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Whats The Difference, Why It Matters, And How To Get
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Photography by John Baechtel
Car Craft, July 01, 1996
Engines don&8217t make horsepower; they convert fuel

into torque. Torque is the twisting force imparted to the
crank flange and then transmitted to the transmission and
the rest of the drivetrain. To some degree torque is the
grunt that gets things moving, and horsepower is the
force that keeps things moving. An engine is most
efficient at its torque peak, wherever that happens to
occur. Below the torque peak, engines generally have
more than enough time to fill the cylinders; above the
torque peak, they dont have enough time to completely
fill the cylinders. This is generally beneficial in that it
lets engines produce most of the desirable grunt work
(torque) at lower engine speeds, which means reduced
wear-and-tear and better fuel economy. The ability to
extend an engines speed-range allows it to stretch that
torque curve out farther, provided that the high-speed
efficiency is there to make horsepower.
Power is torque multiplied by engine speed to produce a

measurement of the engine's ability to do work over a
given period of time. The story of its origin is well
known, but worth repeating, briefly. In the 18th century,
steam engine inventor James Watt sought a way to equate
the work his steam engine could perform to the number
of horses required to perform the same task. Watt
performed simple tests with a horse as it operated a gear-
driven mine pump by pulling a lever connected to the
pump. He determined that the horse was capable of
traveling 181 feet per minute with 180 pounds of pulling
force. This multiplied out to 32,580 lbs-ft per minute,
which Watt rounded off to 33,000 lbs-ft per minute.
Divided by 60 seconds, this yields 550 lbs-ft per second,
which became the standard for 1 horsepower. Thus,
horsepower is a measure of force in pounds against a
distance in feet for a time period of one minute. By
substituting an arbitrary lever length for the crankshaft
stroke, you can calculate the distance traveled around the
crank axis in one minute multiplied by engine speed
(rpm) and known torque to arrive at the formula for
horsepower:
Because torque and rpm are divided by 5252, torque and

horsepower are always equal at 5252 rpm. If you solve
the equation at 5252 rpm, the rpm value cancels out,
leaving horsepower equal to torque. If you plot torque
and horsepower curves on a graph, the lines will always
cross at 5250 rpm (rounded off). If they don't, the curve
is undoubtedly bogus.
Torque is the static measurement of how much work an

engine does, while power is a measure of how fast the
work is being done. Since horsepower is calculated from
torque, what we are all seeking is the greatest-possible
torque value over the broadest-possible rpm range.
Horsepower will follow suit, and it will fall in the engine
speed range dictated by the many factors that affect the
torque curve.
Increased displacement is the easiest way to achieve

increased torque. Very large cylinders and a long stroke
offer the greatest cylinder volume and overall piston area
for the fuel charge to push against the crankshaft or lever,
if you will. Stationary industrial engines that produce
tremendous amounts of torque are typically quite large.
The mass and bulk of one of these engines makes
extremely large displacement engines impractical for use
in cars.
Hence, we are limited to displacement values that are

easily packaged within the confines of your typical
automobile engine compartment. The practical limit is
between 400-500 cubic inches for most large automobile
engines. Big-block engines in this range deliver
tremendous torque, and they are easier on parts for the
same amount of power output. Car crafters have
stretched displacement out as far as 800 cubic inches
with highly modified cylinder blocks and crankshaft
strokes, but these engines are not practical or economical
for general high-performance applications.
This leaves us searching for ways to increase torque in

smaller engines by increasing efficiency through the
manipulation of mechanical components, gas dynamics
and thermodynamics (to increase and harness cylinder
pressure). There are many ways to do this, but most
involve some sort of tradeoff somewhere in the power
curve. To a great degree, we are forced to build engines
for greater efficiency within a chosen engine speed
range. Some combinations will function very well at low
speeds, others will be strong in the mid-range, and still
others will only run hard at a high rpm. The key is
selecting the combination of components that will stretch
and fatten the torque curve (improve efficiency) as much
as possible in the driving range we prefer. Our saving
grace is the relatively forgiving nature of internal
combustion engines wherein torque dissipates gradually
as engine speed increases. As long as the induction
system can carry the airflow demand created by the
cylinders at high engine speeds, the torque curve will
remain broad. This allows engine speed and horsepower
to carry the engine farther in the rpm range before the net
effect of induction restrictions at high engine speeds
chokes off efficiency. The following are some basic
methods for increasing torque and, thus, horsepower
across the typical range of modern-performance engine
speeds.
Mechanical Efficiency
Friction robs a great deal of power from an engine. The

