Mechanics of Materials

PE FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING EXAMINATION — CIVIL ENGINEERING (CE 101 Mechanics of Materials (1/2) ¢ Mechanics of Materials Stenath, stiiness and deformabily; Stress-strain relation dactty and britle fracture; time-dependent properties; creep, creep rupture; relaxation; cyclic load behaviour. ‘= Concrete Technology Conerete-making materials, properties of fresh and hardened concrete, ‘mixing, placing, and curing, mix design, destructive and non-cestructive fests, quality control, durability, and special concrete + Stool Basic metallurgy, mechanical properties and applications, wekling technology and corrosion, For furthor reading: ‘The Science and Technology of Givi Engineering Materials, JF Young, $ Mindess, RJ Gray and A Bentur, Prentice-Hall International, 1998 Contact: Dr Tam Chat Tim, e-mail: coetamct@nus.edu.sq, Tel: 6516 6204 PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 :.Mechanics of Materials a + Strength of a solid refers to its fracture (cohesive) strength, ofis given a n= (Elf Modulus of elasticity, (GPa) Equilibrium surface energy, (J.m-2) = Equilibrium atomic spacing (at Uni) Attractive and repulsive forces present simultaneously land at interparticle distance, r, stable at minimum eneray -U, ‘suche Sinn nd ae Cn Eagar JF Young, Stands RJ Giny and, Pest atPE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 10 lechanics of Materials ” * Griffith Theory Based on thermodynamic considerations, for an elastic bocy containing a crack and subjected to extemal loads 4= (2Ey,/n0)" whore C ='one-haif of erack length ‘Theoretically, oy = E/10 but due to flaws (micro-cracks or defects) giving rise to stress concentration resulting highly localised regions reaching the theoretical fracture strength. Measured values 2 or 3 orders lower, ¢.g. Stevi: E = 200 GPs, UTS = 500 MPa; Concrete: E = 20 to 40 GPa, Compressive strength = 20 to 60 MPa; Tonsile strength = 2 to 6 MPa Griffith Theory: ‘dealized elliptical hole adoptod for stress concentration model Son The Ste se Teh ei Ener oa, Yor, Md, RG a AB, rns at PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 : Mechanics of Materials ” * Stiffness is related to deformation under loads, i loponds on E $ Deformability refers to extent of strain before fracture: elastic + plastic © Stress-strain relationship may be linear or non-linear (may be elastic but not necessarily follow same path for loading and unloading, e.g. rubber) * Elastic deformation is fully recovered upon release of load Linear elastic materials described by Hooke's Law: o=E-e (constant stiffness) . where E= modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus) | // a= stress = strain E ‘+ Most materials show a linear or nearly linear stress-strain relationship ‘over a small range of strains and become non-linear at larger strains,PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 : Mechanics of Matorials = Stress-strain relationship may be linear ‘or non-linear For non-linear behaviour, different types ‘of modulus of elasticity are used to characterize the stress-strain behaviour Strain energy por unit volume = area undor stress-strain curve If unloading does not return by the loading path, hysteresis loop formed indicating energy not recovered ‘Suche Sec as Tenens Mtr, F Young, § Missy a AB, Prat PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 : Mechanics of Materials a Elastic behaviour under axial tension, axial tensile stress, 0,: = PIA, = axial load ‘A, = original cross-sectional area, Axial strain, ¢,= 5/2, where §= elongation per unit length ¢, = original length Tee sass aicouon for meal sae pineal tala Een oo does, wer, obs dipenaem where needa § oer change In addition, contraction in directions perpendicular to axial direct Poisson's ratio, v=~s//e,=— s/c, (v ranges from ~ 0.46 for wood to 0.60 for rubber, ~ 0.33 for metals, and ~ 0.16 for concrete) For low level of strain, unit volume change is approximately: (V,-VelVe = 6:4 = 20) unit change in area: (A, ~A,V/A,= (1 ~ 2ve,) Volume (area) reduced under axial tension and increased for compressionPE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 : Mechanics of Materials “ Elastic behaviour may be followed by either fracture or yielding (plastic deformation) and r case, material does not return to or upon unloading. Brittle fracture occurs with (low) limited amount of strain at failure, and, insignificant amount of yielding. Defects in solids are randomly distributed in size, orientation and space. This leads to size effect in terms of fracture strongth — defects of greater severity more likely in larger specimens, hence lower fracture strength. Statistical distribution of fracture strengths (variability of test rasults), 0.9, concrete Yielding or plastic deformation results in permanent deformation which is not fully recovered upon unloading (partly irrecoverable), e.g, steel Ductility is indicated by largo oxtent of strain before fracture and shows strain hardening, elastic recovery (unloading before fracture), permanent set and hysteresis loop ‘Toughness is the overall capacity of a material to absorb energy before fracture (total area under true stressitrue strain curve) PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 : Mechanics of Materials o Ductile — Brittle Transition ‘* Behaviour of material - ductile or brittle depends on: its atomic or molecular structures, and the service conditions * Atomic structure, at least qualitatively, in terms tensile strength, o, and shear strength, x, of interatomic bonds Ata crack tip, if oft > oylty If oft < Gylty + yielding (ductile failure) + Service conditions: ‘Temperature - yield stress decreases with increasing tomporaturo more than fracture stress (favours ductile f Rate of loading - yield stress increases with increasi more than fracture stress (favours brittle failure) lity ~ yield stress increases with markedly with increase in triaxiality; fracture stress relative unaffected (favours brittle fracture) Degree of triaxi * Fracture energy : ductile materials require more energy for fracturePE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 : Mechanics of Materials 2 ‘Time-dependent properties in all solid materials includ creep (due to sustained loading) shrinkage (due to drying) structural changes due to chemical effects (e.g. cement hydration, ‘weathering of rocks, alkali-silica reaction in glass) + Three types of creep behaviour for all materials clepending on stress level and temperature Throo stagos of strain-time curve: Primary stage — transient creep Secondary stage — steady state (constant creep rate, é) Tertiary stage leading to creep fracture + Creep becomes significant at ~ 1/3 strength or transition temperature and critical above ~ 1/2 strength or transition temperature (transition temperature, T, below which polymers are amorphous and more brittle - ductile to brittle transition. e.g. glass and polymers) PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 : Mechanies of Materials ” i sei Siteresteonsiione 2) eae eter oft so I aPE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 : Mechanics of Materials = ‘¢ Creep : increase in strain with time under constant load (strictly, stress is not constant due to change in section under load) In metals, main creep mechanism is movement of dislocations ~ line defects (imperfects in crystal lattice in which a line of atoms becomes mismatched with their surroundings) In concrete, croep is due to movement of gel water under load. This imposes additional stress on the gel solids. The rate depends on the diffusion characteristics of the pore structure (materials property) as well as the driving force (applied load). Diffusion is also a thermally activated process, hence temperature dopondent. It is also increased by exposure to drying condition. Simultaneous loading and drying tends to result in combined strain higher than simple addition of the two processes ‘¢ Relaxation: reduction in stress with time under constant strain, e.g. tendons in prestressed concrete (loss of prestress in addition to that due to creep of concrete) PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 : Mechanics of Materials a Fatigue Failure ‘* Failure due to repeated application of loads that are less than that for a single application (monotonically increasing or sustained loads) ‘Fatigue failure can be due to repetition of a particular loading cycle or from a random variation in applied load © Two stages in fatigue failure: Crack initiation at a point of high stress concentration Crack propagation through the material * Stress concentration occurs at pre-existing flaw in a material or sharp change in size or shape, e.g. root of a thread, bolt holes, interface of ombedded particles with matrix. material {aggregate/cement paste in concrete) © Fatigue cracks propagate under shear or tensile loading (not under compressive loading)PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 : Mechanics of Materials im += amplitude ratio™ a, fatigue limit, or endurance limit jumber of loading cycles to failure fora particular Toading | PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 : Mechanics of Materials ” FACTORS AFFECTING FATIGUE + Type of stress: mean stress may be +ve, -ve or zero, stress amplitude has highest influence on fatigue strength + Mean stress: increasing mean stress for a gi direction lowers fatigue lite ing mean stress for a fixed maximum stress leads to larger fatigue life (minimum stress at lower tensile stress) + Froquoncy of loading: for stresses within elastic range effect is small except at very high cycling rates (> 1000 cps) + Stross history: ‘cumulative damage concept - lower stress amplitude to falure + Stress concentration: significant effect in reducing fatigue life (surface finish, notches) n stress amplitude towerds tensionPE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Stee! a ‘STRUCTURAL STEEL * Civil engineer usage of steel — structural sections, plates, reinforcement bars, prestressing tendons and other non-structural applications, e.g. roofing * Mechanical properties depend on manufacturing process (rolling at high temperatures), extent of deformation (strained), rate of cooling after rolling, chemical composition and heat treatment © Steel ~ alloy of iron and carbon with other alloying elements, typically for structural steels less than 0.30% carbon, is added to increase steel strength with reduction i {elongation before failure) © Iron ~ iron carbide equi i region below 727°C and below 0.80% carbon (eutectoid point) of special interest in civil engineering practice ‘* For slow cooling, final microstructure consists of ferrite (a, FCC) and poarite (thin lamellae, or plates, of o-forrito and ion carbide, Fe,c) * Rapid cooling (quenching) results in formation of martensite (hard and brittle) — low temperature heat treatment (tempering) to transform structure back to ferrite and iron carbide. PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Steel i ‘+ Mechanical properties: Steels generally show less variability in properties compared to other construction materials, e.g. concrete, both within specimen and between specimens as reflected in partial safety factor for ‘material adopted in design (steel ~ 1.15 vs concrete ~ 1.5) Charactoristics of stress-strain curve for structural steel: Linear elastic initial stage up to proportional limit (A) Slope of line ~ elastic modulus Yield point — plastic or permanent deformation begins (3) stress — normal de: it (together with safety ‘actor) Mild steel may show upper and lower yield stress Without distinct yield point ~ stress at specified off-set strain (C) Uniform plastic deformation — cross-section area decreasing Yielding requiring increase in stross ~ strain hardening ‘Maximum nominal stress — ultimate strength (D) [true stress] Localized plastic deformation - necking [increasing true stress] Failure fracture [nominal stress reduced, not true stress] (E)PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Steet % fotal elongation at maximum force, A. Tens (fv nominal cross Gauge length for Ay = 5x nominal dia Jauomafatgiongation at failure 5.6544, (A, = original area) | C ° True stress = ForealA ‘xa Upper yield strength, Ray Engineering stress = Force, Plain carbon stools ‘srtar have a double yield point q ‘Sue: Te Scns nT fC Egan tr JF Yor, § Mee Gyan et, Pet PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Stool COMPOSITION ‘© Steel is an alloy of iron (Fe) and carbon (C) Max. C content in steel: 2% Structural steels normally contain < 0.3% C Plain carbon steel : C & Mn content are restricted; other elements are not included Low-alloy steels: C content is restricted; other elements Ni, Cr, Mo; total addition < 8% + Carbon is one of the most important element in steel Affects composition, microstructure, and mechanical properties $8 660: 2016, 7.1 Chemical composition Cyq = C+ Mni6 + (Cr+ Mo + V)S + (Ni+ Cups (Mn = manganese, Cr = chromium, Mo = molybdenum, V = vanadium. Ni= nickel, Cu = copper)PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Stool 5 Bcc Te 2 www eam Foc NOTE: Details for information ONLY — NOT part of Examination content Sec Th Sn hol Ege ate ag, Sens. RI Gy Ae Pei PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Stool Ez Features inthe steo! phase diagram + The maximum solubilly of carbon: austenite (7)= 2.0%, ola iron (@) = 0.10% foie (a) = 0.025% + These soll solutions are relatively soft and dductil, but stronger than pure fron due Solid solution strengthening by the interstitial carbon atoms + Comentito (Fe,c) ’a stoichiometric inter -metalle compound formed when the solvbilty ef earbon in solid iron fs oxcoeded contains 6.7% C, extremely hard and brite and present inal steels, + Properties of steel are controlled by amount, size, and shape of Fe,C phase which ean be adjusted by heat treatment beside carbon Content NOTE: Details for information ONLY ~ NOT part of Examination content ‘suscs The Sona an eof Cl rani ars, Yorn, Mad, RI ry sda Ba PretePE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Steel Features in the steel phase diagram ‘Iron goes through two allotropic transformations during heating