BELEIE TY BHI RED Abel ely a ee INCLUDING 720 SOLVED PROBLEMSbas ‘t ol SCHAUM’S OUTLINE OF ys THEORY AND PROBLEMS oF THEORETICAL MECHANICS with an introduction to Lagrange’s Equations and Hamiltonian Theory BY MURRAY R. SPIEGEL, Ph.D. Professor of Mathematics Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute SCHAUM’S OUTLINE SERIES McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY ‘New York, St. Louis, San Francisco, Toronto, SydneyCopyright © 1967 by MoGraw-Hill, Ine, All rights reserved, Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any moans. ‘lectronte, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prlor ‘written permission of the publisher. one 810 11 12 18 1415 SH SH 75Preface In the 17th century, Sir Isaac Newton formulated his now famous laws of mechanics. ‘These remarkably simple laws served to describe and predict the motions of observable objects in the universe, including those of the planets of our solar system. Early in the 20th century it was discovered that various theoretical conclusions de- rrived from Newton's laws were not in accord with certain conclusions deduced from theories of electromagnetism and atomic phenomena which were equally well founded experimentally. ‘These discrepancies led to Einstein's relativistic mechanics which revolutionized the con- cepts of space and time, and to quantum mechanics, For objects which move with speeds much less than that of light and which have dimensions large compared with those of atoms and molecules Newtonian mechanics, also called classical mechanics, is nevertheless quite satisfactory. For this reason it has maintained its fundamental importance in science and engineering. It is the purpose of this book to present an account of Newtonian mechanics and its applications. The book is designed for use either as a supplement to all current standard textbooks or as a textbook for a formal course in mechanics. It should also prove useful to students taking courses in physics, engineering, mathematics, astronomy, celestial me- chanics, aerodynamics and in general any field which needs in its formulation the basic principles of mechanics. Each chapter begins with a clear statement of pertinent definitions, principles and theorems together with illustrative and other descriptive material. This is followed by graded sets of solved and supplementary problems. The solved problems serve to illustrate and amplify the theory, bring into sharp focus those fine points without which the student continually feels himself on unsafe ground, and provide the repetition of basic principles 80 vital to effective learning. Numerous proofs of theorems and derivations of basic re- sults are included in the solved problems. The large number of supplementary problems with answers serve as a complete review of the material of each chapter. Topics covered include the dynamics and statics of a particle, systems of particles and rigid bodies. Vector methods, which lend themselves so readily to concise notation and to geometric and physical interpretations, are introduced early and used throughout the book. An account of vectors is provided in the first chapter and may either be studied at the be- ginning or referred to as the need arises. Added features are the chapters on Lagrange’s equations and Hamiltonian theory which provide other equivalent formulations of ‘Newtonian mechanics and which are of great practical and theoretical value. Considerably more material has been included here than can be covered in most courses. ‘This has been done to make the book more flexible, to provide a more useful book of reference and to stimulate further interest in the topics. I wish to take this opportunity to thank the staff of the Schaum Publishing Company for their splendid cooperation. M. R. SPIEGEL Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute February, 1967CONTENTS VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION . : Mechanics, kinematics, dynamics and statics. Axiomatic foundations of me chanics. Mathematical models. Space, time and matter. Scalars and vectors, Vector algebra. Laws of vector algebra, Unit vectors, Rectangular unit vee- tors. Components of a vector. Dot or scalar product, Cross or vector product. ‘Triple products, Derivatives of vectors, Integrals of vectors. Velocity. Ac celeration. Relative velocity and acceleration. Tangential and normal acceler- ation. Circular motion. Notation for time derivatives, Gradient, divergence and curl. Line integrals. Independence of the path. Free, sliding and bound vectors. NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION. WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM : s cee ‘Newton's laws. Definitions of force and mass. Unite of force and mass. Inertial frames of reference. Absolute motion. Work. Power. Kinetic energy. Conservative force fields. Potential energy or potential. Conservation of energy. Impulse. Torque and angular momentum. Conservation of momentum, * Conservation of angular momentum. Non-conservative forces, Statics or equi- librium of a particle. Stability of equilibrium. Chapter 3 MOTION IN A UNIFORM FIELD. FALLING BODIES AND PROJECTILES ....... 7 ry Uniform force fields. Uniformly secelerated motion, Weight and acceleration due to gravity. Gravitational system of units. Assumption of a flat earth. Freely falling bodies. Projectiles. Potential and potential energy in a uniform foree field. ‘Motion in a resisting medium. Isolating the system. Constrained motion, Friction. Statics in a uniform gravitational fil THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR AND THE SIMPLE PENDULUM .. ee : ‘The simple harmonic oscillator. Amplitude, period and frequency of simple ‘harmonic motion. Energy of a simple harmonic oscillator. ‘The damped har- ‘monic oscillator. Over-damped, critically damped and under-damped motion. Forced vibrations, Resonance. The simple pendulum. ‘The two and three dimensional harmonic oecillator. 62, 86 CENTRAL FORCES AND PLANETARY MOTION Central forces, Some important properties of central force filds. Equations of motion for a particle in a central fleld. Important equations deduced trom ‘the equations of motion. Potential energy of a particle in a central field. Con- servation of energy. Determination of the orbit from the central force. Deter ‘mination of the central force from the orbit, Conic sections, ellipse, parabola and hyperbola, Some definitions in astronomy. Kepler's laws of ‘planetary motion. Newton's universal law of gravitation. Attraction of spheres and other objects, Motion in an inverse square field, 6CONTENTS Page MOVING COORDINATE SYSTEMS ‘Non-inertial coordinate systems. Rotating coordinate operators, Velocity in a moving system. Acceleration in a moving Coriolis and centripetal acceleration. Motion of a particle relative to the earth, Coriolis and centripetal force, Moving coordinate systems in general. The Foucault pendulum, SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES . ee ie, Diserete and continuous systems. Density. Rigid and clastic bodies. Degrees of freedom. Center of mass, Center of gravity. Momentum of a system of articles, Motion of the center of mass. Conservation of momentum. Angular momentum of « system of particles. Total external torque acting on a system. Relation between angular momentum and total external torque. Conservation of angular momentam, Kinetic energy of a system of particles. Work. Po- tential energy. Conservation of energy. Motion relative to the center of mass. Impulse. Constraints, Holonomie and non-holonomic constraints. Virtual dis- placements. Statice of a system of particles. Principle of virtual work. Equi- Tibrium in conservative fields. Stability of equilibrium. D'Alembert’s principle APPLICATIONS TO VIBRATING SYSTEMS, ROCKETS AND COLLISIONS ........0-.0:000c0ceccecceceess 198 Vibrating systems of particles, Probloms involving changing mass. Rockets. Collisions of particles, Continuous systems of particles. ‘The vibrating string. Boundary-value problems, Fourier series. Odd and even functions. Con- vergence of Fourier series. PLANE MOTION OF RIGID BODIES Rigid bodies, Translations and rotations. Euler's theor ‘axis of rotation. Degrees of freedom. General motion of a rigid body. Chasle's theorem, Plane motion of a rigid body. Moment of inertia. Radius of gyra- tion. Theorems on moments of inertia, Parallel axis theorem. Perpendicular fares theorem, Special moments of inertis. Couples. Kinetie energy and Angular momentum ebout a fixed axis, Motion of a rigid body about a fixed axis, Principle of angular momentum. Principle of conservation of energy. Work and power. Impulse. Conservation of angular momentum. ‘The com- pound pendulum. General plane motion of a rigid body. Instantaneous center. Bpace and body centrodes, Statics of a rigid body. Principle of virtual work fand D’Alember(’s principle, Principle of minimom potential energy. Stability. Se Chapter 10 SPACE MOTION OF RIGID BODIES ceveeess 258 General motion of rigid bodies in space. Degrees of freedom. Pure rotation of rigid bodies. Velocity and angular velocity of a rigid body with one point fixed. Angular momentum, Moments of inertia. Products of inertia, Moment of inertia matrix or tensor. Kinetic energy of rotation. Principal axes of {nertia, Angular momentum and kinetic energy about the principal axes. The llipeoid of inertia. Euler's equations of motion. Force free motion. The in- Variable line and plane. Poineot’s construction. Polhode. Herpolhode. Space lind body cones. Symmetric rigid bodies. Rotation of the earth. The Euler tangles, Angular velocity and kinetic energy in terms of Euler angles, Motion of a spinning top. Gyroscopes,Chapter 11 CONTENTS LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS ee ee General methods of mechanics. Generalized coordinates. Notation. Tra formation equations. Classification of mechanical systems. Scleronomic Theonomic systems. Holonomie and non-holonomie systems. Conservative and non-conservative systems. Kinetic energy. Generalized velocities. Gener= ‘lized forces, Lagrange's equations. Generalized momenta. Lagrange’s equa- tions for non-holonomic aystems. Lagrange’s equations with impulsive forces. Page Chapter 12 HAMILTONIAN THEORY = a foto Hamiltonian methods. The Hamiltonian. Hamilton's equations. The Hamil. tonian for conservative systems. Ignorable or cyclic coordinates. Phase space, Liouville’s theorem. ‘The calculus of variations, Hamilton's principle. Cat onical or contact transformations. Condition that a transformation be canoni- cal. Generating functions. The Hamilton-Jacobi equation. Solution of the Hamilton-Jacobi equation. Case where Hamiltonian is independent of time, Phase integrals. Action and angle variables 31 APPENDIX A UNITS AND DIMENSIONS .... APPENDIX B ASTRONOMICAL DATA .. APPENDIX C SOLUTIONS OF SPECIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS . APPENDIX D INDEX OF SPECIAL SYMBOLS AND NOTATIONS INDEX ..Chapter 1 MECHANICS, KINEMATICS, DYNAMICS AND STATICS ‘Mechanics is a branch of physics concerned with motion or change in position of physical objects. It is sometimes further subdivided into: 1. Kinematics, which is concerned with the geometry of the motion, 2. Dynamics, which is concerned with the physical causes of the motion, 8. Statics, which is concerned with conditions under which no motion is apparent. AXIOMATIC FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS An axiomatic development of mechanics, as for any science, should contain the following basic ingredients: 1. Undefined terms or concepts. This is clearly necessary since ultimately any definition must be based on something which remains undefined. 2. Unproved assertions. These are fundamental statements, usually in mathematical form, which it is hoped will lead to valid descriptions of phenomena under study. In general these statements, called azioms or postulates, are based on experimental observations or abstracted from them. In such case they are often called laws. 8. Defined terms or concepts. These definitions are given by using the undefined terms or concepts. . Proved assertions. These are often called theorems and are proved from the definitions and axioms. An example of the “axiomatic way of thinking” is provided by Euclidean geometry in which point and line are undefined concepts. MATHEMATICAL MODELS A mathematical description of physical phenomena is often simplified by replacing actual physical objects by suitable mathematical models. For example in describing the rotation of the earth about the sun we can for many practical purposes treat the earth and sun as points. SPACE, TIME AND MATTER From everyday experience, we all have some idea as to the meaning of each of the following terms or concepts. However, we would certainly find it difficult to formulate completely satisfactory definitions, We take them as undefined concepts. 12 VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION (CHAP.1 1. Space. This is closely related to the concepts of point, position, direction and displacement. Measurement in space involves the concepts of length or distance, with which we assume familiarity. Units of length are fect, meters, miles, ete. In this book we assume that space is Euclidean, ie. the space of Euclid’s geometry. 2. Time. This concept is derived from our experience of having one event taking place after, before or simultaneous with another event. Measurement of time is achieved, for example, by use of clocks. Units of time are seconds, hours, years, ete. 8. Matter. Physical objects are composed of “small bits of matter” such as atoms and molecules. From this we arrive at the concept of a material object called a particle which can be considered as occupying a point in space and perhaps moving as time goes by. A measure of the “quantity of matter” associated with a particle is called its mass, Units of mass are grams, kilograms, ete. Unless otherwise stated we shall assume that the mass of a particle does not change with time. Length, mass and time are often called dimensions from which other physical quantities are constructed. For a discussion of units and dimensions see Appendix A, Page 339. SCALARS AND VECTORS ‘Various quantities of physics, such as length, mass and time, require for their specifica- tion a single real number (apart from units of measurement which are decided upon in advance). Such quantities are called scalars and the real number is called the magnitude of the quantity. A scalar is represented analytically by a letter such as t, m, ete. Other quantities of physics, such as displacement, require for their specification a direction as well as magnitude. Such quantities are called vectors. A vector is repre- sented analytically by a bold faced letter such as A in Fig. 1-1. Geometrically it is represented by an arrow PQ where P is called the initial point and @ is called the terminal point. The magnitude or length of the vector is then denoted by [Al or A. Fig. 1-8 Fig. 1 VECTOR ALGEBRA ‘The operations of addition, subtraction and multiplication familiar in the algebra of real numbers are with suitable definition capable of extension to an algebra of vectors. ‘The following definitions are fundamental. 1. Two vectors A and B are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction regardless of their initial points. Thus A=B in Fig. 1-2 above. 2. A vector having direction opposite to that of vector A but with the same length is denoted by —A as in Fig. 1-3 above. 8, ‘The sum or resultant of vectors A and B of Fig. 1-4(a) below is a vector C formed by placing the initial point of B on the terminal point of A and joining the initial point of A to the terminal point of B [see Fig. 1-4(0) below]. We write C = A+B. ‘This definition is equivalent to the parallelogram law for vector addition as indicated in Fig. 1-4(¢) below.CHAP. 1] VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 3 : a Fig 4 Extensions to sums of more than two vectors are immediate. For example, Fig. 1-5 below shows how to obtain the sum or resultant E of the vectors A,B,C and D. 8\ | 5 Y arate Fig. 1-5 4, The difference of vectors A and B, represented by A—B, is that vector C which when added to B gives A. Equivalently, A—B may be defined as A+(-B). If A=B, then A—B is defined as the null or zero vector represented by 0. This has ‘& magnitude of zero but its direction is not defined. 