their proximity to the capillary
bed - this is where O2 gets dropped off to
the tissues and our deoxygenated blood
gets picked up and delivered through
veins to the heart.

Arterial system:
- High-pressure tubing and its job is to propel and push blood through the systemic
circulation
- NO gas exchange happens here
- Aorta is the start of the arterial network, attached to the left ventricle

Major Human Arteries:

- Common carotid, brachial, radial, femoral, popliteal, posterior tibial, and dorsal arch

Blood Pressure (BP):

- Arteries are the major site for taking blood pressure due to force of blood flow through
them
- Blood pressure = cardiac output x total peripheral resistance (co x tpr)
- Definition: Blood pressure reflects the combined effects of blood flow per minute and
resistance to that flow.
- Measure by auscultation method
- Top number is systolic and bottom number is diastolic
 - The velocity of blood flow is inverse to cross sectional area of vessel - slowest flow in
capillaries
- 3 major factors affect flow
1. Diameter of vessel
2. Length of vessel
3. Blood viscosity

Systolic Blood Pressure (SBP)

- Contraction component
- Provides an estimate of work done by the heart and the pressure exerted on the aortic
wall during contraction
- Average SBP is 120 mm/Hg

Diastolic Blood Pressure (DBP):

- pressure reflects peripheral resistance or simply the ease at which blood can enter the
capillaries from the arterioles
- Typical DBP is 70-80 mm/Hg
- Regular DBP is 120/80

Know how to take BP

Blo
od
Pre
ss
ure
an
d Exercise

- Systolic blood pressure increases with exercise whereas diastolic stays the same or
decreases with exercise
- Exercise causes vasodilation in periphery which leads to lowering resistance by
increasing diameter

Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP)

- Represents the average pressure in the circulatory system at all times.
- MAP = DBP + [ (SBP - DBP)]
- MAP is typically 93 mm/hg and is closer to DBP because humans spend more time in
diastole than systole
- Ex: SBP =127 and DBP = 89
- MAP = (89 + [(127-89)] or 102mm/Hg

Cardiac Output (CO or Q) and Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR)

- CO or Q represents the amount of blood ejected per beat in one minute
- TPR is the extent of the ease of bloodflow
- CO = MAP/TPR
- TPR = MAP/CO
- TPR changes in response to norepinephrine binding to receptors which changes vessel
diameter

Capillary System:
- found at the end of the artery system connected to the arterioles
- Very small vessels (0.01 mm in diameter)
- Capillary walls are only ONE cell layer big
- Skeletal muscle has approximately 2-3000
capillaries per square mm of tissue!!!
- Gas exchange happens here in the capillaries

Capillaries at Rest
- Precapillary sphincter - ring of smooth
muscle that encircles vessel at its origin and
controls capillary diameter - regular blood flow
in and out of capillaries - this sphincters
constrict and relax provide local means of
blood flow regulation
- Dark red spots indicate closing or opening
dormant capillaries
- Fewer capillaries function than are available
 Capillaries during Exercise
- During exercise, precapillaries sphincters are open to allow
greater surface area to diffusion of gas when it is needed the most
- 2 things cause sphincters to relax and open
1. Driving force of increasing local blood pressure governed by the
nervous system
2. Local metabolites that are produced during exercise

Venous System:
- Connected to the other end of the capillaries (venules)
- Carry deoxygenated blood back to heart
- LOW pressure system (3-4 mmHg)
- Venous system terminates at the inferior or superior vena cava
- Blood entering vena cava will depend on where blood is collected
- Lower vs upper extremities - end result is to put blood back into the right atria where it
could be pumped to lungs for reoxygenation
- Major veins - where you take blood
1. Saphalic
2. Basalic
3. Great saphenous
4. Femoral

Venous Return:
- Low pressure is needed to get blood back to heart and there are 4 venous return
mechanisms.
1. One-way valves - spaced at short intervals to allow blood to flow in one direction
towards the heart, so no back flow.
2. Skeletal muscle pumps - blood moves through veins by action of nearby active
muscles
3. Smooth muscle pumps - contraction of smooth muscle bands within the veins
4. Respiratory pump - pressure changes within thoracic cavity during breathing which
readily compresses veins