or cooling = on continued cooling from a liquid melt, first forms a body-centered cubic | (CC) structure = deta iron (6) ~ then a face-centered cubic (FCC) structure = austenite (7), ~ and finelly another BCC structure = ferrite (a) « Allotropy — changes in crystal structure without a change in composition ‘All three allotropic forms of iron have Interstitial solid solutions with carbon, (carbon atoms between iron atoms) identified as delta iron (8), austenite (7), and ferrite (a) respectively ‘+ A greater number of C atoms can be accommodated in the austenite than in the other two phases, since the interstitial spaces in the FCC lattice are ‘somowhat larger than those in the BCC lattices PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Steot! information ONLY — NOT part of Examination content ‘Seon The Ssnce Tent ngewe Nara Yor, Sandee Ry asa, PtPE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Stoo! ei ‘+ Strengthening Mechanisms: increase strength with reduced ductility (2) introduce interstitial and substitutional atoms (alloying) (b) formation of addtional grain boundaries (heat treatment, {(c) generation and concentration of dislocations (strain hardening) Strain hardening (cold work) effect removed at high temperatures (eg. welding) Alloying and heat troatment combined to produce desired mechanical properties For example, weldabilty: capacity of a metal to be joined satisfactorly by welding decreases as carbon and alloy content of steel (embrittlement) Carbon equivalent (C,,) = 6 + (H5}%tOn + (15}(%Cr + Seo + KV) + (HEIKCU + NI ‘50.25% for heavy sections without controlled cooling of wold * During welding, temperature varies from fusion temperature at weld to room temperature away from weld with heat-affected-zone (HAZ) * Microstructural changes in HAZ may result in deterioration of mechanical properties depending on: (a) composition of parent metal, (b) original condition (grain size, stress history) (c) cooling rate after welding (weldability) PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Stee! a Hoat treatment is not normally carried ut for structural steo! but during welding the molten stoo! cool at ambient tomporature and goes through the path of a continuous cooling transformation curve. Special precautions are needed for ‘welding very thick plates (making of plate girders) ‘ace Te Sete a Tool fC Eee neal JF Yous, SHndes RJ Gay aA eta Pn iaPE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Steel Weldability of Stee! « In the welding process: ~ part of the parent metal of each piece being joined is heated to high ‘temperature, and solidified to form a joint = metal nearest the weld heats above 727°C and austenite y forms. = during cooling, the austenite yin the heat affected zone transforms to a now structure, depending on the cooling rate, composition, and properties of the metal Plain low C steel Sass GS Alloy steel = ‘lene aoe = Buteeet eae ero aa Foy ie Sue, ‘Sen The Scud Teton ti Egret, J Yor, Cine RyPE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Stee! i APPLICATIONS OF STRUCTURAL STEEL Steel bridges, domes, portal frames, roof trusses highrise multi-storey frames Fabricated from plates, rolled sections and built-up sections (plate girder) using welded or bolted joints Specification for ste! BS 4360 Specification for weldable structural steels Design Code of Practice: BS 5950 Structural use of steelwork in buildings (SS EN 1993 series to be adopted from 1 April 2015) Steel cables for cable-stayed and suspension bridges PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Stoo! ~ APPLICATIONS OF STRUCTURAL STEEL ‘Specifications for reinforcement in reinforced and prestressed concrete (BS EN equivalent replacing these as from 1 April 2015 in Singapore) © Bars and fabrics BS 4449: Hot rolled steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete SS 2: Hot rolled steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete BS 4461: Cold work stool bars for the reinforcement of concrete BS 4482: Steel fabrics for the reinforcement of concrete (BS EN 10080 : 2005 Stee! for reinforcement in concrete) (SS 560: 2016: Stee! for the reinforcement in concrete ~Weldable reinforcing stee! — bar, coil and decoiled product) * Prestressing tendons BS 4486: Hot rolled and hot rolled and processed high tensile alloy steel for prestressing of concrete BS 4757: Nineteen-wire steel strand for prestressed concrete BS 5896: High tensile steel wire strand for the prestressing of concretePE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Steel a APPLICATIONS OF STRUCTURAL STEEL © EN 1993 Eurocode 3: Design of stool structures: Part 41: General rules: General rules for buildings Part 1.2: General rules: Structural fire design Part 1.3: General rules: Supplementary rules for cold formed thin gauge members and sheeting Part 1.5: General rules: Plated structural elements Part 1.6: General rules: Strength and stability of shell structures Part 1.8: General rules: Design of joints Part 1.9: General rules: Fatigue Part 1.10: General rules: Material toughness and through- thickness properties Part 1.11: General rules: Design of structures with tension Part 1.12: General rules: Additional rules for the extension of EN 1993 up to steel grades $ 700 ‘© EN 1994 Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Steel oe APPLICATIONS OF STRUCTURAL STEEL EN 10025: 2004 Hot-rolled products of structural steels Part 1: General delivery conditions Part 2: Technical delivery conditions for non-alloy structural stee!s Part 3: Technical delivery conditions for normalized/normalized rolled weldable fine grain structural steels Part 4: Technical delivery conditions for thermomechanical rolled weldable fine grain structural stools Part 5: Technical delivery conditions for structural steels with improved atmospheric corrosion resistance Part6: Technical delivery conditions for flat products of high yield strength structural steels in the quenched and tempered condition EN 10164: 1993 Stool products with improved deformation properties perpendicular to the surface of the product ~ Technical delivery conditions: EN 10210-1: 1984 Hot finished structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine ‘grain structural steels ~ Part 1: Technical delivery requirements, EN 10219-1: 1987 Cold formed hollow sections of structural stee!— Part 4 Technical delivery requirementsPE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Steo! a APPLICATIONS OF STRUCTURAL STEEL Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures — EN 1993-1-1: 2005 General rules for buildings (SS EN 1993-1-1: 2010) 3. Materials 3.4 Goneral — nominal values adopted as characteristic values in design calculations, steel! grades listed in Table 3.1 (f, and f,) 3.2. Material properties Nominal values by adopting f, = R,y, and f, = R, direct from product standard or by using simplification given in Table 3.1 3.24 Duetilty requirements, Ratio of specified minimum ultimate tensile strength, f, to specified minimum yield strength, f, (f/f, 2 1,10 recommended) Elongation at failure on gauge length of 6,65 VA, (original cross- ‘sectional area) (not less than 15% recommended) Ultimate strain, e, (corresponding to ultimate strength, 1, (6,2 15 5) where c, =f/E recommended) Stool conforming with one of the steel grades listed in Table 3.1 should be accepted as satisfying these requirements PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Stoo! o APPLICATIONS OF STRUCTURAL STEEL ‘Specifications for reinforcement in reinforced and prestressed concrete Bars and fabrics EEN 10080:2008 Stoel for the steel. General (88 560: 2016 Stoel for the reinforcement of concrate ~ Weldable reinforcing steel Bar, coll and decoiled produc!) (88 566: 2011 Stoel for the reinforcoment of concrete ~ Plain bars) (88 561: 2010 Stee! fabric forthe reinforcement of concrete) Prostressing tendons EN 10138 Prestressing stools (88 475 Stool forthe prestressing of concrete based on 180.6834: 1994)" Part 1 General requirements (Part 1: 2000: General requirements) Part2 Wires (Part2: 2000: Gold-drawn wire, Part 3: 2000: Quenched and tempered wire) Part 3 Strands (Part 4: 2000: Strand) Part 4 Bars (Part 5: 2000: Hot-olled steel bars with or without subsequent processing) inforcement of concrete. Weldable reinforcingPE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Stec! te REQUIREMENT OF REINFORCEMENT BARS. ‘= Preferred bar sizes: Plain bars diameter (mm): 6, 8, 10, 13, 16, 20, 22 Ribbed bars diameter (mm): 6, 8, 10, 13, 16, 20, 22, 25, 28, 32, 40, 50 * Surface condition: Plain: smooth Ribbed: ribbod to improve bond with concrete Effective area of deformed bar, A = Mi(0.00785L) ~ mm? ‘where M= mass of bar (kg), length of bar (m) ~ minimum 0.5m Nominal diameter, 6 = (4A/n)°* ‘+ Strength: Characteristic value of yield stress. PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Stee! = SPECIFICATION FOR PLAIN REINFORCEMENT BARS (SS 566: 2014 — Table 3 — Tensile properties) Duciility properties Specified characteristic at Br value of upper yield strength | _ Specified Specified Ductility (Ray — Niet) characteristic | characteristic value class value of Ra Ry | _ of elongation % ‘Minimum Minimum A ; Minimum | oinimum B 300 1.08 6 5 'A, (#) Porcontage elongation after fracture, original gauge langth shall be five times the nominal ‘Ay (%) Percentage total elongation at maximum force {Ay (m=) Nominal cross-sectional area (used for determining tensile properties) Ry (Nimm2) Upper yield strength Ry (Nimm?) Tensile strength Fy (Nimm) 0.2% proof strength, non-proportional extension (ifayield phenomenon is not present, the 0.2% proof strength, (Ry»;1 shall be dotermined)PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Stoo! is 'SS 560 SPECIFICATION FOR STEEL FOR THE REINFORCEMENT OF CONCRETE 7.2 Mechanical properties ‘The characteristic value is the quality level for the long-term quality level of production at 90% probability (1 —c.= 0.90) that 95% (p = 0.95) 0” 90% (p 10,90) of the values are at or above the lower limit or at or below the upper limit respectively. Conditions of testing : Table 3 — Conditions of testing the mechanical properties ‘Manufacturing and delivery condition Produced in straight longths by hot rolling Condition of testing Produced in straight lengths by cold working ‘Aged? Produced as coll and delivered decolled ‘Aged? Produced and delivered in coll ‘Ages! = Aged in the case of dispute Aging method: heat the test piece to 100 °C, maintain at this temperature (210 °C) fora period of 60°"! min., and then cool in still ir to rom temperature. The method of heating is left to the discretion of t manufacturer PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Stee! Si ‘SS 560 SPECIFICATION FOR STEEL FOR THE REINFORCEMENT OF CONCRETE (SS 560: 2016 — Table 4 — Characteristic tensile properties) “atenan | momorag sero olen RJR, characteristic is 1.02 for sizes below 8 mm Ag characteristic is 1.0% for sizes below 8 mm Values for R, specified are characteristic with p =0.95 (mean ~ 1.96 std dev) Values for R,/R, and A, are characteristic with p = 0.90 (mean — 1.6¢ std dev) Caleulate the values of R,, and R, using the nominal cross-sectional aroa For yield strength (R,), the upper yield strength (R,,) shall apply. Determine the yield strength (R,) from the 0.2% proof strength (R,,.) Ifa yield phenomenon is not presentPE FUNDAMENTALS CE 101 Steet a ‘8S 560 SPECIFICATION FOR STEEL FOR THE REINFORCEMENT OF CONCRETE 7.2.4 Fatigue strength When submitted to axial force controlled fatigue testing, using a stress ratio of (Cina! ox) OF 0.2, and the stress range as given in Table 5, test sample shall survive ‘wo milion stress cycles. ‘able 6 —Fatiguo test conditions Esme Bar size (mm) ‘Stress range (MPa) Gran ™ 0.26 216 200 Sime Boi = 200 (16 mm) > 16,s20 185 320,525, 70 onc 200/0.8 = 250 MPa, > 25,532 160 7.2.6 Bond porformance —aftor the test spocimon shall show no sign of fracture or Cracks visible toa person of normal of corrected vision ‘Bond test: bent to an angle between 160° and 160° over a mandral of diam in Table 6 Rebend tost: bend test place through an angle of 90° around a mandkel wih a dlametor not exceeding those specified in Table 7, age the test place and then bend back by at Toast 20° pecified Nominal diameter, Tables Table? d(mm) | Mandel diameter for bend test | Mandel diameter for rebend test [16 3 om 16 6 a PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Stoo! ei ‘88 560 SPECIFICATION FOR STEEL FOR THE REINFORCEMENT OF CONCRETE 8.23 Evaluation of test results (Tensile properties, Ry, Ayy Ral Ryse/Ry yom) (Sampling for tensile tests, one test piece per 30+ with atleast three test pieces per test unit and nominal diameter —test unit = cast or part quantity of cast) 8.2.3.1. C, specified as a lower limit (C, = specified characteristic value) {a) all individual values are greater then or equal to the specified characteristic value C,; or (b)x (average of test results) 2 C, + a, ‘where a, is 10 MPa for Ry, zero for RJR. and 0% for Ay. ‘and all individual values are greater than or equal to the minimum values given in Table 12.8 13, 8.23.1. C, specified as an upper limit, {a) all individual values of RR, are equal or lower than the specified upper characteristic value of 1.35 or (b) x (average of test results) < 1.35 for R,/R, and all individual values for R/Ry are equal or lower than the maximum Values given in Table 12 & 13 Rr, = yield strength, R,, = Tensile strength, R. <= Actual value of eld strength, Renom = Specified value of yield strength]PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Stool « ‘88 560 SPECIFICATION FOR STEEL FOR THE REINFORCEMENT OF CONCRETE Table 12 Absolute minimum and maximum values of tensile properties for 500 MPa characteristic yield strength Pertoniarion Minimum value Maximum value characteristic [as00a | 6508 | 86006 | BS00A | RssoB | As00c MPa. 405 | 405 | aes_[ cso | cso | oso RulRe soy [tos [113 | wa | WA | 128 [Put 20 | 40 0 wa |_NA_ | _WA * 4.01 for sizes bolow 8 mim 0 6 for sices below 8mm Table 13 — Absolute minimum and maximum values of tensile propertios for 600 MPa characteristic yield strength Performance eer lo Marinun valve characteritc |“e600A | Been aooa_|_essor | 00s ara sea | see. 700 | 700 | 100 Rm to" | 108 | ~wa | wa [138 % 20 [40 WA [wa | Wa 1.01 for sizes bolow 8mm © 08 %eforszes below 8 mm PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Stoo! z 88 560 SPECIFICATION FOR STEEL FOR THE REINFORCEMENT OF CONCRETE 8.2.3.2 Bend and rebend performance, geometry, mass per metre Inthe bend and rebend test, all test pieces shall fulfl the requirement of 7.2.5, If testing the mass per metre, no individual value shall be outside the tolerance ‘specified in 7.3.2 (2 4.5% for dia, > 8 mm and + 6.0% for dia. $ 8 mm) Assessment of the long term quality level 8.3.1 Material produced under a third party product certification scheme 8.3.2 Material not covered by a third party product certification scnem (Annex B ~ normative) ~ Sampling and test shall be carried out by a ‘Singapore Accreditation Council (SAC) accredited lab at the producer's ‘works oF in the stockholder’s yard Batch shall be divided into test units with a maximum mass of 100 t 48 specimens from different bars for mechanical properties 2 test specimens from different bars for chemical compositionPE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Stoo! ‘8S 560 SPECIFICATION FOR STEEL FOR THE REINFORCEMENT O? CONCRETE eas0 450 | Cord work hare Maxdmuin% | Waximeam % | Waximam % carbon 025 o20(ss),040~5) | 028 Sulfur 0090 0.050 0.060 Phosphorus 0.080 1080 0.060 Manganese 15 Carbon equivalent 042 ot oa Charactritie yield 250 460, 460 1, (MPa) 15 15 10 | (fe —f)if, (6) % elongation 2B 2 2 Bend test: a Diameter of former to bar diameter 2 : ad PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Steet Z ‘Strength of Stee! at high Temperatures. * Above 300°C: a tendency for some loss in strength and stiffness © Above 600°C: significant loss in strength and stiffness | Se foe 8 ‘see Te Scns ad Tol ef Cl Eger tri JF You Stace, yan, Pt aPE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Steo! fa CORROSION © Galvanic cell - two dissimilar metals in electrolyte - anode and cathode «Iron — anode and cathode pairs can be set up on steel surfece due to difference in electrochemical potential arising from: {a) differences in chemical composition (alloys) (b) differences in residue strain (forming processes) (c) differences in oxygen or electrolyte concentration ‘* Forms of corrosion: (a) general corrosion ~ many micro-corrosion cells (b) pitting corrosion — highly localised at distinct spots (deep pits) e.g, chloride induced corrosion {c) galvanic corrosion — two metals of different electrochemical potential joined electrically (@) stress corrosion — due to high stress, e.g. prestressing tendon (©) crevice corrosion — moisture and contaminants retained in crevices accelerating corrosion PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Stoo! = i! faze} | ‘Steel embedded in concrete does not corrode so long as the high pH (>12) is y present in the pore water of concrete keeping the intial high temperature oxi intact on the surface of the hot-rolled bars. Cement hydration produces a large amount of calcium hydroxide giving rise to high pH in concrete When this is neutralized by carbonation or due to ingress of chloride ions reaching sufficient high concentraticn for a given pH, the oxide is dissolved - depassivationPE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Steet = CORROSION CONTROL Protective coatings ~ paint, epoxy coating as barrier to penetration of moisture and oxygen to steel surface Galvanic protection - zinc or zinc-iron compounds coating (hot-dip galvanising) barrier effect and as sacrificial anode Cathodic protection ~ by imposing a reverse current flew to that of corrosion current to the anode surface with specially installed anodes and direct current from an outside source Corrosion-resistant steels combination of alloying elements (copper, rhosphorous, chromium, nickel, silicon) to provide a special type of oxide coating after prolonged exposure to the atmosphare — tightly adhering oxide coating as barrier with self healing when damaged PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 104 Concrete Technology « COMPARISON OF ENGINEERING PROPERTIES Properties Concrete Sioa Remake Density (gl?) 300 — 1850 (lightweight Higher strength 2000-2400 normal weight) | 7830 _| for stze, lower seit 3000 5600 heavyweight) _| sight ‘Thermal expansion average 10 12 | Strain compatbity cootiiont be 10°16) Range7-12__| faveuraie Specific neat kg K) $80 [ass ‘Conductivity (Win Ky 078-4.05 [es | Freraung ia | aierenee Modul ofelasticiy 20 | 780-200 | Strain compatbity not favourable (Ghoti) (compro a) Poisons ato 048-020 oa Strength (ultimate) (Yield) | Higher strengtivkg Compression 240 28a ago | ors buat ‘anon 210 | inert EDs Sian capaiy (70%) (Uti) ey Nod fare ‘Compression 3500 (0.0035) | very highy Ductile | Tension 200 (0.0002) > 200,000 0.2)| rite fracturePE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 : Concrete Technolcay, Ss CONCRETE + A mixture of cement, water and aggregates with chemical admixture most cases for tropical concreting + Specific role of each ingredient in concrete mix design for contributing to commonly specified requirements such as workability, setting time, strength, modulus of elasticity and durability + Understanding of contributing role of each material and its limitation enables a suitable choice of their proportions to achieve desired properties to serve specific requirements for concrete to be placed in a structure PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology * CONCRETE ‘+ Most commonly use structural material - complex composite not well understood in general, reliance on past practice not adequate for moder concrete with improved knowledge on new components ‘+ Simplified model for concrete: Composite with continuous binder phase (cementitious matrix) and a dispersed particulate phase (aggregates) + Binder phase consists of both hydrated and unhydrated cement compounds, gels pores, liquid-filled capillaries and air voids. * Interfacial zone — weakest part of composite, difference in elastic and thermal properties between softer weaker matrix phase and harder stronger particulate phase giving rise stress concentration at interface (mismatch in free strain under load) and formation of localised cracks ‘+ Bond crack that starts to propagate through the matrix stops by particle and deflected (eventually fully arrested) ~ multiple cracks developed before fracture occurs (deformation similar to plastic yielding in metals)PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 : Concrete Technolegy, = difference in modulus of elasticity = difference in thermal coefficient (modulus of particles ~ normal weight or heavyweight aggregate), E, >> E,, (modulus of cement paste matrix): m>>10 (modulus of coment paste matrix), E,, > Ey, (particle ~ modulus of lightweight aggregate): m< CSH + CH Pozzolanic (Secondary) Reaction ‘SCM + CH + water —-——- > CSH (CSH = calcium silicate hydrates, CH = calcium hydroxide) PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 : Concrete Technology CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CEMENT Major importance: CaO, SiO,, Al,0., Fe,0, Based on Bogue’s Equations: C,S, C,S, C,A, CAF Others of importance: $0,, Na,O, K,0 (total alkali) Temperature > 70°C —/Heat of Hydration or $team curing E T Delayed Ettringite Formation (DEF) or Internal Sulfate Attack (ISA) \ Thaumasite (in cold climate) \ Reduced by use of Supplementary \ Cementing Materials (pfa, ggbs, sf) | Reactive\Aggrogate Alkali-silica Reaction Need to use Marginal Aggregates with Low Reactivity or ‘Cement with Low Alkali content (Na,O eq. < 0.60%)PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 : Concrete Technology HOW DOES CEMENT PLAY ITS ROLE ? > Hydration — cement reaction with water to form mainly calcium silicates (tricalcium silicate and di-calcium silicate) > Gypsum added to prevent “flash set” of aluminate (normally within first 1 to 2 days except at above 70°C) > Alkalis may lead to expansion with reactive aggregates (Equivalent Na,0 = [%Na,O + 0.658%K,O]< 0.60% preferred) > Chloride ion CI” < 0.10% by mass or lower if specified for prestressed concrete (Note: Euro codes use “,” for decimal point in place of ".”) PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101: Concrete Technology. HYDRATION OF CEMENT » Water for full hydration = 0.20 to 0.24 by mass of cement (Additional water held in gel pores of hydrates) > Water/cement ratio by mass 0.25 to 0.65 in concrete (Not all water used up in hydration, rest as capillary pores) > Even at full hydration (all reacted), capillary pores exist when water/cement ratio by mass exceeds 0.36 to 0.38 > Capillary pores lower strength and modulus of elasticity, and contribute to weakness in durability, more so if not segmented by hydration products and replaced by air filled void due to dryingPE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 : Concrete Technology RATE OF HYDRATION > CHEMICAL FACTORS: Tricalcium silicate (C,S) - fast, early strength Di-calcium silicate (C,S) — slow, later age strength Pozzolanic materials (siliceous fly ash, calcareous fly ash, silica fume, natural pozzolana, etc) — slow activation Granulated blastfurnace slag - slow, some self activation (Faster if chemical accelerators or activators added) (Retarding admixtures slow down setting and delay start of hardening, resulting in lower early age strength) PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 : Concrete Technology, RATE OF CEMENT HYDRATION. ‘Trealckam siicate (C,S) rly strength Di-clcium scate (CS) slow later age strength Porzolanic materials (sligeous tly ash c arcous tly ash, poszoland, et) ulated blastturnace slag = slow, some self activation ‘= Faster fchomieal accelerators oF “pears added «+ Retarding admixtures slow down setting aha ia taro nanny ‘Supplementary Cementing Materials (SCI) for Concrete ~ ground granulated blastturnace slag (gas) Primary Reaction 4S and €,S react with water to form C'S calcium silicate hydrates) and (Ca(OH), (calcium hydroxide, CH) SCW+ CH + water to formmore C-S: ‘hen activated by sufficient Ca(OH), produced by primary reaction | ‘Secondary (Pozzotanic) Reactio ‘tre: Sans a He HC ageing sr, JF eng ne Ga and Br PnPE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 401 : Concrete Technology o CEMENT AAfinely ground material which forms, by {the addition ofan appropriate quantity of water, binding paste capable of hardening and of binding together the fine and coarse aggregates to form conerete CEMENT setting Unhydrated cement Sssssseks 2, (coment gel WATER hardening C-SH hydrates + Cah), fl 1} Minor compounds y h okt Wiator in capitiry a— Os" ae and gel pores. sate Stage Stage Stage Stage Stage ION RATE OF HEAT EVOLUTI J ang § Maes, ny et AB, Pana PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Concrete Technology. = HYDRATION OF PORTLAND CEMENT 1 :Initial hydrolysis ~ first few minutes rapid reaction 2: Dormant period - retarding effect of gypsum on CA Cement grains coated with gel layer, slow reaction 3: Acceleration — coating ruptures, reaction rate incres 4: Decoleration — gradual diminishing rate with stiffening and hardening 5 : Steady state ~final stage (diffusion controlled) over long period 1 a Band 4 6 TIMEPE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 : Concrete Technology .. CEMENT COMPOSITES > Grout — cement + water (may include filler and admixture) > Mortar - cement + water + sand (may include admixture) > Concrete — cement + water + sand + stones (admixtures in readymixed, may include fibres, polymers) WHY IS CEMENT NEEDED ? Cement - binder when reacted with water (hydration) Major chemical composition : a0 (calcium oxide) + SiO, (silicon dioxide) > 50% by mass others include Al,O, (aluminate) and Fe,O, (ferrite) Minor by mass but important : Na,O and K,0 (alkalis), SO, (sulfate added as gypsum), CI (chloride ion), chromium (skin allergy) PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 : Concrete Technology a Factors Leading to Cessation of Cement Hydration + Environmental Factors (a) Temperatures lower than (-10)°C. (b) Low vapour pressure or relative humidity [At about 80% RH, rato of hydration significantly reduced and below 30%, rate becomes negligible (ned for curing) (6) Lack of water: water/cement ratio is less than about 0.20 to 0.25 (full hydration), Insufficient water for chemical combination with all cement + Physical Factors (a) Lack of space for hydration products: For original waterlcement ratio is less than about 0.36, a full hydration, insufficient space for hydration products to occupy (0) Large grain size of cement: Coment grains largor than about 60 ym may not be fully hydrated because of the difficulty for water to diffuse through thick layer of hydration products to reach unhydrated corePE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101: Concrete Technology. HYDRATION OF CEMENT > Water for full hydration ~ 0.20 to 0.24 by mass of cement (Additional water held in gel pores of hydrates) > Water/cement ratio by mass 0.25 to 0.65 in concretes (Not all water used up in hydration, rest as capillary pores) > Even at full hydration (all reacted), capillary pores exist when water/cement ratio by mass exceeds 0.36 to 0.38 > Capillary pores lower strength and modulus of elasticity, and main weakness in durability, more so if not segmented PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 : Concrete Technology Effects on Properties of Concrete Strength: + Addition of pfa or ggbs as a partial replacement of OPC generally results ina slower rate of strength development + Effect more pronounced for higher percentage of reslacement + Besides delay in strength development, moist curing needed to continue for at least’7 days to promote pozzolanic reaction Heat of Hydratio + High replacement levels to perform as low heat cement (LH) (Replacement level: 25-30% fly ash or 60-70% gabs to lower heat of hydration to characteristic value of 270 kJ/kg) Durabit * pozzolanic reaction products improve paste microstructure to reduce permeability and increases resistance against ingress of dissolved salts, moisture as well as gasesPE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 : Concrete