5. The product of a vector A by a scalar p is a vector pA or Ap with magnitude [p| times the magnitude of A and direction the same as or opposite to that of A according as p is positive or negative. If p=0, pA=0, the null vector. LAWS OF VECTOR ALGEBRA If A,B and C are vectors, and p and q are scalars, then 1 A+B=B+A Commutative Law for Addition 2 A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C Associative Law for Addition 8. p(GA) = (pa)A = a(pA) Associative Law for Multiplication 4. (p+ QA = pPA+qA Distributive Law 5. p(A+B) = pA+2B Distributive Law Note that in these laws only multiplication of a vector by one or more scalars is defined. On pages 4 and 5 we define products of vectors. UNIT VECTORS Vectors having unit length are called unit vectors. If A is a vector with length A > 0, then A/A=a is a unit vector having the same direction as A and A= Aa. RECTANGULAR UNIT VECTORS ‘The rectangular unit vectors i, j and k are mutually perpendicular unit vectors having directions of the positive 2, y and z axes respectively of a rectangular coordinate system4 VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION [cHAP.1 (see Fig. 1-6]. We use right-handed rectangular coordinate systems unless otherwise specified. Such systems derive their name from the fact that a right threaded serew ro- tated through 90° from Oz to Oy will advance in the posi- tive z direction. In general three vectors A, B and C which have coincident initial points and are not coplanar are said to form a right-handed system or deztral system if a right threaded screw rotated through an angle less than 180° from A to B will advance in the direction C [see Fig. 1-7 below] Fig.7 Fig. 18 COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR Any vector A in 8 dimensions can be represented with initial point at the origin O of ‘a rectangular coordinate system (see Fig. 1-8 above]. Let (Ai, As, As) be the rectangular coordinates of the terminal point of vector A with initial point at 0. ‘The vectors Aui, ‘Aaj and Ask are called the rectangular component vectors, or simply component vectors, of A in the x, y and 2 directions respectively. As, Az and A: are called the rectangular components, or simply components, of A in the x, y and z directions respectively. ‘The sum or resultant of Axi, Aaj and Ask is the vector A, so that we can write A= Aut Adj + Ack « ‘The magnitude of A is A= al = VAT+4T+ AE @ In particular, the position vector or radius vector x from O to the point (2,y,2) is written ra cityitek ® and has magnitude r Vetere. DOT OR SCALAR PRODUCT ‘The dot or scalar product of two vectors A and B, denoted by A-B (read A dot B) fs defined as the product of the magnitudes of A and B and the cosine of the angle between them. In symbols, A+B = ABcosé, 05025 ) ‘Note that A+B is a scalar and not a vector.CHAP. 1] VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 5 The following laws are valid: 1. A-B= BA Commutative Law for Dot Products 2. A+(B+C) = A-B+A-C Distributive Law 3. p(A+B) (pA)-B = A+(pB) = (A-B)p, where p isa scalar. 4 ied ke 1 i tk = ki = 0 5. If A= Ad+Asj+Ask and B= Bit B:j+Bsk, then ACB = A,B, + AsBa+ AaB AA = A? = At+AE+ AE BB = BY = Bi+Bi+ BY 6. If A+B =0 and A and B are not null vectors, then A and B are perpendicular. CROSS OR VECTOR PRODUCT The cross or vector product of A and B is a vector C = AXB (read A cross B). The magnitude of AX B is defined as the product of the magnitudes of A and B and the sine of the angle between them. The direction of the vector C = AXB is perpendicular to the plane of A and B and such that A, B and C form a right-handed system. In symbols, AXB = ABsingu, 0505 ) where u is a unit vector indicating the direction of AXB. If A=B or if A is parallel to B, then sing=0 and we define AXB = 0. ‘The following laws are valid: 1. AXB = -BxA (Commutative Law for Cross Products Fails) 2 AX(B+C) = AXB+AxC _ Distributive Law 8. p(AXB) = (pA)XB = AX(pB) = (AXB)p, where p is a scalar. 4. ixi Kxk=0, ixjsk, jxk=i, kxi=j 5. If A= Ad+Asj+Adk and B= Bi+Bij+Bek, then iik AXB A, Az As By Bs Bs 6. JAX) = the area of a parallelogram with sides A and B. 7. If AxB=0 and A and B are not null vectors, then A and B are parallel. TRIPLE PRODUCTS ‘The scalar triple product is defined as Ai Ar As A+(BxC) By By Bs @ Ci Gr Cs where A = Ai+Asj+Ask, B= Bii+Baj+Buk, C = Ci+Caj+Cok. It represents the volume of a parallelepiped having A,B, C as edges, or the negative of this volume according as A,B,C do or do not form a right handed system. We have A+(BXC) = B+(CX A) = C-(AxB). The vector triple product is defined as AX (BXC) = (A+B - (A-B)C ” Since (AxB)XC = (A-C)B—(B-C)A, it is clear that Ax (BXC) * (AXB)xC.6 VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION [CHAP. 1 DERIVATIVES OF VECTORS _If to each value assumed by a sealar variable u there corresponds a vector A(u), or briefly A, then A(u) is called a (vector) function of u. ‘The derivative of A(u) is defined as tA ig Ale+aw) — Aw) ue jim, au ® du Fras) provided this limit exists. If A(u) = A,(w)itAz(u)j+Aa(u)k, then (9) Similarly we can define higher derivatives, For example the second derivative of A(u) if it exists is given by du @A _ PA, PAs @A at = aa + ae) + ae (10) Example, If A = (2?—3ui +5 cosuj—sinuk, then = au ‘The usual rules of differentiation familiar in the calculus can be extended to vectors, although order of factors in products may be important. For example if 4(u) is a scalar funetion while A(u) and B(u) are vector functions, then = unt = Sanus Seman, BE = ah ~ Goons + Sanuk da — dA fea = 9+ Ba ra ad au B) (12) faxes) = axB, Bye (as) INTEGRALS OF VECTORS Let A(w) = Au(u)i + Ax(w)i + Aske be a vector function of u. We define the indefinite integral of A(u) as Sacoau = if Adan + if Aswan + ef Asnaw aay If there exists a vector function B(u) such that A(u) = 2-(B(u)), then Sacau = f Fem du = Bw +e (a) where ¢ is an arbitrary constant vector independent of u. The definite integral between limits u=a and w= is in such case, as in elementary calculus, given by Sf moves ‘The definite integral can also be defined as a limit of a sum analogous to that of elementary caleulus. S Fea = wey te = BH - Be — ao) VELOCITY ‘Suppose that a particle moves along a path or curve C (Fig. 1-9 below]. Let the position vector of point P at time ¢ be r=r(t) while the position vector of point Q at time t+At isCHAP. 1] VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 7 r+ar=s(t+at). Then the velocity (also called the instantaneous velocity) of the particle at P is given by de vag = img = tim Heta)— no et eae an and is a vector tangent to C at P. If r= x(t) = a(tit+u(ti tel) = ai tui + ek, we can write de do dy as v= HF = Gis Wis Se 8) Fig. 1-9 ‘The magnitude of the velocity is called the speed and is given by = day, (eY , (ty oe = VG) + (+ @) = & (9) where s is the arc length along C measured from some seme ACCELERATION If v = dr/dt is the velocity of the particle, we define the acceleration (also called the ‘instantaneous acceleration) of the particle at P as av (B+ Bus + Bylo) ABs + ABaleJ + ABgls ke + AgBieh + AgByj +4 + AgBal eke FASB + Ayah} + AgBake ke A.B, + ABs + ABs k = 1 and all other dot products are zero. u since 1+ =H LiL. If A= Ai+Asj+Ask, show that A = VAvA = VAT+AT+ AR. +A = (AYA) co80° = AX Then A= VATA. ‘Also, A*A = (A+ Agh+ Ash) “(Asi + Asi + Ask) (ANA) + (AAs) + (ADNAD = AT+ AE + AB by Problem 1.10, taking B= A. ‘Then A = VAvA = VATTAE4 AB is the magnitude of A. Sometimes A+A is written A® y B (46,0) 1.12, Find the acute angle between the diagonals of a quadrilateral having vertices at (0,0,0), (8,2,0), (46,0), (1,3, 0) (Fig. 1-21). We have OA=8i+2), OB=4i+6), OC=i+95 from which CA = OA-0C = 21-5 ‘Then (0B-CA = [OB||CAl cos ¢ he. (i+ 6+ 1-H) = VOFF OF VEFF HD cos & ‘from which cose = 2/(VB2 VB) = 1240 and ¢ = 82°63’. THE CROSS OR VECTOR PRODUCT 1.13. Prove AXB = —BXxA. re @ Fig. 122 AXB=C has magnitude AB sin ¢ and direction such that A, B and C form a right-handed system (Fig. 1-22(a) above].u ‘VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION [cHar.1 D has magnitude BA sin and direction such that B, A and D form a right-handed 1-2(8) above) ‘Then D has the same magnitude as C but is opposite in direction, i ‘The commutative law for cross products is not valid. C=-D or AXB xa, 1.14. Prove that AX(B+C) = AXB+AxC for the case where A is perpendicular to B and also to C. Since A is perpendicular to B, AXB vector perpendicular to the plane of A and B and having magnitude AB sin90° = AB or ‘magnitude of AB. This is equivalent to mul- tiplying vector B by A and rotating the resultant vector through 90° to the position shown in Fig. 1-28, Similarly, AX C is the vector obtained by ‘multiplying C by A and rotating the resultant ‘vector through 80° to the position shown, In like manner, AX (B+ C) is the vector ‘obtained by multiplying B+ C by A and rotat- {ng the resultant vector through 90° to the position shown. Since AX (B+C) is the diagonal of the parallelogram with AX'B and AX C as sides, we have AX(B+C) = AXB+AXC, 115. Prove that Ax (B+C) = AXB+AxC in the general case where A, B and C are non-coplanar. See Fig. 1-24. Resolve B into two component vectors, one perpendicular to A and the other parallel to A, and denote them by B, and By, respectively, ‘Then B= B, +B, If 6 is the angle between A and B, then B, = Being. Thus the magnitude of AXB is AB sing, the same as the magnitude of AX. ‘Also, the direction of AX B is the same as the direction of AX. Hence AXB, =AXB. ‘Similarly if C is resolved into two component vectors C,, and C,, parallel and perpendicular respectively to A, then AXC, =AXC. Fig. 12 Also, since B+ = By +B, +C, +, = B,+C,)+(B,+C,) it follows that AX@B,+C,) = Ax(B+O) Now B, and C, are vectors perpendicular to A and so by Problem 1.14, AX(BL+C,) = AXBL+AxC, ‘Then AX (B+O) = AXB+AxC nd the distributive law holds. Multiplying by —1, using Problem 1.18, this becomes (B+) x A = BXA+CXA. Note that the order of factors in cross products is important. The usual laws of algebra apply only if proper order is maintained, tik 116. If A= Ad+Agj+Ack and B= Bi+B,j+Bsk, prove that AXB =| A: As As |. By B: ByCHAP. 1) VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 15 AXB = (Ad +Agd + Aso x (Blt Bi + Bd) AMX (Byl+ Bab + Bye) + AaS x (Byl + Bal + Buk) + Aske x (B+ By} + Bye) A:BAXA+ AyBgh XG + Ayah Xe + AaB XL + AaB XJ + AQBS Ke + AgBkX 1+ Ayah X 4+ ABs Xe ae Ar As ds By By By (AgBy— AgBDH + (AyBy~ ABO) + (AyBa— AB = LIZ. If A=8i-j+2k and B=2i+3j—k, find AxB. ijk eee ene 1.18 Prove that the area of a parallelogram with sides A and B is [AX Area of parallelogram = /|B| A {al ain 1B axB| Note that the area of the triangle with sides A and 5 Bis HAXB). Fig. 1-25 1.19, Find the area of the triangle with vertices at P(2,8,5), Q(4,2,—1), R(8, 6,4). PQ = 4-914 2-9) + (1-H = 2-1-6 PR = (8-21 + (6-9) + (4—Ok = 1+ 8)—k Area of triangle = $/PQXPR) = $|(2—§—6k) x (1+3)—W0] tik = alle -1 -6|) = g)ir—a+m 1 8-1 AVF CRF = 4 VRE ‘TRIPLE PRODUCTS 1.20. Show that A- (BX C) is in absolute value equal to the volume of a parallelepiped with sides A,Band C. Let m bo a unit normal to parallelogram I, having the direction of BX C, and loth be the height of the terminal point of A above the parallelogram Z. Fig. 1.28 ‘Volume of parallelepiped = (height A)area of parallelogram 2) (Army e) = As(BXC|a} = A-BxXO) If A, B and C do not form a right-handed system, A+n <0 and the volume = [A+ (BXO)|. 121, (a) If A = Ad+Asj+Adk, B= Bi+Bij +B, C = Cit+Caj+Csk show that Ay As As A(BxC) = | Bi Bs Bs C1 Ch Cs16 VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION (CHAP. 1 (©) Give a geometric significance of the case where A- (Bx C) Li. (@ Axo = A-lB, BB Cy Cy Cs = (Ask + Aad + Ask) + [(B,04— BCH + (BsC,— BCD + (ByC— BAC] Ay Ay As = A,(BaCy— ByCs) + Ay(ByC,— BiG) + ABC,—ByCy) = | By By By % OO (®) By Problem 1.20 if A+(BXC)=0 then A,B and C are coplanar, ie, are in the same plane, and conversely if A, B,C are coplanar then A+(BX C) =0. 1.22, Find the volume of a parallelepiped with sides A = 8i-—j, B= j+2k, C=i+5j+4k. B= 0 By Problems 1.20 and 1.21, volume of parallelepiped = |A+(BxC)| = |] 1 211 15 4 = |e) = %-Bj+k, C = 4j—Bk, find (a) (AXB)XxC, (b) Ax (BxC). k ij ok ° =5k. Then (AXB)XC =| 1-1 5 | = 28149)+4K. 1 o 4s ik ia @ Bxe=|2 -3 1) = o1+6j+8k Then Axxo 1 ai—aj+k. 4-8 6 It follows that, in general, (AXB)XC # AX (BX C). DERIVATIVES AND INTEGRALS OF VECTORS ere de lat) Pt lee 1A, It r= (P+21-3e-%}+2sin5tk, find (0) $F, (0) [FF], (Se @ eal at t=0. (0) $= See sao + Se-te-ms + Le wins = e401 + 66-4) + 10 conden a pees (®) From (a), |dr/dt| = V@PF 6+ do) = Vid = 2785 at t=0. 00 SE = £(B) = eansans cory touts) = an 1-H —sinste oe Ope ee. 4B, dA.y where A and B are differentiable func- au * du 1.25, Prove that Xia) =A: hu tions of 1.CHAP. 1) VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 17 Method 1. 2 (a+b) = jim At8a)-(B+ a8) — vB AaB + SAB + aAsaB a a = tim (043 4 M4. 4 Asap) = = am (Ad + Sie + Shae) = Method 2 Let A= AM+ Ag+ Age, B= BA+ B+ Byk. Then @ FAB) = GAB Aw + Awd a (at aS atte) + (Mt a rg Bees 1.26, It g(z,y.2) =e and A= S2tyi+yetj— zak, find Pad (GA) at the point (1, -2,—1). 4A = (otra) Qa + ys —aeky) = Baty + ays) — ae Zeomy = Leen t ayes ay%) = selyti + sty) — 2a aigtom = Zeoerms setyss—aatyae) = Coty + Gaby) ~ Boh ‘this becomes —12i — 12) + 2k. eesty= 121, Bvaluate [Addu if Aw) = Gut—2)k + Qu—B) + (w— dud. ‘The given integral equala So Gen + n= + = 4019 Shaadi + (Wt Bud + COU 20 | = (B-21+ 4-H) + A6—HK) — {1 —Di + L-3) + OBR) = 6+ 8k VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 128, A particle moves along a curve whose parametric equations are = = 8e-*, y = 4 sin3t, 2 = 6 cosSt where ¢ is the time. (a) Find its velocity and acceleration at any time. (®) Find the magnitudes of the velocity and acceleration at ¢=0. (@) The position vector x of the particle is r= abt yj tick = SoM + Asingt) + 5 cosdtk ‘Then the velocity is v= de/dt = ~6e-M + 12 cos3tj — 16 sin3tk fand the acceleration is a = dv/dt = @e/d® = 120-Mi — 86 sinBtj — 45 const () At t=0, v = de/dt = 61412) and a = dr/dt? = 121— 45k, Then ‘magnitude of velocity at t= 0 is VCOOFT (RF = 6V5 ‘magnitude of acceleration at t= 0 is VUZFF (157 = sv Bi18 VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION (omar. 1 1.29. A particle travels so that its acceleration is given by a = 24 + Beostj ~ 3sintk If the particle is located at (1,—8,2) at time t=0 and is moving with a velocity given by 4i—3j+2k, find (a) the velocity and (6) the displacement of the particle at any time t>0, a= Bn = wets bets sae Intertne, w= fens seut)—ssincioae se v= aise v= “tet Sites + temte ta (6—2e-i + (6 sint — 3)j + (3 cost — 1)k ® () Relcngv by dfn 1) and Integrating, we hve b= Sf U6-2 + ame O) + Bonet aml at (is teh ~ ent An) + Game oH Sic he pct std ot (82) at 20, we hae t= Lape ae £=0, wo Ba Logit Siete or ee tas ae ‘Thus F = (6t+2e-t—1)i + (2— 5 cost—3t)j + (8 sint—t+ 2k @ RELATIVE VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 1.30, An airplane moves in a northwesterly direction at 125 mi/hr relative to the N ground, due to the fact that there is a = westerly wind [ie. from the west] of Ss 50 mi/hr relative to the ground. Deter- mine (a) graphically and (b) analyti- el cally how fast and in what direction ® Vo the plane would have traveled if there > were no wind. > (0) Graphical Lat W = wind velocity w Va = velocity of plane with wind ‘Y= velocity of plane : without wind. ‘Then [see Fig. 1-27] Va = Vo+W or Vy Vp has magnitude 6.5 units (©) Anatyticalty. Letting 1 and j be unit vectors in directions E and N respectively, we see from Fig, 1-27 that Ve W = Vet (-w. 168 mifhr and direction 88° north of west. Ve = 125 cos45° 1 + 125.ind5°j and W = 501 ‘Then Vp = Va—W = (~125 cos45° — 60)i + 125 sin 45° j = ~198.501 + 88.99). Thus the magnitude of V, is V(—19830"+ (GB50F = 164.2 mi/hr and the direction is tan—1 88.80/188.89 = tan-1.6387 = 32°84! north of west.CHAP. 1] VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 19 131. Two particles have position vectors given by m1 = 2ti—tj+(8f*—4t)k and m2 = (5—12t+4)i+¢j—8¢k. Find (a) the relative velocity and (6) the relative acceleration of the second particle with respect to the first at the instant where t=2. (a) The velocities of the particles at =2 are respectively vy =H = 244+ (6a) = at ok ve = fy = origi + aej— ak] = at + 12) — ok velocity of particle 2 with respect to particle 1 = vem = (G+12)— Bk) — (i 4j+8k) = 6 + 16) — 11k Relati (®) The-accelerations of the particles at t=2 are respectively sh =H = toe 21+ veto i = tte], = asa Relative acceleration of particle 2 with respect to particle 1 (101+ 12)) — (~2)+ 6k) = 108 + 14) - 6 TANGENTIAL AND NORMAL ACCELERATION 1.82, Given a space curve C with position vector r = Beos2ti + Ssin2tj + (8t—4)k (a) Find a unit tangent vector T to the curve. (®) If r is the position vector of a particle moving on C at time ¢, verify in this case that v=0T. (@) A tangent vector to C is de/dt = —Gsin2ti + 6 cost) + Sk ‘The magnitude of this vector is lde/ae| = delat = VHT BP + C cost + GF = 10 ‘Then a unit tangent veetor to C is = Seldt, _ delat _ de _ —Osin2ti + 6cos2tj + Oe ‘de/dt ~ delat ~ da ~ i0 = —Bsin2ti + Posts + gk (©) This follows at once trom (a) since v = de/dt = ~6sin2t1 + Gcon2tj + Bk (Oy sin 21 + Beoozts + fy = oF Note that in this case the speed of the particle along the curve is constant, 188. If Tis a unit tangent vector to a space curve C, show that dT/ds is normal to T. Since T is @ unit vector, we have T+T = 1. Then differentiating with respect to ¢, wo obtain Tie so rE Ben = oe E = 0 or which states that dT/de is normal, ie. perpendicular, to20 VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION (cHaP.1 IE N is a unit vector in the direction of d¥/de, we have a@t/de = N and we call N the unit principal normal to C. ‘The scalar « = |@T/da| is ealled the curvature, while R= Ve is called the radiue of curvature. 