SOLIDIFICATION, GATING, RISERING AND CASTING DESIGN One of the most important stages of manufacture of castings is the formation of solid casting from liquid or molten metal phase when poured into mold cavity. The various complex transformations that occur during the process including physical, chemical, metallurgical and geometric changes, influence the quality and cost of the final product -a casting. The understanding of "methoding” or the design of the system which ensures this optimum casting quality to be achieved is very vital in metal casting process. 'Methoding’ or technology’ involves designing pattern equipment and molding process, gating system through which liquid metal is distributed into mold cavity and risering or feeding system which ensure freedom from shrinkage and other solidification oriented defects in the final casting. Obviously this ficld has attracted research at very high level in different institutions all over the world and as it has grown out of practical data, many empirical methods are also in us In general gating system is very critical for cast irons and dross-forming non-ferrous, alloys but not so critical for carbon stec! castings. On the otherhand_ steel castings need extensive risering or feeding system for optimum quality. Most of the principles of feeding of stect can be adopted for aluminium and copper alloy castings also. For grey cast iron, feeding is not eritical Recent developments in methoding practice include various computer programs developed for design of gating and riscring systems like "FEEDER-CALC" by FOSECO, "CRUSADER" by British Stecl Casting Research and Trade Association, "Computer program for methoding” by Ruddle, U.S.A., "Micro methoding" by Melton and Clegg for non-ferrous alloys ete., which have found wide acceptance industries abroad. Even in India a few leading sicel foundries have developed their own computer programs for methoding ‘The other important development in feeding practice is the use of feeding aids tc improve efficiency of feeding and reduce liquid metal requirements, appreciably reducing energy, material and manufacturing cost, This also helped in standardizing122 Solidification, Gating, Risering and Casting Design riser design by providing a few standard riser-sleeves. Similarly refractory-sleeves, ceramic and wiremesh filters in gating system developed are helping greatly in reducing inclusions and improving quality of castings. Good methoding practices can reduce rejection in foundries and save substanti wastage, and ensure profitability for foundries which are otherwise struggling financially Casting design involves considerations to be incorporated in the component design/drawing to make it an effective and economical casting, Even though itis not a compulsory/routine responsibility of casting producer, it is however essential for a foundry engineer to point out unfavourable design aspects and suggest suitable modifications in the casting drawing. All major design organizations, even without casting facilities, route the designed drawings of a cast-component though a foundry specialist for necessary modifications 5.1 Solidification phenomena of common cast metals The casting process is essentially solidification of liquid metal in the motd cavity. Such a phase change from liquid to solid state involves the phenomena like changes uidity, volumetric shrinkage, segregation, evolving of gascs absorbed and the size of grains which have profound influence on the quality of the final casting obtained. A proper understanding of solidification mechanism helps in avoiding major casting defects like misruns, cold-shuts, shrinkage cavities, pin-hole porosity, hot-tears, cracks, distortions and poor mechanical properties. i. The solidification of the casting alloy can be understood well from the study of the relevant phase diagram. Phase diagrams are constructed by plotting the cooling curves of various compositions of the alloy systems together (Fig 5.3). Alloys generally solidify as (a) solid solutions (b)eutectics or (c) combination of both, which are the most common. Information like liquidus (melting) temperature, solidification or freezing range, the different phases present at room temperature as well as at different temperatures for any particular alloy can be obtained from the phase diagram. Alloy systems with larger freezing range have lower Muidity,causing problems in running and gating, Examples of such alloys are carbon stecls with luwer carbon, On the other hand, eutectic system of alloys like ALSi, Cu-Sn (bronzes), and cast irons with higher carbon have high fluidity and so good castabilty ii, During the cooling of a liquid alloy, on reaching liquidus temperature, solid particles or nuclei are first formed. They gradually grow in different directions based on the rate of heat loss, in tree-shaped dendrites, trapping the balance liquid in between their solid branches. The dendrites grow till they touch the adjoining ones, finally forming solid grains or crystals (Fig. 5.1). The impurities are normally pushed to the grain boundaries. The size and type of grains formed depend upon the type of alloy, rate of heat extraction from liquid metal in the mold cavity and the geometry of the casting. As finer grains have superior mechanical properties like tensile srength, toughness and ductility, itis the attempt of every foundry to create conditions favourable to their formation and avoid coarse and columnar grains. The conditions that help in fine equi-axial grain formation are:Temp *€ 1550 1500 1450 1400 1980 1300 1250 1200 Metal Casting ~ Priwiples & Practice 123 a | Solid | ~ Autente) Common Cast Catbon tec | Low carbon Steels lesead| ~ T of r T T Steels Steels | Medium Carbon | igh Carbon | or 02 03 94 05 06 oF o8 % Carcon Fig.5.3 Solidification range of tet effect of C%% 09 / ~ \ va Laue v sors | Nuclius “| a) BES cone | sy, a Fig.5.1. Suges of so14 Solidification, Gating, Riseing and Casting Design a. shorter freezing range - alloy, b. faster cooling of liquid metal as in metal molds/chill, . larger surface area : volume ratio of casting or casting having thin walls, 4. higher pouring temperature, and inoculation or introduction of exiernal nucleating agents into liquid metal like ‘Cai into cast iron or titanium alloys into aluminium and steel ancptere posse tren igus 5 t 3 ht convection n ih are (w Soliication front starting Shrinkage cavity (ai) Thermal contours (iv) Final sod Fig.5.2 Formation of shrinkage cavity ‘Volumetric shrinkage accompanying solidification is a very important consideration in achieving casting soundness, The various factors that influence shrinkage in casting and methods to overcome this problem are discussed in detail later in this Chapter under feeling system/riser design. Fig. 5.2 During solidification from liquid to solid state, certain alloys with long freezing ange tend to develop casting defects like hot-iears and cracks. This happens during. the stage of solidification when the solid dendrites while contracting are still not strong enough to overcome the hindrance offered by non-collapsible cores and mold (Fig. 5.4). At this stage cracks start forming which could develop into serious casting defects later. Some of the measures taken to avoid these include selection of an alloy with smaller solidification range, change in design of casting to more a streamlined section, use of collapsible cores and molds and chills to avoid hot-spots for directional solMetal Casting - Principles & Practice 125 Hot tear Hard non-collapsibie core jeri ira ont be {horse shoe nail (a) Radius Cotapsible core Aiser Padding Internal chils External chi Fig. 5 (A) Hot tears, (B) directional solidification v. During the melting of alloy, due to lack of proper precautions, gases like hydrogen tend to get absorbed into liquid metal. During pouring in mold also, some alloys absorb gases from ladles and mold cavity. As solidification proceeds, these absorbed gases, due to their lower solubility in solid state, get pushed into casting portion which solidify later, like top or heavy section, causing either a mushroomlike growth on cast surface or fine pin-holes all over the region. Precantions against such gas porosity have to be taken mainly in melting, drying of ladles and pouring. For some alloys of copper and aluminium, degassing by specials chemicals is adopled. For very critical castings, vacuum pouring is done for eliminating this problem. vi, Metalmold reaction is another phenomenon that occurs while liquid metal is solidifying in mold cavity for some casting alloy like manganese steels and some copper alloys. The chemical reaction between the basic constituents in the liquid metal and the acidic mold material react to cause poor surface finish on castings. This can be eliminated by suitable mold and core-coatings.126 Solidification, Gating, Risering and Casting Design i. 228 _| SUT Inner padding 4 Abe 130 Exernal chit Fig, 5.5 Chills & Padding for directional solidification of wheel Cop # 620) vii, Dimensional changes, distortion and warpages in castings occuring during contraction of cast metal in the solid state to room temperature also depend upon the solidification characteristics of the alloy, the casting geometry and the temperature gradients in mold during cooling. They can be controlled by proper use of chills and changes in casting design. (Fig 5.5). 5.2. Running and gating system i. Attributes of gating system ‘The objective of a gating system is to facilitate the distribution of molten metal into the mold cavity. A technically ideal gating system must possess the following attributes according to Wallance and Evans: ‘+ itmust introduce metal into the mold cavity with minimum turbulence, * _ itmust prevent slag, dross or inclusion in ladle to reach mold cavity, + itmust avoid aspiration of air and mold gases in metal stream, ‘+ itmust not cause mold or core erosion, * it should create favourable temperature gradients in the casting to help directional solidification, * it should control the rate of filing of mold cavity avoiding cold-shuts due to slow rise as well as erosion due to fastrise and + itshould be economical to mold and to finish after casting.Metal Casting + Principles & Practice 127 Casting Spruo— Funner Sprue - base’ be 28 eos Sprue: Tapered 620/625 (top) CEGZE Runner (2): 28/28 x25 - Ingate (2): 50x12 b—so—4 Fig. 5.6 Components of gating system - Example ii, The components of gating system Pouring basin “Molten metal is received first into this funneltop which should be kepi fll while pouring to avoid aspiration Sprue The most critical component which controls the rate of entry of metal into mold, a tapered cylinder. Runner Channel to distribute metal from sprue to different regions in casting, controlling velocity (ate of low) Ingate Points of metal entry into actual casting/mold cavity. (Fig. 5.6) iii. Types of gating The gating system is named as per the method or location of molten metal entry into casting/mold cavity (op gating parting line gating side/step gating bottom gating and a combination of the above.128 Solidification, Gating, Risering and Casting Design iv, Design of gating system ‘The sequential steps are: a. estimation of optimum pouring time of casting, . calculation of sprue choke-area, selection of gating ratio, 4. selection of type of gating/location and finally €. calculation of runner, ingate sizes. a, Pouring times ‘The pouring time '’is influenced by the fluidity and dross-forming characteristics of metal, casting geometry/wallthickness/modulus, total weight of casting including risers, type of mold material, resistance to erosion, scabbling tendency. Various formulae have been developed by different researchers, important persons being Czikel, Nielsen (cast iron), Ruddle, Pribill (steel), Sobolev, Eastwood etc., for different cast motals/alloys. 4}. Sprue choke-area ‘This is calculated from the principles of fluid flow: Law of continuity: Rate of flow Q= ArVi = A2V2 where As, Az ~ cross sectional areas of channel Vi, Va ~ velocity of fluid, in a system with impermeable walls filled with an incompressible liquid. Bernouille's Theorem: ‘The total energy comprising potential, kinetic and pressure energy at every Point in the gating system is constant megs B mee B In this, the heat losses inthe system are not considered. pressure velocity of flow = J2gh = effective metallostatic head — pouring time {otal liquid metal being poured specific gravity of the metal discharge coefficient 3, — Sprue choke area porgrres ‘Quantity of Liquid metal flowing into casting through sprue: S.VAMeal Casting ~ Principles & Practice 129 ¢. Selection of gating ratio Gating ratio is - sprue choke area (otal runner area : total ingate's arca This is selected depending on the characteristics of molten metal being cast such as fluidity, slag or dross forming tendency, pouring temperature etc... and also on mold material characteristics such as resistance to erosion, scabbing tendency, green sand, CO,, dry sand, shell molded ete. Eg:-For aluminium casting in green sand molds: it ig 1: 2: 4 and for steel in ddry-sand molds: itis 1:2: 15. The system can be pressurized, mildly pressurized or non-pressurized by suitable selection of the above and thus the rate of flow of metal/velocity in different parts of the casting cavity can be controlled. d. Type of gating/location Whether to use top, side, bottom or combinations of these gatings depend upon: (Fig. 5.8 to 5.18) casting configuration ‘method of molding casting wall thickness weight of metal entering mold mold material ¢. Calculation of sprue/runner/ingate sizes This depends upon the characteristics of casting alloy. The method of caleulation for major cast/metals are given in the following pages. v. Gating system for cast iron castings Cast iron “castings being normally of intricate design combined section-sensitivity and chilling tendency of liquid metal pose maximum problems in gating system design a, Pouring time (secs) According to Czikelt = M/E Where M — Modulus of casting = Casting volume Casting surfacearea E— Constant 0,015 to 0.035 For machine tool castings, E= 0.025 According to Nielson, (for castings upto 1000 Kg) 32(W.G)* ~ casting time in seconds W ~ governing wall thickness in mm G~ casting weight, gross, in Kg,130 Solidification, Gating, Risering and Casting Design b. Sprue exit area = —2266 in cm, expxtx dh, G casting gross we ¢ = discharge coefficient 0.8 to 1.2 (intricate to simple) specific gravity of metal = pouring time h = pressure head For short tapered sprue, diameter at entrance = 1.414 x exit diameter and for long sprue, diameter at entrance 1,732 x exit diameter Sprue well base diameter =224xD & Gating Ratio: Sprue exit area ; Total runner arca ‘Total ingate area 6 EKA where K = 1 for single ingate 41 for two ingates 73 for three ingates =2 for four or more ingates + 1:4:4 is also used by some foundries ‘Soboleo’s nomogram for cast iron gating calculation: This nomogram (Fig.5.7) is constructed from the practical data of many ‘east European cast iron foundries of repute and is used widely. The variable parameters to be choosen are: Casting weight in kg (G), decisive wall thickness in mm (), average ferrostatic head in cm(h) and the class of casting intricacy - simple, medium or highly intricate, By joining the appropriate points in the nomogram vertically/ horizantally, the required total ingate area in em? can be directly read. Eg: For a 100 Kg casting weight (A), draw vertical line to intersect wall thickness 20mm line (B). From there draw a horizantal line to intersect 60cm ferrostatic pressure head line at (C). Draw vertical line from (C) to the table-row of medium intricacy class (D) and read the value 19.5em directly as the total ingate area. Each ingate size is decided as per the casting shape by choosing the number of ingates. The value obtained from this method is highly practical and is used to confirm/approximate the total ingate area calculated from other theoretical methods.131 Metal Citing - Principles & Practice om F-tora, g gi al ‘haan AV. FERRO- ‘SPATC PRESS cm i 1 i q i 7A OF INGATES cmt THICKNE Ss ~ my. aL feted al SIMPLE CASTING MEDIUM _INTRICACY t-DECISIVE CASTING WALL G- Wr 3 HIGHLY INTRICATE WALL tHekuess r CASTING KG monogram for calculation of gating for cast irons Fig. 5.7. Sobolev132 Solidification, Gating, Risering and Casting Design Runners (4) Top risers Wire mesh fier: Sprues (2) “ Side risers Ingates (e) Casting Fig. 5.8 Use of filters in gating. vi. Gating system of S.G. iron castings As SG. iron is treated with magnesium in molten state, its affinity towards oxygen is greater and hence, when the metal comes in contact with atmospheric oxygen, it produces slag. The slag and non-metallic particles like magnesium oxide, sulphide and silicate are to be fitered before the metal enters the mold cavity. Pouring time: (According to R.W. White) .97 [Pouring wi. (Kgs.)Metal Casting ~ Principles & Practice 133 Pouring wt, (Ke) b. Choke area (em) = 77 pouring time (6605) Gating ratio: Karsay suggests non:pressurized systems for large and intricate castings where turbulent flow is detrimental for good quolity Pressurized systems are used for less intricate castings Sprue : Runner Gate = 4:8:3 ‘The minimum gate thickness should not be less than. ‘Smm width of ingate = 4 x thickness Sprue area = 4/3 x choke area of ingates The use of metal fiters in gating is illustrated in Fig. 5.8 B for making crank shafts of SG. iron, Internal chil cage support rod Pouring cup Riser insulting sleeve — Riser Spure (cotzactory sleove) 520 o4—1000—+4 Casting External chil (indirect) zt External chil il L | — mould box Internal eh | —Ingates (rettactory tube) P Barrel of rol Ingates at side Runner (etractory tubes) |, Syphon gating Pp Neck of ct Ted Fig. 5.9 Riser/chills/sde gating of roll (Carbon steel for rolling mill)134 Solidification, Gating, Risring and Casting Design Insulating / exo risers, Ordinary nsor a Sprue (re fractory) Pad eae A Rumer Gear whee! casting Open riser sprue ~ Witium core 5 alind risers Gating into oxi Ag rset Pas i Hycraulic eylenaer Aunnee Riser gate * ‘Blind riser “12 ) Open ser] © Open riser") ~ Fig. 5.10 Typical examples of gating and risering.Metal Casting = Principles & Practice 135 Ordinary sora Padding — Orcinary Riser — Round #250) LF.380 | ordinary riser Oval [ 300200) | 350" J Insulating riser Fig. 5.11 Methods of risers and gating for wheel castings136 Solidification, Gating, Risering and Casting Design Exo thermic riser (sleove) 150 x H.100 (inside) Ordinary open riser Casting we | 1200 kg Risers wt 730 kg 3, Risers 180 x 400x504 Sprue : 60 Ingates 2 40x40, {Gross vt. 2000 kg Fig. 5.13 Press roller (med.carbon steel)Metal Casting - Priniples & Practice 137 5 cae | WY Fier nec, Fig. 5.14 Bearing - Housing (med C steel) Risers $06 Blind Risers $60 open Runner 35x 30 Inte nse ‘100 —————+] Fig. 5.15 Gating & risering for ring (C. 8)138 Solidification, Gating, Risering and Casting Design Cove pit ts 20 x25 Runner $50 sprue Combined ae In gate 1220 (Common riser Flow of $20 3) ie) ——]] __& Fig. 5.16 Gating rering of pipe ends (M1) vit. Gating system for steel casting Compared to other cast metals/alloys, design of gating system is less critical and can be done in many methods to suit practices. The important aspects to be borne in mind are: + due to the high pouring temperature (above 1500°C) steel imparts heavy thermal shock while entering mold cavity. due to high density, erosion of mold is heaviest in steel running system. being a pasty-type solidification, fast filing of mold-cavity is essential to avoid laps, cold:shuts etc., in intricate castings. * the location of the ingates should promote directional solidification but not hinder it as steel is prone to severe hot tearing tendency.i» \ ‘ eeu i se) \: = c— 3140 Solidification, Gating, Risering and Casting Design Some of the common practical solutions for the above problems are: ‘+ use of refractory gating/sprue/sleeves in place of normal sand components to minimise erosion, sand wash and entrapment of impurities. * avoiding large fall of metal into mold by adopting bottom, side and step gating for deep castings. Fig. 5.9 * distribution of ingates to avoid heat concentration. ‘+ multiple sprues for large castings for fast filling of liquid metal in the mold cavity. Calculation of gating for steel castings: a. Optimum pouring time (1) WG secs S ~ time coefficient varying from 1.2 to 2.6 ‘W ~ mean wall thickness in mm, G ~ gross wt of casting in Kg. ‘This is cross checked with recommended minimum rate of rise of liquid metal in mold cavity between 1.5 to 0.8 em/seconds. 4. Sprue exit area (cm) G 31-uht G~ gross wt. 1u~ coefficient of flow 0.25 to 0.50 optimum pouring time h ~ mean ferro-static pressure during pouring «. Gating ratio Normally unpressurized system is used. Example: 1:15: 2 or 1:2:2 In steel foundries, the following dia(}) sprues made out of refractory sleeves, are used in practice. For small castings upto 10 Kg. —~ 430 For castings 10 - 300Kg, — 40 For casting 300 - 2000Kg. ~~ 450, $60, and 680 for larger. Hard ramming of molds, avoiding cutting of gating system, bottom-pouring of ‘metal to avoid slag in the system, giving enough flow-offs and risers to prevent build up of back pressure while pouring and fast-pouring are other important, practical considerations. itt. Gating system design for non-ferrous alloys ‘Some of the important consideration are: ‘+ to avoid the production of dross and its passage into casting, the system should be capable of preventing dross or slag present in the ladle from reaching the mold cavity.Metal Casting ~ Principles & Practice 141 ‘+ to avoid the entrapment of air or mold gases in the metal system. + dross inclusions in the casting can be prevented by avoiding turbulent flow of metal from pouring erucible-to the casting cavity and by removing dross from the molten metal before it enters the casting cavity. Perforated metal screens are used in gating system in magnesium foundries for removal of dross. Fig 5.8 A Steps in design ‘Taking simple plate casting as an example for outlining the steps involved in methoding: (Fig. 5.6) ‘© Design the pouring basin which will contain enough metal to keep the gating system full. Pouring basin can have projections to trap slag before entering the sprue. © Decide the pouring time approximately ie., about 50 seconds for castings ‘weighing more than 100 Kg and of the order of 20 to 30 seconds for the smaller castings weighing about 5 Kgs and more. The pouring time selected shall be in such a way that it avoids cold-shuts. + Estimate the total weight of metal to be poured into the casting, For a good radiographic quality casting, the thumb rule is that about 2.5 to 3 times the casting weight are to be poured. a. Metal flow rate Metal flow rate = Night of meal tobe poured ~~ Pouring time Sprue diameter is to be designed to ensure this flow of metal. ~ -Gx1000 pct (28 Hy ‘A. = choke area (sprue area at bottom)cm G = Gasngweight + gating + riser in Kg. 0, = density of molten metal gm/cc effective height of metal head = discharge coefficient (combined discharge coefficient of both gating and molding can be taken as 0.4 for thin walled casting and 0.7 for thick walled casting) t " pouring time in seconds. 