Technology Physical Properties of Cement Initial setting time (Vicat) and soundness (specified) Fineness - may also be specified, if needed (ASTM C 150 min. 280 m*/kg, generally 300 — 350) Chemical Properties of Cement Loss on ignition, Insoluble residue, Sulfate content (SO), Chloride content (CI-ion), Pozzolanic activity (silica fume, fly ash, slag) Mechanical Properties of Cement Standard strength at 28 days Early strength at 2 or 7 days PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 : Concrete Technology .. CEMENT STRENGTH TESTING Historical Development Mechanical strength based on mortar specimen First approach in direct tension on mortar briquettes Next approach in compression on mortar cubes made with a prescribed “standard” sand In later years (1958); UK preferred compression on concrete cubes of prescribed aggregates (Until BS 12:1991 replaced by BS 12:1996) Currently, European Standard uses mortar prisms first broken as a beam in flexure and then on broken halves as “equivalent cubes” BS EN 197:2000 replaced BS 12:1996 (SS EN 197: 2008 replaced SS 26:2000, updated SS EN 197-1: 2014) replaced mortar cubes with mortar prisms for strength testingPE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101: Concrete Technology. (CEMENT STRENGTH TESTING Historical Development ~ Strength Classes 18S 12:1961 - only single class of coment ‘88 26:1997 equating o about Class 42.5 2 days, 2 days Mortar cube 226 MPa 247 MPa Mortar prism 217 MPa 237 MPa Class 42.5N 340 MPa Sa2smPa Class 42.5R 220 MPa, 2a25mPa ‘88 25:2000 aligned to BS 12:1996 {8826 replaced with 8S EN 197 1:2008 a8 part of adopting European approsch) Note: Direct comparison between cube and prism strength NOT VALID as mix roporiane are not the same. Comont BS 121901 BS EN 197-1:2011 ‘Strength test BS 4560:1978 BS EN 196-1:1995 Specimen Mortar cubes Mortar prisms ComentSand 4:3 (single size) 1:3 (graded) Water/Cement 040 080 ‘Size (mm) qorx707 40x40 ‘Average of S.cubes 6 modified cubes 10d of mixing and compacting pecified for both early age and standard 28 day (or similar coment) PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101: Concrete Technology.» WHICH CEMENT TO USE Properties of Concrete — A.M, Noville, 4% Edition, 1985 Chapter 2: Cementitious materials of different types (63pages) “Which cement is best?” “Which cement should be used for a given PURPOSE?” “There is no simple answer to these questions, buta rational approach will lead to satisfactory solutions.” “NO SINGLE CEMENT IS THE BEST ONE UNDER ALL CIRCUMSTANCES EVEN IF COST IS IGNORED” “Which cement should be used for a given purpose?” “The choice depends on availability, on cost - that importantelement in ‘engineering decision-making — and on the particular circumstances of ‘equipment, skilled labour force, speed of construction anc, of course, ‘on the exigencies of the structure and its environment.” ‘= Comont strongth: performance test for coment — NOT concrete Higher concroto strongth than strength class of coment can be azhiovedPE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 : Concrete Technology. Cement and Water— in all cement composites How much cement and water needed? For chemical reaction — hydration Mass of waterfMlass of coment = 0.20 to 0.25 In normal practice, not all cement reacted (generally up to 60~ 70%) ‘Common range of wic = 0.30 to 0.60 - WHY? Exess Water Necdod for Ease of Mixing and for Workability (Consistence| Water : Only Plasticizer Before Chemical Admixture Strength of Composite Depends on ‘Amount of coment hydrated and Physical Structure of Hydrates (cement gel) (function of wic ratio) PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 : Concrete Technology Water content determines Consistence (Workability) (without addition of admixture) More Water, More Cement to increase slump (maintaining wic ratio for specified Strength) Addition of Chemical Admixture (plasticizer) Reduces need for more water for given slump Improved Physical Structure of Paste Lower Cement and Water Content in Concrete Increased Aggregate Content Improved Volume Stability of Concrete (less creep and shrinkage) Improved Durability Performance (lower volume of permeable cement paste)PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 : Concrete Technology WATER AND ITS ROLE IN CONCRETE Water needed for chemical reaction with cement Chemically combined water = 0,20 to 0.25 by mass of cement at full hydration Water taken up by gel pores - gel water (adsorbed water) hold within the gol structure by surface forces Water in the capillary pores is relatively sy to be removed Environment induced strain Plastic Shrinkage before setting Autogenous and Drying Shrinkage or Swelling during moist curing Load induced strain Creep (sustained loading) PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 : Concrete Technology WATER AND ITS ROLE IN CONCRETE Water reacts with cement to form CSH (bonding agent) + Water needed for curing to promote hydration + Water - cheapest plasticising agent (only agent available before chemical admixtures) ¢ Excess water forms capillary pores (increasing penmeability) + Loss of water before setting leads to loss of workability (hydration andior evaporation from exposed surface of concrete) “+ Water moving in or out of gel structure leads to volume change in paste - reduced by rigid aggregates (swelling, plastic shrinkage, autogenous shrinkage, drying shrinkage)PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology ROLE OF WATER IN CONCRETE CHEMICAL : Water/cement ratio 0.20 to 0.25 for full hydration PHYSICAL : Water/cement ratio = 0.36 to provide space for hydration products at full hydration WORKABILITY : Water/cement ration > 0.36 to provide for lubricating effect for compaction DURABILITY : Drying shrinkage from loss of water to exterior Chemical reaction in carbonation n of embedded steel in concrete ilica reaction and gel swelling PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Concrete Technology WATER AND ITS ROLE IN CONCRETE CHEMICALLY COMBINED WATER (Non-evaporable) 0.20 to 0.26 by mass of cement at full hydration GELWATER Water held within gel structure by surface forces ~ adsorbed CAPILLARY WATER (Free or evaporable) Vapour pressure (pH) < 0.8, hydration rate slows significanty Vapour pressure (pH) < 0.3, hydration rate extremely low LOSS OF WATER BEFORE SETTING Hydration (internal), evaporation (external) Loss of workability with time LOSS OF WATER BEFORE SETTING (bleeding, evaporation) Potential settlement and plastic shrinkage cracking CAPILLARY AND GEL WATER MOVEMENT AFTER SETTING: Volume change Environmental induced strain — swelling or drying shrinkage, Continuing hydration - autogenous shrinkage (wie ratio < 0.3)PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 : Concrete Technology Quality of Water for Mixing and Curing + Water treated for drinking is suitable for both mixing and curing (concentration of dissolved solids less than 2,000 ppm) # Standard test for acceptance of water for mixing or curing (BS 3148 Methods of Tests for Water for Making Concrete ‘ASTM C 94.90 Specification for Ready-Mixed Concrete BS EN 1008: BS EN 1008: 2002 Mixing wator for concrete (including water recovered from processes in tho concrete industry, as mixing water for concrete) In both cases, the questionable water compared with drinking or distilled water using the same mix proportions Standard Compressive strength Setting time of coment. ASTMC94 Minimum % of control —_—_—Deviation from control at7 days = 90% from 1 h early to 1.6 h later Bs 3149 410% difference at 28 days. £30 min (initial set) (BS EN 1008:2002 at age of 7 days: at least 90% and + 25% in setting times) PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 : Concrete Technology Other Requirements F should consider other properties of interest and specify their test method and permitted tolerance ‘+ Presence of organic matters, e.g. carbohydrates, carbonates and bicarbonates may retard setting + Algae causes entrainment ‘+ Such materials may be tolerated in curing water. However, dissolved substances that may attack hardened concrete, 4g. sulfates, should not be present in curing waterPE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology AGGREGATES Based on Materials Passing or Retained on 5 mm Sieve (SS EN 12620: 2008 replacing SS 31 — 4 mm sieve) (Fine - SAND, Coarse - STONE) CONCRETE Volume of Aggregates > Volume of Cement Paste Physical Properties of Concrete Dependent on Corresponding Properties of Aggregates Specific Heat Specific Density Coefficient of Thermal Expansion Volume Stability - Elastic Modulus, Creep, Shrinkage PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 : Concrete Technology CONCRETE AGGREGATES Grouped according to size into fine and coarse aggregates based on materials passing or retained on nominal mm, 10 mm, 20 mm and 40 mm) 4 Fine Aggregate also known as Sand and Coarse Aggregate as Stone + Natural source (rock) or manufactured from other materials or recycled aggregate (RA) or recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) [BS 8500 & SS 644 adopted crushed concrete aggregate (CCA)] ° Classified by density: lightweight, normal weight, heavy weight % Classified by rock type for coarse aggregates * ine aggrogate classified as Natural Sand or Crushed Stone Sand (Need to use recycled concrete aggregates for sustainable development)PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101: Concrete Technology. INHERENT Properties Important in aiding the selection of an aggregate source Examples: ‘Strength, Elastic Modulus, Specific Gravity, Absorpticn, Particle Shapes and Textures, Chemical Stability, Wear Resistance ‘Once confirmed before production, only checked periodically (yearly) Properties Affecting Mix Design and Quality Control Properties varying from time to time and affecting concrete properties Regular assessment to detect fluctuation: adjustment and control of concrete product Examples : ize, Grading, (consistency, trend of change), moisture content, amount of deleterious substances (organic matter in sand) PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101: Concrete Technology CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES % Mineral composition, sulfate, chloride, deleterious materials (mica, shells, organic matters) > Alkali - aggregate reactivity - alkali silica, alkali carbonate MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES th (aggregate crushing value, 10% fine value), modulus of elasticity, hardness (aggregate impact value), abrasion resistance (aggregate abrasion value), wear resistance (% wear by Los Angelos ‘Testing Machine) Acceptance Testing Prior To Approval For Concrete Production To Ensure Durability Of ConcretePE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology a AGGREGATES Physical Properties of Major Interest to Civil Engineers 2 Specific Gravity (or Density) - Strength/Mass ratio 2 Porosity — Absorption 2 Particle Size Distribution (or Grading) — Packing, Void 2 Shape - Descriptive term: rounded, angular, cubical ‘Semi-empirical Measurement: flaky or elongated /e term: smooth, rough Pores: Internal space besides solid material Voids: Space between particles of aggregates PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101: Concrete Technology PHYSTICAL PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES + Shape (round, irregular, flaky, elongated), Size (maximum, 4 to 75 mm), Grading (single-sized, graded), Specific Gravity, Absorption, Moisture Content (oven-dry, saturated-surface-dry, free weter), Density (normal, lightweight, heavyweight) ‘* Specific properties - specific heat, thermal expansion coefficient Regular and systematic monitoring (moisture content, size and grading) during concrete production to ensure consistent quality of both fresh and hardened concrete properties, particularly for high strergth concretePE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 : Concrete Technology... MOISTURE STATE + Each piece of aggregate may have some internal pores + Intornal pores only filled with water but external surface dry - saturated-surface-dry (SSD) + Water in internal pores = absorption (by mass of oven- 2and D> 11,2 mm Gatogon, Eno) e 100 0105. esos | Were te sieves ealulted ae not were ove numbers inthe [SO 8657880 R20 saris then the next nearest slave size shall adopted, For graded cours aggregates where D> 112m and D>? 