greatest friction losses are caused by the pistons and
piston rings. We overcome this with meticulous cylinder
wall and piston preparation. Cylinder blocks that are
bored and honed with a torque plate in place always
contribute to a reduction in friction. This practice reduces
cylinder-wall distortion caused by head-bolt clamping
forces. Thus, the piston travels in the same properly sized
bore throughout its stroke, and the piston rings are not
subjected to changes in tension due to wall distortion.
The piston manufacturer's recommended skirt clearances
should be followed in most cases, because they have
spent countless hours developing a skirt that stabilizes
the piston and the ring pack in the bore with minimal
friction.
A smooth bore generally improves ring seal and reduces

friction. The best honing finish depends on the type of
rings and the final application. The piston-ring
manufacturer's recommendations are your best bet. Rings
should be hand-fit with ring gaps set to the minimum
recommended clearance. Piston rings should also be very
carefully checked in each individual piston to ensure the
minimum recommended side clearance. If a ring is
sticking due to too little side clearance, friction will soar.
If a ring is too loose, it may flutter and drag
intermittently while bleeding off precious cylinder
pressure.
One way to improve mechanical efficiency that most

people ignore is through the use of special antifriction
coatings for pistons, rings and bearings. These coatings
are available in do-it-yourself kits from mail-order
houses such as Summit Racing. When properly applied,
the coating can get you another 10 horsepower or so. The
ideal application would use coated components with
optimized clearances and a good synthetic oil for
maximum friction reduction. Altogether, there may be as
much as 20 horsepower available with the right
combination of friction-reducing ingredients.
Another component of friction reduction is the
preparation of the cylinder-block bearing saddles and the
crankshaft. Cylinder blocks should be align-honed to
minimize frictional losses. This gives the crankshaft a
straight set of bearings on which to run. Likewise, the
crankshaft must be straightened to eliminate runout, and
the entire reciprocating assembly must be properly
balanced to minimize drag created by uneven forces.
More torque may be gained if you use a well-designed

oil pan with an effective oil scraper and aerodynamic
shaping of the crank-throw leading edges. Small-block
Chevy builders should avoid the temptation to use a big-
block-style oil pump. Use a properly clearanced small-
block pump, and set it to deliver only the pressure
necessary to provide optimum lubrication. Most small
blocks never need more than about 60 psi, even at a high
rpm. Excessive oil pressure or a bigger pump with taller
gears robs power throughout the entire rpm range. Also
consider the pumping losses caused by the induction and
exhaust system. This should lead you to careful
consideration of each system, because the engine's ability
to work efficiently is largely controlled by these systems.
See the accompanying sections for further discussion of
these subjects.
Thermodynamic Efficiency
This is really combustion efficiency, and it all has to do
with getting the correct air-fuel mixture in a well-sealed,
active combustion chamber with a properly timed high-
energy spark. Spark timing and chamber shape influence
this tremendously, but most engines make optimum
power at wide-open throttle with a 13.1:1 air-fuel ratio.
You want your carburetor or fuel injection system to
optimize this air-fuel ratio as fast as possible when you
go WOT, and you want them to maintain that fuel curve
throughout the rpm range. This can be no small trick with
a carburetor and is certainly easier with electronic fuel
injection, in which oxygen-sensor monitoring of the
exhaust gas allows the computer to continuously adjust
the fuel ratio.
Engines with a large quench area and a smaller

combustion chamber are generally more combustion-
efficient. The quench area is the flat, top portion of the
piston adjacent to the valve reliefs. The flat portion of the
piston deck corresponds to the flat portion of the
cylinder-head chamber roof. When the piston approaches
the cylinder head at high speed, this area squashes the
charge toward the ignition source or spark plug to
promote turbulence and a faster burn. Some studies
suggest that you can have too much quench, but most
engine builders feel that optimizing combustion-chamber
quench is a proven path to power. On many steel-rod
engines, you can juggle the head-gasket thickness and
the piston deck height to maximize quench. Steel rods
allow the quench clearance to be set as tight as 0.030
inch, or slightly less in some cases. This promotes
maximum charge activity to increase combustion
efficiency.
If you have the luxury of custom pistons, your piston
manufacturer can also move the ring package higher on
the piston to provide greater piston stability. A higher
ring package will also reduce the very small area
between the piston and the cylinder wall above the top
ring. Because all pistons experience some small degree
of rocking as they reverse directions, the piston is
generally machined smaller or tapered above the top ring
land to keep it from hitting the cylinder wall during this
rocking. The space created here is very tight and can
collect unburned or partially burned gases; these
intermittently mix with the fresh, incoming charge and
contaminate the mixture or alter the air/fuel ratio ever so
slightly. Paying close attention to these kinds of details
can add up to a significant torque bonus. When you add
up all the small amounts of torque that you gain from
these details, you'll be surprised at how much total power
you have really gained.
Compression Ratio
Much like increased engine displacement, higher