1.34, Find the (a) curvature, (b) radius of curvature and (¢) unit principal normal N to any point of the space curve of Problem 1.82. (@) From Problem 1.82, T = —2sin2¢i+ fcos2tj+ fk. Then at _ awe 15) com Bt i — (6/5) sin 2¢ | de aalae = 1 —Zeos2ti ~ Reinzes = Ve Feo + (Hsin aye = & (6) Radius of curvature = B = i/e = 25/8 (©) From (a), (6) and Problem 1.38, = 1a nde Thos he creator in « = [| ar RE = —cos2ti — sin2ti 135. Show that the acceleration a of a particle which travels along a space curve with velocity v is given by Par a= Sr+n a’ +R where T is the unit tangent vector to the space curve, N is its unit principal normal and R is the radius of curvature. Velocity v = magnitude of v multiplied by unit tangent vector 7, or vow Dierntating, a= f= dum = Bree ut BeBe. ene 8 Then a= rs o(M) = Ss gy ‘This shows that the component of the acceleration is du/dt in a direction tangent to the path and ‘vi/R in the direction of the principal normal to the path. The latter acceleration is often called the centripetal acceleration or briefly normal acceleration. CIRCULAR MOTION 136. A particle moves so that its position vector is given by r = coset i+ sinet j where » is a constant. Show that (a) the velocity v of the particle is perpendicular to x, (®) the acceleration a is directed toward the origin and has magnitude proportional to the distance from the origin, (c) rx v = a constant vector. de @ v = $= -wsinetitecosut}. Then Fly = [eosut + sin at j]+[-w sin at i+ w coset j) (cos.at)(-w sin wt) + (sinut\(o coset) = 0 ‘and x and v are perpendicular.CHAP. 1] VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 21 Pr _ dv _ 7 ‘ 0) BE =H = ~reosut tot sinat | = et [eonot 1+ sin ot j] = —ote ‘Then the acceleration is opposite to the direction of r, ie. it is directed toward the origin. Its magnitude is proportional to |r| which is the distance from the origin. (© eXv = [coset + ainot j] X [-w sinat 1+ 0 cos ot j] i ie comet sinut 0 —wsinat weosut 0 Physically, the motion is that of a particle moving on the circumference of a circle with constant angular speed «. The acceleration, directed toward the center of the circle, is the centripetal acceleration. = loos? at + sin? wt constant vector. GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL 137, If g = ye! and A= aci—y'j+2z*yk, find (@) V4, (0) V-A, (0) VXA, (@) div (¢A), (¢) curl (A). w v6 = ( eg ae ahitde)e = rs isthe Reeve + Zeer + Zeer = tev + tah + sete w via = (Sit Sis du)- tet vi + 28m a 2 a = Ren + RM + ey = ey + birdy) xet-vis 28 i k se i te ee yh Raty re = 2 (aa) — = (Saen— dew) + (Le0-£ = Qe + (e—4ey)j eon) + (ew - Fle) (@ div(gA) = V+(~A) = V+ (atystt — atysedj + 2rtytatk) = Reeves + Leann + Lasts) oye — ae + be (@) curl (Ga) = VX (A) = x (obysth — atyAetj + BetyAahR) to k az aly alae sty —atytet aly aye! + Batya + (rye — Satya) — Bays + 2 188. (a) If A = Qzy+ sit (22+ 2y)i + (Bee*—2)k, show that VXA = (b) Find a scalar function ¢ such that A= V9. ' i x tee aley ae Bey tat att Dy Bast @ 9xa =022, ‘VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION [omap.1 (b) Method 1. = eet ee eee (©) Method 1. It A= vp = 38143854 38K th 2 hay oS 2 @) f= tts) Ba attty HE = aoa Integrating, we find Wo = yt ets ins) (9 = sty tytt Fylea) (©) 6 = eh -2t Pyle) Comparing these we must have Fy(y,2) = 2-2, Fyle,s) = 228-22, Fle) = atytyt and a0 g = ty bast + ye Oe, Method 2. We have if A=, ode = (2814 %54%y). cde = ($8i4 S54 38k) -eets ast arn) = Beet Hays Ha = wy tn enact dierent. For tha cae, dy = Avde = Chey te de + (4 2p dy + (tet) de (tay ade + a8 dy + Bethe] + By dy ~ Be d(xty + xz!) + diy) + d(—22) dlxty + 228 + y®— 22) Then 9 = yeast atte, Note that an artery constant can alo be aed to & LINE INTEGRALS AND INDEPENDENCE OF THE PATH 189. If A = (B2—Gyz)i + (2y+8z2)j + (1—dzye%)k, evaluate [ Asds from (0,0,0) to (1,1,1) along the following paths C: @e (b) the straight lines from (0,0,0) to (0,0,1), then to (0,1,1), and then to (1,1,1). (0) the straight line joining (0,0,0) and (1, 1,1). Sarde =f (ae synn + cyt Beni + aeveri (aed + dy) + del) = fet ounde + yt sendy + O~ aeveyde (0) Ite=ty=0, = #8, points (0,0,0) and (1,1,1) correspond to t= 0 and t=1 respectively, Then Sra =f" er-ceyena + ae ssa + a—aoenen ae Sf (ooo ae + Wertorae + (e—tennd = 2 Another method. ‘Along C, A= (Q0— 6091+ (QU-+900) + (1— 40% and x = akt yi tak = 48+ 0%, ar 2H Bey de, Then Sra = [oma + uatona + oouma = 8 () Along the straight line from (0,0, 0) to (0,0,1), 2=0, y=0, de =0, dy=0 while « varies from Otol, Then the integral over this part of the path is L., 8OF-sOVA0 + O)+80K—)0 + A-dOVOMGE = J" ee = 1CHAP. 1) VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 23 Along the straight line from (0,0,1) to (0,1,1), #=0, from 0 to 1. ‘Then the integral over this part of the path is F., Gor-cwnenyo + v+sOO) ay + A-souarI = fade = 2 , dz =0, d2=0 while y varies Along the straight line from (0,1,1) to (1,1,1), v=1, from 0 to 1. Then the integral over this part of the path’ f* aeroonnnae + eons satyo + a—aavanne =f" ae-aee = 5 , dy=0, de=0 while « varies (©) Along the straight line joining (0,0,0) and (1,1,1) we have 2=¢, de = dy = ds = dt, Sine , #=t, Then since So smae + arssenay + tte JS ae-ayae + aevamae + dua = fiery = on Note that in this ease the value of the integral depends on the particular path. 140. If A = ey +2%)i + (2*+2u)i + (Sx2?—2)k show that oS, A-dr is independent of the path C joining the points (1,~1,1) and (2,1,2) and (6) find its value, By Problem 188, VXA=0 or Arde = dp = d(sty-+as'+y?—22), Then the integral is independent of the path and its value is, SP nde =f dentate to : = tytadty—as(7P? = MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS 141. Prove that if a and b are non-collinear, then za+yb = 0 implies « ‘Suppose #0. ‘Then za+yb =0 implies za=—yb ora to the same line (collinear), contrary to hypothesis, Thus 142, Prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram bi- sect each other. Let ABCD be the given parallelogram with diagonals intersecting at P as shown in Fig. 1-28. Since BD+a a, Then BP = x(b—a). (a+b). But AB=AP+PB=AP-BP, a= vatd) — 2b—a) = et ya+ Wad. ‘Since « and b are non-collinear we have by Problem 14, 2ty=1 and y—2=0, Le e=y=4 and P is the midpoint of both diagonals.24 143, 146, VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION (cHaP.1 Prove that for any vector A, (@) A= (A-Di+ (A+Dj + (A-kKk () A = A(cosai + cos j + cosy k) where a, B,y are the angles which A makes with i,j,k respectively and cosa, cos, cos y are called the direction cosines of A. (@) Wehave A= Ait Agi+Agk. Then Atl = (Ag+ Ags+Agri = Ay Ash = Abt AS + Add Ask = (Ad +A, +Ayk"k = Ay ‘Thus A (ADE (ACD + (ACW © = Acosa cose = Acosy ‘Then from part ( a (ASDF (ASHI + (ASW = Alcos.ai + cos Bj + cosy) Prove that V¢ is a vector perpendicular to the surface 4(2,y,2) constant. Let t= ait vit ak be the position vector to any point P(e,y,2) on the surface, ‘Then de = dei + dyj+dek lies in the plane tangent to the surface at P. But , where c is a to = Maas Maye ae = 0 or (Sn 488s 4 Mu) otaet eas alm) te Verde 0 0 that V4 is perpendicular to dr and therefore to the surface. Find a unit normal to the surface 2x*+4yz—52? = —10 at the point P(8, By Problem 1.44, a veetor normal to the surface is eee + dye 68) = dal + deh + ly—0k = 12 +} — 2k at (1,2) 14 eee a+ Bo Vrrerea T baa ak hae ‘Then a unit normal to the surface at P is Another unit normal to the surface at P is A ladder AB of length a rests against a vertical wall OA (Fig. 1-29]. The foot B of the ladder is pulled away with constant speed v. (a) Show that the midpoint of the ladder describes the are of a circle of radius a/2 with center at O. (b) Find the velocity and speed of the midpoint of the ladder at the instant where B is distant o> that (nde a sing i+ cosej © (6) ‘These results follow by solving the simultaneous equations (8) and (6) for 4 and 5.26 VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION (CHAP. 148. Prove that (a) ix= 60: (0) 6:= (@) From (8) of Problem 1.47 we have nya 2 do or dt * 90 dt (OG) + (ain + cone 5nd) = ae doy _ dr, Odo > at rata = (OF) + (coset —sine 8) = Ory 149. Prove that in polar coordinates (a) the velocity is given by v= intr hye, + (7B + 27804 (@) We have r=rry 0 that or v= at by Problem 1.48(a). ee Ht rG = ith = it rig () From part (a) and Problem 1.48 we have ae aie a= B= Font Fat Ay + Fry + HG (Fa rine, + B+ BF, Supplementary Problems VECTOR ALGEBRA 150, Given any two vectors A and B, illustrate geometrically the equality 4A+S(B—A) = A+3B. 151. Given vectors A, B and C, construct the vectors (@) 2A—9B+4C, (8) C—4A+4B. 152 If A and B are any two non-zero vectors which do not have the same direction, prove that pA + ¢B is a vector lying in the plane determined by A and B. 1.58, (a) Determine the vector having initial point (2,—1,8) and terminal point (8,2,—4). (6) Find the distance between the two points in (a). Ans. (a) 1+3)—Tk, (6) V59 154. A triangle has vertices at the points A(2,1,—1), B(—1,3,2), C(1,—2,1). Find the length of the median to the side AB. Ane. 4V6 155, A man travels 25 miles northeast, 15 miles due east and 10 miles due south. By using an ‘appropriate scale determine (a) graphically and (0) analytically how far and in what direction he is from his starting position. Ans. 88.6 miles, 132° north of east.CHAP. 1) VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 27 1.56, Find a unit vector in the direction of the resultant of vectors A = 2i—j+k, B C= B-2+ 4k. Ane, + (61-254 TH/VED ie i+ 2k, ‘THE DOT OR SCALAR PRODUCT 157. Evaluate (A+B)-(A~B)| if A= 2-3)+5k and B= Sit+j—% Ane. 24 158. Find a so that 21—3)+5k and Sitaj—2k are perpendicular. Ans. a= ~4/3 158, If A= 2i+j+k, B= i-2)+2k and C = Si-4j+2k, find the projection of A+C in the direction of B. | Ama, 17/8 1.60, A triangle has vertices at A(2,8,1), B(-1,1,2), C(1,-2,9). Find the acute angle which the median to side AC makes with side BC. | Ans. cos! VOT/14 161, Prove the law of covines for triangle ABC, ic. 6? = at+02—Zab cos C. (Hint, ‘Take the sides as A,B,C where C = A-B. Then use C+C (a-B)] 1.62. Prove that the diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular to each other. ‘THE CROSS OR VECTOR PRODUCT 162, If A= 21—j+k and B= i+2)—9k, find [(2A4B) x (A-2B)), Ana, 253 164, Find a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of the vectors A= 31—2)+4k and B=i+j—2k Ane, = (25+ KE 1.65. Find the area of the triangle with vertices (2,~8,1), (11,2), (-1,2,8). Ane. $V 1.66, Find the shortest distance from the point (8,2,1) to the plane determined by (1,1,0), (8,—1,1), ae ee Let, Prove the lw of snes for triangle ABC, te, 2A = HRB. she, [dHint. Consider the sides to be A,B,C where A+B+C = sides with A and B respectively.) and take the eross product of both ‘TRIPLE PRODUCTS 168, If A= M+j—Sk, B=1—3+k and C= —i+J)—dk, find (o) A+ (BXO), (6) C+(AXB) (©) Ax BX), () (AXB)XC. Ame. (a) 20, (6) 20, (6) 8L—19)—k, (d) 251—15)— 10k 169. Prove that A+(BXC) = (AXB)+C, Le. the dot and the cross can be interchanged. 170, Find the volume of a parallelepiped whose edges are given by A = 2i+8)—k, B C= Bij. Ane. 81 242k, LI, Find the volume of the tetrahedron with vertices st (21,1), (ly Ane. 4/8 4,2), (0,1,—1), (,—22). 12, Prove that (a) A+(BX€) = B+(CXA) = C+(AXB) () AX(BXO) = BIA+©) - CA. 118, (a) Lat ry ryny be porition vectors to three points P,, Py, respectively. Prove that the equation (em) = en) x (e—n)] = 0, where r= at +y}+ a, represents an oquation for the plane determined by Py, Py and Py. (8) Find an equation for the plane passing through (2,—1,—2), 12,-8), 1,0). | Ane) 2ety Be = 9 DERIVATIVES AND INTEGRALS OF VECTORS LT, Let A = Bti— (+0) + (20k, Find (0) dA/dt and (0) PA/dE at Ans. (a) 81—8)—k, (b) ~2)+2k 11S. If r= acosut+bsinut, where a and b are any constant non-collinear vectors and w is a constant sealer, prove that (a) xX dr/dt = u(ax), (8) dr/det+ utr28 VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION (CHAP. 1 176, If A= fi—sintk and B ee rove that Ziaxp) = ax 44a Lit, Prove that Z(axp) = ax 92+9%xB where A and B are differentiable functions of u. Lm Tf A) = deu— DI ut 94 + 6, evaluate (@) J" ACen, @) f” uk—24)-Ale de Ans. (a) 61-8) + 38k, (b) —28 a : 179, Find the vector B(u) auch that @?B/du? = 6ui—48ut}+12k where B= 2%i—Sk and dB/du He Rear Rabie se error oh auth tan rove tat fA ERG = Ax dR whee 6 a conan vs ae m= etapa ave ted PEt he pk 8-0, Am 1a It A= e—yitek and B= vital—ayek, find 5S Ane. 4148) (AX) at the point (1,—1,2). VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 183, A particle moves along the space curve r = (+0i+(8—2)+(@—40%k. Find the (@) velocity, (b) acceleration, (¢) speed or magnitude of velocity and (d) magnitude of accelera- tion at time ¢ ‘An. (a) 5i+3}+8k, (6) 21+ 16k, (0) TV2, (d) 2V65 LB, A particle moves slong the space curve defined by x = e~t cost, y = ¢ ‘the magnitude of the (a) velocity and (4) acceleration at any time t. Ana, (a) VEe~', (b) VB e-t sint, #=e-% Find 1.85, The position vector of a particle is given at any time ¢ by r= acosuti+ bsinutj + ot. (@) Show that although the speed of the particle increases with time the magnitude of the ‘acceleration is always constant, (6) Describe the motion of the particle geomettically. RELATIVE VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 196, ‘The position vectors of two particles are given respectively by ry = HO} +(2t+ 9k and my = (2t—B¢)1+4t]— ok, Find (a) the relative velocity and (b) the relative acceleration of the Second particle with respect to the first at t=1. Ams. (a) —81+6)—Bk, (b) —1+2)—6k 187, An automobile driver traveling northeast at 26 mi/hr notices that the wind appears to be coming ‘from the northwest. When he drives southeast at 90 mi/hr the wind appears to be coming from 60° south of west, Find the velocity of the wind relative to the ground. ‘Ans. 52 mi/hr in a direction from 80° south of west 188, A wn in a boat on one side of a river wishes to reach a point directly opposite him on the other ‘of the river. Aswuming that the width of the river is D and that the speeds of the boat and current are V and vb. (a) Show that the particle moves in an ellipse. (b) Show that the force acting on the particle is always directed toward the origin. vector atu and s0 © =acosut, y=) sinut which are the parametric equations of an ellipse having semi-major and semi-minor axes of lengths a and b respectively (see Fig. 2-8). Since Gla} + (y/b* = costut + sintat = 1 the ellipse is also given by 23/a?+ yt/b2 = (a) The posi acosuti + bsinat i Fig.23CHAP.2] NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION. WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM 39 (b) Assuming the particle has constant mass m, the force acting on it is v= mt = mith = mile canatl + (otro = mfnote cog tt 2 sin = —mut[acosut i+ 8 sin ut j}) = —moe which shows that the force is always directed toward the origin. 