1) allgroaings sell comply with the overal its gven in Table needs dca on een earth el ig passing hie ive ‘Table 3 Ovorallimits and tolorances for coarse aggrogato grading at mid-size sieve Tid | Midsize seve ‘Gveral init and foleances at midaze slaves catego (mm) (percentage passing by mass) or _ ‘Grea line [ Tolerances on producers declared yolcl gredna avo | 251070 rd Sais PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 : Concrete Technology ~ Single size coarse aggregate : Example 10/20 For D> 14,2 and Did <2 Table 2 — General grading requirements only onlage passing by mass — 20 (40) | 1,40°(91,6) (20) 8 (10) <2 (4) Category 100) ‘9810100 | a5t099 | ot020 0105 85120, Example 4/10 For D> 11,2 and Did <2 Table 2 General grading requirements only Percentage passing by mass 2p@) | toa | (10) a@) (2) Category 100) ‘810100 | a5t099 | Oto20 105: 05720PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 : Concrete Technolegy, PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 : Concrete Technology COARSE AGGREGATE (STONE) + Single-sized - mainly passing larger size and almost all retained in next smaller sieve size (enable better quality control) + Atleast 2 single-sized aggregates needed to provide suitable combined grading for better quality control - Graded ly passing larger size and distributed in rest of sieve sizes to 2.36mm size (prone to segregation in stockpile) + SS 31 incorporated limits for daily deviation between two consecutive supplies and total deviation between approved supply sample and any supply within the contract (taken from Australian practice)PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 : Concrote Technolcgy, Fine aggregates shall comply with the general grading requlrements specfied in Tabla 2 ‘appropriate to thelr upper slave size D Example : fine aggregate 0/4 (d= 0 and D = 4) ‘Table 2 General grading requirements For Ds mmand d= 0mm ia Percentage passing by mae Corry zoe) | tae) Di a0. a2 0) s Fino aggregates In rogularsalsfactory use for most applications shall comply with the requirements specified in Table 4. When specified for special uses and cases where the ‘ariahity of grading ik reduced, tha grading toleraneas shal be applied in azcordance with lannox ¢ (normative) Table 4 — Tolerances on producer's declared typical grading for general usefine aggregates Sieve ae “Tolraneos in porcanages passing By ate ue 0 wm +0 20 Le 22 235 325 23 36 38 “Tolrances of 2 are further ited bythe requirement ore percentage passing Din Tabled kon to the tolerances sated the mamtm value ofthe ines content forte eatgory selected in Table 1 applies fo the percentage passing the 0,063 mm sive PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 : Concrete Technology, AGGREGATES © BS EN 12620:2002 Aggregates for concrete, Annex B (informative) Guidance on the description of coarsenessifineness of fine aggregates Either Table B.1 or Table B.2, but not both can be used + C=coarse, M= medium and F= fine + P= percentage passing 0,5000 mm sieve + F=fineness modulus, FM = sum of cumulative percentages by mass retained on sieves as indicated and expressed as a porcontago: FIM = 5{(> 4) + © 2) + (> 4) + 0,5) + (0,25) + (> 0,125))100, Table B.4 Coarsences oF fineness based on percentage passing 0,500 mm sieve Percentage passing by mass oP mE P 510 45 to 70 5510 100 ‘Table B.2 Coarseness or fineness based on fineness modulus Fineness modulus __ oF ME BES 40t024 280015 2A 006PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 : Concrete Technology o PD 6882-2:2002, Annex 0 (informative) Recommended BS EN 12620 overall grat a ts for fine ageregates Table D.1 Overall grading limits for fine aggregates classified by ES EN 12620 category 6-85 Sieve size | Percentage by mass passing ISO 666 slave for fine aggregate size (WD) mm awccrr | owdmey | oncmey | oncrer | oncrer_| 8 700 00) : iz z : 63 9510100 | 85to 100 aS 4 86 to 99° (25) | 85 to 99 45) 100) 28 é 5 9510 100 | 9510 100 2 Sasi 86 t0 99 (26) | 851099 (25) | 100 4 (220) (20) (220) 20) 5 10985) 05 Sted |30t070 [301070 | 8510100 | #5t0 100 0.260 (220) (20) 25) (25) (225) fo.o6s a) wa) es) 5) (28) Note: The producer should document and, on roquest, declare the typical greding for which the required tolerances are given In > category 6,88 > The inclusion of 98% in lou of 100 % Isto ensure cons kets (roi Table 4, EN 12620) tency and to prevent smaller size aggregate being classified as D sized aggregate PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 : Concrete Technology Role of Aggregate in Concrete Aggregates are cheaper than cement More economical to include, as much aggregates as technically viable and to minimize the cement content per unit volume of concrete, Volume fraction of aggregates occupies moro than double that of cement paste matrix Combined volume of fine and coarse aggregates generally between 50% to 80% of total volume of aconcrete mix Not only as inert materials serving as economical fillers, aggregates contribute beneficially to properties of concrete such as improving volume stability, abrasion resistance and durability Physical properties of concrete are directly related to the corresponding properties of aggregates, such as density, specific heat, and modulus of elasticityPE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 : Concrete Technology EFFECTS OF GRADING ON MIX DESIGN Finenoss Modulus (Fi) - more than one grading may haye simi ar EM, but not the size distribution (basis for classifying sand: F, M, or © in EN 12620) in FM of 0.2 in sand may lead to significant change in water demand for the same workability In terms of fineness modulus, maximum daily or total deviation, f taken to es econ otros tes fhe danmont aeeapiad change of sd desirable. e a EFFECTS OF SIZE ON MIX DESIGN Larger maximum size aggregate has smaller total surface area per unit mass. of aggregate Lower comont contont (kg/m?) neodod to coat aggregate surface and more towards providing interparticle paste for workability, Lower wat content (kn) needed fo srg 101 10 ahh reay mi iven water-cement ratio requis nerete production equipment Lower comant content means less heat of hydration in thick sections of concrete, less ‘Shrinkage and creep PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 : Concrete Technology AGGREGATE TESTING + Itshould be noted that most properties of aggregate are difficult to define and measure in absolute terms, e.g. shape & texture + Acceptance criteria are prescriptive in nature, hence most quantitative values cannot be directly related to performance + Empirical and arbitrarily chosen methods and equipment are described in details and highly standardized to ensure repeatability and reproducibility of test results. + Reference should be made to relevant standard specifications whenever necessary % Desirable to move from testing for Conformity to Performance based approach for directly useful quantitative values where possiblePE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 : Concrete Technology CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES ‘* Admixtures are materials added to concrete or cement to modify selected properties of fresh andior hardened concrete in a beneficial manner e.g. better workal . faster rate of strength gain, lower permeability © Attimes, there may be concomitant adverse effects ey. over retardation of set increases bleeding capacity \crease rate of slump loss 1% Type, 1g Admixture (1930's) 1% Generation Water-reducing Admixture (retarding) ~ (1940's) lignosulfonates 2nd Generation Water-reducing Admixture (superplasticising) ~ (1960's) sulfonated naphthalene or melamine formaldehydes 3° Generation Water-reducing Admixture (superplasticising) ~ (1990's) Polycarboxylate (Copolymer ~ PCE) PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology Specification Requirements (ASTM C 494, BS 5075 or SS 320 replaced by SS EN 934) + Acceptance Tests Based on specified mix proportions and specified materials Often different from those in actual application of the admixture Best to carry out trial mixes using actual site materials and under site climatic environment Different national standards have slightly different methods of testing and different acceptance criteria (refer to standards for details) + Water content reduction at constant workability (slump) + Stiffening (setting) times in terms of penetration resistance accelerated or retarded —no direct relation to setting times of cement (Vicat needle test) + Strength at specified agePE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Concrete Technology APPLICATIONS (dispersing action to release of trapped water) + Plasticising application To increase workability of fresh concrete by simple addition of admixture to concrete (same water/coment ratio for strength) + Water-reducing ap} To reduce water content required for a given workability without changing cement content, hence lowering waterlcement ratio and Increasing strength of hardened concrete + Cement saving application To reduce cement content and water content without changing workability, water/cement ratio and strength of concrete PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Concrete Technology. 2 APPLICATIONS OF PLASTICISING ADMIXTURE Increase workability by Reduce water content with simple addition of addition of admixture admixture CONTROL Mix WRAY | we x (WRAY; (Water) fou S¥iel Siump =2_| Mix B—Water-reducing wie 80) {ro>00 se {203 00) Tobie 32 ‘At equal wie ratio Reference ConcrotelV Contr! mix: ‘Slump: 20:10 mm :20 90) Test Mi Slump: 2 20mm ‘At30min after adation: Slump: not ss than Initial ‘value of contol mix PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Concrete Technology es Sot Retarding igh Range Water Reducing/Superplasticizing Admixtures Table 1.4 Speen et ten ta rae eee = Retorance Concrete! = Contr mix = Stump: 70:40 mm (60 80) Soot FP ‘Slump: > 12% (60> > 60) {ro-3>80) en | Seow ier [ae (80 -+>100) Z fio Setting time: Fees [oven esas Reference Nortar ae SEES | qnestappaatus) SS eee At equal wc ratio Reference Concrete V ee Control mis: Slump: 30 10 mm (2080) F |e, [eae [oom Test ix: ee | a Slump: 2120 mm ‘At 30 min ster adtion: Slump! notless than intial value of control mixPE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Concrete Technology a EN 934 - 2; Tables 2, 3.1, 3.2, 4, 5 and 6 (also Tables 7 to 12) sotenngae cea PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Concrete Technology ~ ACCEPTANCE TESTING OF RETARDING AND WATER ~ REDUCING 'ADMIXTURE (NORMAL) — Example (average of 2 batches) Mixa Mix Mixreference | Control Mix) (piasticising) | _ (water-reducing) [Cement — kgim® 350 350 360 Water — kgim® 2418 218 195(10% reduction) ‘Sand — kgim? 705 705 755 10-20mm—kgim? | _ 705 705 705 510mm — kglm? ee 360 ‘Admixture ~ dim? = Manufacturer's recommended dosage wie ratio ost ost 0.55 Not = __ [Simple addition [Water content reduced Normal High Range ‘88.320 (8S 5075): reduction minimum 8% 16% [ASTM 494; reduction minimum 5% 12% 10-20% 20-30%PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Goncrete Technology me PERFORMANCE RESULTS OF RETARDING AND WATER- REDUCING ADMIXTURE (NORMAL) - Example oper Performance of Requirements Controt [Mixa [ix 8 (88 20, BS 5075) Watericement | 061 | ot | 055 | ixA: same as Control rato nix 8: minimum 6% reduction Air contont Control <2% om 11_| 12 | 19 [mina or not> 2% higher or 9% shim 30 Mixa: 15 mm above Control (ov) | 65-25) 210 | 160 | mix B: not>15 mm below Control Siifening time Mix no requirement osura (min) | 190 | wa. | 40s | mix: attast 1h longer than Control Compressive Strength | worcontrot | 100% ‘At both 7-day and 20-day aay (020) | 101% | 126% | mic: atleast 90% of Control aaeday (42.0) | 101% | 120% | mix 8: atleast 110% of Control PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Concrete Technology Stiffening Time Test + Stiffening time test (also called setting time in ASTM C 403) Penetration resistance test carried out on mortar wet-sieved from the concrete mix and by means of Proctor needles used for soil testing + InBS and 8S method only a single size neodle of 30 mm? area {a series of noodles of various areas in the ASTM C 403) Penetration resistance Stage of setting(ASTM) Significance in practi 0.5 MPa (BS,SS) : Limi for good workat for placing & compacting 3.5 MPa (500 psi) Initial setting time Vibration limit {cold joint fermation) 27.6 MPa (4,000 psi) Final setting time ‘Start of hardening (100 psi cylinder strength) (For compating change in setting time with and without admixture) initial stiffress of mortar modified time to reach each resistance) (NOT TRULY CONCRETE PERFORMANCE — NOT FOR USE ON SITE) Potential for cold joint formation within hours after “IST” results n decrease in ‘bond strength between provious placed and newly placed concretePE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology 5 SETTING TIME TEST —EN 480-2 vs SS 320 (BS 5075,ASTM 403) Standard Penetration Needle Wet-sieved Mortar from Concrete ‘Time to 3.5 MPa - potential cold joint formation ——_——— ‘A more rational method for determining potential cold joint time needs to be Vicat Penetration CeRHMcae developed for testing fresh concrete both in the laboratory as well as on site PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology oa Setting Time Test under EN 934 ing setting time with © Standard mortar using Vicat needle for determi and without admixture in concrete © Intended for conformity testing only — not directly applicable to site concrete ‘© New performance based test method needs to be developed to indicate potential cold joint formation in concrete Efficiency of Admixtures + Varied by concentration (solid content) and between brands (nominal water-reduction admixtures: 16-10%, 26-20%, 36-30%) + Effectiveness with different cements: (a) cement fineness (b) equivalent alkali content (%Na,0 + 0.658%K,0} (©) C,Acontent (Effectiveness reduced when any one of above factors in the cement increases) % Effectiveness lowered by increase in concrete temperaturePE FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING EXAMINATION CIVIL ENGINEERING CE 101 Mechanics of Materials (2/2) © Mechanics of Materials Strength, stiffress and deformabilly; Stress-strain relations; ductility and brite fracture; time-dependent properties; creep, creep rupture; relaxation; oyclic load behaviour. = Concrete Technology Conorete-making materials, properties of fresh and hardened concrete, mixing. placing, and curing, mix design. destructive and non-destructive fests, quailty control, durability, and special concrete + Stool Basic metallurgy, mechanical properties and applications, welding technology and Contsion me ° For further reading: ‘The Science and Technology of Civil Engineering Materials, JF Young, § Mindess, RJ Gray and A Bentur, Prentice-Hall International, 1998 Contact: Dr Tam Chat Tim, e-mail: cootamcu@nus.cdu.sa, Tel: 6516 6204" PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Concrete Technology Designed Concrete SS EN 206: 2014, SS 544-1: 2014", SS 544-2: 2014" Three characteristics related to Concrete STRENGTH (High Early and/or Later Strength) DURABILITY Aggressive Environments) (Speci CONSISTENCE (WORKABILITY) (Low or Very High Consistence) *Based on BS 8500-1: 2012 and BS 8500-2: 2012 updating in progress to BS 8500:2015+A1; 2016 and BS 8500:2015+A1: 2016 2PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Concrete Technology ‘Table 7 ~ Compressive strongth classes for normal-weight and heavy welght concrete (factor of 1.25 up to C5567, then diference of 15 Nim ‘Compressive | Minimum characteristic cylinder | Minimum charastoratic cubo strength class strength, faq4(Nlmm=) strength fees (tum) cao 8 10 crans 2 6 16:20 6 20 202s 20 25 26130 2 30 30137 20 sr csi 3 8 40160 «0 50 28155 45 55 50160 0 60 8867 55 or 807s 60 ~% crores 7 85 aos 0 96 c9ort0s 90 105 cr01s 100 118 EN 1992-14; For design, up to C90/108 with €100/105 for conformity purpose only» PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Concrete