5, Feed metal criteria Kn = G/t For magnesium & aluminium alloys, the thumb rule is Kn 0.3 G Kg/Sec. (for aluminium alloy) Kp 0.2 G Kg/Sec. (for magnesium alloy)v2 Solidification, Gating, Risering and Casting Design If these conditions are satisfied then feeding is adequate Normally for a casting weighing more than 35 Kg more than one sprue is to be provided. Sprue height is determined by the mold box height and the diameter of sprue at top is determined by the draft taper requirement. Area at the top of the sprue is normally about three times that of the bottom. A round sprue is easier for molding. Rectangular sprues are preferred for magnesium alloys. Sprue-well is an enlargement at the bottom of the sprue and is provided to reduce the turbulence that occurs in changing the direction of flow from vertical to horizontal sprue base can be either cylindrical or rectangular. depth of sprue well = 1.5 to 2 times runner depth. length of sprue well = 4 x (sprue diameter) Metal screens are to be placed in sprue-well. Wire mesh is provided to trap solid inclusions in the metal, Screens with 25 to 50 percent openings are to be used and are to be given coating to avoid inclusions, Metal is distributed around the mold cavity by horizontal runners starting at the sprue base and entering at a location as low as possible. Runners art extended beyond the last ingate to act as traps to catch dirt and oxide formed in the gating system, Runners’ cross-sectional area is calculated as 2 {o 4 times the sprie choke area. Individual runner area is obtained by dividing this value by the number of runners connected to the sprue. Runner shapes are normally trapezoidal for a smooth flow. All dimensions of the runners cross section are calculated based on the sprue cross sectional area. & Ingate design Ingate area is four times the sprue choke area, Individual ingate areas are calculated by dividing the total ingate area by number of ingates. Space between ingates should be roughly two times the gate width, Light metal alloys like aluminium bronzes and high tensile brasses require bottom gates or (reversed) horn gates High pressurized system is not recommended for these alloys. Cast iron, phosphor-bronze and gun metal are gated by a variety methods including top gating, Alloys susceptible to oxidation and to formation of strong surface films need quiet and progressive mold filing with least division of the liquid ‘metal stream. d. Use of chills Chills are metallic inserts, usually made of C.l. or steel, rammed into the sand mold to increase the heat absorption locally to achieve ‘directional solidification’. This reduces thermal stresses from being created due to uneven‘Metal Casting - Principles & Practice 143 especially in aluminium, copper and steel castings. Chills help in extending feeding distance of risers and reduce the number of feeders required. In ‘castiron, chilling is used to achieve localised fine-grained and harder areas wherever required. Chills help to avoid defects caused by over heating at entry points of ingates in complicated castings. tx, Precautions while designing a gating system ‘+ Avoid sharp corners or sudden changes of section that may lead to turbulence and inclusions, ‘+ Proper proportioning of components of system for ideal distribution of liquid metal to different region in casting. + Location of gates to avoid hitting of cores, chaplets, chills ete. + Smooth, well-ammed system to avoid loose sand. x Casting defects attributed to improper gating system + Misruns, cold-shuts and laps -too slow a rise of metal, + Sand, slag and dross inclusions - turbulence of metal, + Rough surface, metal penetration - too fast arise of metal. + Localised shrinkage, porosity - improper directional solidification. + Excessively oxidized metal - improper gating ratio + Scabbing -too slow a rate of pouring xi. Calculation of gating system Example (Fig 5.6) a. Casting - plate 500 x 400, 20 mm thick Alloy - alurninium Molding - green sand, in boxes. Pouring - from furnace by hand shank Density -2.4 (Kg/dm*) b. Casting weight Total metal to pour(W) Head of pouring (h) Discharge coefficient (c) Assumed pouring time (t) g SxAKO2N24 =96Kg 9.6 x 2.5 (including runners, risers) = 24 Kg. 150 mm (height of ladle from parting line/cope) 0.5 (relatively thick walled) 15 seconds (upto 20 secs for small castings) {980 x 100 cm/sec? Sprucexit area A = —W*1000- 9 om, pet f2gh. 24x 1000 0.78 Sqm 24x05 x 15x (2x 980 x 100% 15.0144 Solidification, Gating, Risring and Casting Design Minimum sprue exit area necded = 78 Sqmm (= 10 mm dia) considering Practical problems in pouring, dia 20mm spruc is selected. Chosen sprue : 25 at top, tapered to dia 20 mm at bottom, 4. Gating ratio 1: 4 + 4 (for dross-forming alloy) e. Runner size Total runner area =4 x 310 Assuming two runner, ea Assuming tape zidal section w : = I Runner section = 2.5 mm (620) Selected : 28/24 width, 25 height (draft) £.Ingate size Assuming two ingates, each = 620 sq.mm. For avoiding junction hot-spot, thin section w : h= 4:1 is chosen Ingate section = 12 mm height ( 62044 ) 50 mm width g Extension of runner after ingate = 30 (We) 5.3 Risering / Feeding systems Need for Risers: The casting process is essentially a phase transformation of metals from liquid to solid state in a preshaped cavity. This phase-transformation is accompanicd by some volumetric shrinkage in most of the cast metals. In order to produce a sound casting, it is necessary to provide means for compensating volumetric shrinkage. "Risers’ oF "Feeders’ are the reservoirs of liquid metal, provided in the mold, to compensate for the volumetric shrinkage of the casting over the total solidification period Generally volumetric shrinkage in most of the cast-metals is in the range of 1%. For steels, it ranges between 4 to 7%. In addition, in casting of stecl, the dilation of mold due to the high specific gravity of molten steels further increases the need for risers. This additional compensation is upto 3%, depending upon the material and hardness of the mold, i. The basic requirements of a feeding system for a casting a. The feder should be thermally adequate It should freeze later than the casting section it is feeding, 4. The feeder should be volumetrically adequate To furnish the required amount of feed metal, specially in complicated ‘rangey' castingsMetal Casting ~ Principles & Practice 145 . The feeders should have adequate feding range ‘The feeding system should adequately cover the entire casting - the feeding range of the risers provided should cover all parts of the casting (0 eliminate centre-line shrinkage and ensure soundness. ii, Determination of optimum feeder size ‘The theoretical basis for feeder design was provided by N. Chvorinov, in 1910, through a series experiments. He stated that the freezing time of a casting is related to its geometry. — freezing time of casting V_~== volume of casting Ac~ == surface area of casting (S.A.) K ~ indicates the chilling power of the mold Solidification time varies parabolically with volume/S.A. ratio. Heuver, in 1943, introduced the ‘inscribed cricle method! to identify hotspots requiring feeding in complicated casting sections, A circle (representing a sphere) is inscribed in the critical cross-section. Then a number of circles are drawn, gradually increasing in size towards the riser by 10 to 20% in diameter till the bottom of riser. Riser size provided is between 1.5 to 3.0 times the diameter of the biggest circle. (Fig. 5.10 A) ‘The outer points of all circles are joined by a smooth curve to provide pad’, assuring a path for riser metal to reach the "hotspot" efficiently. Even though not very scientific this method is widely used even now in the industry because ofits simplicity and effectiveness. J.B. Caines, in 1948, devised a method based on the premise that when the freezing rate of the riser is the same as that of casting, an infinitely large riser is required. However when the freezing rate of the casting is higher than that of the riser, the riser needs to be large enough to accomadate the amount of shrinkage in the casting, A hyperbolic curve is then fitted between these two extreme limits based on experimental determination of the soundness of the casting made with different risers. The equation of the curve is = 8+ C whe = freezing ratio X= pig tC where X 1s surface area of casting / volume of casting (VC/AC) ‘surface area of riser / volume of riser (VR/AR) Volume of riser (VR) Volume of casting(VC) Y =volume ratio46 Solidification, Gating, Riseing and Casting Design B = Solidification shrinkage C= constant - relative freezing rate of riser and casting. ‘a= constant determined experiementally by freezing characteristics = W012 Forsteels X= 5057 +C C= 1.0 for sand mold To locate the point in the ‘sound region’ of the graph, a number of iterations have to be carried out starting with an approximate value, making this method somewhat tedious. Myskowski, Bishop, Pellinc and Johnson Naval Research Laboratories, US, (1951-56), have modified the Caines method to include the ' Shape-Factor ' (k +W) the length, width and thickness ofthe casting zone to fed. Curves have been drawn for shape factor against volume ratio if casting to riser (Ve/V1). From this, riser volume and hence riser size can be calculated. The curve is only true for values of height : diameter ratio between 0.5 to 1.0. which is given by |. J.F. Wallace in 1960, developed these further and provided curves to directly find riser dimensions. Correction factors for riser-type, joining of thick and thin section etc., were given, R. Wlodawer in 1966, introduced the ‘modulus’ concept, which has the most extensive application in foundries today from Chvorinov's equation, lex] t Volume Cooling surface area OM? "Modulus' (M) ‘Therefore, solidification time When the solidification time and modulus of a casting are plotted on a log scale, we get a straight line relationship. He inforred, afler extensive research and industrial work that modulus of riser should be 1.2 times the modulus of casting for proper feeding. Eg. Calculation of riser size for a bar of infinite length a- width b= depth Consider a unit length 1, The volume V=ab.1=axb fable 5.1 ffor Figure) Cooling surface area = 2a + 2b = 2{a+b) {as no heat dissipates from faces (axb) across the section). ‘Therefore, modulus M. Similarly for a cylindrical riser, feeding the bar, assuming eight D— diameter of the riser, and when H= D,Maal Casting - Principles & Practice 147 Volume of Riser V, = Cooling surface area (neglecting bottom face) =npp.+1D! . SaDt SAn=nDD.+2D2 - Sah VR _ xD} wR. oo) Sax 4/95 ‘Therefore, diameter cylindrical riser = Mr x $ ‘Therefore, modulus of riser M; For effective feeding, as riser also looses heat during solidification along with casting, we have to increase its modulus by 20%. Modulus of riser = 1.2 Mc Therefore, diameter of cylindrical riser = 1.2.x 5 x Modulus of casting, =6x—a0 = 8% Fab) £ Adams and Taylor, in 1993, incorporated solidification shrinkage into Chyorinov's equation and obtained the most efficient riser from the freezing point of view, the one in which solidification ceases simultaneously with solidification in the casting. where B isthe coefficient related to solidification shrinkage and mold dilation & Ruddle in, 1976, modified the above to get the equation D?~KiMa where D diameter of the riser K1, K2 ~ coefficients depending an total volumetric contraction, surface and (op insulation factors or riser, H/D ratio of riser. and a safety factor for criticality of casting, Me ~- casting modulus, and Ve ~- casting volume, This is highly accurate and provides the best theoretical/practical base for risering design as it takes into account both volume effect and modulus effect of casting and other importaint parameters in modern feeding systems application. Ruddle in, 1982, developed a compiter programme using the above equation for feeding system design giving also economic data inthe print-out h. Geometric programming method - R.C. Greese (1971) ‘These are based on the solution of gencralised polynomials from Adam's yylor’srisering equation with heattransfer data and modulus factors.48 Solidification, Gating, Risering and Casting Design Computer solutions are obtained based on the problem of minimising of riser volume subject to the constraint tz > te (Solidification time of riser and casting) ge Ve. SA. where qx and qe are solidification constants for riser and casting and ‘HT is the height of riser. Computer programming technique - Corbett (1983) : In extensive research work by FOSECO, the team developed a computer program for the feeding system based on Heuver's inscribed circle and shape factor method, modi it for different latest feeding aids like insulating and exothermic risers. The program has facilities for graphics, volume and cost calculation in addition to feeder design. Ina specific case, we get H= it, Feeding distance hi ‘Once the optimum riser diameter is decided by any of the above methods, we ave to decide the number of feeders required, depending on the distance each riser can feed on the casting, making the casting sound and free from ‘micro/macro/centre - line shrinkage. ‘The feeding distance of a riser depends upon the casting section itis feeding. From research conducted on different shapes, J.F. Wallace (1961) and his team in Steel Foundry Society in U.S.A., established the following relationships: : Feeding distance in inches oa Without Chill ‘With Chill A) Plate without end effect 3.6 JT or 2T 16 JT -3.2 B) Plate with end effect 116 JF -52 116 JF - C) Bar without end effect (Horizantal) 1.5 6/T+T D) Bar with end effect 6 JT 6/T +T ‘T= thickness of casting in inches fe. The steps involved in designing a risering system are Dividing the casting into suitable zones for feeding depending on its geometry B. Calelating the modulus of each zone. ©. Deciding the size of riser - ordinary or with feeding - aids like insulating, exothermic risers etc. 4. Deciding the number of risers from feeding distance data. ©. Cross check feed-metal availability from risers decided against feed-metal required from volumetric shrinkage - to correct if needed. ». Directional solidification Castings of complicated geometry may solidify at different rates at different positions during cooling, causing stresses which create distortions and cracks. Ifthe cooling of different sections in the casting is so adjusted that solidification startsMetal Casting - Principles & Practice 149 from one end and proceeds to the other end progressively, by proper design of casting sections, use of chills, padding etc, feeding ofthe castings becomes easy and stresses during solidification will be reduced. This controlled solidification proceeding in the directed way across the casting is termed as ‘directional solidification’. (Fig 5.4 B) vi. Types of risers commonly used: a. Top risers (open) b._ Side risers (open) ©. Blind risers (See Fig. 5.10 B, C) a. Top risers are the most common and most efficient risers provided on castings where hotspots are accessible from the top directly. They are easy to mold, easy to fettle and act efficiently by gravitational force. They also help to exhaust mold-gases and indicate filling of mold cavity with metal forming complete casting. Whenever possible top risers are automatically chosen. b. Side risers are provided on casting having hot-spots not accessible for direct top risers. They help in reducing excess metal of padding and reduce felting cost. ©. Blind risers are used to feed localised hotspots which are below parting line and not accessible for top as well as side risers. Some times, when a casting shape has a profile with different heights, the higher spots are fed by open top risers and lower spots by blind risers. Blind risers reduce the requirement of feed-metal which would otherwise need excessive height of open risers. Atmospheric pressure can be made to operate on liquid metal contained blind riser by providing 'William’ or 'Washburn’ core to penetrate solidifying surface skin, Blind risers are exhaustively used for intricate castings like valves needing thorough feeding all over. vii. Riser neck/Connection/Padding For the riser to function properly, the neck or connection of riser to the casting, portion being fed by it is extremely important. In many cases, improper neck causes premature solidification and non-availability of riser foed-metal to reach casting when it is needed. The modulus calculation of neck is necessary in critical cases. Similarly, properly designed riser-pads are essential to connect hotspots of castings to riser and provide a continuous channel adequate to furnish liquid metal flow from riser to casting. This is normally done by Heuver's inscribed circle method. Fig. 5.10 viii. Example of feeding system calculations Cast steel gear wheel rim: Fig. 5.11, Fig. 5.10 (A) a. Divide the casting into suitable zones for feeding depending on geometry:- This being a uniform symmetrical section no division needed b. Calculate the modulus of each zone. axb Modulus of casting Me = 37-250 where a=height ofrim (220) OD= 1000 mm b=width of rim (100) 1D = 800 mm non-cooling web thickness (30)150 Solidification, Gating, Risering and Casting Design Riser size if ordinary sand riser diameter. =5Mg =5x43.3=217 Say, diameter =220 height 220 mm if insulating/sleeve riser (Refer Table 5.2) sleeve diameter = 180 mm height = 200mm Number of risers For critical castings, assuming a circumferential coverage of 50% by risers, m x Meandiameter x 0.5 = x900 x 0.5 = 1414 mm 14g is 26.42 Total coverage by riser Number of risers Approximately say, 6 risers Check for feed metal required Weight of Casting = % x (107-8) x 1 x 78kg. = 220kg. Feed metal volume require = Casting volume x % Volumetric shrinkage $5 98am O00 = 1.98 dr For ordinary sand riser - feeding efficiency - 20% Volume of feed-metal required = 1.98 x ae =9.9dm' Feed metal available from risers = 3 x 2.20? x2.2x6%0.20 = 10.03dm* . As this is found adequate, the final feeding system consist of 6 ordinary risers of diameter 220 mm and height 220 mm or 6 insulating risers of diameter 180 mm and height 200 mm. Weight of 6 ordinary risers 6x Ex22 x72 = 360 = 220. 220 gy + Yield with ordinary risers = 553207 = 220 = 33 Weight of6 insulating risers = 6x 2x18? «20x72 = 220Kg. = 220 __ = syege Yield with insulaing risers = 35220 = ov * Note: As gear wheels are critical casting, higher size risers are designed. For ordinary castings, higher yield of 60-70% is possible. See Fig. 5.11.Metal Casting ~ Principles & Pracice 151 Example of gating and risering systems actually being used to manufacture many typical castings are given in Figures 5.8 to 5.21 For the convenience of users, modulus calculations for common casting shapes are given in Tables 5.1 On the basis of casting modulus, selection of suitable insulating riser-sleeve can be done using Tables 5.2 ‘Advanced risering design using finite clement thermal analysis and details of computer programs for gating and risering are discussed in Chapter 10 under ‘New developentents 10.2! 5.4 Design of castings Design of a component as casting requires close coordination between the mechanical engineer making a functional design from the various stress calculations and the foundry engineer to modify the design to suit foundry process of manufacture for optimum performance and cost. Good knowledge of the capabilities of the casting process in terms of strength, characteristics of the cast metal, dimensional tolerances, surface finish, maximum wall thickness possible and the effect of quantity on cost per piece will be of immense help to the designer. A specialist foundry engineer can also help in design changes for reduction of production problems in molding, core-making, closing as well as quality problems such as cracks, hottears etc. It is also possible to reduce production costs and improve quality of complicated shapes by making composite cast-weld designs where castings of simpler shapes can be welded together to form the final component. i. Selection of casting alloy ‘Apart from sclecting a cast-metal for a component on the basis of mechanical properties such as ultimate tensile strength, clongation, toughness etc., the information of which is available in’ Design Hand-books, the other casting-properties of the metal requiring the design engincers attention are: a, Relation between properties of test-pieces to actual casting; importance of section-sensitivity in metals like cast-iron and testing procedure selection b. Caslability of the metal for the given geometry, like minimum wall thickness obtainable (Eg, steel) and any limitations of size (Eg: malleable cast iron). ¢. Machinability of the material for further processing afler casting and requirement of machining allowances (Eg: cast iron gives minimum problem where as stecl is more difficult to machine) 4d, Special properties like damping capacity, corrosion resistance, wear resistance, bearing properties, heat-resistance etc. Overall prochuction cost. ti. Casting process parameters aa. Dimensional tolerances Dimensional tolerances obtainable on a casting depends on the type of casting process for a given size, Closer dimensional tolerances are possible in the order - dry-sand molding, green-sand molding, air-set sand molding, shell ‘molding, die casting and investment casting. (Table 24,152 Solidification, Gating, Risering and Casting Design 0 440 Soe Open ree ‘120 Two patterns mounted on plate 10x80 100 _| Bind riser lind rer 80x40 Fig, 5.19 Gating & risering of stand (C. .) b. Surface finish Surface finish obtainable on casting depends on the molding process and follows smaller as above (a) on as cast surfaces (Table 2.4, 3.5)Metal Casting Principles & Practice 153 me tg i =) }+ «60-1 Fig, 5.20 Gating & risering of valve body (C.S.) 6 Size of casting ‘There are no limitations of size for sand-molding processes as green sand, dry-sand, COysand or airset sand, whereas large castings cannot be made in processes like investment, die castings or shell-molding. 4. Quality Non-sand casting processes like die-casting quarantee higher quality castings, free from sand-based defects like sand-inclusion, surface defects, blow-holes etc., compared (o sand-molded casting processes.154 Solidification, Gating, Risering and Casting Design unnat Ingates Fig. 5.21 Gating & risering end - cover uantity Generally any casting process is economical when more number of pieces are to be made from a given equipment, Comparctl to ordinary wooden pattern equipment required for sand casting processes, shell-molding, investment and die-casting require much more coslly pattern equipment resulting in prohibitive cost per cach piece if the quantity to be made While ordering the number of pieces to be cast at a time, much reduction in price per casting is possible if more numbers are ordered, keeping near-future requirements into consideration than ordering in small quantities each time.Metal Casting ~ Principles & Practice 155 ‘Table 5.1, Modulus Formulae For Some Common Shapes Shape Dimensions Modulus [eabe Sie=t dL | | é [Cylinder eaee Diameter=D |_DH. Fy, thes" fos si ijl Now Ili = D dhe modules | bis Ber or ae Teegh =U] WL (timed Sie) 64 Width = wi ZW WELT) Sa Enaies Cylinder Diameer=D Da (end terminated by another part [Note : Because radial heat flow | is faster than that from a fat of casting) surface, calculated moduli for| fendless cylinders may be| reduced by muliplying by 0.85 Endless Plate Thickness=T [T (terminated on 2 al sides by + another part of "J casting) ‘ Endless Bar _ TW nds terminated Wed by another part of casting) Annulus © TH %,-Dy) +H” 3et+Ay156 Solidification, Gating, Rising and Casting Design Table 5.2 Insulating sleeve size selection Effective | Casting | Equivalent sand | Estimated | Extimated sleeve |modulus| riser dimensions | weight of metal |weight of metal modulus 1D | Ht | contained in | contained in mm mmm | mm _| sand riser kg. |sleove riser kg. 1. [isof aso] a7 | a2] 198] 1625 34 15S 2150] 200] 402] 335] 195] 2975 477 217 3. |150] 250} 417] 348 | 195] 2025] oa 279 4. [180/200] 465] 388 | 234] 2275) 68.7 313 5. 190/250] 487] 406] 236] 2025] aa 402 6. |10} 300} 503 | 419 | 2346/3575] 1080 492 7, [200] 200] ~506 | 421 | 260) 2275 849 386 8/200} 250] a2} 443} 260} 2925/1091 497 9. | 200] 300} 550} 458 | 260] 3575] 1934 60.7 10. } 250] 300] 662 | 552] 905] a575| 2084 149 11. } 250] 350) 681 | 568 | 925] 4225] 46. ua 12.|250| 400] 696 | 580 | 325| 4975] 2849 129.4 13. [300] 350] 785 | esa | a00! 403, a8. 1540 14.]900] 400] 80.7 | 672 | 390] 468] aoz8 1788 15. | 300] 450] 824 | 687] 390] 53/4474 203.6 16.350] 250] 88.7] 739] 455] 403! 4604 209.6 17,| 350] 400] 915) 763 | 455] 468} 534.7 243.4 18} 350} 450] 937 | 7a] 455] saa G89 272 19. |350| 500] 95.6 | 796 | 455] 508/682 311.0 20. [400 350} 98.3 |—a19 | 520) 403] 601.4 2737 21. | 400} 400} 1017 | 848 | 520] 468} 608.4 3179 122. | 400] 450] 104.5 | 971 | 520) 593) 795.4 362.0 122. }400| 500) 1068 | 89.0] 520] 598| 8023 406.1 24. |400| 550] 108.7 | 906 | 520} 663} 980.4 450.3 25. [450 | 400 | 105.7 | sa | 5625) vaso] 742.1 380.0 26. | 450] 450] 109.1 | 909 | 625} 4875] 8512 4358 l2z. | 450] 500] 112 | 933 | 5625] 5500) 60.4 497 28, | 450] 550} 1144] 953 | 5625] 6125] 1,069.5 476 20.|450| 600} 1164 | 970 | 5625] 6750] 11786 603.4 30. | 800] 450] 1183 | 986 | 625] 4875] 1,050.9 538.1 js1. | 500] 500) 121.7 | 1014 | 625) ss00) 1,185.6 6070 32. | 500] 550] 1245 | 1037 | 625] 6125] 1.3204 6760 13a. | 500] 600 1269 | 105.7 | 625] 675.0 745.0 34. | 500} 650| 1289 | 1074] 625] 7375 . 814.1 35.