23. ‘Two observers 0 and 0’, fixed relative to two coordinate systems Oxyz and O'x'y’2’ respectively, observe the motion of a par- ticle P in space [see Fig. 2-4]. Show that to both observers the particle appears to have the same force acting on it if and only if the coordinate systems are moving at constant velocity relative to each other. Lt the position vectors ofthe particle inthe Ozyz and O'2'y'2’ coordinate aystems be r and r” respectively and let the position vector of O° ‘with respect to O be R= rr Fig. 24 Relative to observers © and 0’ the forces acting on P according to Newton's laws are given respectively by ae ™ ae ‘The difference in observed forces is and this will be zero if and only if = constant i.e. the coordinate systems are moving at constant velocity relative to each other, Such coordinate ystems are called inertial coordinate systems. ‘The result is sometimes called the classical principle of relativity. 24, A particle of mass 2 moves in a force field depending on time ¢ given by F = 24ti + (6t-16)j ~ 12tk Assuming that at t=0 the particle is located at re = Si—j+4k and has velocity Vo = 61+15j—8k, find (a) the velocity and (b) the position at any time t. (@) By Newton's second law, Bdvidt = 240% + (96¢—16)) — 120k dvidt = 121 + G88 — 6 Integrating with respect to ¢ and calling ¢; the constant of integration, we have v= ai + GH —8N) — Se + 6 Since v = vq = 61-+15)—Bk at ¢=0, we have ej = 61+16j—8k and 20 v = GP+6 + @A—Bt+15)) — G+ 8k40 NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION. WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM —[CHAP. 2 (@) Since v iefdt, we have by part (a) ae a Integrating with respect to ¢ and calling ey the constant of integration, r= (460i + GH 42 +150) — (480K + = UP+OL + (OP —8+ 1B) — E+E Since BI J+ dk at £=0, we have e = Si—j-+4k and 20 r= (HGF OL + BH 4e4 5-H) + 4-880 25, A constant force F acting on a particle of mass m changes the velocity from v; to ve in time r. (@) Prove that F = m(vo—vi)/r. (®) Does the result in (a) hold if the force is variable? Explain. (@) By Newton's second law, w_F o HF o ‘Then if F and m are constants we have on integrating, v = @/me +e At t=0, v=; #0 that ¢ v= (met y « At t=, vev, so that v2 = Om ty ie. F = mvy—vi/r “ Another method. Write (1) as mdv=Fadt. Then since Somer = fora oe minnw =F which yields the required result, (8) No, the result does not hold in general if F is not a constant, since in such case we would not ‘obtain the result of integration achieved in (a). 26. Find the constant force in the (a) cgs system and (b) mks system needed to accelerate a mass of 10,000 gm moving along a straight line from a speed of 54 kan/hr to 108 km/hr in 5 minutes. Assume the motion to be in the direction of the positive 2 axis, Then if v; and vg are the velocities, we have from the given data v, = Géikm/hr, vz = 108i km/hr, m = 10,000 gm, t= 6 min, (2) In the egs system m = 10'gm, vy, = bAi km/hr = 5X 10° em/sec, vg = 8.0% 10% em/see, t = 800 see 5) = anew (SE) (05 x 1051 gm em/sec? = 5X 104 dynes ‘Thus the magnitude of the force is 60,000 dynes in the direction of the positive axis. ‘Then F = me (®) In the mks system m = 10kg, vy = Séb km/hr = Si m/sec, vz = SOi m/sec, ¢ = 800 secCHAP.2] NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION. WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM aL mee we (2G) = conn (EH) 0.51 kg m/sec? = 0.51 newtons ‘Thus the magnitude is 0.5 newtons in the positive = direction. ‘This result could also have been Obtained from part (a) on noting that I newton = 10% dynes or 1 dyne = 10~* newtons. In this simple problem the unit vector 1 is sometimes omitted, it being understood that th force F will have the direction of the positive 2 axis. However, it is good oractice to work thi tnd similar problems with the unit vector present so as to emphasize the vector character of force, Nelocty, ete. This is especially important in cases where velocities may change their directions, See, for example, Problem 2.48, page 56. 2.7. What constant force is needed to bring a 2000 Ib mass moving at a speed of 60 mi/hr to rest in 4 seconds? We shall assume that the motion takes place in a straight line which direction of the axis. Then using the English absolute system of ur mm = 20001, vy, = 604 Then v= m= n(27%) = ir = 881 ft/sec, = 44x 1044 ft Ib/ace? = 4.4 1044 poundals ‘Thus the force has magnitude 4.410! poundals in the negative x direction, i.e. in a direction ‘opposite to the motion. This is of course to be expected. WORK, POWER, AND KINETIC ENERGY 28. A particle of constant mass m moves in space under the influence of a force field F. ‘Assuming that at times t; and f2 the velocity is vi and vs respectively, prove that the work done is the change in kinetic energy, i.e. "pede = dmuf — dmv} ‘Work done , = fined = nfl ea i a ee Sorte = forse }, ™ae in fSaen = dwell = deed = dot 2.9. Find the work done in moving an object along a veetor r= 8i+2j—5k if the applied force is F=2i—j—k. Refer to Fig. 25. ‘Work done = {magnitude of force in direction ‘of motion) (distance moved) F cos (7) = @l-j—W)+ i+ 2}— 5K) = 6-245 =942, NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION. WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM —[CHAP.2 210. Referring to Problem 2.2, (a) find the kinetic energy of the particle at points A and B, (b) find the work done by the force field in moving the particle from A to B, (o) illustrate the result of Problem 2.8 in this case and (d) show that the total work done by the field in moving the particle once around the ellipse is zero. (0) Velaiy = y= det = ~ anasto eat Rieti energy = fmt = fet unset + cat, inate eeey ot A [vier cout = 2, anat =0) = fut fietaee as reese y = jo () Motto 1. From pet (of Problem 22, Workame =f rede =f Cmanede = mt free = nine fo aren = ime? = Gmetad — mst? = fmar{a2— 04) Method 2 We can assume that at A and B, and t 120 respectively. Then: Work done = 7 Fede (ee S TO publ B) aint cost dt yrnot(o2 — 09) int at | rato? — ba) (©) From parts (a) and (6), ‘Work done Hmst{at— 0) = meta? — Jmat? kinetic energy at A — kinetic energy at B (@) Using Method 2 of part (b) we have, since t goes from 0 to t=2x/w for a complete cireuit ‘around the ellipse, ow Work dene =f meat 00 sine cnet dt 1" t t i $ a Method 1 can also be used to show the same result. ‘211. Prove that if F is the force acting on a particle and v is the (instantaneous) velocity of the particle, then the (instantaneous) power applied to the particle is given by P= Fy By definition the work done by a force F in giving a particle a displacement dr is W = Pedr ‘Then the (instantaneous) power is given by aw Pee as required.CHAP. 2} NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION. WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM 43 212, Find the (instantaneous) power applied to the particle in Problem 2.1 by the force field. By Problem 2.1, the velocity and force are given respectively by v= (6+ Ii + (128209) — 4th F = 604i + (180!2—10)} — 120k ‘Then the power (by Problem 2.11) is given by = Fey = (Go0(6e-+1) + (180e*— 10)(120— 20) + (120)(240) = 216008 — 12008 + 29608 218. Find the work done by the force in (a) Problem 2.6, (b) Problem 2.7. (@) Im the egs system: vj = |v] = 1.5% 108 cm/sec, v = |v] = 8.0% 108 cm/sec, m = 101 gm. ‘Then by Problem 28, Work done = change in kinetic energy = dm} = 4 emy9.0 x 108 — 2.26 x 109 SB = 3.38 x 101 SE emt ‘nom = 838 x 100mm 338x108 (E22 (om) = 888% 10 dyneem = 8.58% 100 erge Tn the mks system we have similarly: Work done = 4(10 ke(900 — 225) 2 = ase x10e(4EE) (my = 598% 10° newton meters (©) As in part te Work done = 42000 1(¢8" on £8, = mimeo BB) = roca CONSERVATIVE FORCE FIELDS, POTENTIAL ENERGY, AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 2.14, Show that the force field F defined by F = (ye —Gze4i + Qrys'j + (Bay's —62%2)k is a conservative force field. Method 1. ‘The foree field F is conservative if and only if curl F = VXF = 0. Now i i oy alae alty alee vet —Gzst Days? Saye ~ Bete vxXF = 1 [Zane e - Zam] + s[Zure—onn ~ Lanne oro] | + «[ Ze - Loreen] ‘Then the force fleld is conservative.44 NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION. WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM — [CHAP.2 Method 2, ‘The force field F is conservative if and only if there exists a scalar function or potential Vie,y,2) such that F = —gradV = —VV Then = e604 tl + tao M17 emt wm so V ch at Vida = Gxa?~ ytet, OV/ay = —2eys8, aV/az = Griz — Sayts® @ F = -wW Integrate the first equation with respect to 2 keeping y and constant. Then V = Setst — yet + gulnn2) © ‘where 9:(¥,2) is « function of y and =. Similarly integrating the second equation with respect to y (keeping » and z constant) and the third equation with respect to z (keeping = and y constant), we have V = ~2¥ts + osle,2) O V = tated — xyted + ose.) w Equations (2), (8) and (4) yield a common V if we choose ane) = sary constant, and it follows that V = satet—nyted +e + grles2) = Batet te, ox(esy) = @ © where ¢ is any art fs the required potential nents - Mane) Vim fleece = =f ede + anten + Gayest = WS" aay - sete) = atta +o where ¢ = syvded— Se3ef, 215. Prove Theorem 2.2, page 85: If the force acting on a particle is given by F = —VV, then the total work done in moving the particle along a curve C from P; to P; is w= fred = vi) - Ve ‘We have fees = Sa = -v| = vey - veg 2.16. Find the work done by the force field F of Problem 2.14 in moving a particle from the point A(-2, 1,8) to B(1,—2,—1). Work done =f" Fede ova Se eee pnCHAP. 2} NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION. WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM 45 2.17. (a) Show that the force field of Problem 2.2 is conservative. (0) Find the potential energy at points A and B of Fig. 2-8. (c) Find the work done by the force in moving the particle from A to B and compare with Problem 2.10(6). (@) Find the total energy of the particle and show that it is constant, the principle of conservation of energy. . demonstrate (@) Prom Problem 2(0), F = mate = —mo%(2i+ yi). ‘Then i ik VxXF alas alty aloe Hence the field is conservative. (Since the fel i conservative there exits a potential Yauch that P= most mi) = wy = ~~ yy ‘Then aV/ax = mute, aV/ay = muty, aV/oz = 0 trom which, omitng the centant, we have V = dmatat + gmetyt = fmaXet ty) = jmutrt hich isthe regivd potent (e) Potential at point A of Fig. 28 [where r=a] = gmu%at. Potential at point B of Fig. 28 [where r=8] = mut, Then Work done from A to 8 = Potential at A — Potential at B Ymatat — Ymetbt = 4met(at— 9) agreeing with Problem 2.10(b). (@) By Problems 2.10(a) and part (6), Kinetic energy at any point = T = mvt = jmit Jn(ota? aint ot + 428? cost wt) fate Jrnat(a? cost ut + BF sin? wt) ‘Thus at any point we have on adding and using sin? at + cost et = 1, THV = fmter +o Potential energy at any point = V which is a constant, IMPULSE, TORQUE, ANGULAR MOMENTUM, AND CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 218 Prove Theorem 2.6, page 86: The impulse of a force is equal to the change in momentum. By definition of impulse (see (19), page 86] and Newtor second law, we have Sova = S$ komae = fame) = me46 NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION. WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM — (CHAP. 2 2.19. A mass of 5000 kg moves on a straight line from a speed of 540 km/hr to 720 km/hr in 2 minutes. What is the impulse developed in this time? ‘Method 1. ‘Assume that the mass travels the direction of the positive + aux, In the mke ayatem, ae 2 cin 100m my = soe = Se 15x 10% ‘7201 x 1000 m ve = 72018 = 20x 104 "2800 eee ‘Then from Problem 2.18, Impulse = m(va—v;) = (6000 ke)(0.5 x 108i m/sec) = 265X108 kg m/sec = 2.5 X 105% newton see since Inewton = 1kgm/see? or 1 newton sec = 1 kg m/sec. ‘Thus the impulse has magnitude 2.5 X 105 newton sec in the positive 2 direction. ‘Method 2. Using the ces system, vy = 540i km/hr = 1.6% 10¢iem/see and vy = 7201 km/hr = 2.0% 1044 em/see. Then Impulse " ‘amiva—v) = (6000 x 108 grn(0.5 % 1044 em/see) 2.50 X 10101 gm em/see = 2.50% 101i dyne sec since 1dyne = 1 gmem/sect or 1 dyne see = 1 gm cm/sec Note that in finding the impulse we did not have to use the time 2 minutes as given in the statement of the problem. 2.20. Prove Theorem 2.7, page 86: The moment of force or torque about the origin O of a coordinate system is equal to the time rate of change of angular momentum. ‘The moment of force or torque about the origin O is a A = exe = ext ‘The angular momentum or moment of momentum about O is @ = mrxv) = x (mv) ae ae wl - Lex = Exon + 2x Zeon Now we have $2. A ee wx (ne) +x Lom) = 0+ rxP = A which gives the required result, 2.21. Determine (a) the torque and (0) the angular momentum about the origin for the particle of Problem 2.4 at any time ¢. (@) Torque = rxXF [(t0-+ Gt + a)k + (e402 + 15¢— 19) + (4 — Bey] X [BEE + (Bor — 16 — 120K) i i k = |e#+orta se-aetuse—1 4-8 sr ae 36t 16 —a2e (3248 + 10862 — 260¢ + 6a) — (1245 + 19208 — 1684" 368)j — (86e8 — Boe! + S606 — 24008 — 12¢ + 48)CHAP. 2] NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION. WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM aT ne moe ga 81H + 8 a0 xilaet ont eee i644 Om i ; . wre oe se+ 1s 8-8 = (Bt4+ 3648 — 18018 + 64 — 104)i — (2e + 4844 — B66 — 180% — 96)) — (Ge — 1605 + 9044 — Boe! — Bet + 48¢— 102) Note that the torque is the derivative with respect to ¢ of the angular momentum, illustrating the theorem of Problem 2.20. 222. A particle moves in a force field given by F= rr where r is the position vector of the particle. Prove that the angular momentum of the particle is conserved. ‘The torque acting on the particle is A= EX = rx (tr) = rirxe) = 0 ‘Then by Theorem 2.9, page 87, the angular momentum is constant, Le. the angular momentum is ‘conserved. NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES 228, Show that the force field given by F = 2*yzi—zyz"k is non-conservative. We have toi ok ofas aay ales aye 0 at ‘Then since V x F s 0, the field is non-conservative. vxP = = ath + (ety + ah) - otek STATICS OF A PARTICLE 224. A particle P is acted upon by the forces F.,F,F1,F.,Fs and Fe shown in Fig. 2-6. Represent geometrically the force needed to prevent P from moving. Fe Fig.26 Fig.27 ‘The resultant R of the forces F.,F;,Fs,FiyFs and Fy can be found by vector addition as indicated in Fig. 27. We have R= F\+#,+F,+Fj+F,+¥e The force needed to prevent P from moving is -R which is a vector equal in magnitude to R but opposite in direction and sometimes called the equilibrant.48 NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION. WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM —[CHAP. 2 2.25. A particle is acted upon by the forces F, = 5i—10j+15k, F: = 10i+25j-20k and Fs = 15i—20j+10k. Find the force needed to keep the particle in equilibrium. ‘The resultant of the forces is B= Fy +R, + Fy = (Gi~10j + 10k) + (101+ 25j~ 20k) + (151-20) + 10k) 801 — 5) + 5k ‘Then the force needed to keep the particle in equilibrium ig — 801 + 5] — 5k. 2.28. The coplanar forces as indicated in Fig. 2-8 act on a particle P. Find the resultant of these forces (a) analytically and (b) graphically. What force is needed to keep the particle in equilibrium? Fig. 28 Fig.29 (©) Analytically, From Fig. 2-8 we have, Fy = 160(cos 45° 1+ sin 45° j), Fy = 100(—cos 30° i + sin 80° j), Fy = 120(~ cos 60° 1 ~ sin 60° j) ‘Then the resultant R is R= th +Fy = (160 cos 45° — 100 cos 80° ~ 120 60s 60°)t + (160 sin 45° + 100 sin 30° — 120 sin 60°) 88.461 + 59.21) Writing R= Reosai+ Raine} where a is the angle with the positive # axis measured counterclockwise, we see that Recess = 38.48, Rina = 59.21 ‘Thus the magnitude of Ris R= V(~3848FF GORI = 68.0 Ib, and the direction « with the positive x axis is given by tana = 59.21/(~83.46) = ~1.770 or « = 119° 28". (©) Graphically. Choosing » unit of 20 1b as shown in Fig. 20, we find that the retultant has ‘magnitude of about 68 1b and direction making an angle of about 61° with the negative axis (using « protractor] #0 that the angle with the positive 2 axis is about 119°, A force ~R, ic, opposite in direction to R but with equal magnitude, is needed to keep P {in equilibrium. STABILITY OF EQUILIBRIUM 227, A particle moves along the x axis in a force field having potential V=4cr*, «>0. (a) Determine the points of equilibrium and (b) investigate the