< a International Extended essay cover Baccalaureate 5 | caices must cometes wis pope ‘and then give this cover and their final version of the extended essay fo their supervisor. Candidate session number Candidate name School number Schoo! name Examination session (May or November) May Year Diploma Programme subject in which this extended essay is registered: Mathematics (For an extended essay in the area of languages, state the language and whether itis group 1 or group 2.) Title of the extended essay: __/7 Candidate's declaration This declaration must be signed by the candidate; otherwise a grade may not be issued. The extended essay | am submitting is my own work (apart from guidance allowed by the Intemational Baccalaureate). Ihave acknowledged each use of the words, graphics or ideas of another person, whether written, oral or visual. 1am aware that the word limit for all extended essays is 4000 words and that examiners are not required to read beyond this limit. This is the final version of my extended essay. Candidate's signature: |Supervisor's report and declaration The supervisor must complete this report, sign the declaration and then give the final version of the extended essay, with this cover aitsched, to the Diploma Programme coordinator. Name of supervisor (CAPITAL letters) Please comment, as appropriate, on the candidate's performance, the context in which the candidate undertook the research for the extended essay, any difficulties encountered and how these were overcome (see page 13 of the extended essay guide). The concluding interview (viva voce) may provide useful information. These comments can help the examiner award a level for criterion E (engagement). Do not comment on any adverse personal circumstances that may have affected the candidate. if the amount of time spent with the candidate was zero, you must explain this, in particular how it was then possible to authenticate the essay as the candidate's own work. You may attach an additional sheet if there is insufficient space here. This dectaration must be signed by the supervisor, otherwise a grade may not be issued. | have read the final version of the extended essay that will be submitted to the examiner. To the best of my knowledge, the extended essay is the authentic work of the candidate Ispent | 4 _ | hours with the candidate discussing the progress of the extended essay. ‘Supervisor's signature:International Baccalaureate Mathematics Extended Essay Application of Generating Functions to Counting Session: May 2014 Word Count: 4000Table of Contents Introduction What are Generating Functions? Operations on Generating Functions. Scalin Addition... Application of Generating Functions to Counting. Simple Combinations. Counting with Repetition... Counting with Repetition and Given Conditions... Counting Problems that Resemble a Recursion Relation... Reflection on Limitations. Conclusion Bibliography.. Page 3 of 25Introduction Generating function is “the most useful but most difficult to understand method" (for counting)", stated Richard P. Stanley. His words summarise and outline the significance of generating functions- although complex algebraic manipulation and calculation are often involved, generating functions actually allow counting problems to be illustrated and solved using straightforward operations. While counting problems are commonly tackled by Combination and Permutation, it becomes increasingly difficult to approach the problems as the nature of the problem becomes more complicated. For example, with given conditions and restrictions, the situations illustrated by the problems become abstract and this makes it difficult to visualise the situation and derive appropriate expressions for the possible combinations. Thus, this provoked me to research and explore a more powerful method of solving counting problems the use of generating functions. Hence my research question is: How can Generating Functions be used to solve counting problems and what kind of problems are best treated by this method? In general, generating functions transform problems about sequences into problems about functions. This is useful because there are numerous established mathematical methods that can be used to manipulate functions. Thus, by using generating functions to express counting problems, they become simpler as straightforward mathematical operations can now be applied. What are Generating Functions? Generating functions are generally defined such that the ordinary generating function for the infinite sequence fa, y, 42,3 ..} is the power series: G(x) = ap + ax + agx? + agxd + For example, here are some sequences and their generating functions: (0,0,0,0,...} 0 + Ox + Ox? + 0x3 + =02 * Stanley, R.P,, 2011. Enumerative Combinatorics, Volume 2. 2nd ed. Unknown: Cambridge University Press. ? Meyer, A.R, 2005. Generating Functions. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Caurse Nates, [Online] Week 11, 1. Available at: http://eourses G(x) * Meyer, A. 2005. Generating Functions. Massachusetts institute of Technology Course Notes, [Online]. Week 11, 1. Available at: http://courses.csail.mit.edu/6,042/fall05/In11.pdf [Accessed 12 November 2013). “Meyer, A.R., 2005. Generating Functions. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Course Notes, [Online]. Week 11, 1. Available at: http://courses.csail.mit. edu/6.042/fall05/In12.pdf [Accessed 12 November 2023]. Page 5 of 25The idea behind this rule is: {atp, dy, 2; 3} COg +0, x + CaQx* +--+ = C+ (dg +ayx + a,x? ++) = cG(x) Addition The sum of two generating functions will equate to the sum derived by adding the two sequences term by term, Rulle 2: If {a , ay, 2,03 ...} © G(x) and {bp by, bay ba.) & F(x), then G(x) + F(x) = (a + bos ay + By, 2 + Bz dy + b3 } The idea behind this rule is: {ag + bo, ay + by, a2 +b, 36 YC +b)" tt = G(x) + FQ) Application of Generating Functions to Counting ‘One of the most useful applications of generating functions is that, in many cases, the description of a counting problem can be translated into a generating function. Thus, the original problem is transformed into a problem regarding functions and hence can be tackled by purely mathematical operations rather than visualisation of the abstract and ‘complicated conditions to form the possible combinations. Simple Combinations The simplest type of counting problem involves working out the possible combinations of 2 certain number of objects from a given group of abjects Page 6 of 25For example: Problem: How many ways can a team of 5 be selected from a group of 8 soccer players? Because this is a very simple counting problem, it is commonly approached by using the concept of binomial coefficients® such that (,) generates the number of ways k objects can be selected from n objects. In this case, the number of possible combinations is (8). This idea can also be explained through the concept of generating functions, which builds the fundamental understanding of generating functions that can later be used to solve more complicated problems. The link between binomial coefficients and choosing distinct items from a set The coefficients of a binomial expansion can be represented by the following sequence: ():G)-@)-G) Since a sequence has been identified, 2 generating function for the sequence can thus be derived: (5)-(2)+) men) (6) + G) = +) 22 ++ GE)” As evident, the derived generation function directly parallels the Binomial Theorem’ and hence can be simplified to the expression (x + 1)". has a We can state that somewhere in, the expansion there will be a term x* such that coefficient of (7), which by definition represents the number of ways kitems can be n chosen from a set of size n. For example, the coefficient of the term x7 is ()), the number of ways to select 2 items froma set of n items. * A family of positive integers that correspond to the coefficients in the binomial theorem (see footnote 3) “A theorem in elementary algebra that describes the algebraic expansion of powers of a binomial (a +b)” Page 7 of 25Thus, it can be generalised that: If we are determining the number of ways k items can be selected from a set of n elements, we must find the coefficient of the term x* in the expansion of (x + 1)”. It is also interesting that in the expansion of (x + 1)”, the term x"*1 is non-existent and hence can be seen to have a coefficient of zero. This conforms to the idea that there are zero ways to select 1 + 1 items out of a total of only n items. Constructing a generating function that counts From the previous working, it was shown that the function (x + 1)" generates the possible ways to select kitems out of a n-element set. The logic behind this can be explained without even referring to the concept of binomial coefficients. For example, consider the single-element set (a, } such that there is only one item that can be selected, The generating function for the number of ways to select k elements from this set would be 1 + x: there is 1 way to select zero elements, 1 way to select one element and 0 ways to select more than one element. Similarly, the number of ways to select k elements from the single-element set {a2} can also be generated by the function 1 + x Most counting problems require a combination of items from different sets rather than simply counting the number of ways items can be selected from one set only, This leads to the principle stating that: The generating function for choosing elements from a union of disjoint sets is the product of the generating functions for choosing from each set.” This concept can be shown by the previous example of the two single-element sets {a,} and {az}. According to the principle, the generating function for the possible ways to select n elements out of the set {a;, a2} should be the product of the generating functions of {a;) and {a}: ? Meyer, AR, 2005. Generating Functions. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Course Notes, (Online) Week 11, 1, Available at: http://courses.csall mit.edu/6.042/fall0S/In11.puf (Accessed 12 November 2013}. Page of 25(+1) @F1) = 41)? =14 2x +2? epee oe Generating Generating Generating function function function for for{a,} for {az} {a,,a2} Examining this generating function, we find that it conforms to the situation presented by the problem as, for the set {a,, a), there is 1 way to select zero elements, 2 ways to select one element, 1 way to select two elements and 0 ways to select more than two elements. Repeated application of this rule will result in a generating function for the general case of selecting k objects out of a total of n objects: @+D-@4+ - @4+1)=(@4+1)" nye y ify S95 Generating Generating Generating Generating function function function. function for for {a} for{a,} for {aq} {ay,a2,-~ dg} As evident, this comes to the same result as the approach with binomial expansion earlier, but this time the conclusion has been reached by purely using generating functions, So generating functions can clearly be used to solve combinatoric problems with no repetition. I next look at problems with repetition and the advantages of generating functions becomes apparent, this begins to help me see the scope of the answer to my research question. Counting With Repetition The concept of counting with repetition is simply the calculation of the possible selections of a certain number of different types of objects when more objects are selected than the available types of objects. In other words, k objects must be selected out of m types of objects and k =m. For example: Problem: There are 5 types of fruits- apples, bananas, lemons, oranges, and grapes- and there are 8 of each type. How many ways can a fruit salad be made, if the salad uses 8 items of fruits? In this case, there a selection of 8 items must be made but there are only 5 different types of items. Thus, this derives a situation where a repetition in choice must be made. Page 9 of 25Initial approach Without the knowledge of generating functions and using purely the concepts of combination, | had always solved this type of problem with the approach that the combination of 8 items from 5 types of fruits can be visualised as splitting the 8 items into 5 groups - therefore, 4 “sticks” are required. This can be illustrated as: OO|O/ODO/O|O where each of the groups separated by the “sticks” can be considered as a different type of fruit. Thus, in the above diagram there isa total of 12 objects and the problem derives to finding out in how many way the 4 “sticks” can be arranged. According to the theory of 12 combination, this possible combinations would be (y )). which equals to 495, Using generating function to approach the problem Suppose the 5 types of fruits are a, b,c,d and e. Given that there are 8 of each fruit, and that there is only one way to select any number of fruits as they are considered identical, the generating function for each fruit would be: Go) = Lt xt x24 x8 te tx8 According to the rule stated before, the overall generating function for the problem would be the product of the 5 individual generating functions: Gx) = (14x t xP t x8 tt x88 To solve the problem, we must find the coefficient of the term x* and hence we would now want to simplify this generating function. In order to make the simplification easier, we can express the power series of G(x) as an infinite series- 1+x+ x? + x8 +--+ 284294 - which does not affect the solving of the problem since we can still only focus on and calculate the coefficient of the term x®. Page 10 of 25Evidently, this infinite power series resembles an finite geometric progression, with initial term 1 and common ratio x, and hence the sum to infinity can be represented as: Ltxt xt t xt tet text Thus, Finding coefficients using Taylor’s Theorem In calculus, Taylor’s theorem® gives approximations about a k-times differentiable function®. This becomes a really useful method to calculate coefficients in generating functions. Consider any arbitrary generating function: FX) = dg + ayx + azx* + ayx3 + Where {ao, 2, @2, a3 ..} are the coefficients that we would like to determine the values of. Since all terms after dy are dependent of x, therefore by calculating (0), the value of ag will be determined as all other terms will be eliminated. Differentiating this function, we get: f' (x) = ay + 2agx + 3agx? + --- Evidently, in this case we must find f"(0)to determine the value of the coefficient ay. Differentiating this function again, we get: FG) = 2a + 6agx+- * a theorem devised by Taylor in 1712 and published in 1715 th by a Taylor's theory such that: F(x) = f(0) + x/"(O) +--+ ¢ states thaf any function may be represented #™(0) oi * wikipedia, 2013, Taylor's theorem- Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. [ONLINE] Available at:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor’s theorem. [Accessed 12 November 13] Page 11 of 25Thus the value of a can be determined as: f'@) a= 2 f we continue to differentiate like this to determine other coefficients, we come to the general formula: F(0) a The factorial in the denominator is due to the fact that as we differentiate each time, we are multiplying by the exponent number which decreases by 1 by each degree of differentiation, thus equating to the factorial of n. In order to determine a,,, we must divide by this number. Solution ta the problem As discussed before, the coefficient of x® must be determined to derive a solution to the problem. Thus the above formula can be used: (0) eal Calculations: 5 G(x) =5(1—x)* G"(x) = 6x 5—x)7 G(x) =7 x 6x 5(1—x)* We can observe the pattern that, in order to determine the next derivative, we must decrease the exponent by one and multiply by the number one