Myocardial Blood Supply

- Aka Coronary circulation via the coronary arteries
Myocardial O2 demand
- At rest, the myocardium requires considerable O2 relative to its blood flow
- Heart can extract 70-80% of blood delivered by the coronary arteries
- Most of other tissues use quarter of available O2 at rest
- Estimate work of heart using rate pressure product (RPP = SBP X HR)
- RPP relate closely to directly measured myocardial O2 consumption and coronary blood
flow
- Impaired blood flow to the heart can manifest itself into angina pectoris (Chest pains)

CHAPTER 16: Cardiovascular Regulation and Integration

Hearts Intrinsic Regulation and Conduction System

- Intrinsic regulation of heart
comes from spontaneous
firing of SA node
- SA node - right atria
> also known as
pacemaker
> initiate wave of
depolarization that has to
travel down the
conduction system, so
heart beats rhythmically
- Spreads to AV node - close
to tricuspid valve
- Then gives rise to AV bundle
> also called Bundle of
His
- AV bundle transmits impulse
through ventricles to Purkinje fibers
> Form two bundle branches
1. Right bundle branch
2. Left bundle branch

Measuring the Hearts Electrical Activity

- Electrocardiogram (ECG)
1. P wave - atrial depolarization (atriums contract)
2. QRS complex - ventricular depolarization (ventricles contract)
3. T wave - ventricular repolarization (ventricles relax)
4. PR segment - delay at AV node for ventricular filling
5. ST segment - static, isoelectric section prior to T wave
Extrinsic Regulation of the Heart
- Accelerate the heart in anticipation before physical activity begins
- This type of regulation can come from 4 separate things
1. Sympathetic input
2. Parasympathetic input
3. Central Command
4. Peripheral Input

Sympathetic Input (SNS)

- Flight or fight
- SNS releases catecholamines (EPI and NOREPI)
- 2 major influences:
1. Chronotropic effect - makes the heart beat faster
- Accelerate SA node depolarization, which causes heart to beat faster
- Above 100 tachycardia
2. Inotropic effect - makes the heart beat harder meaning it increases contractility
- increases myocardial contractility
- Also produces vasoconstriction, except in coronary vasculature

Parasympathetic Input (PNS)

- Rest and digest
- PNS releases acetylcholine (ACh)
- PNS response mediated by cranial nerve 10 (CN10) - the Vagus
> Vagal stimulation exerts no effect on myocardial
contractility no inotropic effect
- Effects of PNS activation
> Bradycardia or slowing of the heart rate by decreasing the rate of discharge from the
SA node

SNS and PNS Effects on Heart

- SNS secretes EPI supply SA and AV nodes and muscles of atria and
ventricles
- PNS secretes ACh, which are concentrated in atria,including SA and AV node
- SNS pre-gang axons come from thoracolumbar region
- PNS pre-gang axons come from brainstem and sacral region

Central Command Input

- Known as the motor cortex
- Continuous modulation of medullary activity
- Central command has the greatest control over heart rate (HR) during exercise
Central Command at Work
- held responsible for the pre-exercise anticipatory response
1. Increase in heart rate
2. Increase myocardial contractility
3. Vasodilation in skeletal muscle
4. Vasoconstriction to areas not
needed during exercise

Pre-exercise Response
- Increase in HR is initially due to
gradual withdrawal of PNS
> also known as vagal
withdrawal
- Increase in release of
catecholamines which govern
SNS response to regulate HR
during exercise

Central Command Regulation during

Exercise
- Medulla controls everything

Peripheral Input
- Chemoreceptors
> carotid bodies and aortic arch peripheral chemoreceptors
> central chemoreceptors (found in medullary neurons)
> detect changes in concentration of O2 and CO2
> O2 decreasing and CO2 increasing chemoreceptors will
increase sympathetic
outflow
- Mechanoreceptors
> assess mechanical activity in left ventricle, right atrium and large veins
- Baroreceptors
> detect pressure changes
> inhibit sympathetic outflow from CV center
> blunt arise in arterial Blood Pressure (BP)
- Local factors
> metabolites
> By-products of energy metabolism that provide auto-regulatory mechanism within
muscle to augment perfusion during physical activity.
Blood Flow Distribution
- This concept refers to the bodys ability to REdistribute blood flow by either constricting
or dilating the blood vessels to meet the tissues metabolic requirements, while
equalizing blood pressure (BP) within the vascular tree

