Plant Growth and Development - determinant (flower early and then go dormant, flower Auxin Discovery - C.

ower Auxin Discovery - C.) Symplastic thru cells & plasmodesmata

Growth irreversible change in mass bulbs) - D.) Phloem - conjugated forms glycoside
- Compnents - indeterminant (flower thruout season, shoot dies in fall) - Mechanism of Action
1.) Cell Division 8.) Woody perennial polycarpic - A.) Bind receptor Protein Plasma membrane
2.) Cell Enlargement - Indeterminant (flower only once/year) - B.) Transport into cell
3.) Cell Differentiation - Biennial Bearing (flower & set fruit every other year) - C.) Activate ATPase in Plasma membrane
Development irreversible change instate - Mast flowering (more prolific in some years than in others) - D.) H+ ion extension
- Embryogenesis - E.) Acidify cell wall
- Juvenile Dormancy - F.) Break hemicellulose-pectin bonds
- Adult Vegeatative - Ecodormancy imposed by environment - G.) Cellulose microfibrils slide apart
- Adult Reproductive o Temp, daylength, etc. - H.) Cell Enlarges
- Paradormancy Physiological dormancy - Responses
> Cell Division o Apical dominance - Cell Enlargement
- Meristematic Cells (stem cells) - Endodormancy true dormancy - Shoot growth internodes,
- Primary o Seeds, terminal buds tubers, bulbs
- Shoot Apical Meristem (SAM) - Root growth storage &
-Root Apical Meristem (RAM) Plant Growth Regulators adventitious roots
- 2ndary 1.) Endogenous substance produced by a plant affecting - Fruit growth Strawberry
- Axillary Buds the pattern of growth and devmnt (receptacle enlargement)
- Vascular Cambium - production by plant is regulated by envi. - Apical Dominance
- Cork Cambium 2.) Exogenous substance applied to the plant altering - Auxin: Cytokinin Ratio
- Pericycle (root) growth and devmnt in the same way that endogenous - High Dormant
> Cell Enlargement substance do axillary buds
- Adjacent to Meristems - may be same or diff. chemically from the endogenous - Low Axillary bud
- Internode growth shoot substance growth
- Zone of Elongation Root 3.) Hormone substance acting in very low concentration - Agri. Uses
- Turgor Pressure - produced in 1 part of the plant ad act in another - Rooting cutings
- H2O uptake (translocation) - Herbicides
- Cell wall loosening - has same response I many diff. plant sp. - Prevent Abscission of leaves & fruits
- New cell walls - Chemical Thinning
> Cell Differentiation A.) Primary - Tissue Culture Propagation
- Cessation of cell Enlargement 1.) Auxins 2.) Cytokinins 3.) Gibberillins
- 2ndary cell walls 4.) Abscisc Acid 5.) Ethylene Cytokinins
- Xylem vascular tissue B.) 2ndary newly discovered Synthetic Auxins - Adenine + Ribose = Adenosine
- Fibers 1.) Jasmonic Acid 2.) Brassinosteroids - ATP, ADP, AMP
-Epidermal cells 3.) Juglone 4.) Salycylic Acid 5.) Polyamines - DNA, RNA
- Root hairs & leaf hairs C.)Others (not yet confirmed/understand) - Nucleotides NAD, NADP, FAD
- Guard cells 1.) Petide Hormones (animals maybe plants) - Cytokinins cis & trans Zeatin, + Ribose (Zeatin
- Leaves, flowers 2.) Oligosaccharides (cell wall signaling) riboside)
- Fruit, tubers, bulbs, etc. 3.) Phospholipids (inositol phosphates, diacylglycerides)
4.) mRNA/Protein (Florigen floral induction)
Types of Growth
1.) Determinant terminal shoot apex flowers Natural Auxin Auxin
2.)Indeterminant axillary buds flower; terminal buds 1. Endogenous Indole Acetic Acid - Synthesis
vegetative - A.) Young developing leaves
3.) Monocarpic flower once then die - B.)Terminal buds, growing axillary buds
4.) Polycarpic flower repeatedly over several seasons - C.) seeds
5.) Annual monocarpic; flower in one season and then die - Transport -
6.) Biennial monocarpic; flower in 2nd season and then die - A.) Basipetal away from tip - Synthesis root apex
7.) Herbaceous Perennial polycarpic - B.) Apoplastc outside cells - Transport Upward in xylem
- Reponses Ex. Bending of seedling toward light due to - by transcriptional regulation/ post-translational