| 500} 700| 130.7 | 1089 | 625] 8000 882.9Metal Casting ~ Principles & Pracice 157 EAD DESIGN 005 Sesten ACE, “ly 17, al aa (T-t) oO @ ty a t Bw b Be a — Ww Fig.5.22 Casting design examples (i, ii v) iii. Casting Geometry consideration 4. It is advisable to maintain uniform section thickness of casting to the extent possible and avoid abrupt changes. If essential, gradual transition from thinner to thicker section should be done to prevent unfavourable thermal gradients while coolling and stress concentration. (Fig 5.22)158 Salidifcation, Gating, Risering and Casting Design Bad design Good Design Section idiot Norentoen wate sharp comers netion “ Main wall Even ribs - sharp junctions wi) Preventing ib - junction cracks No core No (sot) loose piece (vi) Simpilication of | core / molding Fig.5.23 Casting design examples (v, vi, vi) b. Wherever junction of walls are needed, itis advisable to avoid hot-spots, which ccan be checked by inscribed circles, by staggering them, This also helps in uniform cooling of the casting. (Fig. 5.22)BAD DESIGN \x | Section x x real Core A Ditty 9 Core Seting © Metal Casting ~ Principles & Practice 159 MODIFIED DESIGN Easy to mld - No hot spt Fig.5.24 Casting design examples (A, B, C) Any internal sharp corners cause the sharp sand of mold/core to get overheated creating hot-spots resulting in draw and other defects. Cleaning of such corners becomes very difficult due (0 sand fusion, So, all sharp internal corners should be well-rounded by proper fillets. (Fig. 5.22)160 Solidification, Gating, Rivering and Casting Design aADDESIGN MibireD oESIGN Hot Spot (dieu to mois Easy of moking & Fiserng acu 0 riser t ra wal Wickes Thinner was dificult to riser Easier Fisering; wicsue res sna abr 1) An Sot tad tar ng of Brneon gcse acing Easy macing ‘cracks at flange junctions Fig.5.25 Casting design examples (i i)Metal Casting ~ Principles & Practice 161 d. White providing for cast (cored) holes/cavities in stecl castings, itis better that they have lesser depth than diameter to avoid cleaning problems. Otherwise it may be cheaper to cast them solid and machine them later. e. Provide strengthening ribs, webs and brackets at adjoining walls for the better castabilty and avoiding hotspots. (Fig. §.23) £ In wheeltype castings, while designing spokes connecting the outer rim to inner boss, it is better to provide curved or uneven numbers to reduce the effect of contraction diamettically. (Fig.5.23) iv, Reducing casting process cost/improving quality a. Molding process is usually labour oriented. It is better to reduce skilled operations like molding with loose-picces, undercuts special partings by suitable design changes in the casting (Fig. 5.24, 5.25) b. Core-making incurs additional cost and also causes quality problems. By suitable changes in design, itis possible sometimes to avoid internal/external cores. v. Cast-weld design for economy For complicated shapes of components, it is much cheaper to divide them into simpler parts for making seperate castings. Later they can be welded together to form the final shape, especially for weldable metals like stecl which have poor castability. Cheaper pattern ard molding cos, less quality problems, availability of good welding techiques and possibility of final heat-treatment afier welding together to homogenise properties arc the advantages of this method. It is adopted widely for complicated turbine housing ee Questions 1. Explain the solidification phenomena that affect casting soundness, 2. Explain the formation of casting from liquid metal poured in a mold. What are the conditions that favour the formation of fine equt-axial grins ? 3, Explain the factors that contribute (othe following delets during casting solidification a) shrinkage cavities hot tears 6) cold eracks € warpage/distortion snd ¢) low mechanical properties Whe are the functions of a good running/gating system ? ‘What ae the casting defects atributable to poor gating design ? Sketch the components ofthe gating system with an example. Explain the principles of Mid Now involved in the design of sprue, runner and gating, deriving the expressions. 8, Sketch and mention the applications of the normal types of gating systems used162 Solidification, Gating, Rivering and Casting Design 9. Explain the importance of "gating rato '. Suggest, giving reasons gating ratios used for the following: 2) eastiron in green sand ) steel in dry sand ©) aluminium alloy 10. What are the methods adopted in gating to avoid sag inclusion? 11. Calculate sprue diameter minner and ingate section for the following : Refer figures 2.13 to 215. (5 items) 12, Whatis the basic fanetion ofa riser in a casting? 13, State the basic requirements for effective function ofa riser. 14, State and explain any three commonly used methods for calculating riser size 15. What are the types of risers? give an application ofeach type. 16. Explain the purpose of directional solidification and how its achieved by chills and padding. 17. Design/caleulate riser sizes for the following: Refer figures 2.13 to 2.15, (5 items) 18. What is the importance of improving * yield ' of castings. Mention the methods adopted for yield improvement. 19. Write notes on: a) Feeding aids b) Chvorinov's rule ©) Riser modulus d)_ Riser location ©) Blind riser and f) Riser-gating. 20, Sketch risering and gating systems normally used for common castings like: gearwheel, bearing sleeve, valve-body and bearing support, 21. Dilforentiate between dendrite, nucleus and crystal / grain, 22. Suggest methods to get uniform grain-size in a casting having thick and thin sections. 29. Explain through sketchos how casting design can be modified @) toavoida core 1b) to simplify molding ©) toavoid hotspot 4) wavoid stress concentration ant ©) toavoid hot tear. 24. What isthe minimum wall thickness economically feasible For commonly cast metals 2) In geven sand, b) Shell molding and c) Pressure die-casting. 25. State the surface finish achievable with common sand molding processes. Compare it with that of ce cating 26. State the important considerations while designing a component to be manufactured by casting process, with example ebFINISHING OPERATIONS Alter the liquid metal poured into mold solidifies, the casting is formed. However, it is not in a condition for immediate use. A number of finishing operations have to be carried out before the casting is despatched. 6.1 Finishing operation of castings in a foundry involve: clearing sand and adheri mold, ‘material on casting surface afler shake-out from. cutting/removing extra portions on casting like sprue, runners, risers, chills etc, blast cleaning, grinding the casting surface outside and inside to remove projections like fins, bulges, rough surfaces, metal penetration etc., heat treatment of casting which is essential for dimensional stability and long life through stress relief as well as improvement in mechanical properties, and salvaging casting from minor defects by welding and hand-grinding and to bring the dimension within the limits given in component drawing inclusive of allowances. ‘The practical considerations in finishing of casting are: Being the last operation in the long cycle of rasting production in the foundry, financially it is the most critical section for realising the value of the effort spend Finishing operations are very labour-intensive and timectaking creating bottleneck in most foundries for timely delivery ‘The working conditions in finishing are generally bad with poor light, dust, heat and heaps of castings lying all over the floor. Poor handling164 Finishing Operations arrangements for the heavy and odd:shaped castings cause frequent accidents. Maintenance of the equipment is difficult causing frequent breakdowns. The overall productivity is very low. + Due to the indecision of managers on rejection of castings, delays occur. Difficult castings normally iend (o go into heaps without getting finished, causing problems in. delivery. Belated decisions to reject cause further delays in making the replacement, starting again from the first stage. + Being the last stage, all the defects and poor quality work of earlier stages like molding, melting, closing etc., get accummulated in the finishing section and cause problems for productivity-improvement measures like incentive bonus schemes implementation. i. Separating castings from the mold ‘After pouring, sufficient time should be allowed for cooling depending on casting geometry, section thickness, weight, composition of cast metal and mold material. The time varies from about one hour for smal, light casting to 8 to 24 hours for large castings. Complicated heavy castings from alloys with high solidification shrinkage and hot-tearing tendency should be kept for longer periods without disturbing the mold. Plate-type ausicnitic manganese steel castings are an example of such items. The separation of castings from mold can be done manually by crane or by vibrating shake-out or knockout grid. (Sce Fig. 8.3) Castings in machine-molded and medium size boxes can be easily separated by the vibrating table, which retains mold-boxes and castings on the top, allowing sand to fall down into pit ii, Cleaning of sand from the casting surface For cleaning sand adhering to the casting, pncumatic chipping is very effective, ‘The pneumatic or air operated tools are popular in finishing operations Small and simple castings can be cleared of adhering sand by "tumbling" in rotating cylindrical barrels. These are however now obsolete due to the excessive noise they create, low cleaning efficiency and damage to thin edges. iii, Removal of runners/risers ‘The runners, gating system and risers attached to the casting can be removed by hammering or knock-out for britle metals like cast iron, For ductile non-ferrous alloy, saw-culting manually or by machine are used. This can be also done by high speed pmeumatc grinders using deprened centrecating discs of 180230mm. ameter. For steel casting, gas-cutting with oxy-acctylene torch is normally done for removing gating and risers. It is a cheap and fast process but involves heavy local heating and metallurgical changes. Arc-air gauging torches are very effective for fast and smooth parting, especially for alloy stecl castings. This docs not cause any serious metallurgical changes in local areas cut. An important practical consideration after removal of gates and risers from casting i properly segregate them as per the composition of the cast-metal so thatMetal Casting Principles & Practice 165 there is no mix up when they are sent back for remelting, This is done by making suitable marks on them with a paint in # code. Knock off cores For easy removal of risers from castings, which are relatively britle befor heat treatment, special cores with a small opening are provided between riser and casting. These cores are made with zircon, olivine or ceramic material with strong bond and dried well to avoid blow-holes. The thickness and size of pening in the core depend upon the casting metal and criticality ofthe casting. Thickness of the cores vary between 8 to 20 mm depending on riser dtamet The area of opening in the core is normally 40-65% of the area of riser (sectional) above neck. The cores are located by pattern-print and secured by nails in mold. Knock-off/wash burn cores help risers to be hammered off easily without gas-cutting in low alloy/manganese steels and without arc-cutting in high alloy (nickel/chrome) steels, saving cost and time of finishing. in, Blast-cleaning of castings Cleaning castings from the adhering sand on the outer and inner surfaces can be done fast by blasting different materials with force against them, by different techniques a. Compressed air and sand-blasting This is a very effective method for cleaning small castings in both ferrous and non-ferrous casings. It is done in an enclosed chamber where castings are on a rotatable tray. Air guns located at the top of the chamber are directed and ‘manipulated forcing air and sand from different directions to clean the surface, ‘The used sand is recovered and recirculated. This method is relatively cheap ‘and gives smooth surface finish. b. Shot-blasting ‘This is a very popular method for cleaning small and medium size (upto 2 tonnes piece weight) castings in cast irons and steels. Steel shot or grit is divected from centrifugal impellers at a high speed and force towards castings placed on a tray in an enclosed chamber. The tray is rotated slowly by a motor {o expose different faces of the castings for cleaning. The shot, after impact cleaning, is collected from the perforated table by a screw conveycor, screened tand sent up by a bucket elevator to the impellor for recirculation from the top. Different capacities of the equipment are available, including those with 2 spare table which can be used to load and ready castings, while another load is ling shot-blast inside the chamber. c. Hydro-blasting For cleaning very large castings (above 5 tons each) water at high pressure (4 to 10 atm) through nozzles is used, The castings are loaded on a trolley or a ‘wagon travelling on rails and enter the hydrobiast enclosure, which is open from the top. A number of water guns from either side force water at high pressure in different directions (o clean the inner and outer walls of the casting, ‘An overhead crane is used to turn and manipulate the castings resting on the166 Finishing Operations wagon on through the open top to expose all surfaces for cleaning. This is a specialised and costly equipment, used only in very large, heavy ferrous foundries. 2. Surface grinding Large castings are finished by grinding with swing-frame or snagging grinders. These have a large rotating grinding wheel (about 300mm. diameter) supported on a swinging frame operated from a distance by a handle. These can grind flat and inclined faces very fast, with high metal-removal rate. Suitable choice of size of frame, horse-power of motor, type of grinding wheel, handling system for positioning castings at the machine, space for manipulation and protection all around against flying sparks of ground metal are important for achieving high productivity from swing-frame grinders. Finish-grinding of small castings is done on pedestal grinders with single or double wheels having stationary platform. The grinding wheels are larger than 500 mm. in diameter. The castings are pressed against the wheel manually on the surface needing grinding, For medium and large castings, final finishing of pockets, curved faces etc., is carried out by electric or pneumatic hand-grinders using grinding wheels of about 150 mm diameter. Deeper (cavities) can be given a smooth finishing using die/pencil grinders operated pneumatically. Grinders are widely used for fettling, with a wide variety of designs and weights available for different duties. A wide selection of wheel sizes and speed is available for pneumatic grinders. Removing metal at the quickest possible rate is the main objective of grinding which means a careful wheel and speed selection 6.2 Heat-treatment of castings i. Objective Heat-treatment is an essential phase of the casting manufacture. The objectives of heatreatment of casting are (o relieve the thermal/contraction stresses set up during cooling of liquid metal while forming castings so that warpage, distortions, dimensional changes, ‘racks or premature failure in service are avoided. b. to improve mechanical properties like tensile strength, toughness etc., by refining grain size and suitable changes in the structure of the cast metal © to improve machinability of hard cast metals by softening. ti. Stages Heat-treatment is a solid state transformation and is carried out at temperatures well below the melting point of the casting metal. Generally the operation is carried out as followsMetal Casting - Principles & Practice 107 a. heating the casting at a controlled rate in an oven to the required transformation temperature range depending on the composition, of intricacy casting geometry and necessary changes in structure. b. holding or soaking for sufficient time, generally for about one hoxt for each 25 mm, wallthickness of the casting, at the transformation temperature for the entire section to undergo structural change uniformly, and c. controlled cooling in a single stage or more, so as to retain the desired micro-constituents in the structure for achieving the aimed properties. iti, Heat treatment ovens Heat-treatment for castings is carried out in ovens or furnaces which are chambers made of steel plate and inside with refractory bricks to withstand the high temperatures. Heating is done by oikfired burners, gas burners or electric heating elements. The design of the furnace should take care of proper location of heating system in walls/roof for uniformly heating the castings without cold spots or burning/overheating in regions. The other important features of the heat-treatment furnace are the control of heating/cooling through manual/semi-automatic/ automatic heatinput system, guided by thermocouple pyrometers at different locations of the furnace. An essential feature in modern heat-treatment furnaces is the temperature-recorder which provides un actual heat-treatment cycle on graph-sheet for later verification and record. The handling system for loading Castings and quick removal from the heat is also important. The atmospheric control inside the furnace to avoid excess air 10 prevent oxidation/burning of casting surface is also important iv. Heat-treatment of grey cast iron castings Normally critical grey iron castings are heattreated only for stress relief to prevent distortion in service. No major changes in mechanical properties occur in these castings. For castings like surface plates, natural ageing is sometimes adopted by leaving casting outside for a few weeks. Critical machine tool castings. arc however stress relieved in heattreatment furnaces by controlled heating to a temperature of 200 to 400°C and slow heating. Fig 6.! (A) gives the microstructure of grey cost iron Heat-treatment of white iron - Malleabilisation It is essential to heat-treat white cast iron to change the structure and breakdown the cementite for depositing graphite as temper carbon agglomerates, converting into malleable castiron, ‘The resulting stguctural changes cause reduction in hardness, brittleness and achieve desired tensile strength and ductility indicated by elongation and bend test on specimen. Black-heat malleable cast iron is produced by heating to 840-950°C for 50 to 120 hours under reduced atmosphere of furnace to obtain a structure of ferrite and temper carbon, having an almost black fracture. White-heat malleable cast iron is produced by heating it to temperature of about 900-1000°C for 70-100 hours in contact with oxidising material like iron-ore which causes reduction of carbon,168 Finishing Operations there by improving ductivity. The fracture is shining-white, Pearltic malleable iron is produced by first malleabilising at about 950°C to dissolve carbide, deposit temper carbon and then reheating to dissolve the carbon at austentic transformation range (900-1000°C). Final treatment by faster cooling produces pearlitic matrix Fert White) Graphite Fakes (Black) CGuey cast von Peatite (Grey) “ raphe epherors « (82) Spreridat Graphite Cast ton (Ferre mats) ‘oo " veosaean 1 "Graph os ot OS Maieabie cast ron {Pearte mots) foo (oy «co Fig. 6.1(a, b, ¢) Micro structures of cast metalsMetal Casting ~ Principles & Practice 169 vocation sreect Annealing Stage i! Short cycle 93 418.) e [ AN eect ha § on (Intermediate Cootng) 0 10 2 3% 40 50 Compositon 24% 31-13% Nin 08% max S&P -01% max Fig, 6.2 Malleabilisation cycle (White cas iron) containing temper-carbon aggregates which develops high strength and toughness, The heat-treatment cycles and micro-structures are given in Fig, 6.2, Fig 6.1c. Due to the time and cost involved in malleabilisation and difficulty in achieving the structure in thicker (above 25 mm) sections as well as the comparatively lower mechanical properties, this process is no longer popular. S.G. iron is replacing malleable iron. vi. Heat treatment of S.G. Iron castings Spheroidal or nodular cast irons can be heat-ireated not only for stress relief but for improvements in tensile strength, wear resistance, ductility and toughness. The heat-treatment depends on the original structure and desired properties and arc carried out on lines similar to carbon steels through annealing, normalising, hardening and tempering. Fig. 6.1b shows typical microstructure of pearlitic nodular cast iron.170 Finishing Operations 20 60 80 100 300 400 500 600 700 Stress rateving tomp. (°C) Fig. 6.3 Effect of HT. on properties of steel castings vii. Heat-treatment of steel castings Steel castings have to be heat-treated without fail before being despatched for the use of the customer, as the high pouring temperatures induce heavy stresses in ‘castings which have (0 be relieved. (Fig. 6.3) Metallurgically, steels are most amenable to heat-treatment to achieve substantial improvements in mechanical propertics like tensile strength, clongation, impact strength, hardness, wear resistance etc. A description’ of the various heat-treatments steels with their Properties are given in Table 6.1. It is necessary to refer to the iron-carbon equilibrium diagram to understand the phase changes that occur at different lemperaturcs for various composition of-carbon stecls. This diagram is useful to select the temperature ranges for treatment like annealing and normalising. For hardening/quenching to obtain superior microstructure and properties, itis necessary (0 refer (o the Time-Temperature Transformation diagram for the particular composition of stecl. In the case of alloy steels, the individual alloying clements influence the structure, changing the temperatures of transformation as well as strengthening individual phase like ferrite, austenite or iron-carbide. For alloy stcel heat-treatment cycle separate diagrams have to be referred. Some of the common heat-treatments employed for stecl castings, the purpose and method are given in Table 6.2, Figs. 6.4 & 6.5.Metal Casting - Principles & Practice m1 + Teme = TIME WN HOURS 1. Momogenising 2 Normaliing 3. Anneaing (Globular peste) 4. Ful stess reife anneal §. Tempering (ater quenchingleachining} Fig. 6.4 Common heatireatment cycles for carbon steels, Heating rate 100-CIM max 850-880 Quencring 600-650" 600-650°0, Fumace cooling | 400% ' Hardening Tempering ‘Air Cooling ——> time Fig (.5 Hardening & tempering for low alloy steel castingsthing Operations Finis m ‘Paonpomnuy S958 ‘sour uo pue Temp nur jo “dusay Wo 40 207em wy wossiounny £2 ue aumeu uo yuopusdap snip} payeaata ayn tio o078 Jo Re | ‘ue ‘ayes Susjooo or aanystog| pue ‘ovr 2 nba-uou dq SumaypBuang -e 30 aonuay aap ur aq Ue Tuyo “quatiaj9 SuiZojje pue woques ‘uorsnyyp arajdines anauyoe oF poreBaufas ain jo uc | aumpnsysoxoiu atp Jo Burzeds| Suoy Ap pq vo spuadap aun Surpo e ue anupuap jo won | uoneauasowop “deayp seg Bunswo| pai foy12 mo] pue uogsed 20) poXojdurg “paonponur aq Kew ssoupiey pue yBuans soySipy 2 jenpisoy ‘Buyeouue soy 29) Auquqeusypew pur ssouyo0n proud “| are po ojdura sasrmesodusay suman res8 jo wuaurouyss poouinot Surzyous0N sBunseo jars Kole uogie> 19} paojdusa SinoransORIw pauisop sanpoxd of ssouysinoy axoidus of 3 sossans aaaypas 0, “P| yeunypew 10} uayos 0], | (Bujooo aoeusny pur Suneay-oy) sAisas pur 4q saseyd passadsip jo uonn Suyeouuy ediouud ayy st asmezodusoy, ‘wo04 0} Buy $Sunseo a4 jo: G moqe Joy asmesoduin, ‘2.099 moqe or asmesodiuay a a8IEY “e 4 JO Ys Jo woneurun “9 suowsuaunp jo uonesmqeg “4 ‘san [eUsDIUL Jo eAOWDY “2 sayy ut sururey suopeiodo apd quounvan ray, sage pu asodind upeyy, sSunseD joarg or payddy suaunvasy 9H 1'9 a1qeE,173 Metal Casting - Priniples & Practice povaduisew oq ue> yo ut | poypuonb Ayeussou st yep fons ayes ayesopous ee (re u “aay pue wp pas ayp 1no-48nony ame: 2] Sunaduoneyy| “6 sup uonsunoysuen| aamesoduiay own] aues ow ut Ayensn azmesoduioy wueysu0> Ur poveorpur se sonsuareseyp| ‘ee pourewurew yeq e 4g] ssouysinoy yo 2 ‘vonewoysuen uo sossans Sunppuonb Jo Jouepioay -q paseq aq nw Suuaduinsne] 96 uasmaq suoneuuojsuen aseyd juapuadap-own _ 2 838 Jo woHDa}o5 ay, oyna | Pajonuos aseyd puoras jo uonnyog -e wonnjos} “Ssouyinoy saoiduy Jo vonesnp pue ‘Gop aseasour oy, -q ip uodn puadap yaays sadusa aves ggqenns | ywounean Suruapsey says uonendioaid 40 sonmodoid peoey>au Aq saimonuys wunysqqynba-uow ___ pur amonursoson ou | JoSuuaysnos pur Suuayog -e] —— Suuoduay| 9 sew, suoperodo apo wounvan 189} paye pur asodind [resuaean TH | ON syeusy jonesado aq wo sage ew joodk ligm4 Finishing Operations Table : 6.2 Typical Heat Treatments for Steel Castings Type of steel Composition Heatireatment [Carbon sel [Carbon (6}-0.1570/38) [anneal from 920°C (Manganese (osm) 1.00 max.) 2/CS.hightensile JC 40/50 normalize from 830°C strength temper a 600°C. 3.|Low alloy steet Jc-0.1070.20 JA) normalize from 940°C (itigh UTS and Mn-0.60/1.00 temper at 720°C toughness) S:0.50.max |B) normalize from 950°C | ° water quench 900°C V-0.30/0.40 ea | Naas compe a 4.|Nihard types 1C.2.8073.20 | normalize 750°C (8 hes. soaking) (ear resistant C1.) |S+-1.50/2.00 | | Cr7.5079.00 Ni5.50/6.50 | 5 |Staintess steels 0.08 max water quench from 111°C Gri8% NiO (6. [Heat resistant stels [Above 12% Ni ‘ot required unless asked for by the purchaser [7.