compression ratios are a sure path to increased torque.
The overriding factor is, of course, fuel quality and
detonation. There are numerous factors to consider here.
Finer atomization of the fuel and more precise control of
air/fuel ratios via electronic fuel injection has allowed
O.E.M. manufacturers to increase compression ratios
above 10:1 in some late-model, high-performance cars.
The very latest LT4 Corvette engines are actually
sneaking up on 11:1 compression ratios again because of
the inherent efficiency of electronic controls and the
combustion-efficiency gains made in the cylinder heads
and induction system. Carburetors are less precise, but
there are other ways to increase torque with higher
compression in carbureted engines running 92-octane
gasoline. Many street engine combinations running a big
cam for top-end power experience a significant loss of
low-end torque. This occurs because the intake valves
close much later when the piston is farther up the bore.
Thus, the dynamic compression ratio is less than the
theoretical compression ratio that assumes full-stroke
piston travel. If you are going to run a big cam, one of
the bonuses is that you can increase the compression
ratio slightly without incurring a detonation penalty. The
increased compression will boost the low-end torque and
extend the top-end power range. Experienced engine
builders have found that 9:1 compression engines require
at least a 270-degree (advertised duration) cam. On the
other hand, 10:1 engines are happy with a 280-degree
cam, and a 290-degree cam will allow you to run nearly
11:1 compression. Depending on other engine variables,
such as combustion-chamber shape, bore diameter and
ignition timing, some engines will detonate under these
conditions. In these cases you need to go to a smaller
cam or run slightly less total timing. In any event, the
idea is to use as much compression as possible relative to
the cam profile in order to gain low-end torque without
detonating.
Camshaft Timing
When you consider valve-timing events, you also have to

consider all the other elements acting on the fuel charge
and combustion gases in the cylinders. An earlier-closing
intake valve starts building cylinder pressure sooner. This
increases low-speed torque due to greater cylinder
pressures, but it means that the engine is having to work
harder to compress the charge. As previously explained,
a later-closing intake can enhance top-end torque at the
expense of low-end torque, but you can get most of the
torque back on the low end with an increased
compression ratio. What you look for is a cam profile
that promotes increased cylinder filling with earlier
intake opening so that the valve is farther off the seat
during the early portion of the intake stroke. Then you
want to delay the exhaust-valve opening as much as
possible to take advantage of all the energy you can from
the combustion process before you blow down the
cylinder. A quick-opening exhaust valve is helpful here,
but, again, there are trade-offs.
This combination builds good torque but tends to

increase valve overlap at TDC. This is where the cam
lobe separation angle takes control. The lobe separation
angle is the angle between the peak of the intake lobe
and the peak of the exhaust lobe expressed in cam
degrees. Tighter lobe separation angles (less than 110
degrees) make more torque and horsepower, but, with
more overlap, the engine experiences poor idle quality
and high fuel consumption. Opening up the lobe
separation angles (more than 110 degrees) broadens the
power band while improving idle and part throttle
characteristics. With these wider lobe separation angles,
peak torque and power are generally reduced, but the
engine becomes very smooth and drivable.
Most street and high-performance engines will perform

best when overlap is between 35 and 70 degrees
(measured from intake-valve opening to exhaust-valve
closing) with the duration as short as possible within the
overlap guidelines. If you choose 50 degrees as a middle-
of-the-road overlap figure for a pretty hot street machine,
the shortest possible duration with this overlap will
produce the most torque. You could make more torque
with a bigger cam--but only at the expense of driveability
and economy.
Cylinder Head Selection
Cylinder heads are where the power is, but there are
limitations. You are generally limited to what's available,
and, for most people, porting is a luxury. Increased
airflow always means more top end power. For the most
part, it is better to run a larger valve, if possible, and a
shorter camshaft. This allows the larger valve opening to
do the work of filling the cylinder while the cam remains
relatively mild. Torque will be increased. Bigger valve
heads may give you more overall torque than a simple
cam swap. If your heads have stock-sized valves and you
put in a larger cam, you will have to spin the engine
faster to make the same torque and power.
That's the simplified version, but there are other