- Stimulate Cell Div. sensing the direction, quantity, and color of modification
- Apical Dominance the light
- Gradient Bet. Etiolation morphological adaptations for growing in Transcrriptional Regualtion
- high auxin:cytokinin ( dormant axillary darkness - Specific transcription factors bind directly to specific
growth) - C2H4 gas at room temp De-etiolation in w/c shoots and roots grow normally after regions of DNA & control transcription of genes
- low auxin:cytokine (branch growth) - Synthesis exposure to light - + transcription factors proteins increase transcription of
- Synthetic Kinetin (in DNA degredation) Methionione SAM ACC Ethylene PG specific genes; - transcription factors proteins that
- Benzyladenin *BA or 6-Benzyl amino purine) SAM S-Adenosyl Methionine Cell-signal processing decrease the transcription of specific genes
- Agri. Uses ACC - Amino Cyclo Propase Stages:
- Limited PG Polygalacturonase 1.) Reception Post-translational Modification of Proteins
- Induction of axillary buds - Agri. Uses 2.) Transduction - involves modification of existing proteins in the signal
- Micropropagation - Fruit Ripening 3.) Response response
- Floral Devmnt -modification involves the phosphorylation of specific AA
- Sex Expression
Gibberellins - Degreening of Citrus De-Etiolation (greening) proteins
- Family of >70 structures - Mechanical Harvesting - Enzymes functioning in signal responses directly involved
- Synthesis Fungal product (Gibberella fugikuroi) - Postharvest Shelf Life in photosynthesis
- Plant product normal growth & elongation - others involved supplying chemical precursors for
Abscisic Acid chlorophyll prodn
- Natural plant growth retardant opposes action of GA
and Auxin Hormones chemical signals coordinating diff. parts of an
- Synthesis chloroplast, breakdown product of organisms
carotenoids Tropism any response resulting in curvature of organs
- Responses toward or away from stimulus; caused by hormones
- Dormancy maintenance high levels in - Phototropism plants response to light; w/n tip
dormant seed and buds 1.) Reception internal& external signals are detected by of the coleoptile present bend towards light
Inactive Active
- Drought Resistance causes stomatal closure receptors, proteins that change in response to specific A.) Auxin
- Synthesis
- Agri. Uses (none) stimuli - any chemical promoting elongation of
- Starts in Plastids (Carotenoid Pathway)
2.) Transduction 2nd messenger transfer and amplify coleoptile
- Modified in ER
Synthetic Growth retardants signals from receptors to proteins causing responses - Indoleacetic acid (IAA) common auxin
- Completed in Cytoplasm
1.) Daminozide (Alar, B-9) - auxin transporter proteins move hormone
- Tissue Localization
- Retard growth from basal end (cell) into apical end (cell)
- SAM, Young Leaves, Apical Internodes
- Stimulate flowering - acdg (acid growth hypothesis) stimulates
- Developing Fruit, Germinating Seed
- Chemical pruning proton pumps in plasma mem. proton pumps
- Roots
2.) Chlormequat (CCC, Cycocel) lower pH (cell wall) activating expansins
- Transport
- Promote branching enzymes loosening cell walls fabric cell
- Xylem and Phloem
- Prevent lodging of wheat elongate
- Responses
3.) Ancymidol (A-Rsst) - in root formation and branching
- Cell elongation
- ht. control of bulb produced plants (lily, tulip) - as herbicides but overdose of synthetic auxins
- in Dwarf cultivars, Dwarfing
4.) Paclobutrazol (Bonzai) kills eudicots
rootstocks, seed dormancy
- Micropropagation - affects 2ndary growth in cell div. I vascular
- Agri. Uses
- Stimulates rooting cambium & influencing differentiation of
- Thompson Seedless Grapes
2ndary xylem
- Seed Germination
B.) Cytokinins
- Male Flower prodn
- Chilling requirement
Plant Responses to Internal & External 3.) Response signal transduction pathway regulation of
- stimulates cytokinesis (cell div.)