Technology BS 8500-2, (SS 544.2) Table 9 - Additional compressive strength classes to those given in EN 206-1 Minimum characteristic cylinder | — Minimum characterietie cube strength, Fc(Nm') strength, fase (Nine) 6 3 2 35 2 40 Lezaist 2 3 Lc32i35 2 35 Comment: In Tablo 7 and Table 9, up to C55I67, fo, asy # 1.25% foro From CB0I7S onwards, Texas = Fegan 18 (IMM fae Mecreasing with f) Recommend to have both cylinder and cube compressive strength tested in initial ‘ests (trial mix) to provide confidence in using Table 7 and Table 9 between structural design based on cylinder strength and groduction conformity based on cube strength. EN 206: 160 mm diameter by 300 mm cylinders or 150 mm cubes ‘SS 544-2 (BS 8500-2), Clause 12.2: when using 100 mm cubes both Table 7 of EN 206 and Table 9 of SS 544-2 (BS 8500-2) for 150 mm cubes remain valid Recommend: To provide confidence, both sizes should be tested during initial testing and identity testing during early stage of project, ‘|PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology Wom and som 32/40 otmmandisonm co/e FEEERE ary Son EEYOEOR btu ‘Poe eee ee ‘Source: Tam etal, 40" Conf, OWICS, 2016 PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Concrete Technology + Specimen shape and size Ui ASTM: cylinder specimens (100x200 or 150x300 mm) EN and SS: cubes (100 or 150 mm)/cylinder (150x300 mm) — End restraint and failure mode Th deddad icon forces THTTTT © (@) Bod sein in compression ‘PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology DESIGNED STRENGTH RANGE + Characteristic strength is defined as the compressive strength after 28 days of standard curing, below which 5% of all possible test results are expected to fall. e.g. Grade 35 mix with a design margin of 1.64x5 = 8(.2)MPa Expected range of strength from 43 + 8 = 36 to 51 MPa and with 5% of results (1 in 20) below 35 MPa or above 51 MPa Strength at 28 days, Batch 1 = 51 MPa, Batch 2= 35 MPa If 7-day strength = 0.7 x 28-day strength, 0.7 x 51 = 35.7 > 35 MPa, i.e. 7d of Batch 1 > 28d of Batch 2 IN PRACTICE, THIS CAN HAPPEN AND HAS HAPPENED! PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology Curing : (curing compound, wet hessian, sprayed mist, ponding) = promote cement hydration with temperature and extemal supply of water = coment hydration extremely low below temperature of about (~10°C) = (263 K) (datum for maturity concept) + Volume of product of hydration is greater than volume of cement and water centering into reaction + Concrete remains saturated only if continuously cured under water with part of curing water diffusing into hardened concrete + Sealed specimens fall below saturation as water is used up for hydration and, ‘ale of hydration slows down or even stopped + Exposed to ambient environment, drying out takes place and degree of drying varies with sizo of concrete element, ambient temperature and exposure relative humidity and original water content in the mix + With moisture loss, rate of hydration falls rapidly (depending on initial water ‘content and water fo cement ratio and age at which curing ended and ambient temperature and relative humidity) * In-place concrete has much less curing then standard cubes and tends,to develop lower strength than standard cubesPE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Concrete Technology Density specified for lightweight or heavy weight concrete (lightweight or heavy weight aggregates) M_ = mass of constituent (kg/m?) D = density of constituent (kg/m?) \V,= air content by volume (m°) Subscripts C, W, S and G for coment, water, sand and coarse aggregate (chemical admixture included as water — solid content = 30% by mass) (Density of concrete) Donen = Mc Mhy*t M+ My ‘and MclDe + My/Dy + My/Ds + Mo/D. For specified concrete density, both conditions have to be satisfied Vy (mn®) PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Concrete Technology FRESH CONCRETE ~ PLASTIC STAGE Fluid-like Composite Material Properties Change With the Progress of Hydration Construction Processes Handling, Transporting, Compacting and Curing Affects Achievement of Properties in Hardened Concrete Local Test Methods Based on British Standards Major Difference ~ Tropical Temperature of 2742°C (not 20°C) ity) Means Different Things to Different People Consistence (Worka © Ease With Which a Concrete Mix Can Be Handled, Starting From the Mixer to Its Final Compacted State ® Amount of Mechanical Work or Energy Required To Produce Full Compaction Without Segregation 7PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Concrete Technology, Consistonce classes - continued EN 206: 2013 5.4.1 Consistence, viscosity, passing ability and resistance to segregation NOTE For further information see Annex L, line 10 ‘Annex L (informative) Further information regarding specific paragraphs Line 10 Clause 5.4.1 (1) Due to the lack of sensitivity of the test methods beyond cert consistence itis recommended to use the indicated tests for = slump 2 10 mm and < 210 mm; (BS EN 12350-2) = degree of compactability 2 1.04 and <1.46; (BS EN 12350-4) = flow diameter > 340 mm ands 620 mm; (BS EN 12350-5) = slump flow diameter > 550 mm and s 850 mm(BS EN 12350-8) values of ‘Additional test for SCC ~ V-funnel test (BS EN 12360-9) ~ Lbox test (BS EN 12360-10) = Siave sogrogation tost (BS EN 12350-11) = Jering test (BS EN 12350-12) PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Concrete Technology Consistence classes (Vebe classes removed in revised EN 208) Table 3 ~ Slump Classes fable 4 — Compaction classes Glass | Shumprestedin —] | O69 | Degree of compactly accordance with En with EN 12350-4 aa cov > 16 a he ca 14540126 a o ca s2stoun a| ace ||a] sete st | 160t0270 api an *) See Note 1 to 5.4.1 eee ‘9 Ceapglee sity to Nppaeniget Highor consistonce class ~lower value Slump-test: BS EN 1250-2 Degree of compactabity: BS EN 12350-4PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology Consistence classes - continued Table 5 ~ Flow classes Table 6 ~ Slump Flow classes Class | Flow diameter tested in |[ Class | _ Slump Flow tested in accordance with EN accordance with EN 12350-8 12360-5 a a ‘SFI 550 to 650 Fe 5340 SF2 660 to 750 F2 350 to 410 SF3 760 to 860 ua aaa The elassitication is not agplicable to Fa 490 to 550 ‘concrete with D,, exceeding 40 mm FS 1560 to 620 Feo 2630 9) See Note 1 to 5.4.1 Slump-flow test: BS EN 1250-8 Flow table test: BS EN12350-5 Higher consistence clas — higher value 5.4.1 SCC Consistence: viscosity, passing ability and resistance to segregation. NOTE For further information see Annex L, line 10 ‘Annex L (informative) Further information rogarding specific paragraphs PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Concrete Technology. MEASUREMENT OF SLUMP laine | aloreeninr es | af ast ‘SHEAR SLUMP SHEAR SLUMPPE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Concrete Technology USEFULNESS AND LIMITATIONS Convenient Control Test to Indicate Uniformity of Concrete From Batch to Batch Interpretation of Change in Slump to Take Into Consideration Factors Affecting Slump That May Partly or Fully Contribute to Observed Change ‘Same Slump = Same Water Content Only Correct If the Quality of the Aggregate (Grading), Cement (Fineness of Cement) And Admixture (If Used) Remain Constant PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Concrete Technology 6 FLOW TABLE ~ BS 1881:Part 105:1984, EN 12350-?PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology ‘TESTS FOR SELF-COMPACTING CONCRETE BS EN 12360-8, Testing of fresh concrete, Part 8 ~ Self-compacting concrete: BS EN 12350-§ slump flow test , Testing of fresh concrete, Part 9 - Self-compacting concrete — V-funnel test BS EN 12350-0, Testing of fresh concrete, Part 10 ~ Self-compacting concrete — L-box test BS EN 12350-1 ‘Testing of fresh concrete, Part 11 ~ Self-compacting concrete ~ sieve segregation test BS EN 12350-12, Testing of fresh concrete, Part 12 ~ Self-compacting ‘concrete — J-ring test Additional Tests ASTM C 1610 Standard Test Method for Static Sogrogation of Self — Consolidating Concrete Using Column Technique ASTM C 1712 Standard Test Method for Rapid Assossmontoof Static Segregati Penet ion Resistance of Self - consolidating Concrete Using ion Resistance Test Dynamic Stability of SCC Test - Esmacikhanisn ot al (2014), ACI Materials Journal/May-June 2014, pp 299-307 PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Concrete Technology Table 6 ~ Slump-flow classes lass _| _Slump-fiow tested in accordance with EN 1236 Ft - ‘50 to 650, ‘Fa {60 to 750, FS 0 to 060, = The classification isnot applicable to conereto Table 7 - Viscosity classes ~ tug. ~ lus® tosted in accordance with EN 12960-8 @) <2.0 220 iscosity classes -t, 1t applicable to concrete withD,.. exceeding 40 mm 1. tested in accordance with EN 1235009 (3) <0 900 250, ble to concrete with D, ‘exceeding 22.8 mmPE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Concrete Technology Table 9 ~ Passing ability classes ~ L-box Class] __L-box ratio tested In accordance with EN 17350-10 Put 0,80 with 2 rebars PL 2.080 with 3 rebars Table 10 ~ Passing ability classes ~ J-ring Class “Ting stop tested in accordance with EN ¥2350-12 (nm) Put 1510 with 12 rebars Pu $10 with 16 rebars [The classification isnot appliable to conerete with Da, exceeding 4 mm Table 11 - Sieve segregation resistance classes lass | Segregated porion> tested in accordance wit EN 1260-11 srt 20 ‘SR? = he classification s not applicable to concrete with D, ing 40 mm BS EN 206: 2013 provides Classes but not guidance in relation to usage for specific site appl PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Concrete Technology Table 7 Viscosity classes ~ tgp {eqp tested in accordance with EN 12350-8 (8) <2,0 22,0 icable to concrete with Day, exceeding 40 mm Table 8 Viscosity classes ~t, Chass 1, tested in accordance with EN 12350-9 (8) VFI <90 v2 9,0 1025.0 classification is not applicable to concrete with Dy, exceeding 22.8 nm ‘are similar but not exactly correlated ITE 4 The classes in Tables 7 an EN 12350-8, Testing fresh concrete — Part 8: Set-compacting concrete — slump-low test (ego = time when slump flow diameter is $00 mm) EN 12350-9, Testing fresh concrete ~ Part 9: Sef.compacting concrete —V-funnel testPE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology. Table 9 ~ Passing ability classes - L-box Class_| _L-box ratio tested in accordance with EN 12350-10 PLA 2 0,80 with 2 rebars PL2 20.80 with 3 rebars Table 10 ~ Passing ability classes — Jing Glass | sering step * tested in accordance with EN 12380-12 (wm) Pst 10 with 12 rebars 510 with 16 rebars NOTE 2 The classes in Tables 9 and 10 ae similar ut nt exact correlated Table 11 ~ Sieve segregation resistance classes Classes | Segregated portion * tested in accordance with EN 1250-11 (%) SRI 20 skz__| auaeavats The eisscaton ent applicable to concroto with D,exceeding 40mm EW T2500, Testing Weahconcele Par 10; Sel-cornpacing concete=LDOxTeat EN 2350-12, Testing fresh concrete Part 12: Sellcompacing concrete Jing test EN 12350-11, Testing fresh concrete —Part 11; Sal-compactngconcste— Sieve segregation test PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology SLUMP FLOW - Conventional Slump Cone tsp = Time for flow diameter to reach 50 cm, or tso0 = Time for flow diameter to reach 500 mm 2PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology Slump Flow ® Indication of filing ability of self-compacting concrete measure of speed of flow and indication of relative viscosity of solf-compacting concroto SF = (d,+ 4,2 (mm) 4, = largest diameter of flow spread (mm) 4d, = flow spread at 90° to d, (mm) ‘Slump flow — ram 00 [00-760] > 760 Repeatability r— mim mia 2 2 ReproducibiliyR—-mm | ale 28 “time —s 38 350 Repeatability ~= 86 a ‘Roproducibiliy = 88 a vate Concrete shows siigntbeeaing ‘berved as ysi=3 Concentration ot course apgreate Steentreot reeemteon ——coneete mass . nd prosones of ASTM C1611-09a Appendix X1 (non-mandatory information) - VSI Values: 0= Highly Stable, 1 = Stable, 2= Unstable, 3 = Highly Unstabk (Useful visually for noting variability during production and on sitePE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Concrete Technology Table X1.1 VISUAL STABILITY INDEX VALUES VSI Value Criteria (0= Highly Stable No evidence of segregation or bleeding No evidence of aggregate and slight bleeding observed as a sheen on the concrete mass A slight mortar halo < 10mm (< 0.5 in) and/or 2= Unstable | aggregate pile in the center of the concrete mass Clearly segregating by evidence of a large Stable 3=Highly | mortar halo > 10mm (> 0.5 in) andiora large Unstable | aggregate pile in the center of the concrete mass PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Conerete Technology Tests and Suggested Limits Test Propertis ‘Suggested Limit Fvéunnet | Passing abity, Flow ime: 2010 seconds (preferred) £1112350.9 | segregation resistance | ower end of range for rst ght 2,008.0) (oy visual assessment) | upper end of range for uly emBy: 8,00 120) es = Vfunnel flow time = 30 50 80 120 | >150 Ropoatabilty oa 1a 2A 34 4a Reproducibility R—s 06 16 a 54 oJPE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Concrete Technology V-funnel Test Time for flow to fully empty the funnel as well as that to first noted seeing “first light” indicates viscosity of concrete Related to ability to discharge freely from a bucket hoisted by crane Relates also to tyoq time during slump flow test and also t0 tyoo; during J-ring flow test PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 me Conerete Technology L-Box Additional Measurements Time for flow to reach 200mm (Tz9) 400mm (Teo) End of box (T;) Height of concrete at High end = H, Low end = HyPE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Concrete Technology Passing ability ratio PL = HJH, * Note: for 3 bar ease only Passing ability ratio—PL™ =a <08 Repeatability r ot 03 Reproducibility R 02, 06 PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology Sieve segregation test Key 41 =Slove (5 mm) Koy 2 Sieve receiver 1 =Cover 3Sample container 1 2 concrete 4—Balance (10 kg t0 0.01 kg) 3~ Sample container 7 Capacity > 11 itor 7 ing to 101 mark Stand for 15:0,5 min. ‘Sogrogated portion SR = 100 x (m,,- m,)Im.