stability. (@) Equilibrium points occur where VV Vidz = 2 = 0 or 2 =0 or in this case ‘Thus there is only one equilibrium point, at 2 =0.CHAP.2} NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION. WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM 49 (8) Method 1. Since @V/ds? = « > 0, it follows that at page 38, 2=0 is a point of stability. ‘This is also seen from Problem 2.36 where that the particle oscillates about #=0. Visa minimum. ‘Thus by Theorem 2.10, ‘ie shown ve Method 2. Wehave F=—vv =—20i=—eel, Then when 2>0 the particle undergoes a force to the left, and when <0 the particle under- ‘goes a force to the right. Thus 2=0 Is a point of stability. Method 3. ‘The fact that 2 =0 is a minimum point ean be seen from a graph of Vie) viz (Pig. 2-10]. Fig.2-10 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS 2.28. Show how Newton's laws can be used to develop definitions of force and mass Let us first consider some given particle P, assuming for the present that its mass mp is not defined but is simply some constant scalar quantity associated with P. Axiom 1 states that if P moves with constant velocity (which may be zero) then the force acting on it is zero. Axiom 2 states that if the velocity is not constant then there is a force acting on P given by mpap where fap is the acceleration of P. Thus force is defined by axioms 1 and 2 (although axiom 1 is unnecessary since it ean in fact be deduced from axiom 2 by letting F=0). Tt should be noted that foree is vector and thus has all the properties of vectors, in particular the parallelogram law for vector addition. To define the mass mp of particle P, let us now allow it to interact with some particular particle which we shall consider to be a standard particle and which we take to have unit mass. If ap and ag are the accelerations of particle P and the standard particle respectively, it follows from axioms 2 and 3 that mpap ‘Thus the mass mp can be defined as ~as/ay 2.29, Find the work done in moving a particle once around a circle C in the zy plane, if the circle has center at the origin and radius 3 and if the force field is given by Fo = Q@x-yt2)i + (e+y—2)j + (Bx—-2y +4) In the plane F = 22— yh t (e+ yi) + @e—2y)ke and de = deit dy} so that the work done is Sree = Seems +My + eB et + dy] Seema + etna Choose the parametric equations of the circle as = cost, t "et varies from 0 to 2» (se Fig. 211), Then the Tine invogeal equate (le $120 ont) — 5 ain ei-B ine de + [cont +8 sing con at NN : In traversing C we have chosen the counterclockwise direction indi cated in Fig. 2-11. We call this the positive direction, or say that Ct = a+ yi hhas been traversed in the positive sense. If C were traversed in the Beostit Bsint i clockwise (negative) direction the value of the integral would be —18r. Fig. 24150 2.80. (a) (b) @ @ NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION. WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM — [CHAP. 2 If F=—vyV, where V is single-valued and has continuous partial derivatives, show that the work done in moving a particle from one point P; = (21,4:,2:) in this field to another point P: = (2, y2,z2) is independent of the path joining the two points, Conversely, it f° F-dr is independent of the path C joining any two points, show that there exists a function V such that F=—yV. = -f" ova v5 + y+ Be) (acts ays + deny Way 4 ¥ : ety + ee fs ~ SP av = ve) vie) = Vienne) — Venrned ‘Then the integral depends only on points P, and P; and not on the path joining them, ‘This is true of course only if V(r,y,2) is single-valued at all points P and P. Let F = Fut Fy + Fok. By hypothesis, ff F+de is independent of the path C joining any ‘two points, which we take as (24, vs,2) and (#,y,2) respectively. ‘Then - fo rede =~ rae + Pay + Faas) sma evn is independent of the path joining (ey,4s,2)) and (#,y,2)- Thus Veena) Vanna) = —Sihitenée+ Reinet Poems where C is a path joining (x,¥1.#) and (2,042). Let us choose as a particular path the straight line segments from (2, v4.2) to (2,414) to (e,¥.21) to (2,42) and call V(e,y,2) the ‘work done along this particular path. ‘Then Si riemande ~ S"rewed ~ Sf" roennde Veeva) Ie follows that ©. penn wv _ (7%, a A eclee B= rene — Sf Peonae = rene - Sf Ztenne = -Flensy — tena’ Faved = Fala) + Fale. yad Paley) ” oF, Fie uy a) ~ * oF ese) ay -S Geewade oe = Fileyon) — Filewa) | — Few) Frew) + Fema) Fle vy (ua) + Flewe) = —Fyle.ms)CHAP.2] NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION. WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM BL Then FS Pithit hk = wy My = -ww ‘Thus necessary and sufficient condition that a fleld F be conservative is that curl F = Vx F 231. (a) Show that F = (ey+2)i+24j + 8zz*k is a conservative force field. (6) Find the potential. (c) Find the work done in moving an object in this field from (1, ~2, 1) to (31,4). (a) A necessary and sufficient condition that a force will be conservative is that curl F = VX = 0. i ik afez fay aide Boyt at Bet Now VxXF = 0. Thus F is « conservative force field (®) As in Problem 2.14, Methods 2 or 8, we find V = ~(2%y +224). (9 Warkaane = ~1ty + 2382, Prove that iff" Fedr is independent of the path joining any two points P, and Ps ina given region, then F-dr = 0 for all closed paths in the region and conversely. Let P)AP,BP, [se0 Fig. 2-12] be a closed curve, ‘Then fo e 5 . = fra- fra =o since the integral fom Pt Py slong « path through A is) the same as that along @ path through B, by hypothesis. = Conversely it § Rede = 0, then Petit So fee (ee fee ie a 2.88. (a) Show that a necessary and sufficient condition that Fidz + Fady + Fsdz be an exact differential is that VxF = 0 where F = Fui+F:j+Fak. (©) Show that (y*2* cos 2 ~ daz) dz + 22'y sin z dy + (8y'#* sinz ~ 2')dz is an exact differential of a function ¢ and find ¢. (0) Soppone Ryde + Ryd + Ryde = dy = Bde + May +See, an exact diferent, Then since 2,9 and + are independent vaslbles,52 NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION. WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM (CHAP. 2 snd wo P= FAAP tM = Mie BBE = ve Thos VER = UXO Conversely if VXF = 0, then P= Vo and so Pedr = Verde = dg, te. Fide + Fray + Fydz = dg, an exact differential (0) F = (y's? cos ~ 42%) i+ Baty sine j + (By2st sine ~ 24) k and VF is computed to be zero, 40 that by part (a) the required result follows. 2.84, Referring to Problem 2.4 find (a) the kinetic energy of the particle at t=1 and t=2, (b) the work done by the field in moving the particle from the point where t=1 to the point where ¢=2, (c) the momentum of the particle at t=1 and t=2 and (4) the impulse in moving the particle from t=1 to t (@) From part (a) of Problem 24, v= (484 6) + (OH —8¢-4 15))~ (9+ Bk Land ¢=2 are My = 101+ 16) 11h, vy = 98+ 95) — 20K and the Kinetic energies at (=1 and ¢=: 7, = Jot = HOQ08+GoR+ 1] = 477, Ty = dowd = 060 (®) Work done = Sf, 2001+ ane 10}— ina -[49 +014 068419) ~ Bose = FF eure +0 + abr —aeR—ee + aren aie = sn Note that by part (a) this is tho same as the difference or change in kinetic energies 8069477 = 2692, ‘illustrating Theorem 2.1, page 95, that Work done = change in kinetic energy. (0) By part (a) the momentum at any time ¢ is p= my = Bv = (BH+ ID + (18H 164 + 90)j — (64 + 16) Land ¢ 201 + 82) — 22k, py = Toi + 70} 40K. ‘Then the momenta at Sire = ff 240+ ses —sangat = 1+ 28) (@ Impulse Note that by part (2) this is the same as the difference or change in momentum, i, a — By = (T6L+70j—40k) — (201+ 82)—22k) = 561 + 88j— 18k, illustrating Theorem 2.6, page 86, that Impulse = change in momentum. 285. A particle of mass m moves along the x axis under the influence of a conservative force field having potential V(z). If the particle is located at positions 2; and 2% at respective times t1 and ts, prove that if Z is the total energy, aon VES eeCHAP. 2] NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION. WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM 53 By the conservation of energy, Kinetic energy + Potential energy = amidzidyt + Ve) 5 ‘Then (dala = (aime — Vee), ® from which we obtain on considering the positive square root, at = Vmi8 (dx/VE—Vea)) Hence by integration, ao ae ann= 3 Rr] @ (a) If the particle of Problem 2.85 has potential V = 4x2? and starts from rest at =a, prove that = acosyx/mt and (b) describe the motion. (a) From (1) of Problem 2.35, (dz/dt)* = (2/m)(E— ea). Since dz/dt=0 where 2=a, we find E = fea? ao that (delat? = (xtmyat—2t or dala aF = Velme dt Integration yields sin-1(e/a) = = ViJmt+ ey. Since 2: #2. Then at 8, a sin-1(2/a) = tVelmt + 2/2 or 2 = asin(e/2*Velmt) = aconValmt (0) ‘The particle oscillates back and forth slong the 2 axis from x=a to #=—a. The time for fone complete vibration or oscillation from 2a back to 2=a again is called the period of the oscillation and is given by P = 2x Vals. A particle of mass 3 units moves in the zy plane under the influence of a force field having potential V = 122(8y—4z). The particle starts at time t=0 from rest at the point with position vector 10i—10j. (a) Set up the differential equations and conditions describing the motion. (b) Solve the equations in (a). (c) Find the position at any time. (d) Find the velocity at any time. (a) Sinco V = 122(8y—42) = S6ey— 4822, the force field is Fe -w = -%_¥, = (-86y + 962)4 ‘Then by Newton's second law, 3GE = (-86y +9601 — 3625 Ga = (My +962)i — 8625 or in component form, using x = i+ vi, Pela = —12y + 822, Pylded = 122 0 where 2=10, 2=0, 10, 7=0 at t=0 @ the fact that the particle starts at r= 101~10) with velocity v= (6) Prom the second equation of (1), yields = jy @v/dt?, Substitution into the first equation of (1) diyldts ~ 32.dy/de ~ 4dy = 0 ® If « is constant then y= ett is a solution of (8) provided that A B2et 14 = 0, de, (e+ Ale —96) = 0 or54 NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION. WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM — [CHAP. 2 Thus solutions are. et, and the general solution Is Y= ecosdt + epsingt + eget + cere w Thus from © =~ @y/de we find, wing (4), = focondt + fepsin at — dott ~ Soyo Using the conditions (f) in (4) and (6), we obtain Hei Bey Bey = 10, Gep— 8p + 1804 ete te = 10, Bey + 665 ~ 66 = 0 eM, eM or cost, sin 2, et, [in terme of real functions) © Solving simultaneously, ¢,=—6, ¢,=0, e5=—2, eg=—2 so that © = 6 cos2t—2e%—2e-t, y = 2 con Bt + Gott + Gee (©) The position at any time is ¥ = ait yh = (6 conte — 208 — 20-891 + (-2 cos Bt + Belt + BoA (@) The velocity at any time is ati In terms of the hyperbolic functions sinh at = jee vei 12 ain 2¢ — 120M + 120A) + (A sin BE + 2664" — 380-M) 0, combat = (ort emety we can also write (6 cos 2t ~ 4 cosh 62) + (-2 con 2¢ + 12 cosh 60) (42 ain 2¢ — 24 inh 60) + (4 sin 2¢ + 72 sinh 604 2.38. Prove that in polar coordinates (r, 6), av. lav, Ve oe rae Let WV = Gr + He o where G and H are to be determined. Since dr = del+dyj we have on using z= cose, y=rsing and Problem 1.47(0), page 25, de = (cossdr —r sino)(con er, ~ sin oe,) + (sing dr + cone de)(sin or, + cos 04) or de = deny troy ® ee Now vvede = av = Bars May Using (1) and (2) this becomes (On, + Heyetire, trdee) = Ode + Hae = Bars ay so tat ¢ own (0 come wy = By the, 2.39. According to the theory of relativity, the mass m of a particle is given by mo me vi-we = Vvi-# where » is the speed, mo the rest mass, c the speed of light and f = v/c.CHAP.2] NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION. WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM 65 (a) Show that the time rate of doing work is given by a au met $01 (b) Deduce from (a) that the kinetic energy is T= (m— malo? = moct{(1— 6-7 = 1) (©) If v is much less than ¢, show that T= 4mv* approximately. (a) By Newton's second law, rte ES) Fores GS) «ke as proved by direct differentiation, () Since Work done = change in kinetic energy, we have ‘Time rate of doing work = time rate of change in kinetic energy ox by part, = = wh (Zhe) yet Integrating, T= To determine o note that, by definition, T=0 when v=0 or 8=0, s0 that ¢; Hence we required, (©) For <1 we have by the bit 1 ie qe = oor re ee he be Then ]a met = foe aprocinatty a Supplementary Problems ‘NEWTON'S LAWS 240. A particle of mass 2 units moves along the space curve defined by x = (4t2— di ~ Bt] + (t#— 2k. Find (a) the momentum and (8) the force acting on it at t=1. Ans. (a) 10i—10}+8k, (B) 41+ Dake 241, A particle moving in a foree field F has ita momentum given at any time t by p= Ben — 2eosti ~ Ssintk Find F, Ans, —Se- + 2sintj— 3 cos tk 242, Under the influence of a foree field a particle of mass m moves along the ellipse F = acosutl + beinwt | If p is the momentum, prove that (a) rx p= mabsk, (8) r+p = Jm(6%— a) sin ut243, 2M, 246, aan, 2a, 249, NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION. WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM —[CHAP. 2 If F is the force acting on the particle of Problem 2.42, prove that rx FF means physically. Explain what this ‘A force of 100 dynes in the direction of the positive 2 axis acts on a particle of mass 2 gm for 10 minutes. What velocity does the particle acquire assuming that it starts from rest? Ane. 3x 104 cm/sec Work Problem 2.44 if the force is 20 newtons and the mass is 10 kg. Ama. 1200 m/sec (a) Find the constant force needed to accelerate a mass of 40 kg from the velocity 41 —5) +k ‘m/sec to 81+3j—Bk m/sec in 20 seconds. (6) What is the magnitude of the force in (a)? Ans. (a) 81+16)—16k newtons or (81+16j— 16k) x 105 dynes (®) 24 newtons or 24X10" dynes ‘An elevator moves from the top floor of tall building to the ground floor without stopping. (@) Explain why a blindfolded person in the clevator may believe that the elevator is not moving at all. (8) Can the person tall when the motion begins or stops? Explain. A particle of unit mass moves in a force field given in terms of time ¢ by F = (6t—8)i — 6003} + (200+ 260% Tits inital position and velocity are given respectively by ry = 2i—dk and vy = 61+4), Find the (a) position and (b) velocity of the particle at ¢=2. Ans. (a) 4188) +7Mk, (6) 1286) +176 Th fre acing on pte of mane i given In terme of ne F = ecoratt + inet} 1 the partic is inl tre a he oii, nd () poston and) velo a any Inter tne + ha eonuo Ans. (a) 2501 — coswt) i + Pa(ot — sint) j, (0) 58 WORK, POWER AND KINETIC ENERGY 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 256, 257. ‘A particle is moved by a force F = 201~80j+15k along a straight line from point A to point 5 with position vectors 21+ 7)~8k and 5i—3)—6k respectively. Find the work done. Ane. 315 Find the kinetic energy of a particle of mass 20 moving with velocity 8i—6j+4k. Ana, 500 (9201+ 8)— Hk, ‘to the point Due to a foree field F, a particle of mass 4 moves along the space curve r Find the work done by the fleld in moving the particle from the point where t= where ¢=2. Ane. 2454 [At one particular instant of time a particle of mass 10 is traveling along a space curve with velocity kiven by 4i+ 16k. At a later instant of time its velocity is $i—20}, Find the work done on the particle between the two instants of time. Ans. 192 Verify Theorem 2.1, page 85 for the particle of Problem 2.52. ‘A particle of mase m moves under the influence of the force field given by F = a(sin ut i+ cost ). I the particle i initially at rest at the origin, prove that the work done on the particle up to time & is given by (a?/mat)(1 — cos ut). Prove that the instantaneous power applied to the particle in Problem 2.65 is (o3/mu) sin wt. ‘A particle moves with velocity 5i—8]-+6k under the influence of a constant force F = 201+ 0j'+ 16k. What is the instantaneous power applied to the particle?’ Ams. 160CHAP. 2} NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION, WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM 7 CONSERVATIVE FORCE FIELDS, POTENTIAL ENERGY AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 258, 259, 260. 261 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, (a) Prove that the force field F = (y?—2eysi)i + (8-4 22y ~%)j + (624 — Sxty24%k is conservative, (6) Find the potential V associated with the force field in (a). Ans. (0) zy? — atys) + By +94 A particle moves in the force field of Problem 2.68 from the point (2,~1,2) to (—1,8,—2). Find the work done. Ane, 55 (a) Find constants ,6,¢ 0 that the force field defined by F = (e+ 2y+aa)i-+ (bx —3y—2) + (de + cy +22) ss conservative (8) What is the potential associated with the force field in (a)? Ans. (a) a=4,6=2, c=-1 (b) V = Jetty? at oy deste Find the work done in moving a particle from the point (1,—1,2) to (2,8,—1) in a force field with potential V = 23—y8+2y—y?