Signals - control of cell div & differentiation (in actively
1/ more cellular activities
Flowers of diff. sp. open at diff. times a day used as growing tissues roots, embryos & fruits)
Ethylene - responses (stimulation) involve increased activity of
Horologium florae(floral clock) - control of apical dominance (a terminal buds
enzymes
Plants respond to envitl changes ability to suppress devmt of axillary buds
 - Anti-aging effects
C.) Gibberellins
- stem elongation (stimulate growth of leaves &
stems)
- fruit growth (for spraying of Thompson
seedless grapes)
-seed germination
D.) Brassinosteroids
- similar to sex hormones of animals
-induce cell elongation & div. in stem segments
E.) Abscisic acid (ABA)
- slow growth
- seed dormancy (germinate in optimal
conditions)
-drought tolerance (withstand drought)
F.) Ethylene
- response to stresses (drought, flooding,
mechanical pressure, injury & infection)
- senescence (programmed death of plant cells/
organs) and associated w/ apoptosis
(programmed destruction of cells, organs /
whole plants)
- leaf abscission (process occurring in autumn
w/n a leaf falls)
- fruit ripening
- triple response to mechanical stress allows a
growing shoot to avoid obstacles
- slowing of stem elongation
- thickening of stem
- horizontal growth
Photomorphogenesis effects of light n plant morphology
- Not only the presence of light but also its
direction, intensity & wavelength (color)
- - Action spectrum depicts relative response of
a process to diff. wavelengths
o Useful in studying any process
depending on light
2 maj. Classes:
1.) blue-light photoreceptors control hypocotyl
elongation, stomatal opening & phototropism
2.) Phytochromes pigments regulating plants responses to
light thruout life incdg. Seed germination & shade avoidance
- responsible for opposing effects of red and far-red light
*Red-light increased germination, far red light inhibited
germination
- 2 photorreversible states Pr Pfr
Biological Clocks & Circadian Rhythms
Day oscillate
Circadian rhythms cycles that are about 24 hrs long and
are governed by internal clock
- Depend on synthesis of protein regulated
thruout feedback control & common to
eukaryotes
- Phytochrome marks sunrise & sunset w/c
provides biological clock and envitl cues
Photoperiodism and Responses to Seasons
Photoperiodism physiological response to photoperiod
- Some processes incdg flowering require
photoperiod (certain)
- Short-day plants flowering w/n light period is
shorter than a crit. length
o governed by critical night lenth
sets a min. no. of hrs of darkness
- Long-day plants flowering w/n light period is
longer than a certain no. of hrs.
o governed by crit. Night length sets
a max. no. of hrs. of darkness
- Day-neutral plants controlled by plant
maturity not photoperiod
- controlled by night length not day length
Flowering Hormone
Florigen flowering signal (not yet chemically id)
- maybe macromolecule governed by CONSTANS
gene
Plants respond to wide variety of stimuli other than light
1.) gravitropism response to gravity
- roots (+ gravitro.); shoots (- gravitro.)
- may detect gravity by settling of statoliths
(specialized plastids containing dense starch
grains)
2.) Thigmotropism growth in response to touch (in vines
and climbing plants)
- action potentials rapid leaf movements in response to
mechanical stimulation are ex. Of transmission of electrical
impulses
thigmomorphogenesis changes in form resulting from
mechanical disturbance
Envi. Stresses
-adverse effect on survival, growth & reproduction
- can be abiotic/ biotic
1.) Abiotic:
a.) drought reduces transpiration by closing
stomata, slowing leaf growth & reducing
exposed surface area
b.) flooding - enzymatic destruction of root Seed Viability & Dormancy
cortex cells air tubes helping in survival of Seed viability seed capable of germinating to give
plants normal seedling
c.) salt stress can lower H20 potential and Test for seed viability
reduce H20 uptake 1.) Germination test
d.) heat stress denature plants enzymes 2.) Tetrazolium test need to disrupt seed coverings;
- heat-shock proteins help protect other interpretation can be difficult
proteins from heat stress 3.) Excised embryo test (for dormant seeds)
e.) cold stress decreases membrane fluidity 4.) Cut seed test