Factors Affecting Blood Flow

- Physical Factors
1. Blood viscosity
2. Length of the tube (vessel)
3. Blood vessel radius

Poiseuilles Law Explains:

- General relationship among pressure differential and flow
- in body, blood vessel length remains constant
- Blood viscosity only varies slightly
- Radius will affect blood flow most

Flow = Pressure gradient x Vessel radius

Vessel length x Viscosity

Effects of Exercise on Blood Flow

- Exercise stimulates vasodilation in working muscle
> mediated by nitric oxide (NO)
- Important signaling molecule that dilates blood vessels and decreases vascular
resistance
- Releases from vascular endothelium
- NO penetrates smooth muscle vasodilation occurs
- Vasodilation:
> allows increase in total muscle blood flow
> Deliver large volume of blood with minimum increase in flow velocity
- Purpose: dont compromise oxygen extraction ability
> Increase surface area for gas exchange between blood and muscle fibers

CHAPTER 17: Functional Capacity of the Cardiovascular System

Heart Rate, Stroke Volume and Cardiac Output

- Heart rate is the number of times the heart beats per minute
- Stroke volume is the amount of blood ejected per beat
- Cardiac output is the product of heart rate times stroke volume.
> used to describe ability of CV system to meet metabolic demands of the body
> CO = HR x SV
 > describes the amount of blood ejected per minute

How do we Measure Cardiac Output (CO)?

- Direct methods are not used!
- Indirect methods of assessment
1. Direct Fick
2. Indicator dilution
3. CO2 rebreathing method

Fick Method
- Factors determine outflow of fluid from pump
- Performed in hospital
- Estimate of CO by knowledge of 2 important factors:
1. Change in concentration of a substance between the outflow and inflow
2. Total quantity of that substance being taken up by the individual

Calculating the 2 Important Factors:

- Most accepted and widely used method
- Change in concentration
> measure the O2 content of the arterial and mixed venous blood (A-vO2
difference)
- Total quantity taken up
> oxygen consumption in one minute (VO2)

CO = VO2 (mL/min) x 100

a-vO2 difference
(mL per 100 mL of blood)

Direct Fick Method:

- Arterial and venous blood are measured with catheters
- VO2 measured via spirometer
- Invasive in nature
- Typically considered gold standard

Indicator Dilution Method

- Involves arterial and venous puncture for needles, NOT catheterization like the Fick
method
- Vein is injected with a known quantity of a dye and then measured over the course of
time
- Photo sensitive device

CO = Quantity of dye injected

(Average Dye) in blood x duration of curve for duration of curve
Co2 Rebreathing Method:
- Measure the CO2 values similar to those of the Fick Method
- Substitute CO2 values for O2 values in Fick Method
- Still use spirometer
- Can offer advantages over Fick because it does not require blood sampling or medical
supervision

CO = VCO2 x 100
v-aCO2 difference

Cardiac Output at Rest:

- Untrained individuals
> with an average HR of 70 bpm,CO will be 5L
> 5L CO at rest is average value for trained and untrained males
- SV and CO or women average values are 25% less than men
- Endurance athletes:
> Heart is under larger parasympathetic influence therefore HR can be lower (50 bpm),
but CO will still be 5 L HOW?
- Athlete's heart will pump more blood out per minute compared to a sedentary
Person
- Due to long-term training adaptations

Trained vs Untrained and CO:

- Rest
CO = HR x SV
T 5000 mL 50 bpm x 100 mL

UT 5000 mL 70 bpm x 71 mL

Influential factors: why trained individual has larger SV

1. Increased vagal tone and decreased SNS drive
- Both slow HR
2. Increased blood volume, myocardial contractility and compliance of the left ventricle
this all will enhance stroke volume (SV)

Cardiac Output (CO) during Exercise

- Blood flow during exercise MUST increase to meet the metabolic demands of the
muscles, hence CO must also rise
Maximum Exercise
CO = HR x SV
T 35,500 mL 195 bpm x 179 mL
UT 22,000 mL 195 bpm x 113 mL

- An endurance athlete can achieve a higher CO solely through an increased SV

Factors Affecting SV:

- Three primary factors
1. Increased diastolic filling
2. Increased systolic emptying
3. Cardiovascular adaptations that allow for increased blood volume and decreased
peripheral resistance

Increased diastolic filling (PRELOAD):

- Any factor that increases venous return or slows heart, producing greater ventricular
filling
- Increase in the End Diastolic Volume (EDV)
> Increasing the amount of blood in the ventricles prior to contraction
> Increase stretch of myocardial fibers leads to powerful
ejection stroke during
contraction
- Frank and Starlings Law of the Heart
> Increasing venous return to overstretch the myocardium this will provide the
stimulus for increasing systolic emptying
> within physiological limits, our force of concentration is directly proportional to initial
length of muscle fiber

Increased Systolic Emptying (AFTERLOAD):

- Basically states that an increase in the contraction force of the myocardium will eject
more blood per heartbeat
- Enhanced systolic ejection because ventricles always contain functional residue blood
volume.

CO Distribution at Rest
- Focus on muscle and heart
- Know percentages

CO Distribution during Exercise

- CO redistributed to supply muscle
 - At rest, 25% going to muscle increases to 80-85% during exercise
- Whole process occurs due to systemic vasoconstriction and vasodilation of blood
vessels
- Heart and blood flow increase volume because they cant tolerate
compromised blood flow

Cardiac Output and Oxygen Transport

- Rest
> Sudden change in metabolism from rest to max physical activity
> Potentially ~ 1000 mL of O2 available at rest (5 L of blood x 200 mL O2)
- Typically the body only needs 250-300 mL of O2 per minute
- This means that 750 mL of O2 returns to the heart this is a reserve mechanism that
protects the body in case of sudden
changes in metabolism

CO and O2 Transport during Exercise

- CO and O2 transport during exercise
depend on individuals VO2 max
- Differences in men vs women and
children vs adults:
> Teenage and adult females exercise
at
any level of submax O2 consumption
with
5-10% larger CO
- Due to 10% lower concentration of
Hb
- Increase in CO is going to
compensate
for minor decrease in blood O2 carrying
capacity
> Kids have higher HR than adults on
submax exercise
- Does not compensate for smaller SV
- Have smaller CO

Oxygen Extraction: a-VO2 Difference

- Reminder: Hemoglobin is the carrier of oxygen within the blood and myoglobin within the
muscle.
> a-VO2 difference represents the body's ability to extract and utilize oxygen to meet its
metabolic needs
> Rest requires very little oxygen extraction due to its low metabolic demands

A-VO2 Difference During Exercise

 - Increase in O2 consumption
increase in metabolic demands of
muscle
- Leads to need to extract more oxygen
from tissue in order to sustain activity

Factors Affecting A-VO2 Difference

1. Exercise training
2. Increasing skeletal muscle
microcirculation
3. Increasing the capillary to fiber ratio
within the muscle
4. Muscle cells ability to regenerate ATP aerobically
5. Increasing size and number of mitochondria
6. Increasing aerobic enzyme activity
7. Local vascular changes

Chapter 20: The Endocrine System: Organization and Exercise Responses

Overview of Endocrine Glands (6 major) :

- Pineal Gland
- Pituitary Gland
- Thyroid Gland
- Parathyroid Gland
- Thymus Gland
- Adrenal Gland
- P.T.P.T.P.A

Other non-major organs that have endocrine tissues and can secrete hormones:
- Pancreas
- Gonads
- Hypothalamus
- Adipose or fat tissue
Endocrine System Organization:
- Host Organ - gland
- Has small quantities of chemical messengers
- Target or receptor gland
- Glands can be endocrine or exocrine or both
 A. Endocrine - has no ducts, hormones get secreted into the bloodstream
B. Exocrine - contain ducts and carry substances directly to the compartments (ex: sweat
glands)
- Some glands can be both exocrine and endocrine (ex: pancreas - deals with digestion
(exocrine) and glucose regulation (endocrine))
- Breakdown functionally:
- Hypothalamus (host organ stimulates pituitary gland (host organ)
which then releases chemical messengers (aka hormones) into the
bloodstream which then travel to target organ (which in this case
of picture is the kidney) which leads to the action