less than the absolute value of the exponent. Page 12 of 25Thus, GOO) =12 x 11x 10x9x8x7x6x5(1—0)-3 = 19958400 19958400 a, =——— = 8! Solution: there are 495 ways to make a fruit salad using the 5 different fruits given. Evidently, we have come to the same answer as when solving the problem using the initial method of calculating (Fy So | know see that generating functions allow me to solve any problem of the type: Given a supply of k different onjects, in how many ways can n objects be chosen, when n>k. The above example had k=5 and n=8. | will now look at another type of problem to extend my research further. Counting with Repetition and Given Conditions Modifying the previous example of selecting fruits, the following problem represents the common case where restrictions are given while selecting items: Problem: There are 5 types of fruits- apples, bananas, lemons, oranges, and grapes- and there are 8 of each type. How many ways can a fruit salad be made using 8 items of fruits if © atleast two apples and * ot/east 3 bananas must be used? Initially looking at this problem, it may seem complicated due to the need to consider the given conditions. However, it can be easily solved using generating functions. Manipulating the generating function to suit the given conditions 1 Originally, the generating function for possible selections of each fruit was (2 ), so the overall generating function of the problem was the product of the five individual generating functions. Now that there are given conditions, we must reconsider the generating function for the selection of each fruit. Page 13 of 25Again, suppose the 5 types of fruits are a,b,c, d and e, where a represents apples and b represents bananas. ‘The given conditions state that the minimum number selected for fruit ais two and for fruit bisthree, Thus, for fruit a, the generating function can only start at the term x? since the exponent represents the number selected and in this case cannot be less than 2. The generating function then becomes: Gala) = x24 x84 txt Ee Taking out the factor x, we have: Ga (x)= x24 x+ x2 + x8 $e x8 $294) = — et This resembles the original generating function 2s #() Using the same idea, the generating function for fruit b can only start at the term x3 and by similar opera ns this will result in the generating function: For the other fruits c, d and e, their generating function remain as the original function: Go) =7— Thus, the overall generating function can be expressed as the product: G(x) =x? Page 14 of 25,To solve the problem, we must find the coefficient of the term x8. in the above equat A, due to the presence of the termx®, we have to find only the coefficient of x in the expansion of 5 +.) in order to determine the coefficient of x* in the overall expansion. Iz, By the previously proven formulae, dO) a= fF) =7x6x 5-0)? 7x5 x6 Le 3 = 35 Solution: there are 35 ways to make a fruit salad using 8 fruits given that there are at least 2 apples and’§ bananas used. And to extend my research further, another interesting manipulation of the problem is: Problem: There are 5 types of fruits- apples, bananas, lemons, oranges, and grapes- and there are 8 of each type. How many ways can a fruit salad be made using 8 items of fruits if the number of apples used must be even? Manipulating the generating function to suit the given conditions Once again, suppose that the S types of fruits are a, b,c, d and e, where a represents apples. The generating function for fruit a can only contain terms with even exponents and thus becomes: Gy (x) = Lt x2 + xt poet x84 x04. Calculating the sum to infinity of this geometric progression with initial term 1 common ratio x*, we get: G(x) = Page 5 of 25< it ~ Gx) +x) -“FIG) For the four other fruits, the generating functions remain the same as Te The overall generating function can then be determined by the product of the five individual generating functions: G(x) We can see this represents the sum to infinity of geometric progression with initial term 1 and common ratio —x 1 aa lax tg xta txts ex§ T+x which derives the set of coefficients {1, xT x8 4 1,1,-1,1,-1...} To solve the problem, we must determine the coefficient of the term x* in the overall generating function. 5 Suppose the expansion of (=*-) generates the coefficients (4p a1, 42,03 ~.q..J, the coefficient of x® in the overall generating function for the problem would be: Ag = 1X ag + (-1) X a7 +1X ag + (-1) Kast 1X ag +--+ 1X ae Calculation: From previous proven formulae, 12K 11x10 X9xBX7xX6x5(1— 0)" 8! a 495 _ 11X10 x9 x8x7x6 x 5(1— 0)? a; = a = 330 Page 16 of 25,oO 10x9X8X7xX6x SCL = = 210 fs él 9x8x7x6x5(1—0)-20_ a 26 8x7 6x 5(1 0) a,= = 70 7x 6x5(1—0)8 ag =F = 35 6x 5(1- 0)” y= 15 a, =5(1-0)8=5 And a Therefore, Ag = 495 — 330 + 210 — 126 + 70-35 +15—5 +1 = 295 Solution: There ore 295 to make a fruit salad using eight fruits from the given five types of fruit, given that the number of apples used it even. Counting Problems that Resemble a Recursion Relation Consider the following counting problem: Problem: How many ways can a 2x n rectangle be covered with 2 x 1 dominoes without any overlaps? ”° Because dominoes are identical 2 x 1 rectangles, therefore in solving this problem, we need