- freezing causes ice to form in plants cell walls 5.) X-ray test (evaluation of normal morphology)
and intercellular spaces
- altering lipid composition of membrane Seed dormancy survival mechanism; genetically inherited
response to cold stress trait
- State in w/c seeds are prevented from
Defenses Against Herbivory germination even w/n envitl conditions are
Counter it by: favourable
1.) physical defenses (thorns) Primary dormancy
2.) chemical defenses (distasteful / toxic cmpds) 1.) Exogenous dormancy
3.) recruit predatory animals helping defend against - essential germination components (h2o, light,
specific herbivores temp) not available = seed fails to germinate
Methyljasmonic acid - activate expression of genes - due to lack of water die to impermeability of
involved in plant defenses seed coat; impermeability of seed coverings to
gasses; mechanical restriction of embryo
Defenses Against Pathogens growth; removal of seed coverings removing
1st line of defense epidermis and periderm inhibitors
2nd line of defense chemical attack killing pathogen and breaking
preventing its spread enhanced by inherited ability to Overcome by:
recognize certain pathogens 1.) ingestion by animals 2.) Microorganisms
Virulent pathogen 1 that a plant has little specific defense 3.) fire (smoke, heat shock) 4.) temp fluctuations
against 5.) natural soil acidity 6.) freeze-thawing
Avirulent pathogen 1 that may harm but does not kill the
host plant 1.) Mechanical scarification
Gene-for-gene recognition recognition of pathogen- - abrasion - brief immersion in boiling water
derived molecules by protein products of specific plant - piercing seed coats - duration of treatment
disease resistance gene -prolonged treatment (cause damaged)
2.) Chemical scarification
Hypersensitive Response - Sulfuric acid - sodium hypochorite
- causes cell and tissue death near the infection - hydrogen peroxide - cellulose & pectinase
site - hazardous - seed must be washed & dried
- induces production of phytoalexins and PR - reduction in seed germination
proteins, w/c attack the pathogen
- Stimulates changes in the cell wall that confine 2.) Endogenous dormancy
the pathogen - due to inherent properties of seed
Causes:
Systemic Acquired Resistance - Envitl conditions
Systemic acquired resistance - causes systemic expression - daylength - moisture status
of defense genes and is a long-lasting response - position on the parent plant - age of mother plant
Salicylic acid - synthesized around the infection site and is - envitl condition during seed devmt & maturation
likely the signal that triggers systemic acquired resistance * Physiological dormancy
 - regulated by balance of growth inhibitors & physiological dormancy, hot waterm acid / mechanical Photoperiod
promoters Other factors (affect germination) scarification effective before prechilling - Detected in the leaves
- osmotic inhibition 1.) Osmotic pressure (more pressure = imbibition more 6.) Chemical inhibitors in embryo, endosperm & seed coat, - Even 1 leaf is exposed to the correct
- chemical inhbitors difficult retarding germ) leaching/ seed coat removal, seed may have physiological photoperiod the entire plant will bloom
Breaking 2.) pH (bet. 4-7.6) dormancy need prechilling, Abscisic acid inhibits germ
1.) Leaching inhibitor (chemical/ ormotic) 3.)Presoaking speed germination 7.) Mechanical stony endocarp, embryos w/deep Genes involved in flowering devmt
2.) Temperature 4.) Osmoconditioning physiological dormancy req. long prechilling 4 classes:
3.) Light 5.) Frost & cool nights prior to seed harvest 1.) Flowering time gene mutations in these genes cause
4.) Circadian rhythms - depending on: temp, exposure, moisture early or late flowering
5.) Interaction of primary dormancy mechanism content of seed, physiological maturity seed, Flower Development 2.) Meristem identity genes specify flower meristem
6.) Embryo excision can be used to overcome dormancy husk protection, variety Angiosperms have 2 growth phases: identity & maintain inflorescence meristem
6.) Radiation gamma rad. = retard seed germ 1.) Vegetative growth production of stems & leaves at 3.) Flower organ identity genes determine fate of organ