|Austeniticmanganese [1 10 1.4% C heat in two stages to 1100°C water steel 10 0 14% Mn quench within 30 seconds Fig. 6.5 C 18. Abrasion resistant ste! |C 0.5.0.6 )Normalise by heating to 860°C and for crushing rollers |Cr-3.0 air cool (BHN 280) Mo -0.4 i) Rough machine ii) Heat to 860°C , hold and oitquench | {BIIN 550). Rate of heating 50-80"C/br upto 680°C Jv) Tempering (150-250"C) within 2 hours (BIIN 500) viii. Heat-treatment of non-ferrous alloys Most of the non-ferrous alloys attain superior mechanical properties by solution. heat-treatment and age-hardening, The solution heat-treatment of aluminium alloys containing copper (upto 6%) involves heating to a temperature between 450 to 550°C to dissolve the hard © phase (intermetallic compound of Al and Cu) by holding and then rapid cooling by quenching in water. Ageing or precipitation hardening consists of reheating of the solution heat-treated castings (0 a temperature range of about 180 to 250°C followed by slow cooling. This causes a very favourable dispersion of the brittle "0" phase in the microstructure causing substantial increase in tensile strength, for instance from 200 MPa. to nearly 400 MPa in case of Al - 4% Cu alloy. Other alloys that are given this heat-treatment are ALMg, ALSi, AlZn, ALMg.Si, and ALMg-Cu. (Fig, 6.6.F)Metal Casting - Priniples & Practice 175 Copperbase casting alloys containing zinc (brasses), in (Bronzes) along, with other alloying elements like lead, nickel, aluminium, silicon etc, which have a tendency for segregation or cored:-structure are given homogenisation treatment by heating to suitable elevated temperature and. holding, causing equalisation of structure by diffusion to improve toughness and ductility. Fig. 6.6. Some copper alloys like Cu-Be can attain betier propertics by solution and_ precipitation hardening. - Aipna (a) phase Alpna-Be'a Brass ee are —- Beta (p) phase Evtoctic ofa 5 —— a ve i Soliant ‘Stiga estat Se umnium- Seon Alloy (12% Sin Fig. 6.6 (4, e, ) Micro structures of cast metals1%6 Finishing Operations Fig. 6.7(A) H. T. Log Sheet (Front) [Rate of heating Heat treatment Log-Sheet [CS / MS / LAS / HAS / AC/ Cu Metal | Heat No. Date [To be charged at Furnace No. Raise temp to Time ‘TEMPARATURE Pyrometer 1 | Pyrometer’ Hold for {Cool charge (a) Inside Fee (2) open air (3) quench oil/water (4) water/air spray [Rate of cooling {SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS Charged Discharged Hrs. taken [DateMetal Casting - Principles & Practice m7 Fig, 6.7(B) H. T. Log Sheet (Back) Charge Details Patt. No. | Heat No. Qy. We per pe [Total Wt Kg] Test pes. Kg. | | | | | [Total No. of test pes. charged - Nos. Total change 7 Kgs Rejection Nos Re heat treatment Kg [Good production Kee178 Finishing Operations ix, Casting defects due to improper heat-treatment a. Warpages, distortion, dimensional changes, cracks Reasons: Non-uniform temperature distribution in heat-treatment furnace, improper loading of castings in furnace with inadequate supports for long/thin parts, poor casting design, too severe quenching. b. Burning, surface damages Reasons: Too high temperature, non-uniform heating due to improper burner location, too long a soaking, oxidising atmosphere. in . farnace due to excess air/leakages. © Cracks in austenitic manganese steel castings (1.0% carbon 10-12% manganese) Reasons: Too fast a rate of heating, not attaining austenitic temperature (1000°C) before quenching, delay in water-quenching causing drop in temperature (maximum time 30 seconds), insufficient volume of quenching water, improper heat-transfer to water (tiring of water helps) 4. Temper brittleness/Sigma phase formation in stainless and other alloy stecls cause cracks and lowering of toughness if correct tempering temperature is not maintained. % Practical aspects to be observed during heat-treatment a. Frequent calibration of temperature-indicating/recording devices and checking uniformity of temperature in different portions of the heat-treatment furnace along with checking of furnace atmosphere (measurement of CO-content) are the other steps to prevent defective heat-treatment. b, To check the effect of heat-treatment, itis essential to keep test pieces of the same composition as the casting and subject them to the same heattreatment cycle before testing for properties like tensile strength, elongation, bend or impact. 6.3 Salvaging of defective castings An important activity in the finishing section is to repair castings with minor/salvageable defects. The method of salvaging alier identifying the area and extent of defects depends upon the casting metal and ils criticality. For less important castings in grey cast iron, filing up minor blow-holes, pin-holes, shrinkage ete, by a filler under pressure to seal may be adopted. For critical castings in other non-ferrous metals and steels, removal of the defective portions, building it up by suitable welding Process, finishing the surface by hand-grinding, final inspection followed by heat-treatment to homogenise the casting and relieve local welding stresses have to be done for proper salvage operation. It is essential to maintain a complete record of salvaging operation on critical castings by the quality control section for the customer's approval and future reference. The format for such a report is given in Table 6.3Metal Casting Priniplee & Practice 179 Table/Format 6.3 Casting Salvage Record [KY Zomdy Casing salvage record Casting Nome Seder Ret Drawing No. ‘Sketch Showing Delect Location [Casting Serial No. |e | Defect Location Sie of Deve Natur of Dee Weling Technique Post Inspection Customer Inspection ema Finishing /C. ‘Quali Control /e. Customer Representative a Typical procedure for repair-welding of critical steel castings a, Base metal preparation for repair Defects are to be removed completely by arc-air gouging, grinding or machining or by combination of these operations, Defect removal to sound base metal should be assured by the use of die-penetrant test. b. Base preparation for welding ‘The area w be welded should be radiused and rounded avoiding all sharp comers, Poncil grinder may be used to remove any burrs formed.180 Finishing Operations c. Pre-heating ‘Where the defects extend to more than 50% of wall thickness or more than 25mm depth, itis desirable to presheat the region around the welding area to 100 to 200°C. 4. Welding electrodes Standard low-hydrogen heavy coated welding electrodes may be used for welding. Electrodes should be thoroughly dried before use. Use of D.C. welding is advised ¢. Welding technique Surface to be welded should be dried and cleaned thoroughly. It is preferable to use smaller diameter electrodes to minimise the heat and distortion and maintain short arc length. Weaving if any, should be limited to 2 to 3 times the electrode wire diameter. All slag should be removed between passes with a hammer and a stainless steel wire brush before the subsequent layer is welded. Care should be taken to see that the work is done by the qualified welders and the weld is free from porosity, under-cutting, lack of penctration or any other defects ff Testing of the weld area ‘After welding is completed, the weld are should be lightly ground and checked aguin by die-penetrant or magnetic particle for the existence of any defects. {g. Post-weld heat-treatment Depending on the carbon equivalent of cast metal and the depth of defect welded, stress relief tempering may be required. ii. Welding of austenitic manganese steel (Hadfield) castings This steel containing 1.0 to 1.4% carbon and 11 to 14% manganese attains high toughness and work hardening properties by a special heat-treatment, These castings are heated to 1050°C and water-quenched very fast (within 30 seconds). If the cooling rate is not sufficiently fast the cast metal develops iron carbide and martensite phases which are brittle instead of austenite. This may also cause cracks in thicker areas during service and while welding. During fusion welding for salvaging defective areas, the casting gets reheated and being austenitic, Hadfield steel is very sensitive to heating. Above 350° C, manganese carbide gets precipitated at grain boundaries and heat affected zone of welding, making them very brittle. It is essential to keep the temperature of the casting well below 280°C during repair by continuous cooling and keeping in a water bath while welding, Preheating should be totally avoided for this steel. Welding electrode, containing chrome (upto 14%,) nickel (upto 10%) and molybdenum give good weld,‘Maal Casting ~ Principles & Practice 181 ‘The electrode coating should be of ‘low hydrogen’ type and electrode should be dried well before use. Welding is recommended with DC reversed polarity using minimum specified current, shortest possible arc and ensuring fast rate of cooling. tt, Instructions for welding critical steel castings @. Check the Carbon Equivalent (CE ) as per Winterton’s formula Mn , YN , WCr_ %Mo _ %V Comes 6 * 20 10 50 10 ICE. islessthan 0.40 - no precautions are needed 040-048 weldable with ordinary electrodes, pr-heat 90:200°C 0.48 -0.55 wweldable with low hydrogen electrodes, pre-heat 200-370°C. above 0.55 difficul to weld, only austenitic electrodes, higher pre-heat, 4. Preheating of the casting while welding helps reduce the temperature difference between the weld metal and the unaffected base metal (heat-affected zone). Higher C.E. steel, thicker wall of casting, larger deposit of weld, and more complicated castings require higher pre-heating temperature. Pre-heating is done with gas or electric heating locally and the casting is kept covered with asbestos cloth. Temperature measurement on casting during welding is done by marking with "thermo chalks" which change colour on attaining a specified temperature. 6 Postweld heat treatment is essential for higher C.E. stecls as well as critical castings and heavy welds. This helps in removing the residual stresses produced by local contraction of weld metal during cooling: For critical castings, itis necessary to transfer to post-weld heat-treatment furnaces immediately after ‘welding, without allowing (0 cool. Otherwise cracks, distortion and sometimes hhydrogen porosity such as pin-holes may occur. General stress. relief temperature is 600 to 650°C. No preheat or postweld heat-treatment should be done for austenitic manganese steel castings as they will reverse to martensitic state on heating, ae Questions Briefly explain the stages in finishing castings after pouring. ‘What are the advantages of pneumatic tools in finishing castings? Explain the operation of pneumatic chipper and han grinder. ‘What are the different methods of separating runners and risers from castings? Explain the principle of shot-blasting and sand-blastng,192 Finishing Operations With a sketch explain snagging or swing frame grinding of heavy castings. ‘What are the considerations to salvage a defective casting instead of rejecting it? How is salvage welding done on castings with minor defects? Explain the operations in salvage welding of stel castings 10. What is the purpose of heat-treatment of castings ? 11, Explain briefly the common heat ret 2)steel_ b) copperalloy <) malleabl nt procedures for castings of iron and) alluminum 12, Differentiate between a) annealing, t) normalising, and e) tempering of easings 13, Briefly explain the various stages in finishing/fetting of the following castings, after pouring insand molds: 2) small grey cast iron auto castings 'b) heavy machine toolbeds in eas iron 6) malleable icon pipe-fitings 4) SG. iron crank shalis 6) cast steel valves ‘heavy turbine housings in low alloy steel 8) austenitic manganese steel liner plates ‘gum metal bearing sleeves ‘i duraumin castings 14. Mention the common mechanical equipment used in fetling and finishing castings. eeINSPECTION AND QUALITY-CONTROL 7.1 Specifications for castings Before a casting is taken up for manufacture, i is necessary for the foundry to study the specifications, expected properties and acceptance standards. Otherwise it will result in rejection of castings by customer, delay in execution, and avoidable arguments and ‘misunderstanding between the foundry and customer. Normally a few or all of the following will be required in castings as part of specifications ‘a, chemical analysis and allowable level of impurities b, mechanical properties c dimensional tolerances 4. freedom from injurious defects - external/internal In addition, depending on the criticality of the casting in service, the following additional conditions may be imposed. e. surface finish of casting £ destructive testing of a few samples In the case of critical castings like ack links and armour plates of defence armoured vehicles or for naval/aircralt parts certain percentage of sample castings in teach lot are subjected to actual load test until they are destroyed. This test will conclusively predict the quality level of castings to withstand service. This is obviously used for very limited items. pressure testing non-destructive tests for surface-flaws non-destructive tests for internal soundness acceptable level of different defects procedures for salvaging acceptable defects by welding, H.T. etc. Hdentification method for each casting history with the melt, test-pieces, heat-treatment ete194 Inspection and Quality-Controt The details of each of the above are given in the corresponding ASTM, IS, DIN or other International standard specifications. As a part of the acceptance standard for carbon steel castings for pressure applications the following are the specifications: a. Chemical analysis Percentage ranges of carbon, manganese, silicon and maximum allowable sulphur and phosphorous, for steel. 4. Mechanical properties Tensile strength, yield strength, percent elongation, hardness, reduction of area, impact strength, angle of bending. Heat-treatment is also specified sometimes to achieve these properties on standard test pieces cast along with the casting. Hardness is tested directly on large castings using Poldi portable tester. Other properties are tested on testpieces only. ¢. Dimensional tolerance Whatever tolerances the designer has specified for fitting dimensions, they have to be achieved. Even for untoleranced dimensions, depending on the class of castings and over all size, the dimensions should be within the tolerances specified in standard 18-4897. d, Internal/external defects Internal defects like shrinkage, blow-holes, cracks etc., beyond certain specified limits are not allowed in castings of specified class, Salvaging minor defects is allowed. ¢. Surface finish of castings In cases like valve castings, the internal/external surfaces, unmachined should be within 3 to 10 jm, ff Pressure testing Hydraulic pressure tes to twice the normal service pressure. & Surface defects Surface defects to be checked by magnetic particle testing. 4h, Internal soundness to be inspected by + ultrasonic flaw detection procedure to a specified class and + radiography as per the specified standard. i. Welding procedure ‘The acceptance level of defects to be welded by qualified welders as per given procedure of weld-preperation, welding rods, pre-heating, and post-weld heat-treatment Ji: Casting history record Complete record of casting history should be maintained for identification of casting with melt, tested properties and salvaging procedures.Metal Casting ~ Principles & Practice 105 78 Inspection of castings involves the following methods, depending upon the criticality of service requirements: Inspection of castings i, Visual inspection ii, Dimensional checking. iii, Surface flaw detection iv, Internal flaw testing “The other supplementary testing as per specifications involve: vy. Chemical analysis vi, Mechanical properties vii, Metallurgical structure i. Visual inspection In this, each casting is examined visually for any defects or Naws on outer andl Visible inner surfaces after proper cleaning. Obvious defects like surface roughness, metal-penetration, pin-holes, surface shrinkage, crossjoint, bulge, broken portions, cold shuts, scabs ¢aa be observed and d Sometimes a magnifying glass can be used. ‘sion regarding acceptance can be taken ii, Dimensional checking tis necessary to check important dimensions for castings keeping them on surface table. The basic steps are: properly locating the casting, establishing reference surfaces, marking the centre lines and measuring each dimension with reference to the drawing. Much skill and experience is needed to do this as casting dimensions differ much from the drawing dimensions. Casting has additional machining allowances, drafV/taper for molding, padding, fillets for easy castability For complicated castings "proof machining” of reference surface is done, taking @ small cut on machine so that it can be used as base for marking other dimensions. "Proof machining" also helps in checking the soundness of casting slightly below the skin in critical areas, revealing the quality, so that further operations can be carried out with confidence For mass production, dimensional checking can be carried out by the use of gauges for critical fiting dimensions. This is a very fast and reliable method. Simple "gornogo gauge’ for casting wall thickness is easy to make and use, The dimensional report should be properly completed for sample castings. iit. Surface flaw detection Certain surface defects on castings, normally invisible to the naked eye can be clearly revealed by the following techniques, which are very popular a. Dye-penetrant testing In this method the surface of the casting to be tested is cleaned, lightly grinded by hand and dried. A "penetrant’ which is a volatile chemical containing a coloured dye is uniformly applied to the casting surface by spraying, brushing or immersion, Sufficient time must be allowed for the fine186 Inspoction and Quality-Control flaws on the surface to absorb the penetrant. ‘The excess penetrant is then removed by organic chemical liquids (Solvents) called "removers". A “developer” which is a dry white absorbant powder like chalk or suspension of the powder in a volatile spirit, is then employed to bring out the defect clearly against contrasting background. ‘The coating of the “developer” should be uniform and thin so that it does not mask the defects. Sometimes uorescent penetrants are used which reveal minor flaws under ultraviolet illumination. Dye-penetrant testing method has the following advantages: + itis very cheap. + ittcan be done fast. + itcan be done on magnetic or non-magnetic castings. + if done properly it can reveal surface defects like cracks, pin-holes, cold-shuts, laps etc. + if tested on proof machined surfaces, dye-penetrant testing is very reliable for revealing dangerous defects. * this is a very common test for portion of castings salvaged by welding, b. Magnetic particle inspection This method is used for detecting discontimuties in ferrous/magnetic castings. The steps involved are, preparation of the surface to be tested by proper cleaning or machining, establishing a suitable magnetic field in the area to be tested, applying magnetic particles to the surface, examining the test object surface for accumulation of the particles and evaluating the defect. Magnetization is done using electric current, either circular or longitudinal, from a storage battery or rectifier. Magnetic particles are normally fine iron filings, either dry or suspended in a liquid like kerosene. If the magnetised arca of the casting has any crack, it creates leakage flux lines which attract magnetic particles. Thus a cluster of magnetic particles indicate discontinuity in this part Particle accumulation parallel to the lines of force indicates smaller defects whereas accumulation of particles at right angles to the lines of force indicates heavy /deep sub-surface defects. For better evaluation, Muorescent coatings are given to the magnotic particles, which are later viewed under sensitive ultraviolet rays. Itis advisable to demagnetise the casting alter the test The advantages of this method are: + itis very fast, ‘+ cheap for magnetic materials, ‘+ reliable for surface and sub-surface defect evaluation, and + can be used extensively for ingots, shafis, rolled items, before and after proof machining to find major flaws. ‘The limitation of this testing is that it cannot be used for non-magnetic materials and equipment is relatively costly compared to dye-penetrant testing kit iv, Internal defects inspection Non-destrictive testing of castings for internal soundness normally use radiography and/or ultrasonic scanning methods.Metal Casting» Principles & Practice 197 a. Radiographic flaw detection of castings Radiography is a non-destructive testing technique in which radiation of high energy and high penetrating power is employed (o test the object Normally X-rays and y-rays are used for testing castings in radiography. Properties of X- rays and y- rays: + they travel in straight lines and effects like reflection and refraction are negligible. + they have high penetrating power which increases with inereasing quantum energy. + they are absorbed by some materials to extents varying with the energy of radiation, properties and thickness of the absorbing material. + they can ionize matter. This results in effects like Muorescence, chemical (photo) effects and can be biologically hazardous. This is an extremely important precaution before using radiography, Generation of X-rays: Electric energy is used to create thermo-ionic omission of electrons from @ heated filament cathode in an evacuated tube, The electrons are accelerated by a high potential difference between the anode and cathode. X-rays are produced by the striking of clectrons upon a target, usually tungsten, at the anode. The cost of the equipment depends upon the energy level y= rays are produced by radioactive isotopes during their continuons emission process. It is spontancous and is not allected by variables like temperature or pressure. The normal isotopes used in radiography of castings are Iridinm-192 and Cobalt-60. The radioactive isotopes are relatively cheap, they do not require external energy for actuation. But their strength decay with time as indicated by their halFlite period, beyond which they can not used, Constant evaluation of y-ray source strength is needed to get a proper radiograph. For example, the half-life period of Iridium-192 is about 80 days where as for Cobalt-60, it is about 4 years. Film radiography: Film radiography i the most popular method of getting a permanent record of the radiation coming ont of the tested casting after penetration ‘Typical set up consists of (Sce Fig, 7.1) + asource of X-ray or y-ray, + amask/diaphragm for controlling the X-ray cone, ‘+ intensifying screens to reduce scatter, + the casting to be tested, and a film holder conta ing the photographic film. ‘The important parameters which control the quality of @ radiography include the film characteristics, geometrical arrangement of the radiation source, object and film, the energy level or source strength and exposure time,188 Inspection and Quality-Control Operating contrat Radiography camera acography source ‘penci ‘Aperture / focus “5 Radiographic tim. t— Casting “Lead ined gasket - holder Work - table Lead lining chamber Fig. 7.1 Arrangement for y-ray radiography To know the sensitivity of the radiography, wire or hole penetrameters (image quality indicators) of various sizes are used which introduce artificial defects of known sizes in the radiograph to find the smallest size of defect that can be evaluated. Practical aspects in radiography: ‘The sensitivity of the radiography is indicated by the features of the Penetrameter as seen on the radiograph. The essential requirements are theMetal Casting ~ Principles & Practice 189 images of the identifying numbers, the outline of the penetrameter. The penetrameter should be placed on side nearest to the radiation source so that the plane of the penetrameter is approximately normal to the direction of the beam. At least one penetrameter per exposure shall be used. ‘The following information shall appear on the radiograph: a. Job number ie., serial number given for the part as per radiographic details register b. Segment number as per sketch of part c. Image quality indicator. Evaluation of defects of castings: Specified areas of castings are covered as specified in the drawing with mutual understanding between the contracting partes. Evaluation of defects shall be carried out as per ASTM or IS for castings. Defects like hottears, cracks, deep shrinkage, severe and distributed blow-holes revealed in radiography in critical areas call for rejection of castings. Localised defects in less critical areas may allowed to be welded and retested after welding and stress relief. Radiographic technique giving details of film, distance, screen, exposure