+4s. Ans. 15 Determine whether the force field F = (2ty—25)i + (Szya-+220)j + (2etys+ysk is conservative, Ans. Not conservative Find the work done in moving a particle in the force field F = Sati + (222—y)} + sk along (othe straight line from (0,0) to (21,8), (8) the space curve x = 22, y = bs 2 from ¢ isthe work indopendent of the path? Explains Ana, (a) 16, (6) 142 (obra § Fede whee P= (eS (9~ 20 and te ced cove ne ae 2 =2cost, y=Ssint from t=0 to t=2e. (b) Give a physical interpretation to the result in (a). ‘Ans. (a) 6s if C is traversed in the positive (counterclockwise) direction. (a) Show that the force field F = ~rr'r is conservative. (8) Write the potential energy of a particle moving in the foree field of (a). () Ifa particle at mass m moves with velocity v= dr/dt in this field, show that if K is the constant total energy then 4m(dr/dt)? + fer® = E. What important physical principle does this illustrate? 200r/r3. (a) Show that the fleld is ‘A particle of mass 4 moves in the force field defined by F ‘with speed 20, what will conservative and find the potential energy. (6) If a particle starts at r bbe its speed at r=2? Ans. (a) V = 200/r, (6) 15V2 IMPULSE, TORQUE AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM. CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 261, 270 an, A particle of unit mass moves in a force field given by F = (3t?—40)l + (12t—6)) + (6-120 where ¢ is the time. (a) Find the change in momentum of the particle from time {=1 to t=2. () If the velocity at t=1 is 4i—5}+10k, what is the velocity at ¢=2? Ans. (a) i+ 12) ~ 19k, (0) 81+ 1 ~ 9k A particle of mass m moves along a space curve defined by r= aos oti+ bsinut}. Find (@) the torque and (6) the angular momentum about the origin. Ans. (a) 0, (6) 2mabuk. A particle moves in a foree fleld given by F = (r)r. Prove that the angular momentum of the particle about the origin is constant, Find (a) the torque and (8) the angular momentum about the origin at the time t=2 for the particle of Problem 2.67, assuming that at ¢=0 it is located at the origin. Ana. (a) ~ (861+ 1285+ 60k), (B) — 44+ 62) + 16k Find the impulse developed by a force given by F = 4ti + (6t—2)j+ 12k from t=0 to t=2, Ans. 81+ 12) + 24th58. NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION. WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM — (CHAP. 2 272, What is the magnitude of the impulse developed by 51-34 7k m/sec to 2+3)+k m/sec? — An. mass of 200 gm which changes its velocity from 1.8 * 108 dyne see or 1.8 newton see STATICS OF A PARTICLE, 278. A particle is acted upon by the forces F,=21+4)~3k, Fy =Sitej+bk, Fy =bi—Bj-+T%, F,=ci—6j+ak. Find the values of the constants a,b,c in order that the particle will be in equilibrium. Ans. a=7,6=11,0=4 274, Find (@) graphically and (b) analytically the result- fant force acting on the mass m of Fig. 218 where all forces are in a plane. Ans. (0) 19.5 dynes in a direction making an angle 85°22" with the negative 2 axis 215, The potential of a particle moving in the zy plane is given by V = 22? Bayt Sy2+62—Ty. (a) Prove that there will be one and only one point at which a particle will remain in equilibrium and (b) find the coordinates of this point. Ana. (®) (1, 2) 216, Prove that a particle which moves in a force field of potential Vs at + yt + at — dy — dye + Bae ~ de + By — 4 can remain in equilibrium at infinitely many points land loeate these points Ana, All points on the plane #~2y-+2=2 Fig. 248 STABILITY OF EQUILIBRIUM 277, A particle moves on the # axis in a force field having potential V (a) Find the pointe at equilibrium and (b) investigate their stability. Ane, 2=0 i8-8 point of stable equilibrium; «=4 is a point of unstable equilibrium 262). 248, Work Problem 2.77 if (a) V = 2t—829—6zt-+ 242, (b) V = at. Ana, (a) 2 = 1,2 are points of stable equilibrium; * = —1 is a point of unstable equilibrium. () #=0 isa point of stable equilibrium 219, Work Problem 2.77 if V=sin 2ez. Ang, Hn = 0,21,22,28,... then = ts of unstable equilibrium. tn are points of stable equilibrium, while 2 = +n 280, A particle moves in a force field with potential V=a+y?+2t— 82+ 16y~ de, Find the points of stable equilibrium. Ane. (4,—8,2) MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS 281. (a) Prove that F = (y2 cons + 21 + (2y sine —4)j + (x2" + 2k ‘a conservative force field. (6) Find the potential corresponding to F. (0) Find the work done in moving a particle in this eld from = 0,1,-1) to (2,-1.2). J ‘Ane. (a) V= yPaing + 228 — dy +220 (6) 16+ de - 282, A particle P is acted upon by 8 coplanar forces as indicated in avon] Fig. 214, Find the force needed to prevent P from moving. ‘Ans, 823 lb in a direction opposite to 150 Ib force 288, (a) Prove that F = r#r in conservative and (8) find the correspond Fig. 214 ing potential. Ana. () V=—4rt teCHAP. 2] NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION, WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM 59 281. Explain the following paradox: According to Newton's third law a trailer pulls back on an auto- ‘mobile to which itis attached with as much force as the auto pulls forward on the trailer. Therefore the auto cannot move, 285. Find the potential of a particle placed in a force field given by F=—xr-"r where « and n are constants. Treat all cases. 286. A waterfall 500 ft high has 440,000 ft? of water flowing over it per second. Assuming that the density of water is 62.5 Ib/ft and that 1 horsepower is 850 ftIb/see, find the horsepower of the waterfall. Ans. 25% 108 hp 287. The power applied to a particle by a force field is given as a function of thme t by (0) = St— 4t+2. Find the work done in moving the particle from the point where ¢=2 to the point where t= 4. Ane. 36 288. Can the torque on a particle be zero without the force being zero? Explain. 289. Can the force on a particle be zero without the angular momentum being zero? Explain. 290. Under the influence of a force fold F a particle of mass 2 moves slong the space curve Gti = St2} + (4¢9—5)k. Find (a) the work done in moving the particle from the point where 10 to the point where ¢=1, (b) the power applied to the particle at any time. Ans. (a) 756 (6) T2e(ABt + 8L+1) 291. A foree field moves a particle of ma power is required? (6) Discuss physically the ca ‘m along the space curve r = acos uti+ bain ut). (a) What Gab, Ans, (a) ma? 82) sin ut cos ut 292, The angular momentum of a particle is given as a function of time ¢ by = Gel — (at +1) + G20 — se Ans, 121 —2)-+ 20 Find the torque at the time 293, Find the constant force needed to give an object of mass 36,000 Ib a speed of 10 mi/hr in 6 minutes starting from rest. Ans, 1760 poundals 294, A constant foree of 100 newtons is applied for 2 minutes to a 20 kg mass which (a) What is the speed achieved? (b) What is the distance traveled? Ans, (a) 600 m/see, (6) 36,000 m 295. A particle of mass m moves on the 2 axis under the influence of a foree of attraction toward origin given by F = —(e/2%)i. If the particle starts from rest at z=, prove that it will arrive at O in a time given by Jeavina/. 296. Work Problem 2.95 if F = —(«/ai)i, 297. A particle of mass 2 units moves in the force field F = Ci — St} +(¢+2)k where ¢ is the time, (a) How far does the particle move from t=0 to t=8 if it is initially at rest at the origin? () Find the kinetic energy at times t=1 and ¢=3. (c) What is the work done on the particle by the field from ¢= 1 to €=87 (€) What ia the power applied to the particle at t=17 (e) What is the Impulse supplied to the particle at ¢=1? fs at rest at the origin. If it is acted upon by a force F = 100te~84, 298. At ¢=0a particle of unit ms = 1 to t=2, (6) the velocity find (a) the change in momentum of the particle in going from time after a long time has elapsed. Ane. (a) 26¢-%(8—5e-Hi, (b) 252.100, 20, 2102, 2.108, 2104, 2.106. 2.106. 2407, 2108, 2.109, 2110, NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION. WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM —[CHAP. 2 ‘A particle of mass 2 unita moves in the zy plane under the influence of a force field having potential V = Get+12y!+ 86zy — 4822, Investigate the motion of the particle if it is displaced slightly from ita equilibrium position. [Hint, Near #=0,y=0 the potential is very nesrly 362y—482* since 62% and 124? are negligible.) 4 partie of nit mae mover on the = axis under te infence of «fore ld having potential {2 2), (a) Show that «=1 is a position of stable equilibrium. (6) Prove that if the masa ‘iaplaced slightly from its postion of equilrium it will owcllate about it with period equal to 40V8. (Hint, Let e 1 +m and neglect terms in w of degree higher than one,] ‘A particle of mass m moves in a force field F = —eai. (a) How much work is done in moving the particle from =, to #24? (6) If a unit particle starts at x=, with speed v, what is its speed fn reaching 2=2,2 Ans. (a) $s(st— al), (0) Vl @imle@e— =D ‘A particle of mass 2 moves in the zy plane under the influence of a foree field having potential V222+ 42. ‘The particle starts at time £=0 from rest at the point (2,1). (a) Set up the differential ‘equations and conditions describing the motion. (8) Find the position at any time ¢. (c) Find the velocity at any time t, ‘Work Problem 2.102 if V=8ey. Does Theorem 2.7, page 36, hold relative to @ non-inertial frame of reference or coordinate system? Prove your answer. () Prove that if a particle moves in the zy plane under the influence of a force field having potential Y= 12e(8y— 42), then #=0, y=0 is a point of stable equilibrium. () Discuss the relationship of the result in (a) to Problem 2.37, page 58. (@) Prove that a suficent condition for the point (c,8) to be a minimum point of the funetion V(z,y) is that at (a,) sv ye) _ (079 ov aa, wy a= (S)- (SEY > 0 mt Boe (bie (o to ovat the point of sat of «particle moving na force ld having potential Pee ete at) The poi Ua) pant ot stably Suppose that a particle of unit mass moves in the force field of Problem 2.106, Find its speed at any time, [A particle moves once around the circle r = a(cos@ i+ sing j) in a force field F = Gi- wert) (@) Find the work done. (6) Is the force fleld conservative? (c) Do your answers to (a) and (b) contradict Theorem 2.4, page 85? Explain. It is sometimes stated that classical or Newtonian mechanics makes the assumption that space and time are both absolute, Discuss what is meant by this statement. called the average force acting on a particle from time t, to ty. ah Does the result (8) of Problem 2.5, page 40, hold if F is replaced by Fay? Explain,CHAP.2} NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION. WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM 61 2IIL, A particle of mass 2 gm moves in the force field F = Sxyl + (422—82)j — Syl dymes. If it has 1 speed of 4 em/see at the point (—1,2,—1), what is its speed at (1,~1,1)? Ans, 6 cm/sec 2112, (a) Find positions of stable equilibrium of a particle moving in a force field of potential V = ierte: (0) If the particle is released at r (e) Find the peri find the apeed when it reaches the equilibrium position. for small oscillations about the equilibrium position. 2118, According to Einatein’s epecial theory of relativity the mass m of a particle moving with speed » relative to an observer is given by m = my/VI=o8/e where e is the epeed of light [186,000 rifsee] and mo is the rest mass. What is the percent increase in rest mass of (a) an airplane moving ‘at 700 mi/hr, (0) a planet moving at 25,000 mi/hr, (c) an electron moving at half the speed of light? ‘What conclusions do you draw from these results? 2114, Prove that in cylindrical coordinates, w= where ¢,,€¢,€, are unit vectors in the direction of increasing p, # and + respectively. 2415. Prove that in spherical coordinates, vw “where @,€9/¢4 are unit vectors in the direction of increasing r, 6, ¢ respectively.Chapter 8 MOTION in a UNIFORM FIELD FALLING BODIES and PROJECTILES. UNIFORM FORCE FIELDS A force field which has constant magni- tude and direction is called a uniform or con- stant force field. If the direction of this field is taken as the negative z direction as indi- cated in Fig. 3-1 and the magnitude is the constant Fs > 0, then the force field is given by F = -Fok (en) Fig. 81 UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION If a particle of constant mass m moves in a uniform force field, then its acceleration is uniform or constant. The motion is then described as uniformly accelerated motion. Using F = ma in (1), the acceleration of a particle of mass m moving in the uniform force field (1) is given by @ WEIGHT AND ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY It is found experimentally that near the earth’s surface objects fall with a vertical acceleration which is constant provided that air resistance is negligible. This acceleration is denoted by g and is called the acceleration due to gravity or the gravitational acceleration. ‘The approximate mag- nitude of g is 980 cm/sec, 9.80 m/sec* or 82 ft/sec according as the cgs, mks or fps system of units is used. This value varies at different parts of the earth's surface, increasing slightly as one goes from the equator to the poles. Assuming the surface of the earth is repre- sented by the zy plane of Fig. 8-2, the force acting ona particle of mass m is given by W = -mgk (8) ‘This force, which is called the weight of the par- ticle, has magnitude W = mg. Fig.3-2 62CHAP, 8] MOTION IN A UNIFORM FIELD. FALLING BODIES AND PROJECTILES 63 GRAVITATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS Because W = mg, it follows that m = W/g. This fact has led many scientists and engi- neers, who deal to a large extent with mechanics on the earth’s surface, to rewrite the equations of motion with the fundamental mass quantity m replaced by the weight quantity W. Thus, for example, Newton's second law is rewritten as -% Ee ® In this equation W and g can both vary while m= W/g is constant. One system of units used in (4) is the gravitational or English engineering system where the unit of F or W is the pound weight (Ib wt) while length is in feet and time is in seconds. In this case the unit of m is the slug and the system is often called the foot-slug-second (fss) system. Other systems are also possible. For example, we can take F or W in kilograms weight (kg wt) with length in meters and time in seconds. ASSUMPTION OF A FLAT EARTH ‘Equation (3) indicates that the foree acting on mass m has constant magnitude mg and is at each point directed perpendicular to the earth’s surface represented by the zy plane. In reality this assumption, called the assumption of the flat earth, is not correct first because the earth is not flat and second because the force acting on mass m actually varies with the distance from the center of the earth, as shown in Chapter 5. In practice the assumption of a flat earth is quite accurate for describing motions of objects at or near the earth's surface and will be used throughout this chapter. However, for describing the motion of objects far from the earth’s surface the methods of Chapter 5 must be employed. FREELY FALLING BODIES If an object moves so that the only force acting upon it is its weight, or force due to gravity, then the object is often called a freely falling body. If r is the position vector and m is the mass of the body, then using Newton's second law the differential equation of motion is seen from equation (3) to be =-1 = Ge =—mok or OF ok 6) ‘Since this equation does not involve the mass m, the motion of a freely falling body is independent of its mass. PROJECTILES An object fired from a gun or dropped from a moving airplane is often called a projectile. If air resistance is negligible, a projectile can be considered as a freely falling body so that its motion can be found from equation (5) together with appropriate initial conditions. If air resistance is negligible the path of a projectile is an arc of a parabola (or a straight line ‘which can be considered a degenerate parabola). See Problem 3.6.64 MOTION IN A UNIFORM FIELD. FALLING BODIES AND PROJECTILES [CHAP.3 POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL ENERGY IN A UNIFORM FORCE FIELD ‘The potential of the uniform