2.) 2ndary dormancy 7.) Mechanical damage harvesting, processing & handling apical meristems, intermediate growth primordia; genes of ABC development model
- non-dormant seed encounter conditions causing them to - increase mechanical damage: decrease 2.) Flowering phase production of organs for sexual 4.) Late acting genes - control ovule ddevmt
become dormant moisture content reproduction at the floral meristem, determinate growth
Inflorescence meristem - small leaves & produce floral Meristem Identity genes:
Germination factors meristems (flowers) A.)Genes that specify flower meristem identity:
Chemical promotion of seed germ. Seed Dormancy of trees & shrubs 1.)LEAFY cause partial to complete transformation of
1.) Gibberellins (GA3) Organic seed Dormancy: Floral Anatomy flowers into shoots, normal flowers replaced w/
- promotes germination 1.) Endogenous embryo chracat preventing germ. Angiosperms = 4 floral organs in 4 whorls: structures resembling inflorescence meristems and shoots,
- substitute for light and temp (epicotyl, hypocotyl, radicle) 1.) Sepals from whorl 1 early dev. flower resemble inflorescence meristems while
- in seed dormancy 2.) Exogenous charact. Of structures (seed coats, fruitwalls, 2.) Petals from whorl 2 late dev. Flower have sepals & carpel like structure but
2.) Cytokinins incdg. Endosperm/ persperm) prevents germ. 3.) Stamens (produce pollens) from whorl 3 (male reprod) doesnt have petals or stamens
- Kinetin 4.) Carpels (contain ovary & ovule) from whorl 4 (female 2.) APETALA1 Mutations doesnt affect plants, partial
- break primary dormancy but effective in 2mdary Types: reprod) inflorescence meristem phenotype w/r 2ndary floral
dormancy 1.) Physiological meristems appear in axis reg. of sepal
- overcomes chilling & light requirement -restricts O2, endosperm restrict embryo growth, interaction Signal to flower: 3.) CAULIFLOWER related to APETALA1, like wildtype
3.) Ethylene (peanut & sunflower) bet embryo & covering 1.) Change from vegetative to floral state plant, mutation n ap1 gene, resulting in massive proliferation
- stimulates germn a.) Nondeep 2.) Commitment to form flowers of inflorescence-like meristem (cauliflower phenotype)
- regulates auxin levels - germinate over narrow range of temp, excised embryos Indication its time: B.) Genes maintain inflorescence meristem
4.) Hydrogen peroxide usualy grow, broken by short periods pre-chilling, broken - Maturity of the plant 1.) TERMINAL FLOWER gene cause early flowering &
- stimulate germn chemical (KNO3, thiourea, kinetin, ethylene & gibberellins), - Temp premature conversion of shoot meristem flower
- respiration stimulant accelerating breakdown of food light req. for germ. - Photoperiod meristem
reserves b.) Intermediate
- disinfectant - excised embryos = grow, shorten prechilling reqmnt Regulation of Vegetative Reproductive Transition
5.) Auxins (Gibberellins, kinetin & thiourea), 6-months prechilling Regulated by internal & external factors determining the Flower Development
- increase seed germn c.) Deep meristem will produce vegetative / reproductive structures Steps of flower devmt:
High concentration inhibit while low concentrations - Excised embryos dont grow / produce abnormal seedling, signals promote/ inhibit flowering moves from roots, Apical meristem Inflorescence meristem Flower
promote or ineffective long prechill req., chemical dont affect germ cotyledons/ leaves t the shoot apex once received meristem on w/c flowers develop
- Interact w/light 2.) Morphological - morphology of embryonot developed meristem competence determines if the plant will respond
6.) Potassium itrate (KNO3) 3.) Morphysiological underdeveloped embryos, embryos to the signal Genes involved
- act cooperative w/plant growth regulators growth & dormancy break req. embryos grows 1st then 1.) Floral meristem genes
- inhibit germn dormancy broken or both at same time, very warm, moist & Conversion of Apical Meristem Floral Meristem 2.) Organ identity genes
- influence respiratory system, stimulating O2 uptake or co- cold stratification periods Leaves = florigen (chemical signal) signal transmitted to 3.) Organ boundary genes
factor to phtyochrome 4.) Physical large embryos w/ food reserve in embryo not apical meristem(AM) conversion begins 4.) Organ polarity gene