with additional particulars such as melt number and foundry name shall be submitted. All the radiographs shall be clearly identified with a serial number which can be linked up with the casting which bears the same serial number as that of radiographs. ‘The radiograph numbers shall be punched just below the heat numbers and encircled by white paint and the location numbers shall be legibly painted ‘on the castings with white paint ‘Advantages of radiography: ‘© radiography can be used for metals of any composition or structure. + it provides a permanent record (radiograph) of the tested casting with proper identification + depending on the source strength, sensitivity of testing can be adjusted for different materials, + the test procedure and interpretation of the test results is relatively simple and non-controversial. + the test can be carried out by operators of normal calibre unlike for ultrasonic testing. «itis advantageous to do initial scanning by ultrasonic testing which is cheap land fast and later probe suspected areas by radiography for accurate and clear evaluation of defects in the casting.190 Inspection and Quality-Contral Disadvantages: ‘+ higher energy radiation involves serious havards for life. + the cost of protective equipment, concrete structure ete., are very high ‘even though the testing cost very less. * itis not portable and requires costly handling of castings. + range of testing is limited compared to ultrasonic method + source strength deteriorates with time. Ultrasonic Inspection: Use of high frequency sound waves in frequencies of 1 MIlz to 4 MHz for detecting the internal defects in castings provides a cheaper, safer, faster and more sensitive method ot inspection compared to the hazardous radiography. In this method a transducer is used to convert electrical energy into sound energy through crystalline matcrials possessing electric properties ‘The ultrasonic waves are made to travel into the casting wall being tested. ‘The ultrasonic wave passing through the wall, produces two echoes, one corresponding to the front face and the other for the back-wall, the two echoes being spaced at an interval proportional to the thickness of the wall, If any defect exists inside the material, a part or whole of the energy, depending upon the type and sie of law:is reflected. The reflected ultrasonic impulse is converted back into electrical pulses by the reverse Piezo-electric cffect (production of electric charge on its surface when subjected to external mechanical pressure). It is displayed on the visual display screen of a cathode-ray tube (Sce Fig, 7.2) ‘The quality of ultrasonic inspection depends upon propogating the pulse of energy from the transmitting probe into the component being tested and retrieving the reflected echo pulse. Ullrasonic energy, except at very low frequencies, can not pass through air and needs some form of intimate coupling between the probe and the surface of the casting being tested. With manual oF hand-held systems, this coupling is obtained through a layer of grease or other semi-fluid and requires much skifl to keep the contract consistent. In an automatic inspection system, both the probe and the component to be tested are immersed in a bath of water (treated suitably). Ultrasonic energy passes readily through the liquid and into the casting giving better coupling consistency. " In "A-Scan” presentation technique, a cathode ray tbe in which the horizontal axis represents the distance or time and vertical axis represents pul amplitude is used to located and assess the size of internal flaw. "Attenuation the loss of intensity of energy of the ultrasonic wave during its passage through the media due to the combined effects of absorption, beam spread and Scattering is compensated by an instrument control which enables amplification applied to a received signal to be adjusted (gain control).Metal Costing ~ Principles & Practice 191 Probe WT a OM, 1-Defect LZ Test casting Power Pulser Ampitier source Tine base [Aenuation (sweep) Gain Distance {geoth) axis Size of defeat Yeans Front wal Back wall echo Detect echo ~ a ay CRT Screen Visuel spay Fig. 7.2 Ultrasonic flaw detection (Schematic diagram} The quantification of the flaw is done by various methods. In common practice, whenever the defect echo exceeds a definite “percentage of the backwall echo from within critical region of the casting, as agreed upon by the purchaser and manufacturer, the material may be rejected. The use of suitable calibration test blocks and DGS (Distant-Gain-Size diagram) with a generalised family of curves representing the amplitude echoes in 'd! (decibles) versus the distances of flaw from various sizes of equivalent flaws can give very accurate quantification of defect. ‘The performance of an ultrasonic instrument varies with usage due to changes in the characteristics of the electronic components in the circuit. The192 Inspection and Quality-Contral probe system may also undergo charges due (o variations in crystal mounting or wear of probes. To maintain the sensitivity of the instrument and testing system within narrow limits, standard calibration blocks of metal of special size and shape containing suitably located reflecting surfaces (artificial defects) to calibrate, control and verify the adjustments involved during actual inspection are used on a common basis. The following system can be carried out for calibration of an ultrasonic unit and the connecting probes with reference locks: + check of linearity of ime base and amplification ‘+ calibration of range for both normal beam and angle beam (shear wave) ‘+ determination of the position of probe index ‘+ approximate estimation of dead-zone iy Advantages of ultrasonic testing (compared to Radiography): + the cost of testing is very low as no films, developing or special chambers are involved. + setting up of working sensiti + itis very fast, the result being available instantaneously without the necd to process or view separately. Highly suitable for on-line automatic inspection ‘of mass production items. + itcan be used for almost any metallic/non-metallic object. + iis portable and can be easily carried even to inaccesible testing sites. (Radiography cannot be carried-out outside) ‘+ itis absolutely safe, No hazards of radiation or chemicals, ‘+ itis highly sensitive. Even class I radiography cannot reveal defects below 24% of thickness, whereas by suitable adjustment of sensitivity, ultrasonic testing can reveal defects even lower than 0.1% of thickness + there is no limitation of thickness for testing unlike in radiography. Testing can be done on thickness from a few mm to a few metres accurately. ‘+ no problems of decay of source as faced in radiography. Disadvantages: ‘* the interpretation of results requires skill and knowledge. ‘+ the dead zones, equipment characteristics, selection of probes influence the exact location and evaluation of defects. ‘+ calibration to evaluate the defect size has to be done on suitable calibration blocks in advance for each material. + unfavourable casting geometry due to outer contours, complex shapes and defect orientations with respect to the scanning direction cause difficulties in interpretation of results.Metal Casting - Principles & Practice 193 * undesirable internal structure of material like large grain-size, presence of austenite and acoustically anisotropic materials cause difficulty in testing. + no permanent identifiable record of the test-results with defect is available, with older models + very few fully satisfactory and reliable equipments, accessories and spares are being manufactured in India at present. Note: The latest ultrasonic equipment has an in-built computer which can be programmed to record in its memory, the position of the probe and the location of defect echo, back-wall and front-wall echo, during the testing. This information from the memory can be given on a printed diagram any time later, using a computer printer as hard copy for permanent record. A copy of such print out is given in Fig. 7.3 for reference and information, Ultrasonic test report Customer P.O, No, & Date T.C.No.& Date: 786 18/03/95 Drg. No. & item Specification 2 Alloy Steet Casting Qy. Offered 1 Qiy. Accepted: Nil Qy. Rejected 1 S.No Equipment used S.No] Probe [Couplant used] Ref. block] dB p Roop Ultrasonix [UX ‘400M|22MEz| Oi mW [60 70mm Ccrmazen Daw eety = 210m Rage = BD Gite ZF Fig, 7.3 Computer printout of Ultrasonic Test Report ‘The above specified casting was subjected to Ultrasonic Test and found defective. Note: Major defect of continuous nature at a depth of 23.47 mm in the casting wall of thickness 70 mm found as above by angulate probe. Position of probe on outer surface (OD) 200 mm from top face. Defect echo adjusted to appear if above 50% of back-wall echo.198 Inspection and Quality-Control v. Chemical Analysis The final analysis of different elements in the casting should correspond to the given specifications for acceptance. Samples for chemical analysis testing can be taken directly from drilling the casting or from identified test-bars from same melt. Normal wet-methods of dissolving, titration and estimation by gravimetric or volumetric methods are usually followed in foundries, However, if corrections to the melt analysis have to be done during melting, it is essential to have faster methods, to reduce furnace on time. Many special testing equipments for rapid estimation of elements like carbon, sulphur, silicon ete, are available. Electro-chemical, spectroscopic analysis, spectro- photometers, colorimeters and vaccum absorption spectrometers give faster analysis of elements. The latest micro-process-based systems give the analysis with digital display or a print-out for permanent record. These are very accurate and dependable though costly. Due to the high cost of special alloying elements like nickel, molybdenum, vanadium etc., many modern foundries prefer such sophisticated equipments for accurate alloy additions during melting without the danger of rejection due to wrong chemical analysis. vi. Mechanical Properties ‘The quality of the cast metal is checked on test bars, separately cast or integrally cast with the castings, subjected to the same heat-treatment as the casting. The test-bars are later machined to standard sizes to test the following properties ultimate tensile strength, yield point, elongation, reduction in area, hardness, angle of bend and impact-strength. The properties obtained should be as per the accepted specifications. vit. Metallurgical Tests In addition to the mechanical properties, metallurgical testing is essential to determine the acceptability of the casting for service in some cases. The common metallurgical tests done are: For cast irons - graphite classification, type and size Forsteels _- grain size, presence of bainite. For metallurgical testing, the casting specimen is properly ground, polished and etched with a suitable chemical reagent. The specimen is then viewed under metallurgical microscope with a magnification of above 100. The microconstituents/ structural components are identified and recorded if needed on 1 photo-micrograph. Latest electron microscopes can show magnifications of over 5000 times so that the complete history of the metal can be obtained. It is also used for failure analysis. Micro-structural testing of castings like turbine casings is essential as the presence of bainite confirms the quality of the metal as well as the heat-treatment adopted so that the service life of the critical component is guaranteed. Similarly for spheroidal graphite iron or malleable cast-iron, the only test to confirm properties is the micro-structure with suitable graphite. The other ‘metallurgical tests like wedge-test to check chilling property or carbide precipitation in grey cast iron are also indicative of the cast metal quality to ensure the service life, machinability and mechanical properties.‘Metal Casting ~ Principles & Practice 195 7.3 Analysis of casting defects A casting produced by a foundry is ‘acceptable’ if its quality level as required by the customer's specifications is found satisfactory. Otherwise the casting is termed defective ‘The acceptance specifications, depending on the criticality of the cast component, may include not only the visible surface quality but internal soundness, metallurgical, chemical requirements and mechanical properties to be proved from test pieces. Thus a clear knowledge of acceptance standards is extremely essential for the foundry producing castings (See Table 1.1 Typical Acceptance Standard). The overall percentage of rejection of a foundry comprising of internal as well as by customers, is an indication of its performance. In Indian conditions a rejection percentage of 5 or less indicates good quality control in the foundry. A large variety of defects occur in castings. Some of the defects do not impair the service life of the cast component and so can be salvage by repairing. Some defects cause serious damage to the component and so such castings are rejected. Each casting rejected contributes to the wastage and loss of value to the foundry. It has to be kept in mind that even though the percentage of outright rejects appear low, the actual number of castings accepted for salvaging/repair will be normally 3 to 4 times the rejections. Thus close monitoring and control of rejection is a very important function of a foundry to improve its productivity and profitability. The first stage of defects-control is the identification and recording of casting defects as they occur daily (See P. No. 206, 207 Rejection Report form). The next stage is the assigning of reasons for occurance of the defect, and planning remedial action to prevent or reduce its future occurance, The efficiency with which the above stages are undertaken will be rellected in the rejection control results of the foundry. i. Casting defects can be classified by different methods a. Surface defects Metal penetration, sand fusion/ burn-on, scab swell/mold-burst, lash/in b. Discontinuity Misrun/cold-shut, cold crack, hot tear, unfused chaplet . Dimensional defects Cross join/mismatch, warpage/distortion, core shift, wrong dimension 4. Internal defects/eavities Shrinkage, gas porosity, blow holes, pin holes, sand inclusions, slag inclusions elmproper metallurgical/chemical/mechanical properties For each of the above common defects, description for identification, sketch, causes/remedies are given in the following pages, through tables, cause-effect diagrams ete. (Table 7.1) Fig. 7.4 to 7.9. ii, Defects related to the production-stage For effective contiol of rejections, it is also necessary to identify the responsibility centre for each defect. Thus defects can be related to the major section contributing to it asthe metal oval ctalluegcal a Pate dya b. ‘Metal Casting Principles & Practice 197 == AR 8 Scab Layer of metal over layer of cand Meta Sena 10.Metal- penetration (ough “surface ot metal fonterng duet age sand grains) cope at (At paring line shy 12 Hot tear Bite Crack with exazed surface inegular Defect / Description Fig. 7.5 Casting defects sketches (78,9, 10, 11,12) Steels Cast Irons Non-Ferrous Alloys High meling/pouring temperature Solidification process High specific gravity and erosion Chilling tendency Fluidity and section-sensitivity Melting practice Dross/oxide formation,Solidification process198 Inspection and Quality-Control Table 7.1 Casting defects analysis Detect I Deseripuon T CausesiRemedy fa Surface Defects: (Fig 7,78) ik Scab expansion/|Rough iegu rosin surface wilh a fold containing layer of sand wider it proyctions/Dulges in the esting parting line or core seating "Metal penetration” [Rough, sharp projections on] Figh pouring. temp. Torge surface, forming metal sand rough] sand, high metal pressure, slow pouring |i, Sand fusion Buen-on|Surface layer of sand, sintered] Low refractoriness of sand, oxidation of etal, slag wth glossy appearance |Iowmelting impurities, high pouring temps] projection on High thermal expansion of tightly ramsmed iu. Swell/Mold burt [Movement/dsplacement of sand| Loosely ranined mold high metal pressure wall it nnkd consing local ring pouring ess gaggers in heavy mold 1 Flash/Fin [Thin projections of metal at|Poor mold/core assembly excesive| insae of metal mold reaction | sand due to radiation of quid metal easing by erosion of thin sand layer trapped under metal Jeleerances, bend! on parting. surface, es ol weights [b: Discontinuity: Misrun/Cold shar round hols in thin walls across walls oxidized surface Ted casting Too cold weal, dow/iniestupred pouring Jemooth unfased surfaces, smooth improper gating, low wall thickness Hh. Cold-eracks Fine long cracks, not oxidized,/Stess/hit after solidification in brie smooth lastings i, Hot tears Long, regular, ragged cracks See Cause Elect digram (Fig. 7.6) iv. Wrong dimensions |Defective dimensions iv, Unfused Nowhomogeneity on surface or|Too cold metal, 100. thick chopl chill/chaplets internal improper gating, slow pouring lz Dimensional Defect 7 Crossjoint Displacement of pans of a casing] Improper wold-box bush pattern plat fc parting line of mokd or core [mismatch of parts of pater or mel Ji. Worpage/Ditorion [Deformation of geomet axis of Excessive slid contraction prevented by] casting hard mold/eores, improper casting design i Core-shit wrong dimensions in inner or| Displacement of cores de to insufficient lower profile prints and fixing, while closing or pouring during closing Wrong dimensions of pattera/ core-boxes, rong patter allowance defective closing (a Internal Defects extending inside casting inside casting containing sand stag particles inside casting Stag 7. Shrinkage Trcegir, aged covty dendrite Seo Cause Efect diagram (Fig. 7.5) oxidized starting at surface andl ii. Gas porosity/ Blow | Spherical cavities of varying ies do (Fig. 7.7) holes [sith and distibuted, oxidized Pin holes ery sail holes, our in groups do. (Fig. 78) neat to surface deep/ elongated, shiny iw. Sand:inclusions Irregular cavities at surface or do (Fig. 7.9) Li Pf iteretraps turbutance by wrong gating] pouring/ldle nonusge of]Metal Casting - Principles & Practice 199 iv. Defect Control Once defects are identified and their occurence recorded, control action can be started through techniques like A-B-C analysis or statistical quality control. The urgency, resources and attention required to control the major defects should be properly planned. Techniques like ‘cause and effect diagrams' help in quick analysis ofan identified major defect and help in action planning. Defect-history data sheets and recording of defects record on casting production documents also help in anticipating and control of the defects when the job is taken up in future.(See Casting technology/method card) The ‘Action Plan’ of the identified defect starts with the study of the nature of defect, whether it occurs at random or repeated in cycles and listing down all likely reasons for its occurance. Elimination of likely causes by suitable action systematically with a feed back of results should follow.(See Monthly rejection analysis report) v, General remedies for a few common defects a. Surface defects like roughness, sand fusion, metal penetration, burn-on, ‘metal-mold reaction can be prevented by the use of proper mold/core coatings. Variety of water, alcohol, resin-based coatings/paints are available with appropriate filler materials like silica, zircon or magnesite to effectively control the surface defects, Smooth surface finish for both external and internal faces and easy finishing/sand removal is obtained by the use of proper paint. (See Table 26) b. Inclusion of sand, slag, dross and other injurious materials entering into casting from molten metal can be effectively controlled by the use of proper screens, filters and strainers placed in the gating/running system. Depending on the type of metal poured, these are made in ceramic or metallic materials. These are being used in high quality castings of cast iron and non-ferrous alloys extensively, Use of calcined refractory gating components and sprues avoids many sandcoriented defects in steel castings, ©. Use of properly designed mold-boxes, closing pins and match-plates control the closing defects like cross-joint, shift, fins, mismatch, run-out common in machine molded castings. Regular checking and repairs of bushes, pin-centres, clamping system of mold-boxes during use is essential to reduce rejection due to the above causes. d, Many defects caused by internal unsoundness can be eliminated by proper design and practice of running, gating and risering, It is essential to design these before the pattern is released for production in molding than doing the same at the time of closing or after the casting is rejected. More attention given at earlier stages of pattern-design eliminates later rejection and inferior quality problems.Inspection and Quaity-Controt 200 Sequuys weep woyy a aD gL Dutunod a ‘dues Buunod yo uoGurdder onsseons ined eeu werayreuy (wonenao.s oN) voreatanu peony onysoduo redo emodes ou sis 06107 $3409 8 ONS BOVINIUHS =< san ways « fiom Suey due? sedord wowebre}voRoneNP PON = Suwres yes ‘voreaypos euonseup Buyoword oN DNINSSIE ¥ ONILVD DwiaTOW NDIS30 DNUSYO201 = Principles & Practice Metal Casting 10 mo cei NINOS NUT $3409 ‘Bere uo voudiosge ainiont + ivan Beas -Bunad seaje1e9 = reveu pind jo Busee ap ado} ‘ue - spun x — ‘nssaid Suunod No 68 sxues0id uur sg «— Sunodeinw-p.09 suouspe ison = somyppe Buonpord-ssep + — uinod nope esos Asma 50 simsouyropig anssaars « — spe pave Sudo Aapgeoued x01 (S310HNId/ S3TOHMOTS) ‘ALISOUOd SVD 1ohs yim sreeyo "sHUD 2013 + ‘ainssoid y209 9 s1081 5}0-moH, stenbspeu 01 amp vanderive ses) aunsseid.peoy mojo) 64 ainsserd meysoyeieu arerbapeu, jun sous. 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Quality-Cantrot Analysis of defects work-centre-wise or originating from each stage of the process are dealt with in the respective chapters like ‘Molding’, ‘Patterns’ ‘Melting’ etc., Similarly, special defects attributable to the metallurgy of the metal/alloy being cast are also dealt with under the chapters. melting/metallurgy of these alloys. 