force field, or potential energy of a particle in this force field, is given by V = Fz) @ where zo is an arbitrary constant such that when 2=z, V=0. We call z level 1 the reference In particular for a constant gravitational field, F»=mg and the potential energy of the article is, V = mglz-2) ” ‘This leads to Theorem 3.1. The potential energy of a particle in a constant gravitational field is found by multiplying the magnitude of its weight by the height above some prescribed reference level. Note that the potential energy is the work done by the weight in moving through the distance z— 20. MOTION IN A RESISTING MEDIUM In practice an object is acted upon not only by its weight but by other forces as well. An important class of forces are those which tend to oppose the motion of an object. Such forces, which generally arise because of motion in some medium such as air or water, are often called resisting, damping or dissipative forces and the corresponding medium is said to be a resisting, damping or dissipative medium. It is found experimentally that for low speeds the resisting force is in magnitude propor- tional to the speed. In other cases it may be proportional to the square [or some other power] of the speed. If the resisting force is R, then the motion of a particle of mass m in an otherwise uniform (gravitational) force field is given by Gt = mgk - B ® If R=0 this reduces to (5). ISOLATING THE SYSTEM In dealing with the dynamics or statics of a particle [or a system of particles, as we shall see later] it is extremely important to take into account all those forces which act on the particle [or on the system of particles]. This process is often called isolating the system. CONSTRAINED MOTION In some cases a particle P must move along some specified curve or surface as, for example, the inclined plane of Fig. 8-3 or the inner surface of a hemispherical bow! of Fig. 3-4 below. Such a curve or surface on which the particle must move is called constraint and the resulting motion is called constrained motion, Just as the particle exerts a force on the constraint, there will by Newton's third law be a reaction force of the constraint on the particle. This reaction force is often described by giving its components N and f, normal to and parallel to the direction of motion respectively. In most cases which arise in practice, f is the force due to friction and is taken in a direction opposing the motion.CHAP. 3] MOTION IN A UNIFORM FIELD. FALLING BODIES AND PROJECTILES 65 Fig. 34 Problems involving constrained motion can be solved by using Newton's second law to arrive at differential equations for the motion and then solving these equations subject to initial conditions. FRICTION In the constrained motion of particles, one of the most important forces resisting motion is that due to friction. Referring to Fig. 3-5, let N be the magnitude of the normal component of the reaction of the con- straint on the particle m. Then it is found experi- mentally that the magnitude of the force f due to friction is given by f= uN ® Fig. 35 where 1 is called the coefficient of friction. ‘The direction of f is always opposite to the direction of motion. The coefficient of friction, which depends on the material of both the particle and constraint, is taken as a constant in practice. STATICS IN A UNIFORM GRAVITATIONAL FIELD ‘As indicated in Chapter 2, a particle is in equilibrium under the influence of a system of forces if and only if the net force acting on it is F = 0. Solved Problems UNIFORM FORCE FIELDS AND UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION 3.1. A particle of mass m moves along a straight line under the influence of a con- stant force of magnitude F. If its in speed is vs, find (a) the speed, (b) the velocity and (c) the distance traveled after time ¢. Fi ne66 32 @ ® Cy MOTION IN A UNIFORM FIELD. FALLING BODIES AND PROJECTILES (CHAP. 3 Assume that the straight line along which the particle P moves is the « axis, as shown in Fig. 8-6 above. Suppose that at time ¢ the particle is at a distance z from origin O. If { is a unit veetor in the direction OP and v is the speed at time t, then the velocity is vi. By Newton's second law we have 2 oe Lino = rt ae mi F ins a= Ea ee fam fEn le w= Etta 0 where o; is a constant of integration. To find e we note the initial condition that v= at E=O so that from (2), = and v= Etem or “ From (8) the velocity at time ¢ is wa nit Za or where v= vi, vp =v and F= Fi, Since v= dz/dt we have from ($), &e = Zz Bathe or ae = (m+Ee)ar ‘Then on integrating, assuming ¢, to be the constant of integration, we have F z= ut+(Z)ere Since #=0 at ¢=0, wefind cp =0. Thus . F z= ut+(Ze » Referring to Problem 8.1, show that the speed of the particle at any position « is given by v = Vos + @F/m)z. we find 2 = (m/2F\(ot— 0). Solving for v we obta ‘or since v= de/dt, Integrating, Since v= vy when = ‘Method 1. From (8) of Problem 3.1, we have mm(v—vpV/F. Substituting into (6) and si ‘the required result. Method 2. ‘From (1) of Problem 8.1, we have ie vdv = Eas gE Estes /2 and hence v= Voq+ @F/me. 0, we find, Method 3. Change in kinetic energy from t=0 to any time ¢ ‘Work done in moving particle from 2=0 to any position # or gmv!— fmol = Fle—0). Then v= Vogt @F/mz.CHAP. 8] MOTION IN A UNIFORM FIELD. FALLING BODIES AND PROJECTILES er LINEAR MOTION OF FREELY FALLING BODIES 33. An object of mass m is thrown vertically up- ‘ward from the earth’s surface with speed v. Find (a) the position at any time, (b) the time taken to reach the highest point and (c) the ‘maximum height reached. (a) Let the position vector of m at any time t be r=altyj+2k. Assume that the object starts at r=0 when t=0. Since the foree acting on where v is the velocity at time t. Integrating (1) once yields v = ~otk be ® ‘Since the velocity at ¢=0 [ie. the initial velocity] is wok, we have from (2), ej = wjk 0 that v= —otk +k = (v0—otk o or & = (v—o0k © Integrating (4) yields F = (yt fot +e o ‘Then since when £=0, e=0. Thus the position vector is F = (vot 400k © or, equivalently, 220, y=0, 2 = Ot ott o ie, at time t= v9/g. (b) ‘The highest point is reached when v = (v)—9f)k = (@) At time t=vg/o the maximum height reached is, from (7), spe. Another method. If we assume, as is physically evident, that the object must always be on the + axis, we may avoid vectors by writing Newton’s law equivalently as (see equation (1) above and place +r = 2k) @e/d8 = ~9 we find 2 = wt doe fas above. ‘The answers to (b) and (c) are then obtained as before. from which, using , deldt =p at Find the speed of the particle of Problem 3.3 in terms of its distance from origin 0. ‘Method 1. From Problem 8.8, equations (8) and (7), we have v= mot 2 = et dor Solving for ¢ in the frst equation and substituting into the second equation, we find Method 2, From equation (1) of Problem 8.8 we have, ®o, eee au See @ Then on integrating, 0/2 = ~gs-+ey. Since v=u at 2=0, cy=0f/2 and thus of = of—2ys. ‘Method 8. See Problem 8.9 for a method using the principle of conservation of energy.68 MOTION IN A UNIFORM FIELD. FALLING BODIES AND PROJECTILES [CHAP.3 MOTION OF PROJECTILES 35. A projectile is launched with initial speed vy at an angle « with the horizontal. Find (a) the position vector at any time, (b) the time to reach the highest point, (c) the maximum height reached, (d) the time of flight back to earth and (e) the range. (2) Let ¥ be the position vector of the projec- fand v the velocity at any time t. Then by Newton's law ee i noe Fig. 88 oo fu or =~ ® Integration yields eer e ‘Assume the initial velocity of the projectile is in the yz plane so that the initial velocity vy = vce) + tysinak w Since v= vy at €=0, we find from (6), v= vpconas + (eosina— 9k o Replacing v by de/dt in (6) and integrating, we obtain £ = (wpconalts + (lve sinalt~ $othe rc) = (psin alt = jot® o or, equivalently, = (v9 08 It follows that the projectile remains in the yz plane. ‘the ke direction is zero. Thus (b) At the highest point of the path the component of velocity sn se (Ve he va fated i (fl rom at cenen bcttnaind = ian) ("2 : : (Toe wo igh bok arth th tn we ‘atin jt = tops) fol = 8 t bast (10) 7 Note that this is twice the time in (6). (e) The range is the value of y at the time given by (10), ic. mene) ie _ Range = (oy coe0)(( ‘Show that the path of the projectile in Problem 3.5 is a parabola. From the second equation of (7) in Problem 3.5, we have ¢ = v/(vocos into the third equation of (7) in Problem 3.5, we find = (eosinelo/ry cons) — Jolvloy coma)? or # = vtana— (O/B? sect which is @ parabola in the ys plane, Substituting thisCHAP, 3) MOTION IN A UNIFORM FIELD. FALLING BODIES AND PROJECTILES 69 8.7. Prove that the range of the projectile of Problem 3.5 is a maximum when the launch- ing angle a= 45°. By Problem 3.6(c) the range is (vf sin 2a)/g. Thi or «= 45°, js a maximum when sin 2a=1, Le, 22 = 90° POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL ENERGY IN A UNIFORM FORCE FIELD 8.8 (a) Prove that a uniform force field is conservative, (b) find the potential correspond- ing to this field and (c) deduce the potential energy of a particle of mass m in a uniform gravitational force field. (a) If the force field is as indicated in Fig. 8-1, then rok: We have i 3s vx = | ae ay az) = 0 0 0 =F ‘Thus the foree fleld is conservative. = Pyke = —vv = —% 5 x () F = Fok = -0v = ~ Ba Hj— then "y from which VERete I V=0 at then ©=—Fozp and so V = Fy(z—x)- (0) For a uniform gravitational force field, F to Fy=mg. ‘Then by part (6) the potential or potential energy is V —mgk (see Fig. 3-2, page 62] and corresponds ‘male 20). 3.9. Work Problem 3.4 using the principle of conservation of energy. ‘According to the principle of conservation of energy, we have PE ate=0 + KE ate=0 = PRate + KBate 0 dmd = mor + dt Then v= ef 20e MOTION IN A RESISTING MEDIUM 3.10. At time t=0 a parachutist [Fig. 3-9] having § ——[—————— weight of magnitude mg is located at z= 0 and is traveling vertically downward with speed If the force or air resistance acting on the parachute is proportional to the instantaneous speed, find the (a) speed, (b) distance traveled and (¢) acceleration at any time > 0. (a) Assume the parachutist (considered as a particle fof mass m) is located at distance z from origin O. If k is « unit vector in the vertically downward a ‘direction, then the weight is mgk while the force of air resistance is Buk so that the net force ane ™ is (mg— Bek. ‘Thus by Newton's law, o) Fig. 3970 aL. 312, MOTION IN A UNIFORM FIELD. FALLING BODIES AND PROJECTILES [CHAP. 3 may u mie men ae or BH ae Integrating, — Fm (mg Av) = the @ Since v= at £=0, e = —Fin(mg—fry). Then from (2), = Fim (mg— pv) — Finimg— po) = ‘Thus oro = Me (Ete @ (0) From (8), de/dt = mo/p + (vy—mg/p)e-#™. ‘Then by integration, 2 = MEW (oy Mem + ay nan Since 2=0 at t= 0, ¢y = (m/B)vy—mo/f) and thus 2 = Moby My, MOY — g-aum ih (ay BE tm (6) From (8), the acceleration is given by C} ‘Show that the parachutist of Problem 3.10 approaches a limiting speed given by mg/p. Method 1. From equation (3) of Problem 8.10, v = mg/f + (vy—mg/ple~/m, ‘Then as ¢ increases, » approaches mg/B so that after a short time the parachutist is traveling with speed which is practically constant. Method 2. If the parachutist ia to approach limiting speed, the limiting acceleration must be zero. ‘Thus from equation (1) of Problem 310 we have mg~Pvim=0 oF Yim = mo/B- A particle of mass m is traveling along the x axis such that at t= 0 it is located at and has speed ve. The particle is acted upon by a foree which opposes the motion and has magnitude proportional to the square of the instantaneous speed. Find the (a) speed, (b) position and (c) acceleration of the particle at any time t>0. (@) Suppose particle P is at a distance 2 from 0 at and has speed v [see Fig, $10], ‘Then the Rone force F=~pv'i where A> 0. is a constant of proportionality. By Newtons law, | « __} Fig. 80 atm o which is the speed. Bin (t+) eeCHAP. 8] MOTION IN A UNIFORM FIELD, FALLING BODIES AND PROJECTILES n B13. 814, Since 2=0 at = -in(@). mm =o Bam) 7 ) gu (+) O (©) From (a), mst o= = S(nets) * aaa o Note that although the speed of the particle continually decreases, it never comes to rest. Determine the (a) speed and (b) acceleration of the particle of Problem 3.12 as a function of the distance z from O. Method 1, From parts (a) and (6) of Problem 3.12, md = oe en Min(2) or v= vge-Aarm " gu(2) ow and the acceleration ia given in magnitude by = Pde SP te ae ae 7 ‘which can also be obtained from equation (4) of Problem 8.12, Method 2. From equation (1) of Problem 8.12 we have fo dete Syl eae ee 0 040, mit =p and = —Be, Interting, nv = ~pelm tay Snes v= ms when #=0, Hine The In(cle) = "anim or v= oe-tm ‘Suppose that in Problem 8.5 we assume that the projectile has acting upon it a force due to air resistance equal to Av where A is a positive constant and v is the instan- taneous velocity. Find (a) the velocity and (b) the position vector at any time. (a) ‘The equation of motion in this ease is PE = —mok- pv or mGE+ py = —mgk ” Dividing by m and multiplying by the integrating factor eS" = eht/m, the equation can be written as : Gloomy = ~oetom Integration yields omy = ME om te cy The initial velocity or velocity at #=0 i ve = %coned + wsinek ® ‘Using this in (2) we find = memes + vysinak + a2 MOTION IN A UNIFORM FIELD. FALLING BODIES AND PROJECTILES [CHAP.3 ‘Thus (2) becomes on dividing by e®/m, = (Wpconad + ty sina kent — MBCA ~ etme ® (&) Replacing: v by dr/dt in (4) and integrating, we find F = ~Beogcone d+ og nina ier — MES Mo-timie + e = Bvcwait susined + Mu 0 Using (6) in (6), we Sind r= cosa 5 + sina kd —e-ttimy — PO (4 4 Menpum — pone 5+ wna WL —e-tmy — ME (44 me o 3.15. Prove that the projectile of Problem 3.14 attains a limiting velocity and find its value, Method 1. Refer to equation (4) of Problem 3.14, As ¢ increases, velocity approaches a limiting value equal to Vig = —(g/lk -6t/m approaches zero, ‘Thus the Method 2. If the projectile is to approach a limiting velocity ite limiting acceleration must be zero, Thus from equation (1) of Problem 2.14, —mgk ~ Avi = 0 OF Viyq = —(mg/A)k. CONSTRAINED MOTION 8.16. A particle P of mass m slides without rolling down a frictionless inclined plane AB of angle « [Fig. 8-11]. If it starts from rest at the top A of the incline, find (a) the acceleration, (b) the velocity and (c) the distance traveled after time t. (a) Since there is no friction the only forees acting on P are the weight W=—mpk and the re ‘action force of the incline which is given by the normal force N. Let ¢ and e, be unit vectors parallel and perpendicular to the incline respectively. If we denote by # the magnitude of the displacement from the top A of the inclined plane, we have bby Newton's second law Bg) = = m Zl) = WHEN = mosinae, o since the resultant equal to W++N is mg sinae,, as indicated in Fig, 8-11, From (1) we have @eldt® = g sina ® ‘Thus the acceleration down the incline at any time t is a constant equal to g sin =. (®) Since v= ds/dt is the speed, (2) can be written dv/dt = gsine or v = (gsinat te on integrating. Using the initial condition v speed at any time t is oa a ‘The velocity is ve, =(g sina)te, which has magnitude (g sina)t in the direction e, down ‘the incline. so that the at t=0, we have o=CHAP. 3] MOTION IN A UNIFORM FIELD. FALLING BODIES AND PROJECTILES 3 (©) Since v=dv/dt, (8) can be written delat = (gsinalt or 8 = Hasina tex ‘on integrating. Using the initial condition «=0 at £=0, we find ¢p=0 so that the required distance traveled is # = dosing w 3.17. If the length AB of the incline in Problem 3.16 is 1, find (a) the time + taken for the article to reach the bottom B of the incline and (b) the speed at B. (a) Since #=1 at B, the time + to reach the bottom is from equation (4) of Problem 3.16 given by T= 4@ sina? or += VEgaing). (8) The speed at B is given from (s) of Problem 8.16 by v= (¢sinalr = V2gl sina. MOTION INVOLVING FRICTION 8.18. Work Problem 8.16 if the inclined plane has ‘a constant coefficient of friction j. (a) Im this case there is, in addition to the forces W and N acting on P, « frictional foree f [see Fig. 8-12} directed up the ineline [in a direction oppe- site to the motion] and with magnitude ae [ Le. f = —pmg cosa e @) eae ae ae m : — ® ‘Thus the acceleration down the incline has sing > pcose or tana > [otherwise the frictional force is so great