% al Mp. = mass of siove receiver plus passed 3 ‘materials (grams) im, = _ mass of siove receiver (grams) _-2 m, = mass of concrete placed anto sieve (4,8 £0,2 grams) stand for 1205 s remove sieve to determne Myc Segregated portion SR —% 20 320 Repeatability -—% 37 709) Reproducibility R—% 37 709)PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Concrete Technology. J=ring test os 4, = largest diameter of flow spread [mm] [ \ 4) d)= Mow spread at 90° to 4, mm] 1a dad Tsay flow time to diameter of $00 mm ma (nearest 05) Waly, Ayr Aly Aye) Ah [to nearest 1 mm} Flow spread, SF = (4, + 432 [te nearest 10 mm] Naow gap Jing Series 0.8) mm Wide gap sing Gometer bare @ YC 20825) mm (Gt mm bar Ts, diameter bars foams (G32) mm spacing PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Concrete Technology. Table 1 - Repeatability and reproducibility for typical values of the narrow gap ting passing ability PJ, measured by the blocking step Jing passing ability PJ, measured by ba the blocking stop in millimetres ited a Repeatability, rin millimetres 46 78 Reproducibility, R in millimetres 48 78 Table 2 ~ Repeatability and reproducibility for typi J-ting flow spread, SF, 8 of the narrow gap “ring flow spread SF; in milimetres <600 | 600-750 | >750 Repeatability r in millimetres oo ae Reproducibility, Rin millimetres 7 6 3 ‘Tablo 3 - Ropeatabilty and reproducibility for typical values of the narrow gap ring flow time, ten, “ing owt to econ a5 [38 [8 Repeatability, rin seconds 070 123, 434 Reproducibility, Rin seconds 0,90 1.32, 4342PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Concrete Technology. ASTM C 1621/C 1621 M — Passing Ability by J-ring Test Filling Procedure A Upright mold Filling Procedure B Inverted Mold (foot pieces of mold intorfore with ring) Both slump flow and J-ring flow tobe conducted using the same filing procedure (A or B) ‘Slump flow to nearest 10 mm ‘Jering flow to nearest § mm PASSING ABILITY OF SCC - IMPROVED METHOD [BASED ON THE P-FING, Chan, KD, Ong, KEG ‘Tam, CT, 3th Conterence or OUR WORLDIN g CONCRETE & STRUCTURES: 25-27 August a 2110, Singspore Requirement implies difference between A and B PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Concrete Technology DENSITY AND YIELD (BS 1881:Part 107, SS 78:Part A7, ASTM C 138) Density of Compacted Fresh Concrete or Unit Weight Weighing a Minimum Volume of 0.01 Cubic Meter (Balance at Least 50kg Capacity to an Accuracy of 10g or Better) Compacted density of fresh concrete (kgim*) D = weight of concrete in container/volume of container Yield, Y= W,/ID W, = total weight of all materials batchedPE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrote Technology COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH Most Frequent Test on Hardened Concrete Strength Adopted in Structural Design Indicative of Many Other Properties (Modulus of Elasticity, Tensile and Bond Strengths) Propared Samples (Standard Cubes or Standard Cylinders) Tested at Specified Ages ~ Historically at 26 Days (other ages also specified) ‘Two Types of Standard Specimens Cubes (150mm oF 100mm) — UK, Malaysia, Singapore, Eurceode ‘150mm Diameter by 300mm Long Cylinder - USA, Australia, Eurocode Minimum Dimension of Specimen ‘At Least 4 Times That of Maximum Size Aggregate (ASTM — At Least 3 Times) Volume of Concrete for Each 160mm Cube More Than Volume of 3 Numbers of 100mm Cubes (100mm Cubes Adequate for 20mm Maximum Size Aggregate) When Samples Not Avallable or Test Results in Doubt ‘Assessment of Concrete in Existing Structure PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Concrete Technology SPECIFIED CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH Value Below Which 5% of Test Results Expected to Fall Probabilistic Nature of Sampling and Testing Variability of Test Results (Random or Systematic Errors in Production and Testing) MIX DESIGN Degree of Variability in Terms of Standard Deviation (Usually Based on Past Performance) ‘A Margin (for Safety) Added to Characteristic Value ‘To Arrive at Target Mean Strength in Mix Design WARGIN— MPa ‘STANDARD DEVIATION — MPa oan ‘5H defective (Production | 2.6% dofective (Til Mix) 195x386 a 1.64 eax 164%PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Concrete Technology ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA Risk of Producers Having Acceptable Concrote Rojectod Risk of Purchaser ‘Accepting Concrete Below Specified Quality Statistical Assessment of Test Results Based on Probabilistic Rather Than Deterministic Approach (CP 110:1972, Modified in BS 8110:1985) (Revision of BS 8110: 1997 ~ Specification in BS 5928) ISS CP 65: 1999 and $$289: 2000] BS 5328:Part 4 (SS 289:Part 4) Mean Strength Determined From the First Two, ‘Three or Four Consecutive Test Results, Or From Any Group of Four Consecutive Test Results Complies With Appropriate Limits in Column A of Table 1 Any Individual Test Result (Average of 1 or 2 specimens) Complies With Appropriate Limits in Column B of Table 1 (BS EN 206: 2013 replaced BS 5328 [SS EN 206 replaced SS 289}) PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Concrete Technology Table 4. Charactoris tic Comprossive Strength Compliance Requirements, Specified Group of R 3 ‘radia testresults [The mean of the group | Any individual test oftest results exceeds | result isnot less ‘the specified than the characteristic charactorietic comprossive strongth | comprossive by atleast: strength less: 20 and MPa (Nien!) MPa (Nimm?) Lanai first 2 4 3 first3 2 any consecutive 4 3 3 crswes first 2 ° 2 first 3 1 2 Any consecutive 4 2 2 BS 5328 and SS 289 — based on overlapping running 4 for mean Different conformity criteria adopted in BS EN 206 [SS EN 206]) °°PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Concrete Technology EN 206 8.2.1.3 Conformity Criteria for compressive strength 8.2.4.3-4 Criteria for individual results (1) Conformity of concrete compressive strength is assessed on specimens tested at 28 days in accordance with 5.5.1.2. Each individual test result shall satisfy: 52 (Foy —4) Nim? 8.2.4.3.2 Criteria for mean results (1) The achievement of the specified characteristic strenath shall be assessed by one of the following methods. Method A: initial production (2) For initial production, the mean strength of non-overlapping or overlapping groups of three consecutive results shall satisfy: fem? (fx * 4) Nie? ‘Method B: Continuous production (3) Method B is an option when conditions of continuous production are established [statistic approach: fy,2 (fa. + 1-480) Nimm?] Method C: Use of control charts PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Concrete Technology ‘SATISFACTORY FAILURE MODES End Friction Effects — Double Pyramid Formed UNSATISFACTORY FAILURE MODES T= tensile crackPE FUNDAMENTALS ~ GE 101 Conerete Technology ACTIONS FOR NON-CONFORMITY FACTORS FOR CONSIDERATION Locations in Which Concrete Relates to Test Results(s);, Influence of Any Reduction in Concrete Quality on Structur Influence of Any Reduction in Concrete Quality on Durability ‘Actual Mix Proportions of Conerete Concemed; ‘Technical Consequence of the Non-conformity in Relation to Remedial Measures Available and Economic Implications. INTERPRETATION OF CUBE STRENGTH Cube Strength Reported to Nearest 0.5 MPa Repeatability fora Pair of 150mm Cubes ‘At Ago of 28 Days = 10% of the Mean ‘At 95% Probability Level [29 MPa and 31 MPa ARE THEY REALLY DIFFERENT?] ,, PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrote Technology INVESTIGATION @ To Assess If Quality of In-situ Concrete Is Acceptable (both in terms of strength and durability requirements) © Remedial Measures to be Taken, If Necessary © Does Not Nullify Non-conformity of Valid Test Results METHODS OF INVESTIGATION Load Test - Flexural Elements Non-destructive Test Core Strength Test In-situ Strength in Structure “The ratios found between core and cube strength result from interactions botwoon materials, components and tho environment. Consequently, the uncertainty of an estimate for a cubelcore ratio will be quite large.” (Concrete Society, UK, Project Report 3, 2004) In-situ Conerete Strength Only Indicated by Cores or NDT Correlaticns (baseePon concrete simulating site environment conditions — performance-based)PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Concrete Technology TENSILE STRENGTH TESTING Direct Tensile Strength Test — Difficult to Perform Tensile splitting strength (cylinder or cube) BS EN 12390-6 [BS 1881:Part 117] (SS 78:Part A17) fz, = 2Fi(n x @ xd), Reported to Nearest 0.05 MPa PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology Tensile splitting strength (cylinder or cube) Repeatability fora pair of 150mm diameter by 300mm long cylinders at the age of 28 days 18% of the mean at 95% probability leve! “4PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology TENSILE STRENGTH TESTING Flexural Strength (Prism) BS EN 12390-5 [BS 1881:Part 118] (SS 78:Part A18) fos = (F x &)M(d, x d,2), Reported to Nearest 0.1 MPa Where F = maximum load (N), €= (span) distance between supporting rollers (mm), 4, = width of cross-section (mm) 4, = depth of cross-section (mm) Precision ~ Not indicated in BS or SS ASTM C78 Repeatability~ 16% of the mean at 95% probability level Reproducibility - 19% of the mean at 95% probability level PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology Flexural Strength (Prism) 6PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology OTHER TESTS ON HARDENED CONCRETE © Modulus of Elasticity (BS EN 12390-13, BS EN BS 1881:Part 121, SS 78:Part 21) © Water Absorption (BS 1881:Part 121, SS 78:Part A21) © BS EN 12390-8 Depth of penetration of water under pressure Shrinkage ~ shortening due to drying out © Creep — shortening due to drying out Tests Specified for Special Cases (New Materials for Making Concrete) (Very High Strength Concrete — Exceeding 80 MPa) *” PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Concrete Technology STRENGTH OF CONCRETE IN EXISTING STRUCTURES (Non-destructive Tests) Measurement Involving Some Aspect of Concrote Property Measurement Involving a Quantity ‘That Can be Correlated to Compressive Strength Evaluate Quality of Concrete Already Placed in the Structure Not Quality of Concrete Established by Testing of Standard Specimens (Difference in Degree of Compaction and Level of Moist Curing) Estimation of in-situ concrete strength serves only to assess adequacy for structural safety, and do not provide sufficient information relating to conformity to specified characteristic concrete compressive strength in specification BS EN 13781: 2007 Assessment of in-situ compressive strength in structures and recast concrete components, 9, Assessment where conformity of concrete based on standard tosts Is in dubtPE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology NON-DESTRUCTIVE TEST METHODS (Superseded) a underd | Hiacued | compessvestenat | “Secon Rebound Number [85 728Par202 | weigntor | Modulus of Concrete | Near Surface tna Mumber | asc 205 Rebound (0.20) Penetration ‘8s 188t:PartZa7 | —_Depthot | Fredonand Fracture | Near Surface Resistance AsTatc 602 Penetration | Energy of Conerte | (Upto drm) Pullout Gnsert oF PrlowtForee | Sheor Strength of | Near Surface embedded stu) con (@oomm) Break 89 Tt Par 27 Flexural Strength of | Near Susce Aoseredmous) | astmc-iso_| resting Force ‘Concrete omm) 135 15t:Par 205 | Taai'Time | odie and Deny of Puts volciy | BS 18t-ar ees Throunh Depth aaa : Puamrone | Aaerastemorar | Near Surace Intrtace Bona (ctor) ‘SS EN 19731: 2009 Assessment of in-situ compressive strength in siructures and precast components together with BS EN 12504 test methods for rebound ‘number, pull-out, pulse velocity and cores ‘8S 592: 2013 Assessment of in-situ compressive strength in structures and precast concrete components ~ Complementary guidance to that given in SS EN 13791 (Annex B — informative: Sample test plan) PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology > BS EN 13791: 2007 Assessment of in-situ compressi structures and precast concrete components [National Annex NA (informative) Additional guidance for UK users] SS EN 13791: 2009 [National Annex (informative) Additional guidance for Singapore users) > BS EN 12504-1: 2009 Testing of concrete in structures ~ Fart 1: Cored spocimons ~ Taking, examining and testing in compression > BS EN 12504-2: 2001 Testing of concrete in structures ~ Part 2: Non- destructive testing — Determination of rebound number > BS EN 12504-3: 2005 Testing of concrete in structures ~ Part 3: Non- destructive testing ~ Determination of pull-out force > BS EN 12504.4: 2004 Testing of concrete in structures — Part 4: Non- destructive testing — Determination of ultrasonic pulse velocity > BS 6089: 2010 Assessment of in-situ compressive strength in structures and precast concrete components — Complementary guidance to that given in BS EN 13791 ‘SS 592: 2013 Assessment of in-situ compressive strength in structures and precast concrete components — Complementary guidance to that given in SS EN 13791 (based on BS 6089:2010) Note: Penetration resistance (Windsor Probe ASTM) NOT included strength inPE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Concrete Technology ‘SS EN 13791: 2009 (BS EN 13791: 2007) Informative Annexes ‘Annex A : Factors influencing core strength ‘Annox B : Factors influoncing results by indirect test methods ‘Annex C : Concepts concerning the relationship between in-situ sirength and strength from standard test specimens. ‘Annex D : Guidelines for planning, sampling and evaluation of tes: results when assessing in-situ strength ‘National Annex NA (informative) ~ Additional guidance for UK users. Limitations an core location — CSTR 44-1987, 3.2.2.5 © No adjustment for direction of drilling if followed © Correction factors, (K,) for converting actual core result into ecuivalent insitu cube or 2:1 cylinders, multiplied actual core strength by the factor: Kg con® 2.51(1.6 + 100) OF Ky, = 2.01.5 + 40h) 2.5 lengthidiameter ratio of the core © Correction for reinforcement - Appendix 4 to Part 3 of CSTR 11:1987 ‘Singapore National Annex NAZ (informative) % Correction factor, K, cys, commended