7.) Thiourea endosperm, impermeable in seed coats (micropyle, hilium Florigen mRNA encoded by gene Flowering locus T (FT)
- promotes germn chalazal area, impermeable palisade cells), air srying during - FT protein from mRNA binds& activates Flower meristem genes:
- replacing temp & light requirements devmnt intensifies hardness transcription factors in the nucleus - LEAFY from Arabidopsis and ortholog from An tirrhinum
8.) other chemicals 5.) Physical & physiological embryo dormancy usually - Activates LEAFY (LFY) turns on the - FLORICAULA influence flower meristem replaced by
- Scopotelin (phenolic) broken first, germination at lower temp, prechilling breaks expression of genes needed for flowering shoot w/ inflorescence-like properties
- promoted by MADS box transcription factor gene
orthologs SQUAMOSA & APETALA1
- hombox TF WUSCHEL promotes prodn of CLAVATA3
ligand in overlying stem cells & ligand CLAVATA1 receptor
w/c control the no. of stem cells
ABC Model (Organ identity gene)
- Describes the interactions of diff. genes controlling organ
identity
Fruits (Fruit Devmt)
Fruit 1 or more mature ovaries together w/ accessory
tissues
- Horticulturally, accessory tissues that is high in
sugar content & is eaten during dessert portion
of a meal/ as sweet salad or snack
Flower structure fruit structure
- ovary position
- multiple separate ovaries per flower
- multiple flower Fruit Growth Pattern

4.) Multiple Flowers No. of leaves per fruit

Ovary Position
- resulting in a multiple fruit (ovary tissue fused together) Leaves sources (supplier) of photosynthate (fixed C)
1.) Superior (above)
Ex. Pineapple Fruit sinks (user) for photynthate
- resulting in berry (ovary tissue)
Ex. grape - more leaves per fruit: larger fruit
- simple rule underlying whorl specifications using floral
Intra-plant competition for photosynthesis
homeotic mutants
- a whole-plant view of not enough leaves per fruit (too many
Classes(mutant):
fruit & too few leaves)
1.) Class A carpels in 1st whorl instead of sepals & stamens
- removing some fruits = allow other fruits to increase size
in the 2nd whorl instead of petals
2.) Class B sepals in 2nd whorl instead of petals & carpels
Seed formation
in 3rd whorl rather than stamens
- seed no. & distrin affect fruit size
3.) Class C 3rd whorl have petals instead of stamens & 4th
- developing seed sends hormonal signals (auxin) stimulating
whorl is sepals instead of carpels
pericarp and receptacle devmt
MADS box gene Ovary wall structure
2.) Inferior (below) - Pericarp Hormonal effect
- highly conserved sequence motif in a family of
- resulting in pome fruit (primarily receptacle tissue) 1.) Exocarp (outer layer) Parthenocarpy fruit can develop w.out any pollination/
transcription factors
Ex. Apple 2.) Mesocarp (middle layer) fertilization/ seed devmt
- MCM1, AGAMOUS, DEFICIENS & SRF (serum response
3.) Endocarp (inner layer) - Parthenos (Gr. Maiden) carpic (Gr. Fruit)
factor)
Ex. Berry (all 3 fleshy) Nut (all 3 hard) Ex. Bananas, navel oranges, seedless grapes
- molecular archi. Of flower morphogenesis
Drupe (Endocarp stony) Hormones altering fruit shape and size
DEFICIENS involved in flower morpho. In snapdragons
Ex. Auxin or gibberellic acid (GA)
A-Class gene:
Factors affecting fruit size Horticultural Manipulation fruit thinning to increase fruit
1.) APETALA1 control petal devmt
1.) No. of cells per fruit size
2.) APETALA2 required for formation of whorls 1 & 2
2.) No. of leaves per fruit - Remove some young frut to increase leaf:fruit
B-Class gene:
3.) Intra-plant competition for photosynthesis ratio and reduce intra-plant competition
1.) APETALA3 & PISILATA controls devmt of whorls 2 & 3
4.) Seed formation - How? - Hormone sprays to trees shortly after
C-group:
3.) Multiple ovaries/flower petal fall
1.) AGAMOUS have petals in whorl 3 instead of stamens
- resulting in an aggregate fruit No. of cells per fruit
& sepals in whorl 4 instead of carpels
- includes receptacle tissue Fruit Growth Stages (after pollination & fertilization)
Ex. Blackberry 1.) Cell Div. increase no. of cells in the fruit
SPEPALLATA MADS-box gene required in B and C floral
organ identity functions 2.) Cell Expansion increase fruit mature size
3.) Ripening