Types of Hormone:
1. Steroid Derived:
2. Amine or Polypeptide Hormones
- Hormones can have potent effects and usually are released in small quantities and can
regulate a variety of functions
- Ex: hormones are usuallyusually released in micro, nanograms etc but can do a lot

Hormone-Receptor Binding:
- Hormone receptor binding is the first step in initiating hormone action
- Extent of activation of cell depends on 3 things:
1. Hormone concentration
2. Number of receptors
3. Affinity between hormone and receptor
- These will either cause an up or down regulation of activity (regulation describes
increase or loss of receptors)
- In picture, looking at how C-AMP is acting as a secondary messenger to alter its
proteinits protein activity.

Hormone-Target Cell Specificity:

- Hormones exert their influence by altering or initiating cellular reactions by:
1. Modifying protein synthesis
2. Altering enzyme activity
3. Altering plasma membrane properties
4. Inducing secretory activities
- Processes entirely dependent upon the presence of specific target cell binding protein
receptors (receptors can be in 2 places)
1. On plasma membrane
2. Interior of cell

Hormones Effects on Enzymes:

- Hormones act to:
1. Alter enzyme activity OR
 2. Alter enzyme-mediated transport

- How does this occur? (lock and key mechanism that gets altered by hormones)
- Incerases activity in 3 ways
A. Stimulates enzyme production
B. Allosteric modulation - when hormone combines with enzyme to alter its shape and
ability to act
C. Increases activity of normally inactive enzymes

Hormone Release
- Hormone levels in body are depentdent on 4 things:
1. Quantity of hormone released
2. The rate of catabolism or secretion in blood
3. Quantity of transport proteins
4. Plasma volume changes
- Factors that stimulate hormonal release
1. Hormonal stimulation-
- hormones influence secretion of other hormones.
- Ex picture A- hypothalamus regulates secretion of the anterior
pituitary this releases Acth this stimulates release of
glucocorticoids by the adrenal cortex this influences target organs
2. Humoral stimulation
- changing levels of ions and nutrients that are transported in the blood, bile, and other
body fluids stimulate hormone release
- ex. Picture b- Increase in blood sugar prompts pancreas to release
insulin insulin then promotes glucose entry into cell which causes
blood sugar to decrease
3. Neural stimulation
- Where neural activity is going to affect hormone release
- ex. Picture C- SNS fibers trigger adrenal medulla during stress to release epinephrine
and norepinephrine

Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

- Pituitary Gland: also known as the Hypothesis, located at base of the brain, and
receives input from the Hypothalamus.
- Secretes several different types of Hormones
1. ACTH
2. Thyrotropin
3. Growth Hormone
4. Endorphins
Secreted from Posterior Pituitary Gland
1. Oxytocin - dont need to worry about this
2. Vasopressin
 3. ADH

Growth Hormone:
- Release stimulated by hypothalamus via GHRF (Growth Hormone Releasing Factor)
- Growth hormone is also called Somatotropin
- Can have indirect or direct actions
- Physiological Effects:
1. Stimulate tissue growth
2. Mobilize fatty acids
3. Inhibit CHO metabolism
- Increases with increasing exercise intensity - increasing physical activity of short
durations stimulate sharp rise in growth hormone
> By inhibiting glucose uptake (slowing carb breakdown) and stimulating fatty acid
release, keeps blood glucose at high levels to augment prolonged exercise.
- Growth hormone slows carb breakdown and initiates the use of fat as an energy source
- GH hormone increases with increasing exercise intensity

Growth Hormone and Training:

- Light blue - pre, yellow is 3 weeks of training, green is post
- Shows with growth hormone, sensitization occurs with training

Thyrotropin or Thyroid Hormone (TSH)

- Release stimulated by hypothalamus via TSH-releasing factor
- TSH acts to stimulate production of an release of thyroxine from the thyroid gland
- Thyroid gland is then responsible for regulating metabolic rate via its hormones
> T4 - Thyroxine - secreted more than T3 but T3 acts faster
> T3 - triiodothyronine
- this T3 specifically regulated metabolic rate
- high thyroid actvity, people could lose weight rapidly and vice versa

Cyclic Nature of the Thyroid Hormones:

- During physical activity, our blood levels of T4 are going to increase

Posterior Pituitary (Neuro-Hypothesis) and Fluid Balance:

- Posterior Pituitary does not synthesize its hormones
- Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH) or Vasopressin
- Stimulated via hypothalamic secretory neurons
- ADH controls water secretion by the kidneys and acts as a vasoconstrictor
- Regulates fluid balance during exercise by monitoring plasma osmolarity
> especially important during heavy sweating
- Exercise causes an increase in ADH, as the urge to retain water becomes important
- Hypothalamus produces these 2 hormones and secretes them via humoral stimulation
- Increases in osmolarity ( increases in ions and decreases in water) stimulate release of
ADH
 - Decrease in plasma volume can stimulate release of these
- Limits production of large volumes of urine by stimulating H2O reabsorption in the kidney
tubules
- From exercise standpoint, ADH conserves body fluids during hot weather physical
activity and dehydration

Adrenal Gland Hormones:

- Two distinct secretion of adrenal gland - sits above kidney
1. Adrenal Medulla - inside part - secretes catecholamines (EPI and NOREPI)
2. Adrenal Cortex - outer portion and secretes:
> Mineralocorticoids
> Androgens
> Glucocorticoids

Adrenal Medulla Hormones:

- EPI and NOREPI
- These hormones act to augment and prolong the effects of the SNS
- An outflow of neural impulses from the hypothalamus stimulate adrenal medulla to
increase catecholamine release

Epinephrine (EPI):
- Represent 80% of medulla secretions
- Activities of EPI include:
1. Stimulate glycogenolysis in the liver and active muscles
2. Stimulates lipolysis in adipose tissue and active muscles
3. Exerts powerful influence over pancreatic enzymes
- Intensity of exercise will govern EPI actions

Norepinephrine (NOREPI)
- Serves as a precursor for EPI
- Also can act as a neurotransmitter when released from SNS nerves
- Physiological effects
> VERY powerful stimulus of lipolysis at the adipose tissue
> Causes increases in HR and vasoconstriction to blood vessels in areas not-working
during exercise

Exercise and the Catecholamines:

- Catecholamines response during different intensities of cycling
- Found norepinephrine increased by a lot that intensity exceeded 50 % VO2 max, EPI
levels remained unchanged until intensity exceeded 75%
- Physical activity is going to increase output with the increase directlydirectly related to
exercise intensity and duration

Catecholamines and Training:

 - Absolute Workload:
> Sympathoadrenal activity is LOWER in trained vs untrained individuals (lower heart
rate)
- Relative Workload:
> Sympathoadrenal response is HIGHER in trained vs untrained individuals
> WHY?
1. Greater absolute demand for substrate use vas glycogenolysis and lipolysis
2. Increased overall cardiac response via higher cardiac output
3. Larger muscle mass activation
- Sympathoadrenal response to physical activity is most closely related to relative
workload as opposed to absolute workload - secretes EPI and NOREPI and looks at
response

Adrenal Cortex Hormones:

- Adrenal cortex is stimulated by Corticotropin from anterior pituitary
- Three types of Cortex Hormones:
1. Mineralocorticoids
2. Glucocorticoids
3. Androgens
Each specific set of hormones is released in a different zone or layer of the cortex

Mineralocorticoids:
Aldosterone
- Represents 95% of ALL mineralocorticoids produced.
- Controls total Na+ concentration and ECF (extra cellular fluid) (extra cellular fluid)
- Stimulates Na+ ion reabsorption from the distal convoluted tubules of the kidneys
> increasing synthesis of Na+ transporter proteins in the process
- Acts to maintain K+ and pH via exchangers
- Once aldosterone does this, there is little sodium and fluid in the urine
- Exercise standpoint: response to aldosterone occurs very slowly - requires physical
activity for greater than 45 min for aldosterones effects to emerge - major effects occur
during recovery

Renin-Angiotensin Aldosterone System (RAAS)

- work to maintain fluid balance
- 4 major factors that control aldosterone release
1. Increase in blood pressure or blood volume- heart
2. Decrease in blood volume, decrease in Na+, increase K+ in blood-kidney
3. Stress-anterior pituitary
4. Decrease in Na+, increase in K+ in blood-capillaries
Raas mechanism- what happens?
- Increase in SNS activity during physical activity- then constrict blood vessels that supply
kidneys- decrease in blood flow is going to stimulate kidneys to release the enzyme
renin into the blood
 - By increasing renin, stimulate production of angiotensin hormones- these hormones
stimulate secretion of aldosterone- in turn causes kidneys to retain sodium and excrete
potassium