considerations. The length, area and volume of the intake
system all affect the engine's output. Most hot street
engines will benefit from bowl porting and a good valve
job, but you should avoid significantly enlarging the
ports. The minute you start enlarging the port, you are
bleeding off potential torque. Unless your engine will
spend a lot of time at elevated engine speeds, don't start
hogging out those ports.
If you have the ability to modify heads, you can extract

more torque and horsepower by porting for efficiency,
but the process is tedious at best. Street enthusiasts aren't
generally in a position to flow heads and check port
dimensions. If you are, the intake port area should be
about 80 percent of the valve area, and the port should
enlarge at a 2- to 4-degree taper out to the plenum. This
is pretty standard on most available heads.
Exhaust ports should not be enlarged significantly unless

you're running nitrous oxide, which produces a greater
exhaust requirement. Most good aftermarket headers
have been sized and built to create a negative pressure at
the exhaust valve during overlap. This ensures good
cylinder scavenging and reduces the potential for exhaust
reversion: Exhaust gas speed remains high, and the pulse
waves are tuned to aid the exiting exhaust charge.
Exhaust Systems
Much of your cylinder head work is diminished if you

are running stock exhaust manifolds and mufflers.
Exhaust headers are louder and require more attention
than cast iron manifolds, but they offer substantial power
advantages. While most aftermarket performance headers
are of the standard four-into-one collector design, many
street applications could make better use of the old four-
into-two-into-one Tri-Y design, which broadens the
torque curve and is still capable of making power up to
about 6000 rpm. These headers are more expensive and
time consuming to produce; hence, they are only
available from a few manufacturers.
One of the biggest mistakes made in exhaust-header

application is the selection of primary tubes that are too
large. Big primary tubes are only necessary to carry the
gas volume generated at high engine speeds. Most
headers with 1-1/2-inch primary tubes will carry an
engine well into the 300hp range, while 1-5/8-inch
headers can support up to 400 horsepower, and a little
beyond in some cases. This depends a great deal on
displacement and engine speed. We have seen 1-3/4
headers support up to 550 horsepower without affecting
power on a single four-barrel 350 Chevy running at 7500
rpm. Meanwhile, a 480hp, twin carburetor 302 Ford
running at 8000 rpm gained 13 horsepower by switching
to 1-7/8-inch primaries. It is usually better to err on the
small side for a street engine so that torque remains
strong. Pipes that are too large generally hurt the bottom
end more than small pipes hurt the top end.
Exhaust-system backpressure--as a result of restrictive
mufflers, catalytic converters and multiple sharp bends in
the exhaust system--can be severely detrimental to good
torque and power. Exhaust-pumping losses caused by
restrictive exhaust backpressure can be substantial in
some applications, and the problem increases
dramatically with engine speed. Performance camshafts
are also rendered less effective because backpressure
typically negates any improved cylinder scavenging
during the overlap period. The Catch 22 with exhaust
systems is your own personal comfort with the sound
level of the mufflers. You can run mufflers with virtually
no restriction, but the drone may drive you crazy the first
time you take a 100-mile trip. The best approach for most
street engines is to complement all the other torque-
building efforts you have applied by using a Tri-Y header
with at least 2.5-inch diameter exhaust pipes and the least
restrictive muffler you can stand relative to sound levels.
A crossover tube to balance the pulses from each
cylinder bank can help smooth the sound a bit, and it
may add a very slight amount of torque depending on the
rest of the application. It is usually worthwhile.
Ignition Timing
Incorrect ignition timing has the potential to stall most of

your efforts to improve torque and horsepower. Cylinder
pressure or best combustion pressure provides its
maximum effect at about 12 to 18 degrees after the
piston has passed TDC (top dead center). A faster
burning charge will require less timing, while a slower
burning charge needs more timing. If you have
concentrated all your engine building and tuning efforts
toward building maximum cylinder pressure (relative to
fuel quality and detonation resistance), at the end of the
compression stroke you will have a fast-moving flame
front that needs less timing. If you have compromised
cylinder pressure in some way, the charge will burn more
slowly and require more timing. If you have done your
job well by increasing breathing efficiency and the
compression ratio, you will need less overall timing.
In most cases you will have selected a big cam to