7.4. Quality Control and Quality assurance ‘The purpose of quality control is different from that of inspection: "Inspection" acts as a representative of the customer and gives decision regarding accepting or rejecting the casting offered. It should be unbiased and scientific in its decisions. “Quality Control” aims at checking the quality level at each stage of process - from raw materials to the final product - thereby ensuring that only products of acceptable quality proceed to further stages. Quality control supplements the effort of production in achieving the target of quality of output along with quantity, "Quality Assurance” is a procedure, properly documented, to assure that at each stage of the process sufficient care is taken to maintain the assured quality level. Quality assurance is an in-built safety device for achieving a quality product, totally implemented and controlled by the organization producing it It acts independent of the Inspection Department. & Quality Control Systems With the aim to check the quality level at all important stages of process like sand-mixing, molding, core-making, closing, melting and pouring, quality control stall record the observations in different forms, the specimen of which is given on ages 210 and 211. Eventhrough in small foundries the supervisory staff controlling Production also check quality, it is found often desirable to keep seperate supervisors to check quality and report to the Sections Incharge directly, so tha the pressure of achieving production targets, quality is not sacrificed. The suggested organization for this is given in ig, 9.1. The various aspects regularly checked in every production-shifi by quality control are indicated on page. These aspects should be checked against given standards which are mutually discussed between Technology, Production and Quality control. It is important that the entire tcam of stall and workers understand and co-operate in this regard, irrespective of Production incentives which affect the earning of individuals. The quality control section should play an active role in promoting quality and reducing rejections and rework at the same day, reasons analysed and re-work at finishing. Any castings rejected should be examined on the same day, reasons analysed and remedial action initiated and supervised by quality control personnel, The eflect of the action (on quality should be studied and recorded for future use. The personnel in quality control should be selected carefully as they should be able to achieve results without exercising real authority over production workers/supervisors, as theirs is only an advisory or stalf role. Regular reports of quality through Statistical Control Charts, Rejection Analysis Reports, customer's Rejection/Complaint/Reports should be periodically compiled and circulated to the concerned staff and executives.Metal Casting ~ Principles & Practice 205 ii, Quality Assurance System Inplant Quality “Assurance System has acquired much importance in improving the quality level in foundries since the past decade. The truth that "quality is not accidential but build into the product” is accepted by the entire team of management, stall and workers, who evolve their own system of control procedure, whether demanded by customer or not. These procedures evolved from successful modern foundries of developed countries like Japan, are implemented in India through the efforts of M/s. B.H1.E-L and other quality-conscious units. Quality Assurance section organises its staff and maintains records and documents pertaining to each stage of the process till the final product is despatched. This {information is available for the customer to check and satisfy himself regarding ‘quality. Some of the documents maintained by Quality Assurance Section are: a, Organization/Personnel for quality assurance/control b. Specifications of sand accepted Daily sand-mix properties 4d. Classification of scrap and foundry returns - their storage procedure Quality checks on molds, cores produced in each shift Procedures/Records f. Heatwise pouring reports of castings with details of test-bars cast and melting log sheets Calibration records of testing equipments like Universal Testing Machine h. Results of chemical analysis, mechanical properties achieved for typical specifications i. Heatreatment log sheets, H.T. charts j. Results from external test-reports (periodical) k. Casting history cards - details of salvage-welding conducted |. Welding procedures for different critical specifications m, Welder's approval test results tn, Procedures for non-destructive testing and records of reports 0, Rejection reports and analysis In short, if a foundry maintains a well-documented quality Assurance System internally, any customer should hiave no hesitation in accepting the castings without further verification or doubis regarding its service-life as per the given specifications. A brief out line of 1S0-9000, the International Standard for Quality assurance and qyality management is given in Chapter 10,206 Inspection and Quality-Control Daily rejection report Date SL. Casting Ref. [Material | Weight per | Nos. | We of | Defect / INo.| Drg/Pattern/W.O.No. Plece | Rejected | Rejects | (Code) [On Date Total [Month Progressive Total [Remarks VC. Inspection: V/C. PRODN, VC. PPD. Foundry Supa:INo. | (responsible dept) year) Metal Casting - Principles & Practice 207 Monthly rejection analysis report Montiv Year - st.] Work-centre | Rejections This Month |Progressive Rejects (This| Remarks | Castings No. of |Total Wt. al % of | No. of | Total We. | 9% ‘Total | Castings | 1. [Pater 2. |Sand-mixing 3, |Molding/Cores 4, |Chosit ng 5. | Melt ing /Pouring 6, |Finishing/ELT. 7. [Methoding (Gating/Risers) 8 Example: Patern Wong dimensions Sand Excess blow holes, rough-srlace Molding Sand-wash, bulges swell, burst. Closing Crossjoint, coreshit Mehing Wrong chemical analysis pin-hoes, cld-shat Finishing/HT, Hanaling cracks, mech, properties poor | Metioa Hottears shrinkage (Copy: WC. Each Dept: ~ Foundry Supa VC. Inspection208 Inspection and Quality-Control Quality Control Check List Shift/Date 1. Sand Testing Moisture content Green Compressive strength Permeability 2 Patten Surface condition Completeness (Core-Boxes, loote pieces etc) 3. Mold Boxes Pin- centres (for machine Molding) Closing pins condition 4. Molding + Condition/Repai Hardiness, Frabilty Gating Risering 5. Cores : Baking Venting Important dimensions 6. Closing Important dimensions Venting Mold/Core Coating Sprue location Cross;joint Freedom from loose sand. 7. Meking Chemical Analysis Pouring Temperature Floor Test Results & Pouring + Ladle condition Stopper control Molds poured (inorder) ‘Tesv-bars poured Riser pouring height Gas- Cutting Method Before/After HT. 10. Heat Treatment 2 Cycle Test Bars Test Results HLT. Furnace Atmosphere 11. Finishing. Welding Procedure Guage Fitting (For important Dimensions) Major Minor 18. Non-Destructive Tests Result 12, Casting Defects Noted Se10. 4 12, 13. M4 Metal Casting - Principles & Practice 209 Questions Explain important features that form an acceptance standard for specifying casting quality. How are the acceptance qualities of the following critical castings specified: 2) valves b) turbine casings )_ nuclear reactor components 4) aircraft components } auto engine body Distinguish between destructive and non-destructive testing of castings with examples. ry Bs ‘What are the common inspection methods for castings to test ‘a) cast metal quality (chemical/mechanical/micro) ) surface quality Mention the inspection techniques used for external quality testing and i testing Explain the principle, applications and limitations of 3) Dyepenetrant testing 1b) Magnetic particle testing Explain through sketches the techniques of radiographic testing of castings, using X - rays and y- rays Explain the principle of ukrasonic testing of castings. ‘Compare radiography with ultrasonic testing forthe internal soundness of castings. Suggest methods to classify common casting defects with examples. Give reasons and remedies for surface defects ‘) metal penetration b) sand fision 6) mold-bursi/bulge d) scab ‘What are the reasons and remedies for: a) misruns b) cold-shuts ©) hottears/eracks Explain the reasons for occurance of blow holes in castings and suggest the remedies. ‘What are the causes for sand inclusions? How these can they be prevented: How do you distinguish the following internal defects 7 8) blow holes b) sand inclusions ) shrinkage cavities How can shrinkage cavities be prevented in castings?210 Inspection and Quality-Contrl 17, Relawe the common casting defects that occur due to improper procedures/working in the following sections: a) "sand preparation b) pattern making ©) molding and closing 4) melting and pouring ) gating and rsering 18, Explaint the causes end prevention ofthe following casting defects 8) —crosejoint ) slag inclusions )crosejoint ©) pinholes 1) coreshit 19, Name the typical defects that occur in castings of the following meals: 2) casiron ) steel ©) copper alloys 4) aluminium alloys 20. Suggest a procedure to trace the occurance of a casting defeat to the section o stage of ‘manufacture contributing to it and give reasons and methods to prevent iin the following: 2) blow holes ») shrinkage 6) sand inclusions cracks 21. Distinguish between Inspection and Quality Control. 22. What is Quality Assurance? Suggest the basic procedure for establishing a Quality assurance system ina foundry. 28. What are the basic documents requited for quality assurance? 24, Suggest suitable organisational setup for a q Explain its salient features. lity-consious management in a foundry eeeFOUNDRY MECHANIZATION To improve the productivity in a foundry, a variety of equipments are used in different stages of manufacture. As major part of capital investment goes into plant and ‘machinery, it is essential to study the type, capacity and suitability of each equipment for a particular application, before purchasing. Instructions and training of personnel regarding proper use of machinery and equipment is important for their effective utilization. Plant engineering department takes care of the maintenance of the equipment as well as auxiliary services for smooth running of foundry. ‘The above aspects are discussed in this chapter. ‘The other important considerations of equipment such as energy conservation and pollution control are discussed briefly in chapter 10. 8.1. Mechanical equipments in a foundry i. Sand Preparation a, For new base sand Vibrating multi—THHHH0 | c OW aaa Fong Sango a ane nae pone J] | especion tL _ { 3 oy ow “fem ‘is box soap oe L i 4 Fig. 8.6 Lay out of medium foundry224 Foundry Mechanigation MELTING FURIACES ON PLAT FoR ° 5 o & stl CO eo oO ° y me 1 7 x 8 F_teansren varenr | vena ory seou anv Pourwa ontcrane sor ctosne ==> ok crane 107 | weaves CLosincmOURING Oo] ox || i 3 cuceniapounnsstheer § won g a5 5 j 6 30% wo.oee 4 é i 6 8 E 5 g z 2 ae ousor $ oo soscoxcur a SAND CONDITIONING PLANT Osorasst }] semnetance = Oo Orerune suat ea Femns OH CRANE SOT (MEDIUM oO Fig. 8.7 Lay out of large foundry above 10,000 tons/yeMetal Casting ~ Principles & Practice 25 £. Individual equipment like molding machines, vibrating knock-out table, swing, grinders, heat-treatment ovens etc. should have their own separate handling facility like jib-erane at lower level instead of depending on the general EOT crane, g. Effective utilization of space in all three directions should be planned for economy. Sand conditioning system starting from under ground sand collection and cooling to overhead storage hoppers should be laid out carefully to avoid obstruction to other material Now. h. Planning of services like electric power (HT and LT), compressed air, water, fuel oil etc. should be done giving adequate utility points. Examples of typical layouts for a small, medium and large foundry are given in Figures 8.5, 8.6 and 8.7 8.3 Plant Engineering/Maintenance/Services Plant engineering in foundry is very critical as it has to maintain equipment and services in a highly adverse environment. Sand, dust from molding, fumes, heat from melting and vibrations from moving equipment cause severe strain to smooth working of machinery compared to other processes. Many critical equipments like melting furnaces, overhead cranes, compressors etc., may have to be operated continuously, 24 hours per day, over many days due to the non-availability of a standby unit enhancing, maintenance problems. Plant engineering department usually performs the following, ‘major funetions in a foundry: 4) Maintenance of plant machinery and equipment. fi) Maintenance of services / utilities like electric power distribution/circuits compressed air supply ‘water supply for service/machine-colling and drinking furnace oil supply pipes air-conditioning of equipment and offices ‘minor civil construction / repairs of buildings reacge iil) Safety and accident prevention Plant machinery and equipment Maintenance of plant machinery is necessary to prevent costly down time due to breakdowns and to enhance the working life of the equipment. ‘The different types of maintenance systems are shown in Figure 8.8, The main activities of a maintenance system are listed below. a. Preparation and updating of machine history cards after classification and coding of each equipment along with the auxiliaries; information on puchase cost, parts list, spares, breakdowm-history and parts replaced. Necessary documents like original supplier's drawings, instructions manuals etc. should be properly stored for later use. (Fig. 8.9 Specimen History card)226 Foundry Mechanizaton MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS UNPLANNED PREVENTIVE PREDECTIVE BRAKE DOWN MANTENANCE MAINTENANCE MAINTENANCE ‘scHoULED ‘CONDITION. SASeD EMERGENCY Low Down-TME Least DOWN-TME HIGH DOWN-TIME Fig. 8.8 Types of plant maintenance b. Preventive maintenance schedules for each week with manpower allocation for each equipment depending upon their criticality. Electrical contacts, relays, bearings, control valves need special attention in foundry. © Planning and procuring spares, tools, tackles and inventory reduction through standardisation of common items like lubricants, bearings, fasteners, drive motors etc. 4d, Predictive maintenance of critical/costly equipment like melting furnace to avoid stoppages for maintenance using condition monitoring methods. Condition monitoring relies on monitoring some physical characteristic which changes as a fault develops and detecting it before the fault becomes serious enough to substantially affect the performance of the equipment. The advantage here is that unlike in preventive maintenance, periodic compulsory shut down of equipment is not necessary as long as its condition is satisfactory. Itis the most scientific system of maintenance where the cost is justifiable in terms of additional hours of equipment vailability for production. ‘The methods of condition monitoring are: + Static tests, when the equipment is temporarily at rest in between operations, using special observational devices like image-intensified closed circuit TV. with multiple views, fibre-optic tools for internaVhidden part viewingMetal Casting ~ Principles & Practice 27 Fig. 8.9 Machine/Equiment History Card [Name of the M/c./ Equipment) |Code no. [toate | Make (Comminioned on chase order 0 Purchase pee Rs Ben | Tape Paroles Tait [Detals [Remarks [Max be 1 |Measurments |? |Max. length fe [Mex with a [we ja [Phase a A |General | \etectrcity |b [Voltage supply jc |Connected from SB no. a Load [e P Kw lraaven | [Uaieconumpton soph |b [Peste [Tempe |i water |, Conmpuon [=P 7 Supply wet mn] Type Ratan | Te, of Motor No. ip2ts [ers Take 2 |KWAP 3 [RPM 4 [Type 5 [Frame se B | Moon |p 7 [Wola 3 [Gyan 9 [Cs ofinaoion [To[ Brake duis ti] Comected deve 12 Limi switch det22 8 Foundry Mechanization No. of reduction gears liad 2 [Type 3 [Ratio men = xo D_ | Lubrication [> Viseq. of lubrication ant wa | ame [7 [Specification catalogue of M/e. Ea aed 4 [Mechanical parts drgs. | ; a 7aMetal Casting ~ Principles & Practice 29 + dynamic monitoring for real on-line check during working with vibration monitoring by signal sensing, vibration analysis, discrete frequency analysis for wear mis-alignment, unbalance, gyroscopic action ete. Sonic monitoring by sound or acoustic emission. Cotaminent analysis of debris that gets out ‘of equipment in coolants, lubricants, hydraulic Muids using Spectrometric Oil Analysis Procedure (SOAP), magnetic detectors etc, Stress wave emission study, thermal imaging, infrared scanning, radiological methods etc Replacement planning for old equipment with new modern units giving the necessary financial justification ( Eg: MAPI method) ii, Plant services/utilities a Where electric furnaces are used for melting, separate circuits for High Tension (HT) power supply (440 V and above) are needed. All auxiliary equipments are connected to the Low Tension (L.T.) supply of 220 V. Proper laying of HT supply lines from sun-station transformers to the furnace transformers with suitable circuit breakers and switches as per regulations is essential. In LT side, adequate provison should be made for sub-distribution boards with electric points for load balance and local fault diagnosis without affecting other equipments during breakdown and repair. Compressed air pipe lines originate from the main compressor room and get distributed through pipes with larger diameter initially to different sections like melting, molding, finishing etc. From there, air is distributed through pipes with lower diameter to individual machines and tools like molding machines, pneumatic chippers, chistels, shot blasting uni, oilburners etc. It is necessary (o provide water-traps at intervals and with major equipment like molding machines aunilary air-tanks with pressure regulators. Leakages of compressed air should be avoided. Water for cooling equipment like induction furnace coils, arc furnace electrode holders, roof rings, compressors etc. should be suitably softened and demineralised as required. Serious breakdowns of furnace can occur due to improper/inadequate supply. While reusing, care should be taken to cool water through cooling towers. Adequate supply points to user equipment like sand mixer should be provided. Drinking water for employees should be made available cleanly, Furnace oil to ladle-preheaters, heattreatment furnaces, core/mold. drying buners etc. is supplied from main overhead tank through pipes. Oil preheaters are needed before it reaches pumps to maintain proper flow and pressure. Air-conditioning for control cabins of critical equipment like furnaces as well as computer centers and offices through central: or local units is laid and ‘maintained by PED. ‘The responsibilty to carry out minor civil-works/repairs/modifications as well as painting of building and stce! structures periodically is under PED.230 Foundry Meckanicati ili, Safety and accident prevention Installing adequate safety devices such as given below is an important function of PED. * earthing for electrical equipment as per regulations, isolation of High Tension devices, protection agaigst electric shocks by proper insulation, caution sign boards, ‘+ guards and fencing for moving mechanical equipment like pulleys gears, belts, presses/hammers, alarms while overhead cranes are moving with loads, + regular checking and recording of hoisting cables/wire ropes/chains, lifting hooks used for ling loads, + providing suitable protective devices like hand gloves, helmets, goggles, asbestos aprons for workers dealing with dangerous equipment, liquid metal heavy castings etc., and + a Safety Officer, normally attached with P.E.D. has to maintain proper records of accidents and preventive measures taken for future, co-ordinating with the Factory Inspector. Education and training workers and supervisors in safety aspects, forming safety commitees with representatives from workers and staff, conducting regular safety meetings etc, are the duties of the Safety Officer. 8.4 Practical aspects - layout and mechanisation 4. Lay out and handling system For each tonne of castings produced in a stecl foundry, about 2 tonnes of steel scrap and ferro alloys, 2 tonnes of facing sand and 5 tonnes of backing sand are handled apart from various melting and molding auxiliary materials. It is essential that the layout of the process and product be designed in a manner to help uni-directional low, avoiding cross and counter flow at any stage In old steel foundries due to the poor layout there was counter flow of molds, mold boxes and molding sand. Similarly the flow of steel scrap into the yard near the furnace as well as return from foundry for remelting posed handling problems. As a result inspite of using many overhead gantry cranes in the two main bays, handling was problamatic. The productivity was very low with only about 180/200 tonnes of alloy steel castings per month inspite of molding, melting, finishing being done continuously in 3 shifts and employing more than 200 workers. In foundries of more recent date, the layout would be more carefully designed. Due to the uni-directional flow of steel scrap, ‘molding sand and castings, it would be possible to achieve almost the seme production as in an older foundry, with only ‘one crane in the main bay and two cranes in the side bay. The molding operation is done only in one shift, melting in two shifls and finishing in three shifts to achieve the production. The total number of workers of only 120 would give high productivity. As melting capacity would be available in the third shift, an alternate product line would be introduced in addition to regular steel castings.Metal Casting - Prinipls & Practice 231 ti. Area allocation “The closing of molds is a very important operation in a steel foundry. Sufficient are and handling facilities provided in the layout for this will help greatly in increasing molding production and reduce delays caused by non-availability of molds. Similarly the handling and operations in finishing cause bottlenecks if not laid out with knowledge and anticipation. Ofien in all poorly laid ont steel foundries, large heaps of castings amounting to 3 months of production could be found resulting in high working capital demands, poor control on deliveries and low productivity The areas where final closing operation of mold is done should be sufficiently large and free from dust and constant overflow of materials. ‘This influences not only the productivity of workers but also the quality of casting. In an old stec! foundry inspite of highly experienced workers and staff, radiographic quality castings were found to be difficult to produce due to the congested, dusty closing area, In a later steel foundry this aspect was taken care of giving better results, iti, Decision to modernise/mechanise Careful study and planning is required before implementing modernisation/ mechanization in a running foundry even though itis necessary. ‘The heavy capital expenditure, changes in production methods, attitude of worker's union, capability to market the additional production profitably requirement of qualified and trained man-power etc. should be given due consideration. Otherwise, if done hastily, as pointed out by the well-known foundry expert, Mr. B.G, Sastry, the slogan will be "modernize and perish” instead of "modernize or peris a. Handling of bulk materials like molding sand if mechanized could contribute to high productivity. Looking only into the temporary investment in an older stec! foundry, the sand was being handled manually. Later it was realized that this was the bottleneck for increasing molding production. In another foundry semi-mechanization was done with mixed sand to be delivered at molding point through wheel barrows. Even though for lower levels of production the system worked, at higher levels of production and increasing labour costs it items was converted to conveyor belts and significant improvement in molding productivity was observed. Handling molds on trolleys was found to help greatly in improving productivity even thongh this requires a high degree of standardization of mold- box sizes. b, If mechanization is attempted without clear conception of production, no improvements can take place. In a foundry for jobbing type production, molding machines of high capacity were purchased along with an expensive conveyor system, Due to the small batches required each time, there was lot of time wastage in changing patterns and it was found that on manual molding by matchplate the productivity was higher than on machine. In another foundry due to the selection of wrong type of melting unit, the entire mechanized ‘molding line costing nearly 50 lakhs of rupces was found totally idling, not only blocking money but also valuable working arca $e232 Foundry Meckonication Questions 1. Describe the major mechanical equipments used in sand preparation: a) for new sand b) for old / return sand 2. What is sand conditioning? Detail the mechanical equipment used for this with line sketches. What ae the common handling equipment forthe following ina foundry? a) return sand b) mixed molding sand «) molds liquid metal e) casings cores 4. With line sketches describe the principle of operation of common types of molding machines. ‘What are the limitations of simple jolt and simple squeeze ? 5. Explain the features and operations performed by commonly used molding machines. Draw e sketches, 6. Why are compressed siroperated tools used in foundry? Sketch and describe a) pneumatic rammer b) pneumatic chipper 7. What are the basic principles of 2 good layout fora foundey? 8, Show the layout for a) small b) medium and ¢) large foundry 9. How does a good layout help in higher productivity and quality in a foundry ? Explein with an example. 10. What is the importance of plant maintenance in a foundry? State the critical equipments that need regular attention, 11, What are the common maintenance systems used for founclry equipment? 12. What are the plant services looked after by plant engineering? 13, Illustrate the layout for the following supplies to critical equipments: a) electricity (HT and L-7) b) compressed air ©) service water ) furnace eit 14, Indicate the H.T and L.T electric power supply system in « foundry having arc furnace and ‘other normal equipment, 15, What are the normal records maintained by the PED for the satisfactory running of critical equipments in a foundry. 