to only consider only the direction of the dominoes- vertical or horizontal. Upon first encounter, this problem may seem too abstratt to give a definite solution However, if a sequence can be generated to represent this problem, then it can be solved using generating functions. This was the premise at the start of my research - the coefficients of the generating function are just the terms of the sequence, so if | can find a sequence to solve this problem (or any problem!), | can find a generating function » EtoneWiki, 2010. Combinatorics (Fall 2020)/Generating functions - EtoneWiki. [ONLINE] Available athtp://tes nju.edu.cn/wiki/indexphp/Combinatorics %28Fall 2010%29/Generating functions, [Accessed 12 November 13}. Page 17 of 25Proof of how the problem resembles the Fibonacci sequence The following diagram illustrates the situation presented in the problem: Let aj, be the number of ways dominoes can be arranged in a 2 x k rectangle. Hence, the number of ways dominoes can be arranged in the above rectangle is a,,. Then, placing a first domino into the above rectangle will result in the following two situations: Either vertically placed, n-1 where we are left with a2 (m—1) rectangle and thus the number of ways dominoes can be arranged now becomes a.-1- or horizontally placed, where we are left with a2x (n~2) rectangle (since the area under the first domino can only be filled with a horizontally placed domino too) and thus the number of ways dominoes can be arranged is an.2. Page 18 of 25The original problem was split into two situations and thus the overall number of ways, dn, can be determined by adding the results of the two separate situations: Oy = Oat + n-2 This evidently resembles the Fibonacci sequence. Finding the generating function for the Fibonacci sequence The Fibonacci sequence{a, @, a2, a3 ...} can be expressed as: dg a,=1 wheren>2 (Gy = ny + Opn—2 Taking the equation ay, = dq. + dq—z and multiplying it by x", we get: Oy X” = AyugX” + Ay_gx™ Given that n = 2, we can derive the following infinite sum series: We can see that the left hand side of the equation almost resembles the generating function of the sequence as it expands to ajx” + a,x? +-~. However, we are trying to determine the generating function of the entire sequence and therefore must include the terms when n= (and whenn = 1, i.e. ayx°+a,x7, which equates to 1+ x. By adding these two terms, we get: irae yaarree Shean fe noe nt te 1+x+ ax?+-- Taking out x, we get: Taking out x”, we get: This resembles the overall generating function of the sequence, G(x) ag Ss ty_px”? =x(ayxt agx?+ =x*(ag + a,x + agx? + =x@@)-1) =x?6(x) Page 19 of 25Thus, we get: G(x) =x(G@&)-1D +x76@)+1+x = x(Gx) —x+x7G(x)+14+x GO) a +x?) 41 G@)Q-x-x7)=1 = G(x) Solving the problem by finding the formula for the general term Since the problem asks for the solution at any given value m, the general formula for the sequence must be found so that the value of any a, in the Fibonacci sequence can be found By definition, the value of a, equals the coefficient of x” in the generating function We will now attempt to determine a general formula for the generating function of the sequence and hence determine the coefficient of x”. Let the roots of the quadratic equation 1 — x — x? = Obe aand 8 The idea of partial fractions can then be employed, such that: 1 A B 1-x-x® a-x x-B Where A(x — 8) +B(a—x) =1 Hence, when x = and when x = B Page 20 of 25Thus, we get: This is equivalent to the This is equivalent to the generating function of generating function of the sequence the sequence 12 x 1 ae yg BF in which the coefficient — in which the coefficient i of tise of xis Therefore the coefficient of x” in the general formula is: 1 1 1 1 a@(a—B)” a" Bla—B)” Br ay, The values of a and # can be determined by calculating the roots to the quadratic equation NS ap or vice versa and B = We can now substitute these values into the previous equation for a, and get: «-al(S") (9) Although this formula may seem very complex and it may not even obvious that the value will be an integer, it is, however, very useful as it provides a much more efficient way to compute Fibonacci numbers by the repeated squaring instead of working through the recurrence. Also, it clearly reveals the exponential growth of the numbers in the Fibonacci sequence. Hence, once again, generating functions have proven to be a powerful method Page 21 of 25that can be used to tackle counting problems and, in this case, one that resembles a complex sequence. Solution: The number of ways a 2 x n rectangle be covered with 2 x 1 dominoes without ‘any overlaps is given by dz for any positive integer n such that: = Ba : oes 1 [Renal AERA e 2 Reflection on Limitations Generating function is such a useful and powerful method of solving counting problems that, generally, all counting problems can be approached using generating functions to represent the situations illustrated by the problem. However, although solutions can always be reached, there are nevertheless some minor flaws in the process of deriving such solution by the method of generating functions. One evident flaw is the need to calculate coefficients of terms in long and complex expansions As the power of the term