Glucocorticoids:
- Found in adrenal cortex
- Release cortisol or The Stress Hormone
- Cortisol affects glucose, protein, and free fatty acids in 6 ways
1. breakdown of proteins to amino acids for gluconeogenesis during very high intensity
exercise (delivers amino acids to liver for synthesis to glucose via gluconeogenesis)
2. Supports other hormones (GH and glucagon) in the gluconeogenic process
3. Acts as an insulin antagonist by inhibiting cellular glucose uptake and oxidation
4. Promotes TG (triacylglycerol) breakdown in adipose tissue to glycerol and fatty acids
5. Suppresses immune system functions
6. Produces negative calcium balance

Cortisol
- Stress of physical activity or exercise stimulates hypothalamus to secrete CRH
(corticotropin releasing hormone)
- Causes anterior pituitary to release Acth (adrenocorticotropic hormone)
- Acth promotes glucocorticoid release by adrenal cortex
- Cortisol output increases with physical activity intensity
- Even during moderate physical activity, cortisol rises with prolonged duration
Pancreatic Hormones:
- Pancreas - small endocrine gland located beneath the stomach
- Two distinct tissue portions:
1. Acini cells - serve exocrine function and secrete digestive enzymes
2. Islets of Langerhans
- Islets contain alpha and beta cells
> alpha cells (20% of islets) - glucagon
> beta cells (80% of islets) - insulin - also secrete amylin which is a peptide

Overview of Pancreas and its Hormones:

- Insulin acts to store glucose
- Glucagon acts to break it down (increases blood sugar)
- Insulin regulates glucose entry into all tissues except the brain - especially regulation
into muscles and adipose tissue
- Ex: after a meal, blood glucose increases, stimulating release of insulin, which then
stimulates glycogen formation to lower blood sugar
Insulins actions in the Body:
- Entry into body via gluc-4
- Stars show where insulin exerts it effects on metabolism
- Anabolic functions of increased insulin promote glycogen, protein and fat synthesis
- Categories of fasting blood glucose
 - o Normal glucose levels are less than 110
- o Impaired levels are 110-125
- o And suspected diabetes is greater than 125
-
Insulin Response to Exercise:
- Need glucose as substrate, the insulin decrease
- Plasma insulin levels during 30 min of cycling at 70 % vo2max
- Physical activity relates to the inhibition of insulin via catecholamine release- prolonged
physical activity derives more energy from free fatty acids mobilized from adipose sites
from decreased insulin output and decreased carb(CHO) reserves
- Blood glucose lowers with prolonged physical activity which increases glucose output
and the liver to release glucagon and EPI- which helps stabilize blood sugar

Glucagon:
- Secreted from the alpha-cells
- Insulin antagonist
- Stimulates glycogen breakdown and re-making of glucose from non-CHO sources
> glycogenolysis - uses cAMP
> gluconeogenesis - by promoting uptake of amino acids by the liver
- Uses cAMP cascade
- Promotes amino acid uptake by liver
- Affected by EPI
- Uses cAMP to stimulate glycogenolysis
- Release occurs later in exercise

Chart:
- Endurance training- yellow pre, red-post
- Endurance training maintain blood levels of insulin and glucagon during physical activity
closer to resting levels- a trained state requires less insulin at any stage from rest
through light to moderate exercise
- Top pic with glucagon and bottom with insulin- after 20 weeks of training 60-80 % of
VO2max
- Found aerobic training depresses response to both hormones

Resistance Training and Hormones

- Hormonal factors are responsible for training induced changes
- Testosterone and GH are the two main hormones that affect resist training adaptations
- How? Testosterone augments GH release and interacts with the nervous system
functions to increase muscle force production - create favorable environment for
muscular hypertrophy
- Resistance training elicits short term rise in testosterone and decrease in cortisol
- Greater response in men than women
- Catecholamine release from adrenal medulla that increase with stress of high force or
power exercise protocols