16. Give typical specifications for the follows a) meling furnace ») molding machine ©) aircompressor 4) vibrating shakeout ) _Elecric Overhead Transport crane 4) shot blasting machine 8) Heatzeatment farnace quipment: 17. What are the aspects of safety in a foundry looked after by a Plant Engineering De eedPLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF FOUNDRY Starting a new foundry project and running it successfully requires careful study and planning. Project planning of a new foundry involves collection of detailed information on market demand, competitors, options in productmix, techno-economic analysis for viability and long (erm profitability. Proper prescheduling of different activities from conception to the pilot-production should be done carefully to correctly anticipate the time frame which influences the overall cost ‘While managing a foundry after starting, issues such as proper organisation, training of personnel, control of different activities through proper information system are critical, apart from the technical and monetary inputs. In a jobbing foundry, duc to the wide variations in specifications of cast metal, size and intricacy, the work content of a casting differs considerably from item to item. Production planning in such a foundry, starting from annual down to monthly, weekly, daily and finally furnace heat-wise plan making involves many problems. Proper timely reports of progress from dillerent stages of production, help to achieve control over performance and keep up the delivery commitments made to customers. Marketing of castings involve aspects such as commitment to specific quality standards, inspection procedures and delivery schedules apart from the price, Understanding of the elements of cost involved in manufacture of a casting help the marketing personnel to quote at competetive and yet profitable rates while securing orders. A good management should be prepared to learn from the mistakes made by them, earlier as well as from the experience of other organisations facing similar problems.234 Planning and Management of Foundry 9.1 Planning a new foundry Planning a new foundry involves the following activities i. Market/demand analysis, ii, Choice of categories of production, iii, Techno-economic analysis for viability and iv, Project planning/scheduling. i. Market demand From the performance reports of different industries, governmental statistics on industry and trade, growth projection of different sectors of industry using castings such as mineral processing, steel, cement, automobiles, machine tools, railways etc. and export/import statistics, information can be gathered regarding market of castings. The actual performance of other competing foundries in the region will also give the needed data. If necessary, assignments can be given to consultants to conduct a market survey for the type of castings in demand - specification-wise region-wise and category-wise. The extent to which detailed information is needed depends upon the size of unit planned/the capital investment proposed, i, Category of Production Choice can be from the following: 4a. Specification of metal/alloy to be cast * Non-ferrous, grey cast iron, S.G. iron, carbon steel, alloy steel or combinations 5b. Size range Small castings - upto 200 Kg piece weight Medium castings -200 Kg to 2000 Kg piece weight. Heavy castings ~ Above 2000 Kg piece weight, ¢. Type of production Jobbing - ity or customer many variety of items, Mechanised - Few items in large quantities to suit machine molding, d. Molding process Green sand, shell-molding, investment/precision casting, die casting, centrifugal casting ete. ¢. Quality Commercial grades of ordinary quality. High quality with full non-destruction test guarantees. £ Nature of orders Captive - catering only to one or few customers, Jobbing - no restriction on customers. iit, Techno-econumic analysis for viability This is an important excercise carried out to finalise the project decision while considering different alternatives among, types of castings, production capacity, cost of the facilities, production cost, expected sales and contribution (including profit) for the capital invested. It is important to carry out the analysis for a number ofMetal Casting - Principles & Practice 235 probable combinations before choosing the optimum, The following hypothetical case will illustrate a method for carrying out a techno-economic analysis, briefly. Detailed formats/instruction will be furnished by agencies providing financial assistance for projects such as State Financial Corporations, Industrial Development Corporation, LD.B.L., LCLCL ete. Assumption for the estimates made: a. The foundry makes quality alloy steel castings of medium size, partly captive and partly jobbing. b. The melting facilities are 2 tons, twin crucible, medium frequency induction ‘melting furnace with matching molding, finishing, heat treatment and other services including H.T. power supply. c. The rated capacity is expected to be reached in the 3rd year of operation; melting will be in 2 shifts, producing about 20 ton of liquid metal per day (60% farnace utilization) with molding and finishing in all 3 shifts to produce 10 ton of finished the good castings per day (after melting loses, liquid metal losses, rejections etc.,) dk On the basis of 300 working days, the annual production is 3000 ton fetching an average value of Rs.18,000 per kg for high quality carbon and alloy steel castings of different product-mix. Value of output. CO} Variable cost inchuding raw material/power (i) Other overhead costs incliding depreciation, interests i) Nett contribution iii + €. Project Cost/Investment: Land & Building Plant & Machinery Prelimenery/ pre-operative expenses Consultancy/Engg/Collaboration fees Working capital margin Total Source of funds Promoters 7) Equity from public 50 Seed capital/subsidy from financial institution(s) = _ 20 100 Long terms loans from financial institution(s) = __200 Total 300 & Viability: The project is expected to produce 25% rated capacity during the first year of operation, 80% rated capacity during the second year and the rated ‘capacity of 3000 tons during the third year. ‘The break-even point will be achieved during the later half of the second year and Rs.90 lakhs contribution is expected to be generated in the 3rd year. Considering the total investment of Rs, 300 lakhs, this expected financial results make the project viable on broad236 Planning and Management of Foundry terms. Close examination of other ratios, liquidity, debt-service from cast flows: etc. along with sensitivity analysis for probable changes in the cost, reduced sales realization, higher raw materials cost etc., can be carried out to satisfy the financial institution, h. Competence of the top management team to carry out the project as per the estimates has also to be justified to get the loans granted. Clearance from governmental agencies for freedom from pollution, assurance of electric power, clearance for industrial land etc, have to be obtained by the promoters. iv, Project Planning/Scheduling Careful planning and preparation for each stage in the project is essential to ensure that there are no delays causing increase in project cost (over run). Use of scientific tools like PERT/CPM help to quantitatively fix the time for each event in the order of occurance and activities which should be taken up in parallel so that, critical activities which are likely to delay the entire project commissioning can be easily anticipated. Computer-aided PERT/CPM help in keeping track of the activities daily and warns about failures, and likely delays. Realistic than optimistic time for each activity should be considered and followed up to completion as scheduled. Financial Institutions report that most of the medium/large scale units get delayed in commencing production, often due to non-availability of the required funds on expected dates, pushing up the overall cost of the project considerably Co-ordination with equipment suppliers for spares and maintenance needs, training of operators on critical equipment before it is received, keeping. all arrangements including foundation, auxiliary services like air, water, oil, electric connections, handling systems ready by the time the major equipment arrives, help a lot to reduce unnecessary idle periods of costly equipment. Involving maintenance and production personnel from the begining in erection. and commissioning helps in reducing further bottlenecks. Close study of the new ‘equipment and preparing maintenance schedules before commencement of regular production eases the effort of plant engineering personnel, especially for critical costly equipment. Action should simultaneously be started for procuring other production needs like mold-boxes, patterns, major mold/core materials, lining refractories etc. so that production commence immediately after erection. Clear scheduling of activities, coordination, anticipation and follow-up are essential during the project construction, erection and commissioning stages to keep the cost of the project within the estimates. 9.2 Organisation, Management Information System For smooth functioning of a foundry, proper organisation with clear allocation of authority and responsibility is vital. Decisions at different levels in management are taken on the basis of timely and apt reports provided by the management information system.Metal Casting - Principles & Practice 237 i. Organisation Structure a. The organisation structure created by the management has a great influence on the productivity in the foundry. If complete care is taken by qualified and experienced staff members in the pre-production stage like planning, pattern and molding technology, sample-casting and stagewise inspection, when the item is given in production in the shop floor it moves very fast without bottlenecks and a high level of productivity from workers results. In foundries without such formal system and procedures, there is confusion due to individualistic practices on the floor resulting in high rejections and low productivity. A clear organisation with documentation routing reduces delays in production in the various stages. b._ In the organisation of a foundry it is advisable to have two separate persons of equally high rank holding the separate functions of production and technology including quality and inspection. ‘This will help in maintaining high quality level helping ultimately the foundry to establish good reputation. Fig. 9.1 The organisation should be so designed to have clear areas of responsibility coupled with system of control, without grey-areas or no man’s land. Opinions differ as to whether appreciating individual effort gives better results or emphasising team effort, in an organisation. Promoting team spirit by the Managing Director among functions of productions, marketing and finance, help the organisation more than pitting cach manager against the other in an effort to bring out the best in each, Training Training of workers and stall is the basic necessity for any productivity-improvement program. Training not only helps the workers and stalT to improve their skills but gives them proper motivation and respect for the organisation Even in a medium-size industry without formal (raining personnel, an on-the-job training programme for workers could be attempted. The systematic teaching of theoretical aspects of the operations daily being done by them, with their importance in the overall performance of the company will create a pride in their job. This helps the workers to respond with enthusiasm for efforts towards higher productivity. Job rotation, periodic lectures by persons with experience, exposure to external training courses by institutions help a great deal to equip the workers and staff in the organisation for better productivity. iti, Relations with trade unions ‘An enlightened Trade Union will be of great help in improving the productivity in the industry. It responds positively for any steps taken by ‘management to create proper climate. ‘A good management takes the Union into confidence, informing them in advance the progress made by the company periodically and any changes in labour policy comtemplated. This will give the union time to respond and if acceptable,Planning and Management of Foundry 238 svosmiadng Wis ‘uusig sunew | [ 6upinow wo) fe} bb) i by fed by Of 21 Ed dous ~e19 $0109 wowed oz ; jonuoo) . yomuoo) jouyoeL)| | g Bujwueig eovevaywiey | | Suysuis || Supinow | | Sunen vvonoedsuy ‘avers pe Keane webeueW aebeuew webeuew vebeuew veBeuew vonnpoid EW reoquyoa, oueuty feuuosied ‘onjnoexa yet AipunogMetal Casting - Principles & Practice 239 time to communicate with its worker members. Unilateral action by the management, however minor, in matters dealing with workers, could. provoke negative response from the Union and workers. There are incidents in which the Union has responded well for the disciplinary action taken on an erring worker without reaction, when properly informed in advance. On the other hand, when the motive of the management is suspected by the Union due to mis-handling and improper communication, the results could be disastrous. Very minor matters could blow up into strikes. Mature and frank handling by trained personnel staff as well as motivated supervisors, could help in defusing such situations. Motivation of deserving workers by monctary and other rewards and recognition by management helps them in not restorting (o explosive actions on minor matters. Promotion for deserving workers to stall category will also create confidence in them towards management. Foundry being highly labourcoriented industry, devoting time by top exceutives for genuine grievences of workers in time, will help to avoid crisis and improve productivity. iv. Market Peter Drucker, the renowed management expert, has said that the prime function of the management is to create a customer. Finding customers for their products and keeping them with the company require special efforts by the ‘management. The identification of customers, selection of products to suit the equipment and technology in the foundry and to prepare a manufacturing programme which could fulfil the financial results expected from the company are inter-related functions, to be done with planning and imagination. Even though in the early stages, each foundry tries to make castings demanded by many customers with uncertain contributions, gradually they settle down for ‘optimum product mix and few customers. A sound knowledge of the fields of applications of castings will help in choosing suitable product lines. Equipment, facilities, and man-power could be organised towards manufacturing such items. In a foundry, it was decided to seek Lloyd's approved for castings of high quality for critical industries. A systematic schedule for acquiring the various production and quality control equipments, research and development facilities and ecruitment, training of staff and skilled workers was undertaken. This planning yielded good results and the foundry could successfully manufacture high quality ‘castings as per schedule. Tis to be kept in mind, that once the management decides to market a high quality product, even though the production of such high quality items is low, say 20% of the total production, it becomes essential to maintain the same quality level in various stages for the balance 80% non-critical products also. This will have its ‘own impact on the overall productivity and cost in the foundry.240 Planning and Management of Foundry Marketing/purchasing and estimation of casting cost: Understanding the factors which influence casting cost is necessary while quoting /selling a casting by a foundry or while ordering or purchasing a casting from a foundry by user. a. Criticality of casting This is decided by the design engineer. Generally the cast-part subjected to simple static loading as compressive may be called "non-critical". Such castings need not be tested by any nondestructive tests for internal soundness. Eg. floor plates, base, plates, casings, decorative pieces Cast-parts subjected to dynamic loads, compound stresses, high internal pressure, torsional/shear, impact/shock loads, creep/fatigue conditions may be classified as "critical" class, ‘These castings have to be thoroughly checked by nondestuctive methods for internal soundness to avoid failure in service later. Eg: gears, shafts, impellers, couplings, valves For critical castings, higher attention at each stage of production, higher liquid metal requirement in risers, usage of special materials, more inspections/ salvage procedure and higher rejections contribute to higher cost, both direct and indirect. 6. Dimensional tolerance, surface finish on unmachined surfaces Normally used molding processes like green sand, dry sand or CO, silicate can be used for producing castings within normal surface finish and dimensional tolerances. (Ref : Table 2.5) If the designer requires special surface or closer dimensional tolerance on a casting faces (internal/external) where machining is not done/required, the cost of casting increases considerably. For achieving such special finish, special process as resin sand, shell molding or die casting have to be used which involve higher costs. . Intricacy of casting Castings with relatively large surface area, low wall thickness, many internal pockets, varying wall thickness, distributed massive sections can be considered "intricate", Shapes with high volume to surface ratio, simple geometric configuration, thick walls of uniform section are considered simple” castings. Intricate castings need costlier pattern equipment, core boxes, special production fixture, higher costs in molding, cores, closing, finishing and inspection. The possibility of higher rejections and higher material and supervison costs increase the casting costs considerably. 4. Special composition of casting metal Generally foundries make a number of standard grades of cast.alloys in their melting furnaces. Making any other special composition alloy involves special melting procedure, need of special alloy and lower furnace utilization. Foundry returns of rejections, risers and runners from special casting-heatsMetal Casting ~ Principles & Practice 241 ‘cannot be easily segregated causing loss of costly alloying elements used. Special heat treatment may be needed for them, incurring high costs. ¢. Low order quantity The fixed costs in casting production such as pattern equipment, overhead, costs in methoding, planning, quality control, supervison etc. are divided over the entire order quantity while estimating the cost per piece or per kg of the casting. When @ small quantity is ordered, say one or two castings only, indireet/ fixed cost and cost of reject will make the casting cost per piece look exorbitant While ordering castings, it is advisible to checkup the requirements in future, say in the next two years, and place order for the entire quantity at one time, to get cost advantage. f Supply of rough machined castings Inspite of good inspection techniques, some defects cannot be detected on as-cast surfaces in a casting. It is advisible (0 ask the foundry to do proof machining or rough machining on all the critical faces of the casting, leaving 2 to 5 mm allowance for final machining by the customer, This will ensure quality casting at a marginally higher cost and avoid rejections during machining at final stages, involving heavy cost and delay. Modifications in casting design to reduce overall casting cost are discussed in Chapter 5, Unit 5.2 "Casting design considerations" v. Management Information System For effective control over the operations, itis essential to have regular reports of different activities of the foundry. From these, it is possible to know the performance of different sections, compare them with the plan or target, so that timely decisions can be taken for any corrective action. The following are the important reports normally needed: a. Monthly aggregate plan Quantities of various items to be produced, considering the customer's delivery requirements, plant capacity, work-centre or shop loading to the ‘optimum possibility. 4. Weekly plan Monthly plan subdivided per each week, considering maintenance needs, items spilled over from the earlier week, materials availability, urgency etc. ¢, Day-wise pouring schedule Considering the availability of pattern equipment, _mold-boxes specifications for furnace heat, maximum number of molds possible per heat, urgency etc., optimum heat-wise schedule of molds to be made and cast. d. Periodic progress reports of different sections Daily/weekly/monthly status of planned versus actual production of molding, melting, finishing, despatch.242 Planing and Management of Foundry ¢. Daily inspection reports Details or quantities produced, accepted and rejected both by weight and numbers, reasons for rejections and cause-wise analysis. Ff Age-wise analysis of process stock Details of castings in the floor, stage-wise, heat-wise with quantity and date of casting, delayed items beyond commited delivery, age-wise. This is essential to contra the in-process inventory of castings. & Man-power estimates Required man-hours for daily/weekly plan achievement in the various sections to find bottlenecks in advance and for necessary early action through extra workers/ overtime ete ‘h. Production cost statements Cost center-wise material and labour costs comparing the actual with the budgeted. i. Personnel records from time-office 4. Maintenance records, breakdown details k, Financial records: Cash book, ledger, journal, bank-book ete, 1, Material purchase / Stores records Inward goods receipt, inventory, consumption, rejections, procurement advice for items below re-order level, non-moving items (age-wise). m. Marketing New orders booked, value, customer and spe tion-wise, n. Sales service Partywise despatch statements, payments, balance to supply and ‘outstanding debtors with reasons. 0, Activities of research and developmental nature Specimen documents included: Figure 9.2 Job Progress Card Figure 9.3 iii “Casting Technology / Method Card Figure 9.4 Production Planning and Progress Card Figure 9.5. Melting Daily Production Report On the basis of the information supplied in the reportssdecisions are taken at the appropriate level of management. Different Committees of Executives, Managers, Engineers and Supervisors also contribute to the decisions of collective or inter-departmental nature. Meetings are held, some at fixed periods and some as needed to solve routine and special issues. The present tendency in management is by collective decision-making than individual, based on information and analysis. Assistance from external experts or consultants is sought on important issues when needed243 Metal Casting ~ Principles & Practice rn] enon roe re [oe |oz we |u| 92 se [v2 ez |zz [vz Joz ot let [21 Jou [ou [vt fer zr|rsforo}e|zfols|rlele| oN O/M oN O/M SON eof aarT womap eae # une wy 1d sua? ‘voraodsut 9 oma Sune = Funduseg sponeW wan std “doo 9p onieoss | ovep | pomoynuen ponioas| arp | pesiopuen euewoy [dora ava__|pempews| ra syeuoy | dena | ova |pempews| oa paooes sosfoud pio ssasSioud gol z°6 “Bia2d Planing and Management of Foundry Fig. 9.3 Casting technology/method card (Information needed) XYZ Foundry DRGNo. Tem PATT. Ref, ‘A) Casting Details: Metal specifications No. of Pesto be cast We of Casting/Pe (kg) Gross Rough: Nett Quality standards: B) Pattern Details ‘Testing requirements / NDT/ Other inspection needs No. of Patterns Type No. of Core Boxes Type Other Pattern Eqpt ©) Molding D) Gating Facing Sand Type ‘Type of gating Backing Sand Sprue / Nos. Mold Box sizes Runner /Nos. Molding Method Invgates /Nos. Mold Cost Location Cores E) Risers Core Sand Type Types Core Squires No. ofeach ype Core-conting Location No. of Cores / each Flowolls ype Chit Size/Type/Location B) Sketch G) Gas-Cuttng / Fetting Instructions H) HLT, Instructions T) Actual Casting Wt. = Gross: Rough: Nett: )|_Casting Defects/Rejection Record: 3 Reason for No | Date [ Pexcast | Pea rejested [SONY | Remarks/Action Jy Tnapection Remariat mensional ND. L) Modification / Changes: [ Dalaman Mthods Engineer | ~ Foundry Manager |" Signature / Date245; Metal Casting ~ Principles & Practice ONJOTS]¥| CTTW VN ayr, pace S00 e-toc] ser] Hea dao [wes ten | sea “Sanden Sows pda wlol sly} f] fw] vin] a} ff Sosa "ON wonso ait] sen fis mot “adies| HPO Wed 40 #19 Pa Pu DoW] —>eGOM TARO renoy og |B | wea | Sou | oa | ona | Fou | wea | og | Sy | wea | oma | Bog Pea | og weeding 7 7 —— an 4 Paw oer poration eps030y pemea poses ssaufoug > Suyuwe|d uonsnpoig +6 “SIF246 Plovoing and Management of Foundry Fig, 9.5 Melting Department Production Report Date: _ — [This week Wet Charging From To No. of Heats [Week No. Good Casting Days Worked SNo. Trems ‘Quantity ]% of Total Quantity |Amount Rs. | Cost / Tong.C. 1 [Scrap 2_[Alloy Scrap 3 [Foundry Rewrn 4_[Ferro Mn. HC [Ferro Mn, Melle [Other Alloys 7_[Ferre Silicon [Additions Total Waste iS. No. Days | Pig Flash | Per Heat | Rejection | Casual Worked |Last Poured| Average | Tons | Labour 1_|This week 2 [Prog W. /ef 3 |150Kg 7 heat Allowable + [Variation Kwh In, Lac Units Melting Kwh] Per Ton (A) | Per Ton (B) | Utilisation Power Charging |Good Casting] B- A % 9.3. Production planning and control procedures Documentation for manufacture & casting identification - procedures: i. Marketing Department raises job card along with three copies of drawings received from customers and sends it to the factory planning department. ii, Planning Assistant prepares the job kardex card. He will also enter the job details in a specification wise register for progress and follow up. He will handover one copy of the drawing to Methods Assistant.Metal Casting - Principles & Practice 247 fii, ‘The Methods Assistant prepares the pattern instructions on the copy of the method drawing and sends it for pattern making. He also prepares the pattern instruction, sheet and the method card. iv, After the pattern is received a sample casting is planned and manufactured under the guidance on the Methods Engineer. The dimensional report of pattern and, sample casting are entered in the relevant documents by the Method Assistant. If these sample castings are found satisfactory the Methods Engineer clears it for bulk: production and informs the Planning Assistant. ¥. The Planning Assistant enters the information in his register and plans for manufacture in the relevant specification and quantity. vi. From the overall planning of bulk load daily planning of heat is done by the Foundry Incharge taking care of (a) delivery (b) specification and (c) the molding facilities. vii, On each pattern the relevant job order number along with factory identification mark will be fixed on the pattern itself and will be retained till the time of despatch, In castings which are machined allover, the number is to be punched alter machining before despatch. viiiIn specific cases where the customer wants each casting to be identified with heat number the following system should be made. a. Before pouring the castings a small ms strip approximately 12 x 60, 2mm thick with the punch making of the heat number on the day of pouring should be inserted directly into the casting mold. b. Alter the castings are knocked-off and sand is cleaned the number from the strip is to be transferred to the body of the casting by using 10mm size punch, ‘where itis not likely (o be machined. This marking should not be ground off in further finishing operations. ix. The details of the heat number as well as the job number should be recorded by the Planning Assistant in the relevant kardex card and for this purpose he will receive the daily pouring report from the foundry. He will also enter on the job kardex card the rejections if they occur on any date as well as the despatch information which should be sent to him daily. x, The position of: overall pending orders, (customer-wise) will be prepared by planning assistant once a month for suitable action to be taken by management. 