increases, using Taylor’s theorem to determine the coefficient may become a lengthy process. Furthermore, as evident in problems of counting with given conditions, when the overall generating function of the problem is the product of individual expansions, then a term with a specific power can be the result of various products of terms from the individual expansions, end thus the coefficient of every term in all the expansions must be determined. This results in a very lengthy and time consuming process. For example, had the problem regarding counting with restrictions earlier in the essay dealt with rather large numbers, such as: Problem: There are 100 types of fruits- apples, bananas, lemons, oranges, and grapes- and there are 120 of each type. How many ways can a fruit salad be made using 120 items of fruits if the number of apples used must be even? Following the previous working but adjusting to the new values given, the generating function of the problems becomes: c= (ANl fl Page 22 of 25Evidently, the large number of items given in the problem means that we are determining the coefficient of a term with a high power, in this case, the coefficient of the term x10, Thus, the calculation of the co-efficient becomes a very lengthy process as we must 7 r 7 1100 determine every coefficient, from dy to ay29 in the expansion of (.) in order to determine the overall coefficient, A320. Conclusion The generating function of a sequence can be defined as a specific power series with coefficients matching the terms in that sequence, and it is this very nature of generating function that allows it to be conveniently applied to solving counting problems. In simple combination problems, by identifying binomial coefficients as a sequence and thus determining its generating function, it was shown that determining the number of ways k items can be selected from a set of n elements correlates to the coefficient of the term x* in the expansion of (x + 1)". Based on this nature of generating functions, counting problems with restrictions, which are usually difficult to tackle, were easily solved as generating functions allowed straightforward illustrations of the conditions. The possible selections could be directly represented as the exponents in the power series that the generating function derived and thus, again, the problem could be solved by determining the coefficient of a specific term. The detailed working to obtain the solutions of counting problems in this essay has exemplified the usefulness of generating functions in presenting abstract problems as straightforward function expressions. Counting problems are transformed so that we are dealing purely with determining coefficients in an expansion, on which many established effective methods can be applied and so allows the problem to be easily approached. For a given sequence, the corresponding generating function is usually an infinite polynomial. However, if the sequence resembles a recurrence relation, such as the Fibonacci sequence, then this infinite polynomial can be reduced to a finite one” and thus a closed ™ Mathematical Database, Unknown, 2012, Generating Functions. Unknown, [Online]. Unknown, 12. Available at: http://www. math. re/notes_download/elementary/algebra/ae_All.pdf (Accessed 12 November 2013). Page 23 of 25form that represents the general term of the sequence can be determined. Consequently, the coefficient of a general term, which is the solution to the counting problem that resembled the recurrence relation, can be found, Counting problems are a familiar-tvpe of protlem encountered so often in the classroom and is directly related to the real world- we are constantly making combinations of objects for various reasons in our everyday life. Therefore, being able to effectively determine the number of possible combinations through a purely mathematical method Is indeed important as it allows complex sit jations to be simplified into problems that can be easily ‘approached by mathematical operations. Page 24 of 25Bibliography Books: Stanley, R. P,, 2011. Enumerative Combinatorics, Volume 1. 2nd ed. Unknown: ‘Cambridge University Press. Articles: Mathematical Database, Unknown, 2012. Generating Functions. Unknown, [Online]. Unknown, 12. Available at: http://www.mathdb.org/notes_download/elementary/algebra/ae_A11.pdf [Accessed 12 November 2013}. Meyer, A.R., 2005. Generating Functions. Massachusetts institute of Technology Course Notes, [Online]. Week 11, 1, Available at: htto://courses.csail.mit.edu/6.042/fall0S/In11.pdf [Accessed 12 November 2013). Unknown, Unknown, 2006. Notes on Generating Functions, Stat 703, [Online]. Spring 2006, 1-14. Available at: http://www stat.cmu.edu/~genovese/class/iprob- $06/notes/generating-functions.pdf [Accessed 12 November 2013]. Websites: EtoneWiki. 2010, Combinatorics (Fall 2010)/Generating functions - EtoneWiki [ONLINE] Available at: htto://tcs.nju.edu.cn/wiki/index.php/Combinatorics %28Fall_2010%29/Generating functions, [Accessed 12 November 13]. Wikipedia. 2013. Taylor's theorem- Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. [ONLINE] Available at:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor’s theorem. [Accessed 12 November 13). Page 25 of 25