in relation to cube test specimens for acceptance 4 No correction recommended for reinforcement up to core length - diamotar ratio of 1.08 PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology REBOUND NUMBER (BS 1881:Part 202, SS 78:Part B2, ASTM C 805) A Mass Propelled by a Spring Striking a Plunger In Contact With the Goncrete Surface Helght of Rebound Depends on Energy Absorbed by Consrete Indicative of Strength and Stifness (Modulus of Elasticity) of Concrete, Schmidt Rebound HammerPE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology REBOUND NUMBER Hardened Stee! Anvil for Calibration (Rebound Number Around 80) Number of Reading Recommended 9 for Cubes on Each of Two Faces Accessible 12 for a Chosen Location ina Structure, 10 or More Readings Taken at One Location ‘Mean Rebound Number Likely to be Within + 15/n % With 95% Confidence Where N= Number of Readings Coofficient of Variation of a Set of Individual Readings for a Location 10% (Range 2 to 15%) [affected by strength level and size and volume fraction of coarse aggregates) sngth and Rebound Hardness Assumed its on Estimation of Strength ‘25% Under Ideal Conditions PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Concrete Technology FACTORS INFLUENCING REBOUND NUMBER Types and proportions of concrete making materials Type of curing and age of concrete Type of surface, i.e. formwork material Moisture condition of surface Carbonation - increases hardness (for age > 3 months) Direction of testing - including any inclined angle to allow for gravity effect on rebound of the mass Edge distance (> 20 mm) Distance between impact at least 20 mm apart Variability between hammers of same nominal design x.PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 401 Concrete Technology REBOUND NUMBER Hardened Steel Anvil for Calibration (Rebound Number Around 80) Normal Range of Concrete Strengths Rebound Number Ranges From 10 to 50 Correlation Is by Tests of Both Strength and Hardness Concrete Cubes (New Construction) Cubes (150 mm Preferred) Held Under a Load of 7 to 10 Mpa For Impact Energy About 2.2 N.M (Type N Hammer} Cores (Old Structures - In-situ Hardness Before Coring) PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Concrete Technology ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY ‘THREE TYPES OF MEASUREMENT BASED ON ALIGNMENT OF “DRIVER” AND “RECEIVER” TRANSDUCERS. DIRECT: BOTH TRANSDUCERS DIRECTLY IN LINE (Exact Path Length Known, Low Attenuation) SEMI-DIRECT: TRANSDUCERS AT AN ANGLE WITH EACH OTHER (Path Takon As Diagonal Distance Between Transducers) INDIRECT: BOTH TRANSDUCERS ON THE SAME SURFACE PLANE. (Surface wave [shear] rather than compressive wave) | INDIRECT SEMI-DIRECT DIRECT 6PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Concrete Technology ¢ CORRELATION BETWEEN COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, f AND PULSE VELOCITY, V GENERALLY ASSUMED TO BE OF THE FORM: f= Ae ‘where A and B are constants depending on mix proportions and materials ¢ WATER FILLED CAPILLARIES PROMOTE FASTER VELOCITY THAN AIR BUT LOWERS MEASURED STRENGTH OF CONCRETE ‘¢ FOR SIMILAR MIX PROPORTIONS, TYPE OF COARSE AGGREGATE HAS HIGHER INFLUENCE THAN TYPE OF SAND ¢ HIGHER VOLUMETRIC FRACTION OF AGGREGATES INDICATES A HIGHER REBOUND FOR THE SAME STRENGTH ¢ AT 95% CONFIDENCE LEVEL, + 20% FOR STRENGTH ESTIMATION WITH APPROPIRATE CORRELATION 7 PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Concrete Technology FACTORS INFLUENCING UPV © TYPES OF MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPORTIONS IN CONCRETE © TYPE OF CURING AND DURATION © MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OF AGGREGATES © MOISTURE CONDITION THROUGHOUT THE PATH LENGTH (Generally non-uniform in existing structures) © PROPER ACOUSTIC COUPLING Correstion Factors Needed 55PE FUNDAMENTALS -— CE 101 Concrete Technology Table = Faeuramere rh vm characet rei comet rath compressive stongthin elation {o-compressive strength cs ‘he minimum characterise in stu comprossive stengt with ‘espeet to tha compressive Sees cases scorn to Bu Tabi = inna charctretie Insta compressive strength for EW 206-1 compressive stenath NOTE 1 The insite compressive ‘strength may bees than that ‘measured ot standard test NOTE? The rntio0.85's partofy, men 992-447 3008 Compressve | __Ralloaf atu | Minium characteristic strength clase | charactor stvength | inst strength ‘ceordingto. | “to charscters imme EN 208 "| strength of standard | —> Specimens fan | fame caro 06 76a) | 908) ora 06 waco) | #311275) | e1s20 086 wecse) | 7070) 2005 06 wero) | 21125) cas 06 zr eras) | 26.28.) e087 a6 ease) | 31 3145) sus om 30 2978) | 38(3828) 0180 086 seeeo) | 28) casi65 7 38.68.25) | 47 96.76) ‘cen 05 B29 | 1610, ‘can? Os 7 (6.78) 67 (56.95) | ‘cea7s 26 star.) | 6416376) ‘o70es 6 20 (35) | 72(7225) ‘cans 06 8 68.0) | 61 (9075 Cord 085 | 7705) | a9 0.25) roots 7 “ws aso) | 08,9775) PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Concrete Technology nema Progressive internal cracking ‘Strain incompatibility at interface ‘Stress concentration ‘Seco The Sanco ant eo of Enger awa F Youn, § Mees Rey aA Boy, Pte Behaviour under compressive load (stress — strain curve) ~ at service load level, stross below 25% strength, stable bond cracks ~ above 50% strength, matrix cracks initiated = above 75% strength, linking up of bond and paste cracks ~ sustained stress above 75% strength, unstable cracks lead to fractiirePE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Concrete Technology Stress ~ strain curve varies with aggregate type — strength level ultimate strain level Nature of time-dependent behaviour cimultancous creep strain plus drying shrinkage higher than sum,“ of free shrinkage and basic creep * | = restrained shrinkage leads to development of tensile strogs that may result in cracking = notall creep or shrinkage strain is recoverable ‘Sash Scans a Tei Ci eam JF Yous, Mins Rl Gy and Be, Pet PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Concrete Technology Strength development = function maturity (product of time and temperature) = rapid early strength gain lowers later age again = for equal 28-day strength slower strength gain leads to better long term strength Importance of curing - even more critical at early ages for high strength concrete to ensure moisture reaching the interior of concrete volume e ‘Seca The Sena nd Tet Cut Engaeny Mah JF Yo, Sane RI Gy se AB, PeiPE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology. Rate of loading — slow rate of loading results in slightly lower ultimate strength = short term loading in standard test less than 20 minutes ~ sustained overload leads to failure at stress level of about £0% strength (static fatigue or creep fracture) A ot Th ce Rely fC gong Matt, gS Maes RIC anda Bt Peon a PE FUNDAMENTALS ~ CE 101 Concrete Technology PRODUCTION CONTROL Production control comprises all measures necessary to maintain the properties of concrete in compliance to specified requirements, including = selection of materials, design, — concrete production, (dry or wet batching)" — inspections and tests, = use of the results of tests on constituent materials, fresh and hardened concrete and equipment, = where relevant, inspection of equipment used in transporting fresh concrete * Drying batching: batching constituents into mixer truck for mixing and transporting concrete to site Wet batching: constituents batched into central mixer for mixing and discharged into agitating truck for transporting concrete to site = concretePE FUNDAMENTALS ~ GE 101 Concrete Technology QUALITY CONTROL ‘Three main requirements for concrete production: * Suitable selection of constituent materials to comply with durability and other relevant requirements ‘¢ Suitable selection of constituent materials and control of batched quantities to achieve strength requirement ‘+ Adequate workability in frech conerete for method of placing and compacting ‘= The most difficult to control is the effective water contentdue to uncertainties in deter jon of total moisture content in sand as batched — non uniform free moisture content in stockpile, particularly ‘when stockpile is not properly protected from sun and rain * Variation in slump ~ often used as guide to adjust added water, may not be entirely due to uncertainties in sand moisture contend adopted but also on variation in quality of cement and grading of aggregates PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrote Technology DURABILITY OF CONCRETE © Sulfate attack from external source - soil and marine environment Sulfate resistance in concrete is best mitigated by selection of coment type (e.g. sulfate resisting Portland cement, partial replacement of Portland cement with fly ash or ggbs, calcium aluminate cement for sewers and swage works, Ref. BRE Special Digest 1, 2008 ). ‘* Alkali-silica reaction with reactive aggregates. For low and normal class of reactive aggregates, select low alkali ‘cement (< 0.60 Na,0 04.) o limit total alkall content in concrete (Ref. BRE Digest 330, 2004) * Corrosion of embedded ste! reinforcement due to chloride ingress and/or carbonation of concrete cover Limit initial chloride content in concrete and design concrete with low permeability of water and oxygen and low chloride diffusion rate for designPE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Concrete Technology (CHEMICAL ATTACK - DIRECTLY INDUCED CRACKS. ‘SULFATE ATTACK [EXTERNAL SULFATE SOURCE| INTERNAL SULFATE SOURCE ‘AGGREGATE EXCESS SULFATE CEMENT ‘CENENT EXCESS SULFATE _J | NORMAL SULFATE EXPOSURE. : HIGH TEMPERATURE ‘TEMPERATURE HIGH TEMPERATURE | DURING SERVICE | DURING CURING (Excess SULFATE DEF (ISA) “DUGGAN TEST? PE FUNDAMENTALS -— CE 101 Concrete Technology ‘SULFATE 'BS EN 206: 2013 Table 2~ Limiting value for expos classes for chemical attack from natural soil and ground wator Table F.1 — Recommended limiting values for composition and proportions of concrete (intended design working life of 50 years) 5.2.5 Use of additions 5.2.5.2 k-value concept for fly ash, silica fume and ground granulated biast furnace stagPE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology ‘CURRENT DESIGN APPROACH ~ BS EN 206:2013/BS 8500-1:2012 (SS 544. Extract from BS 8500-1: 2013, Table A.4 (20 mm aggregate) Durability recommendations for reinforced or prestressed elemerts with an intended working life of at least 50 years Corrosion induced by carbonation (XC exposure classes) 1018) Exposure [Nominal cover [Minimum | Maximum | Minimum coment or | Cements! ci ‘mm | strength |wie ratio. | combination content | combinations class —_|thginy types xe‘ Fae ozone [070 | 240 ‘lin Table xcz__ [25+ ae e250 [oss | 260 As ase Ae 2530 [oss | 260 czas: |oso | 260 xcs [30+ Ae e205 [oso | 200 ata and esos oss {300 oaee| eee xcs [25 +a soar [oss | 300 “For VEN. | caso: [oss [suo 20+ Ae caso [oas [240 “IvB.V : CEM 1V/8(V}, or C1VB (36 to 55% ly ash — high %, lower eatbonatin resistanéh) PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology SPECIAL CONCRETE re-reinforce cement composites using organ, carbon, glass and polymer fibres (enhancement of tensile strength and ductility of high performance concrete) * High performance concrete include one or more of the following characteristics: high compressive strength (> 60 to 140 MPa cube strength) —high consistence class (SCC ~ self consolidating concrete) high durability for extreme exposure class (high temperature, freezelthaw resistance, aggressive industrial chemicals, biogenic sulfuric acid) —high abrasion or wear resistance igh impact or blast resistance ~ heavyweight or lightweight concrete aPE FUNDAMENTALS —CE 101 Concrete Technology CASTING OF RAFT FOUNDATION MIX DESIGN — RECOMMENDED STRATEGY {Cost-effective - maximum temperature < 70°C) CEMENT CONTENT 350 TO 400 kg/m? LOW HEAT CEMENT (70% GGBS or 30% PFA REPLACEMENT with 5% to 7% CSF) WATER CONTENT AT 140 TO 160 kg/m? (PUMP MIX WITH PLASTICISERS AND RETARDER) TWO CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES: (VARYING DOSAGE OF PLASTICISER AND RETARDER) SAME STRENGTH AND WORKABILTIY DIFFERENT INITIAL TEMPERATURE DIFFERENT RETARDATION TIME (Sandwich concept in multi-layers approach) Ref: Tam et al: 2002 Strategy for casting of raft foundation in tropical climate, Journal ‘of The Institution of Engineers, Singapore, Vol. 42, No. 6, 2002, pp €-11 PE FUNDAMENTALS - CE 101 Concrete Technology MIX DESIGN — THICK SLAB CASTING © ADEQUATE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (MINIMUM WATER CONTENT ~ MINIMUM CEMENT CONTENT) (Conformity at §6 days with nominal grade at 28 days) @ SUITABLE WORKABILITY FOR METHOD OF PLACING (HIGH FLOW OR SELF-COMPACTING CONCRETE, PUMPING) @ SUFFICIENT DELAY IN SETTING {SUFFICINT TO AVOID COLD JOINT BUT NOT EXCESSIVE FOR POTENTIAL PLASTIC SETTLEMENT CRACKING) © _ SATISFACTORY LOW HEAT OF HYDRATION (LIMITING TEMPERATURE RISE AND TEMPERATUR DIFFERENTIAL) Note: Curing as early as possible to minimise potential plastic shrinkage crackingPE FUNDAMENTALS —CE 101 Concrete Technology EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON CONCRTE PROPERTIES » INITIAL WORKABILITY, RATE OF WORKABILITY LOSS (slump retention admixture and higher initial stump) » STIFFENING TIME (COLD JOINT FORMATION) (appropriate delay in setting with retarding admixturo) > INITIAL TEMPERATURE, TEMPERATURE RISE, PEAK TEMPERATURE (MAXIMUM) (use chilled water or ice, low heat cement at minimum kg/m?) > POTENTIAL SETTLEMENT CRACKING (just adequate retardation for top layer concrete) > POTENTIAL PLASTIC SHRINKAGE CRACKING (initiate early curing and minimise rate of surface moisture loss) PE FUNDAMENTALS — CE 101 Concrete Technology Special Concretes » High density concrete for radiation protection, e.g. X-ray and high energy scanning equipment rooms » Fibre-reinforced concrete with steel (EN 14889-1) and/or polymer fibres (EN 14889-2) > Ultra high strength cement composites — including nano particles, ete for protective structures > Calcium aluminate coment concrete - biogenic sulfuric acid attack (BSA) in sewer applications (microbiologically induced type of corrosion) (Specialist input is needed for such coneretes)

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