9.4, Practical Aspects/Case studies i. Product-mix In steel foundries the productivity could be greatly influenced by proper product-mix decision taken by the management. a. Ina medium size steel foundry, the management decided to make regularly more than 5 specifications of carbon, low alloy and high alloy steel castings. ‘The contributions from the different alloy steels were different. The quality248 Planning and Management of Foundry requirement and work content in the different stages of production were widely varying, The result was high requirement of qualified supervision for production and inspection, laboratory facilities and overall low productivity from workers. In another steel! foundry of similar capacity, the management decided to concentrate on a single specification of alloy steel. Accordingly distribution of ‘workers, supervisory staff and control systems was done. The productivity was very high, more than 100% to that of earlier foundry. Due to the higher quantity of production the quantum of contribution was higher than in the ‘arlier foundry even though the contribution per ton was lower. b, In one steel foundry, the management planned for a mass production line of small castings and installed molding machines and a conveyor system for handling. Unfortunately the melting unit installed was too large to pour large numbers of small steel castings. The balancing facilities for finishing and heat treatment of small castings were also not adequate. As a result the entire molding line costing nearly Rs. 50 lakhs was idle and the productivity in the foundry from the hand-molding operations continued to be low. The foundry has closed down due to the uneconomic operations. ii. Job Standardisation Tin each stee! foundry, itis important to standardize the sizes of " mold boxes" for high productivity. The choice of size of box depends upon considerations like capacity of melting unit, the equipment in the molding shop, the technology afailable and the market constraints. In foundries of jobbing nature dealing with a wide range of mold box sizes it was observed that productivity was very low. In a foundry using nearly eight types of mold boxes, a contingent of over 50 molding workers were required for a monthly production of about 180 tonnes. In another foundry which standardized its mold box types to only three, could achieve 150 tons. of production with less than half the number of workers with almost identical mechanisation. The reduction of mold box sizes could be achieved by careful planning in the pre-production stages. iti, Improving Molding Production In molding operations, a high level of productivity can be achieved, even in jobs not possible with machines, by mounting patteras on match-plates. The Sdditional cost of maich-plates and mounting is compensated by the improvements in productivity and quality. Mounting on match-plate was observed to improve productivity by 40% compared to loose-pattern molding Certain advances in molding and core materials have helped in achieving higher productivity. The instantaneous chemical setting CO, - silicate process has effectively reduced the time and fuel-consuming dry sand process even for large castings. ee &NEW DEVELOPEMENTS IN METAL CASTING There have been many new developments in the past decade in materials, processes and technology which have had @ significant impact on the growth of metal casting field, some with specific reference to India, New materials like ceramic fibre lining, furan binders, sponge iron etc. have improved productivity. New process like vacuum molding and full-mold have made ‘molding of intricate shapes easier. Inspection techniques like impact-penetration test and quality assurance procedures like [$0-9002 have helped in establishing dependable casting units across the world Like in other fields, computers make the design, manufacture and management in metal casting more efficient and productive, especially in the present competitive market. Metal casting is a manufacturing process with relatively high level of energy consumption, which is going to be the major constraint for further development, Much ‘work is in progress towards reducing energy consumption in different stages. Environmental pollution is an important concern for humanity today and metal casting being one of the major contributors to atmospheric pollution, adequate ‘measures in this direction are essential. ‘The above aspects arc briefly discussed in this chapter. 10.1 New Materials, processes and inspection methods Core and mold binders Casting manufacture demands core/mold materials and processes that are capable of meeting stringent dimensional and surface quality requirements of Design Engineers, viability for high automated production as well as economy and reliability for customers.250 Some of the commonly used modern chemical setting core / mold materials are discussed below. Chemical setting systems use any or combinations of the following binders: furan, phenolic urethane, phenol formaldehyde and ester silicate. Varieties of catalysts and accelerators are available to control setting time, ‘Amine-cured phenolic urethane systems are the most widely allover the world for core and mold production, The curing mechanism consist of Part 1, phenolic resin in specific solvent, Part 2, a polymeric isocynate in a solvent and Part 3, liquid or vapourised tertiary amine (triethyl amine or dimethylethyl amine). ( PEP - SET) In cold-box process, a gaseous, highly reactive amine catalyst is passed for an almost instantaneous curing. This ensures rapid production rates for highly ‘automatic systems with additional advantages of low resin requirement (1 - 2%) hhigh strength for further handling, dimensional accuracy, collapsibility and reusability. b. In no-bake systems, a liquid catalyst having reduced reactivity is added to slower the curing rate. The amount of resin and isocynate are 1% each of sand. mixed, the catalyst being about 1% of resin. These systems are cheaper and are suitable for normal semi-automatic and manual production systems, c. In SO, farane resin system, sand is mixed with furan resin and an organic peroxide. After blowing or ramming into core box, the sand is gassed with sulphur dioxide gas (SO,) which initially reacts with peroxide forming SO, that rapidly cures the resin sand mix. This process is relatively cheap and fast, does not need heating but has the disadvantage of pollution. ii, New lining/refractory materials ‘The conventional ceramic lining materials like acid bricks with fireclay base, magnesite bricks etc., are being replaced with new materials in fnrnace/ovens in other than melting applications. Heat-treatment furnaces/ ovens are being extensively lined with these new ceramic fibre materials. (Ceramic fibre’ is made by blowing molten aluminovsilicates, zirconia; the ranges and the operating temperatures being as follows:- Silica fibre ~ 10008 = cheapest Alumina silicate fibre —- 400°C ‘Alumina fibre ~~ 1600°C Zitcon fibre -- 220°C —~ costiest The blown fibres are woven into blankets with thickness from 6 to 50mm, width 600-1200mm and length of 7200mm. This blanket can be cut with a knife, is flexible, resilient and bendable compared to a refractory brick.Metal Casting ~ Principles & Practice 251 ‘Table 10.1. Properties of Lining Refractories i Tem Density | Heat capacity | Thermal Conductivity | Kgim’ | Ca/MC BIU/m/it/ °F/Hr. | | Rebar 360 "0 3:30 | Tosulating brick 150 150 au Alumino Silicate bre a | 4 133 | [aircon fre | 87 u below 2.0 Advantages of ceramic fibre lining: + lower heat capacity, faster cycle time, higher production + considerable saving (10-25%), in fuel consumption + more space for charge in furnace due to thinner lining (less than half of conventional brick lining) + weighs only 10 to 15% of conventional brick lining, Lower cost of supporting steel structure, foundations etc., + quicker lining and repairs + no initial curing time/pre-heating + high resistance to thermal shock + excellent chemical stability Limitations + cannot stand direct mechanical blow/damage (should be given ms/protective casing) + high velocity gases inside furnace damage the fibre + not recommended for inside furnace atmospheres containing Hydrogen + high inital cost iti, Sponge Iron or Directly Reduced Iron (DRI) For producing stecl castings in a foundry, steel scrap is the basic raw material. In developing countries like India with low industrialisation, generation and availability of steel scrap is a problem, On the other hand, inspite of excellent availability of iron ore, we are unable to convert it into pig iron or ingot steel due to the severe shortage of good coking coal with low ash, electric power, as well as huge investments needed for an integrated steel plant. Under suck conditions, sponge iron (DRI) offers an excellent solution in India. “The technology for making sponge iron primarily involves solid state reduction of iron ore into a metallized product, using a solid or gaseous reducing agent. In solid reductant process, rotary kiln is used with non-coking coal as reductant cum fuel for heating. A feed of iron ore, coal and flux is charged from one end with air burners used to sustain the heat. The kiln rotates slowly and is inclined to discharge252 New Developments in Metal Casting the sponge iron at the lower end. In gas-based units, a shaft furnace is used with natural gas as reducing agent. Hot briquetted iron (HBI) is an improved version of sponge iron/DRI, made by densening hot DRI (to 4 times) before cooling. It is more suitable for steel making as it does not float on liquid metal and has less reoxidation hazards. ‘Typical composition of HBI-Sponge iron are: Total Fe--93 % , Metallization - 93 % Carbon - 1 5%, Sulphur - 0.005 % , Phosphorus - 003 % ‘Tramp elements less than 0.001 % , Gangue -4 % ‘The advantages of sponge iron usage in a foundry are: a, Sponge iron has a chemically known homogenous and uniform composition compared to purchased scrap, for contro! of final analysis of liquid metal. b. Ithas very low impurity level, not having any injurious tramp elements like Sn, Sb, Pb normally present in steel scrap. Very low sulphur and phosphorous levels contribute to higher mechanical properties like impact strength, Vigorous carbon boil with sponge iran helps in metallurgical reaction kinctics. 4. Uniform size compared to scrap helps in handling and continuous feeding to furnace by conveyor belts. ©. Comparatively more stable are due to dense packing, with less fluctuations in electric power and noise levels. Disadvantages: a. Compared to 100% steel scrap, use of sponge iron needs increased energy consumption, due to the gangue present. b. Larger slag volume ©. Degree of metallization and carburization less favourable compared to steel scrap. 4. Low availability of HBI at present It has been reported that use of sponge iron upto 30-40% , depending on other conditions, is giving very good results in large steel foundries and continuous casting units using ultra high power electric furnaces in India. Usage of sponge iron is expected to grow fast with more units coming up for its manufacture recently, iv. Full mold process ‘This process uses expendable patterns made of polystyrene to produce castings with good surface finish, Required pattern density ranges between 16 and 24 Kg/m depending on the parts geometry and the metal cast. A small bead (about 1.3mm diameter at a density of 16 Kg/m’) is required to obtain high accuracy as regards tolerances and smooth surface finish on the casting. The small bead also helps to fill thin wall sections of 6mm or less. Molten- polystyrene can be injection molded toMetal Casting ~ Principles & Practice 253 required shapes. Smaller elements can be injection molded together to form the desired pattern. Gates and risers are cut from low density (16 to 18 Kg/m') foams board and ghued to the pattern, The gating system is often molded as an integral part of the pattern, The advantages of the process are: a, Overall saving of about 33% compared to green sand, b. No cores and chaplets are required even for complex shapes. No closing problems. c. No limitation to the shape of the casting as no parting line is needed. Design freedom. 4. Castings can be made (0 close tolerances and walls as thin as 3mm can be produced, as a single mold box is required. Minimum machining allowance. €. Pattern making is easy and fast ; no draft is needed. Under-cuts, small holes, sharp edges can be cast Light weight of polystyrene (16 Kg/m’) helps in handling large patterns. & No binders other than additives are required for the sand, which can be used many times - (recycling). hh. Spherical feeders (V/A ratio highest) can be provided to increase casting yield, i, Shake-out is simplified as litle cleaning is required; low capital equipment cost; skilled labour is not required. j. Less pollution compared to other sand molding processes. ‘The molding process with polystryrene follows the following steps: + Pre-expansion or pre-foam and storage for stablisation (at 20°C maximum) + Distribution to the molding press and molding, + Inspection, drying and packing. As polystyrene patterns are rather delicate. jolting, pressing and ramming operations are better done in a molding sand containing a cold setting binder, furan resin or CO, sand. For better surface finish the patterns are dipped into the mold coat and air-dried before being embedded into the mold. Castings can also be made using unbonded sand, The styrene vapour, condenses soon after pouring on the sand grains and flows in between the sand grains so as to form a binder. When, the metal cools the heat given off once again vaporises the styrene leaving the sand lean. Some of the applications of the process are ‘+ Dies for presses and machine housings. + Production of jigs and fixtures and + Experimental castings required for design and development work.254 Naw Developments in Metal Casting ‘The principal disadvantage of this process is the fact that to introduce it in existing foundries will mean discarding existing plant and equipment and providing large outlay for new tooling: However, it will be cheaper to build a new foundry to use this method. Besides, insufficient information, high tooling costs for some jobs are the other draw-backs, As there is no close parallel between gating systems in conventional and full mold processes, experiments will have to be conducted to determine the gating system required for a given job in production V-PROCESS (Vacuum-Sealed Molding Process) In this process, a vacuum system using unbonded silica sand and a plastic film Prepares molds for pouring metals (ferrous and non-ferrous) from thin sections to massive shapes. The unbonded sand is densified easily by the sealed vacuum, No squeezing, jolting, slinging or blowing is required. Vacuum-formed films are backed ‘up with unbonded sand and the compressive force is achieved through a pressure differential acting against the outside of the plastic film such that the mold shape is retained even after the separation of the pattern and also during pouring and solidification. The unbonded sand can also be zircon, chromite, olivin or chamott. The plastic film is of ethylene-vinylacetate copolymer. A coating of graphite-alcohal is used in between the film and the sand mold. To prepare a mold, first of all an Aluminium pattern, having zero draft and ‘many holes in it is set om a suction box to apply the vacuum. A gating system with gating ratio 1:2:2 is used. An electric or gas heater is used to soften the plastic film (0.05 to 0.10mm thick) to achieve a high plastic deformation ratio. The softened film drops over the pattern and suction acts through the vents to draw it down so that it adheres closely to the pattern. The flask is then set over the film-covered pattern and it permits the application of the vacuum throughout the mold mass ‘The flask is fited with dry unbonded sand and vacuum is released on the pattern carrier-plate. Then, the flask is stripped. Conventional sand cores can be used and the molds are kept under vacuum during pouring. Afier cooling, the vacuum is released and free flowing sand drops away leaving a clean casting. Limitations: Details of the effect of the process on the quality of castings are not fully available as itis sill practice-oriented, So further investigations are necessary. Some advantages of the V - Process are: a. Itis very versatile, gives material savings, with simplified tooling. b. Improved quality of the castings ic, large castings with high dimensional accuracy and good surface finish can be made. Less problem from swelling and sand expansion, . © Plant and facilities required are simpler, especially in molding and felting 4. Less pollution as no water/binders are used. vi. Electro Slag Casting This casting process is a combination of die-casting and clectroslag welding technologiesMetal Casting ~ Princplee & Practice 255 A metal die used with the inner cavity corresponding to the required casting (ovith allowances) forms the melting crucible for the casting alloy. The castmetal is, in the shape of a consumable electrode that can be added from the top. Electric power of high amperage (2000 A) is supplied to the electrode located in the die, which forms an arc, slowly melting and forming a liquid metal pool. The top surface of the liquid metal is protected by a slag cover generated by suitable flux. This cover prevents the absorption of gases by liquid metal and maintains high purity. Electrode-metal is added from the top as it gets consumed forming casting in the die. This process continues till the die is full and casting is complete. ‘Advances in the process include use of graphite and ceramic molds in place of metal molds for high melting alloys, auxiliary melting and melt transfer facilities {also under protective slag cover). ‘The advantages of the process are: Any metal or alloy can be cast by this process. b. Due to the metal die, better grain structure and higher mechanical properties are obtained. High dimensional accuracy and surface finish d. Slag covering ensures gas-free liquid metal e. Practically no risers are needed, giving 100 % yield, as liquid metal is gradually and continuosly supplied from the top while casting solidifies from bottom, £ Can produce complex shaped and composite castings. High initial cost and high cost of special electrodes for each composition are the major disadvantages. This process developed in Russia is used with portable melting units to suit different sizes of dies. Applications include crank shafis, cam shafts, cams, gears, bearings etc., with advantages over other conventional processes. vii, Impact penetration test for CO,-Sodium silicate molds/cores ‘After passing CO, gas, sodium silicate bonded sand mold/cores develop very high hardness at the surface. Normal mold/core hardness tests are not effective to know the inner hardness because, often due to improper gassing, sand below the top layer of 4 to 6mm may remain unreacted and soft in some parts of the mold. If metal is poured into such a mold, it may not only collapse prematurely but also give severe blow holes due to wetness inside, To check these molds and cores below the exposed surface, BCIRA, UK, developed a simple test called “impact penetration test”. The instrument used here resembles a large-headed screw driver, about 120mm long, with a sharp pointed pin of Imm diameter with graduations at the lower end. A spring-loaded weight is provided at the top side, which by raising and releasing, helps to give a blow with constant force for the pin to pierce into the mold/core to be tested. Earlier trials are256 New Davelopments in Metal Casting needed to establish the number of blows (say 10) to pierce the pin to a pre-determined depth (say 15mm). While checking the hardening of mold/core the {cst is done by giving blows and counting them till the pin pierces to a depth earlier established, at different regions of mold/core. If the number of blows needed is less (say 6), it means that the mold/ core is not adequately gassed and is not accepted for pouring, ‘This test is simple and effective to find the sub-surface quality of CO,-sodium silicate molds/cores and is used by many foundries in India, viit. ISO 9000 - Brief outline ISO 9000 is an internationally formulated and accepted standard for quality assurance and quality management, These standards are not for any particular product but are applicable (o any product, industry, process, service or trade. By adopting ISO 9000, the supplier achieves’ and continues to sustain the customer satisfaction across the world, Basic benifits that accrue by adopting ISO 9000 for foundries are: discipline, consistency, accountability, reproducibility, dependability, predictability and export capability. For foundries, ISO 9002 (IS 14002 ) is applicable which states the requirements of quality systems in production and installation. It specifies under different clauses, the managements responsibility towards qualay policy, quality organisation, responsibility and authority, verification resources and personnel. (Fig, 10.1) Inspection and testing from the time of receipt of raw materials and bought-out components, in-process stock and final stock should be done as per specified procedures and documented. The equipment/personnel used for testing should be periodically calibrated/trained to sustain the quality levels. Internal quality audits are essential requirements, Guidelines for procedures are given in the application to ISO 9000 Quality Management System. Table 10.2, 10.3 give useful details. Practical considerations to secure ISO 9002 certification: i Time ‘Initial preperation of manual, procedures work instructions ete. 3 to 6 months b. Meetings of coordination, securing approval, implementation 6 to 12 months © Total man-days involved till certifcation of steel foundry 1,500 tt, Cost a. Files, documents, posters ete Rs. 10 to 20,000 b. Annual fes for 2 years Rs, 30,000 - 1 lakh, Other expenditure in travel, consultations etc. Rs. 1.5 lakhs d. Maintaining certification variable It needs continued significant effort to keep up awareness and ensure compliance

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