complement your desired power combination. This
usually reduces breathing efficiency at low engine
speeds, while enhancing it at high engine speeds. To
make this work to its best advantage, you should alter
spark advance to fire the plug sooner at low engine
speeds. A competent distributor shop or tune-up shop can
set your advance curve to take maximum advantage of
your combination. This is absolutely critical to taking full
advantage of all your other modifications.
Carburetor Sizing
Carburetor selection is frequently an afterthought based

on what a friend is running or what is available for the
cheapest price. Carburetors are typically chosen
according to an engine's displacement and rpm range. To
some degree, this has made 750-cfm Holleys the default
carburetor for all applications. This only works because
the carburetor has the ability to meter fuel over a broad
range, but carburetor sizing plays an important roll in
building optimum torque and horsepower. Smaller
carburetors are commonly suggested for building torque,
because their smaller venturis keep air velocity high to
promote good fuel atomization. If you want to broaden
the power band to retain good torque at the low end and
extend power at the top end, you can make a case for a
larger carburetor if it is teamed with the appropriate mix
of components. The primary reason for keeping venturi
size small is to maintain air speed through the boosters.
This is especially critical with single-plane manifolds
and larger cams, which generate weak booster signals at
low rpm and the resulting loss of atomization quality and
metering accuracy. This results in reduced torque output
and poor driveability, but correcting it with smaller high-
speed venturis may limit power at the high end.
Holley's annular discharge boosters offer the increased

sensitivity to deliver low-speed booster sensitivity in a
larger venturi bore while allowing greater airflow at high
engine speeds. Different variations of these boosters
must be properly applied to get the greatest gain, so the
carburetor has to be custom-built in the aftermarket to
match your application.
Cold Air Efficiency

Finally, anything you can do to enhance cool air flow
into the engine will be good for torque and horsepower
across the entire rpm band. Remotely sourced inlet air is
almost always cleaner and cooler than engine
compartment air. Use an aluminum intake manifold with
the carburetor exhaust heat passage blocked off.
Manifolds with the runners separated from the valley
keep the charge cooler. Duct your inlet air from outside
the car and keep the ducting insulated from engine
compartment heat. Make your inlet ducting at least 4
inches or larger in diameter, and keep the path as short
and unrestricted as possible. Be sure to duct the air
through a high-flow air filter prior to entering the
carburetor or throttle body. These simple modifications
can increase torque from 3 to 5 percent, and they will
also increase power at high engine speeds due to
unrestricted airflow and a cooler charge.
Your engine is a delicately balanced system that depends

on more variables than you can shake a camshaft at. By
carefully considering all your options and being totally
honest about your expectations and the way you will use
your car, you can blend a power recipe that will tear your
head off with torque and catapult you into the next
county with horsepower. There's no smoke and mirrors--
just mechanical teamwork and efficiency.
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Whats The Difference, Why It Matters, And How To Get

Photography by John Baechtel

Car Craft, July 01, 1996

Engines don&8217t make horsepower; they convert fuel

Power is torque multiplied by engine speed to produce a

Because torque and rpm are divided by 5252, torque and

Torque is the static measurement of how much work an

Increased displacement is the easiest way to achieve

Hence, we are limited to displacement values that are

This leaves us searching for ways to increase torque in

Friction robs a great deal of power from an engine. The

A smooth bore generally improves ring seal and reduces

One way to improve mechanical efficiency that most

More torque may be gained if you use a well-designed

Engines with a large quench area and a smaller

Much like increased engine displacement, higher

When you consider valve-timing events, you also have to

This combination builds good torque but tends to

Most street and high-performance engines will perform

Cylinder Head Selection

That's the simplified version, but there are other

If you have the ability to modify heads, you can extract

Exhaust ports should not be enlarged significantly unless

Much of your cylinder head work is diminished if you

One of the biggest mistakes made in exhaust-header

Incorrect ignition timing has the potential to stall most of

In most cases you will have selected a big cam to

Carburetor selection is frequently an afterthought based

Holley's annular discharge boosters offer the increased

Cold Air Efficiency

Your engine is a delicately balanced system that depends

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