tht rot move at all]. the constant magnitude g(sine— cose) provided st the particle will (8) Replacing a/dt? by do/dt in (4) and integrating a3 in part (0) of Problem 8.16, we find the speed at any time ¢ to be os ii = (@) Replacing v by de/dt in (5) and integrating as in part (c) of Problem 3.16, we find = folsine ~ n cose) o 8.19. An object slides on a surface of ice along the horizontal straight line OA (Fig. 8-13]. ‘At a certain point in its path the speed is ve and the object then comes to rest after traveling a distance zo, Prove that the coefficient of friction is v*/2gz0. Let # be the instantaneous distance of the object of mass m from O and suppose that at time t=0, 2=0 and de/dt =. & ‘Three forces act on the object, namely (1) the “| A weight W= mg, (2) the normal force N of the = VW = me {ee surface on the object, and (@) the frietions force f. Fig. 313 By Newton’s second law we have, if v is the instantaneous speed, WHNet o4 MOTION IN A UNIFORM FIELD. FALLING BODIES AND PROJECTILES [CHAP.3 Bu since N= —W ad the magni ot fs f= a8" png ao that C= yma, (1) beamen fi . wR emt Bene o Method 1. Write (2) as ge-- o Then Integrating, sing the fast that = nq at #0, we find we =~ +4 ) Then since ¥=0 when = 5, (4) becomes wor + Wy2 = 0 or 4 = W/2oz © Method From @ we have on integrating and ving the fact that = vp at # = nat or deli = Hy pat © Integrating sgn, ong the fact that = 0 at €=0, we find 2 = tot — fagt® om From (7) we see that the object comes to rest (i, »=0) when Ment = 0 or t= why Substituting this into (7) and noting that © =a, we obtain the required result, STATICS IN A UNIFORM GRAVITATIONAL FIELD 820. A particle of mass m is suspended in equilibrium by two inelastic strings of lengths and b from pegs A and B which are distant ¢ apart. Find the tension in each string. Fig. 814 ig. 815 Let W denote the weight of the particle and ‘T, and 7 the respective tensions in the strings of lengths a and b as indicated in Fig. 3-14, ‘These forces are aleo indicated in Fig, 9-15 and are assumed to Ile in the plane of unit vectors j and k. By resolving T, and T into horizontal and vertical components it is clear that T = Tysinak~Tyeonaj, TN; = Tesin pk + Tyeosps where 7, and 7, are the magnitudes of T, and T, respectively and where a and f are the respective angles at A and B. Also we have Ws mek ‘Since the particle is in equilibrium if and only if the net force acting on it is zero, we have Fo+h+W T,sinak — Ty cosas + Tyain fk + Tyco | — mak = (Py 0088 = 7; cosadi + (Py sina + Ty sin p ~ mak °CHAP. 8} MOTION IN A UNIFORM FIELD. FALLING BODIES AND PROJECTILES © From this we must have Ty c08 8 ~ Ty co. Ty sine + Ty sinp—~mg = 0 Solving simultaneously, we find r = m9 £08; = mg cose = sinet ay’ T= Gina rA) ‘The angles « and pcan be determined from the law of cosines as (Sa), = a (E=*) From these the tensions can be expressed in terms of a, b, ¢- MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS 3.21. An inclined plane [Fig. 3-16) makes an angle « with the horizontal. A projectile is, launched from the bottom A of the incline with speed v in a direction making an angle f with the horizontal. (a) Prove that the range R up the incline is given by R= 20§ sin (P — a) cos 8 9 COS Fig. 3-16 (b) Prove that the maximum range up the incline is given by % ~ 91 ¥ sina) and is achieved when f = 1/4 + a/2. Ras (@) As in Problem 3.5, equation (6), the position vector of the projectile at any time ¢ is F = (vo cos ty + {{v sin Aye ~ hott) ny or ¥ = (epcossyt, 2 = (op sina)t— jot? ® ‘The equation of the incline [which is a line in the ys plane] is 2 = ytane cy) ‘Using equations (2) in (8) we see that the projectile’s path and the incline intersect for those values of t where (vg sin p)t ~ Jot? = [ve cos )t] tana 2us(sin f cos a ~ cos # sin) cosa le. t=0 and ¢ ‘The value #=0 gives the intersection point A. ‘The second value of t yields point B which is the required point. Using this second value of ¢ in the frst equation of (2), we find that the required range R up the incline is 20g sin 8 a) 8 (®) Method 1. ‘The range R can be written by using the trigonometric identity sind cosB = j{sin(A +B) + sin(A—B)) xo fs as R= saeep (sin @p—«) ~ sina)6 3.22, 3.23, MOTION IN A UNIFORM FIELD. FALLING BODIES AND PROJECTILES [CHAP. 3 This is a maximum when sin (p=) =1, be a cite eprom i - = _tagansing = v costa? ) ofl — sin®a) a ) ofl + sina) Method 2. ‘The required result can also be obtained by the methods of differential calculus for finding maxima and minima, ‘Two particles of masses m: and ms respectively are connected by an inextensible string of negligible mass which passes over a fixed frictionless pulley of negli- gible mass as shown in Fig. 3-17. Describe the motion by finding (a) the acceleration of the particles and (0) the tension in the string. Let us first isolate mass my. There are two forces acting on its (1) its weight omg = myok, and (2) the foree due to the string which isthe tension ‘T= Tk. If we call’ a~ ok the acceleration, then by Newton's law ‘mak = moe — Tk wo Next we isolate mass mp ‘There are two forces acting omit (0) its weight, mug'= magk, and (2) the tension T==Tk [the tension ie the same throughout the string since the mass of the string is assumed neglisible and i extensible), Since the string is inextensible, the acceleration of ma ig a= ~ak, ‘Then by Newton’ Fig. 3-17 mak = mgk — Tk ® Prom (1) and (2) we have ma = mg- 7, -ma = my —T Solving simultaneously, we find my my 2mymy a, mt my Fm mm ‘Thus the particles move with constant acceleration, one particle rising and the other falling. In this pulley system, sometimes called Atwood’s machine, the pulley can rotate. However, since it is frictionless and’has no mass [or negligible mass] the effect is the same as if the string passed over a smooth or frictionless peg instead of a pulley. In ease the mass of the pulley is not negligible, rotational effects must be taken into account and are considered in Chapter 9. A particle P of mass m rests at the top A of a frictionless fixed sphere of radius b. The par- ticle is displaced slightly so that it slides (with- out rolling) down the sphere. (a) At what posi tion will it leave the sphere and (b) what will its speed be at this position? ‘The particle will slide down a circle of radius a which we choose to be in the zy plane as indieated in Fig. 848, The forces acting on the particle are: ) its weight W =—mgj, and (2) the reaction force N of the sphere on the particle normal to the sphere. Method 1. (a) Let the position of the particle on the circle be ‘measured by angle @ and let ry and @ be unit. vectors. Resolving W into components in direc tions ry and @, we have as in Problem 1.43, page 24,CHAP. 3} @ MOTION IN A UNIFORM FIELD. FALLING BODIES AND PROJECTILES 7 W = (Were, + (Weeyey = (emoisepes + (mol opie, = ~ma sino x, — mo cose 4 Also, N= Nn Using Newton's second law and the result of Problem 1.49, page 26, we have F = ma = mili rity + (8 + Bhd) W+N = (N— mg sine)r, — mg cose ey a ‘Thos ri) = N— mgs mod + 2) = —mg cone ® ‘While the particle is'on the circle (or sphere), we have r=B. Substituting this into (2), 0 the particle stays on the sphere; but when N= 0. the particle will be Just about to lenve the sphere. ‘Thus the required angle fs given by Ssin¢—2=0, Le, sing = 2/8 or @ = sin-12/3 (6) Putting sine = into (4), we find i = 2/86 o Then if in the speed, we have v= 3 eo that (7) yields v= Gbo or 9 = VGPV. Method 2. By the conservation of energy, using the + axis as reference level, we have PEatA + KEatd = P.EatP + KEatP mgb + 0 = mob sing + pret or vt = gb — sins) ® Using the result of Problem 1.85, page 20, together with Newton's second law, we have, since the radius of curvature is b, F = oma = WEN = (N= mg sin sje, — mg cose oy Using only the r, component, we have vb = N—mgsine @ From (@) and (@) we find_N = mg(8sin@ ~ 2) which yields the required angle sin (f) Method 1. ‘The speed is then found from (6).8 ‘MOTION IN A UNIFORM FIELD. FALLING BODIES AND PROJECTILES (CHAP. 3 Supplementary Problems ‘UNIFORM FORCE FIELDS AND LINEAR MOTION OF FREELY FALLING BODIES 32, 3.35, 3.26, 3a, 3.28, 323, 230, sat, 332, 3.38. ‘An object of mass m is dropped from a height H above the ground. Prove that if air resistance fs negligible, then it will reach the ground (a) in a time VZH/g and (b) with speed V2gH. ‘Work Problem 2.24 if the object is thrown vertially downward with an initial velocity of magi- tude vp. Ana. (@) (Vag + 20H — vila, (0) VoE# 26H Prove that the object of Problem 8.3, page 67, returns to the earth's surface (a) with the same speed as the initial speed and (b) in a time which is twice that taken to reach the maximum height, ‘A ball which is thrown upward reaches its maximum height of 100 f¢ and then returns to the Starting point. (a) With what speed was it thrown? (b) How long does it take to return? ‘Ans. (a) 80 ft/sec, () 5 s0e ‘A ball which is thrown vertically upward reaches particular height J after a time 7, on the ‘way up and a time z, on the way down. Prove that (a) the inital velocity with which the ball was thrown has magnitude do(ry +) and (8) the height Hf = dorsra In Problem 8.28, what is the maximum height reached? Ana. do(es + 13¥ ‘Two objects are dropped from the top of a cliff of height H. ‘The second is dropped when the first has traveled a distance D. Prove that at the instant when the first object has reached the bottom, the second object is at a distance above it given by 2/DH—D. ‘An elevator starts from rest and attains speed of 16 ft/sec in 2sec. Find the weight of a 160 1b man in the elevator if the elevator is (a) moving up (6) moving down. ‘Ans. (a) 200 1b, (B) 120 1b A particle of masa 8 kg moving ina straight line decelerates uniformly from a speed of 40 m/sec to 20 m/sec in a distance of 900m. (a) Find the magnitude of the deceleration. (b) How much further does it travel before it comes to rest and how much longer will this take? Ama. (a) 2 m/sec, (6) 100m; 10 see In Problem 3.82, what is the total work done in bringing the particle to rest from the speed of 40 m/sec?" Ane. 2400 newton meters (or joules) MOTION OF PROJECTILES 336 3s, 3.8, ‘A projectile is launched with a muzzle velocity of 1800 mi/hr at an angle of 60° with « horizontal and lands on the same plane. Find (e) the maximum height reached, (8) the time to reach the maximum height, (c) the total time of flight, (d) the range, (e) the speed after 1 minute of flight, () the speed at a height of 82,000 ft. Ans. (a) 65 mi, (6) THA see, (€) 1428 see, (4) 86.7 mi, (e) 984 mi/hr, (9) 1668 mile (o} What is the maximum range possible for a projectile fired trom a eannon having muzzle velocity 1 mi/see and (2) what is the height reached in this case? Ans. (@) 185 mi, (8) 41.28 mi ‘A cannon has its maximum range given by Rngx. Prove that (a) the height reached in such case fs Lac and (0) the time of Might is VRmay/20. It is desired to launch a projectile from the ground so a8 to hit a given point on the ground which is at a distance less than the maximum range. Prove that there are two possible angles for the launching, one which is less than 45° by a certain amount and the other greater than ‘A projectile having horizontal range R reaches a maximum height H. Prove that it must have ck taanehed with e) am inital speed equal to Va TOHPVBH and (0) at an angle with (QH/V RET 16H). the horizontal given by sinCHAP. 8] MOTION IN A UNIFORM FIELD. FALLING BODIES AND PROJECTILES 9 339, ‘A projectile is launched at an angle « from a cliff of height H above soa level. If it falls into the ea at a distance D from the base of the clif, prove that its maximum height above sea level is D2 tanta ‘HY THF D tend) MOTION IN A RESISTING MEDIUM 3.40, sat, 3.42, 344, 3.45. 3a. 3.48, ‘An object of weight W is thrown vertically upward with speed vp. Assuming that air resistance is proportional to the instantaneous velocity and that the constant of proportionality is x, prove ‘that (a) the object will reach a maximum height of Wen wa ( 2) -Bin(1+ ot ao 80" w fand that (b) the time taken to reach this maximum height is oo(+) ‘A man on a parachute falls from rest and acquires a limiting speed of 15 mi/hr. Assuming ‘that air resistance is proportional to the instantaneous speed, determine how long it takes to reach the speed of 14 mi/hr. Ans. 1.86 sec ee APD le ae ey Pee Sette ad min (Pa ee 2G) ‘A particle of mass m moves in a straight line acted upon by a constant resisting force of magni- ‘tude F. If it starts with a speed of vy, (a) how long will it take before coming to rest and (@) what distance wil it travel in this time? Ame. (a) mvg/F, (0) mvd/2F ‘Can Problem 8.48 be worked by energy considerations? Explain. ‘A locomotive of mass m travels with constant speed vp along a horizontal track. (a) How long ‘will it take for the locomotive to come to rest after the ignition is tumed off, if the resistance to the motion is given by «+ Aut where v ia the instantaneous speed and a and p are constants? (H) What is the distance traveled? Ane. (0) Vm/p tan-¥(vgVpla), (8) (2A) In (1 + Avb/a) ‘A particle moves along the # axis acted upon only by a resisting foree which is proportional to the cube of the instantaneous speed. If the initial speed is ve and after a time r the speed is ‘4%o, prove that the speed will be 4 ia time Br. Find the total distance traveled by the particle of Problem 2.46 in reaching the speeds (@) 4, (©) Feu Ane. (0) Fron, () vor Prove that for the projectile of Problem 14, page 71, Presa) (ethene to sec the hich pnt ie Sn (1+ 7 meg sin ve sin (8) the maximum height i OBES — Ein (1+ CONSTRAINED MOTION AND FRICTION 3.49, ‘A weight of 100 Ib slides from rest down 2 60° incline of length 200 ft starting from the top. Neglecting friction, (a) how long will it take to reach the bottom of the incline and (#) what is the speed with which it reaches the bottom? Ans. (a) 8.80 sec, (6) 105.3 ft/sec80 MOTION IN A UNIFORM FIELD. FALLING BODIES AND PROJECTILES (CHAP. 3 350. Work Problem 2.49 if the coefficient of friction is 0.3. Ans. (a) 4.18 sec, (0) 96.7 ft/sec 851, (a) With what speed should an object be thrown up a smooth incline of starting from the bottom, so as to just reach the top and (8) what is Ans. (a) VigT sina, (6) VIG sine) 352. If it takes a time + for an object starting from speed vp on an iey surface to come to rest, prove that the cocficient of friction is vy/gr. ele @ and length 1, time taken? 353, What force is needed to move @ 10 ton truck with uniform speed up an incline of 80° if the coefficient of friction is 0.1 ‘Ans. 587 tons 54, A mass m rests on a horizontal piece of wood. The wood is tilted upward until the mass m just begins to slide, If the angle which the wood makes with the horizontal at that instant is o, rove that the coeficient of friction is» = tana. 355. A 400 kg mass on a 80° inclined plane is acted upon by © force of 4800 newtons at angle 30° ‘with the incline, as shown in Fig. 9-20, Find the acceleration of the mass if the incline (a) is frictionless, (0) has coefficient of friction 0.2. Ans. (a) 5.5 m/sect, (6) 5.0 m/sec? Fig. 3-20 Fig. 321 856, Work Problem 8.55 if the force of 4800 newtons acts as shown in Fig. 3-21. Ans. (a) 5.5 m/sec?, (8) 2.6 m/sec? STATICS IN A UNIFORM GRAVITATIONAL FIELD 357, A 100kg weight is suspended vertically from the center of a rope as shown in Fig. 8-22, Determine the tension T in the rope, Ans. T = 100 ke wt = 980 nt Fig. 8.22 Fig. 2-23, 358, In Fig. 8-28, AB and AC are ropes attached to the celling CD and wall BD at C and B respectively. ‘A weight W is suspended from A. If the ropes AB and AC make angles 4, and ¢, with the ‘wall and ceiling respectively, find the tensions 7, and Tin the rope W cose Wesingy Ans. 7; wae 359, Find the magnitude of the force F neoded to keep mass m in equilibrium on the inclined plane ‘of Fig. 5-24 if (a) the plane is smooth, (6) the plane has coefficient of frietion mgsine yy p= malsina— a core) Ane. (0) F = MESES, SeCHAP, 3) MOTION IN A UNIFORM FIELD. FALLING BODIES AND PROJECTILES aL 360. How much foree is needed to pull a train weighing $20 tons from rest to a speed of 15 mi/hr 20 seconds if the coefficient of friction is 0.02 and (a) the track is horizontal, (b) the track is inclined at an angle of 10° with the horizontal and the train is going upward? [Use sin 10° = 1787, cos 10° = 9848] Ane. (a) 17.4 tons, (0) 129.6 tons 361. Work Problem 3.60(b) if the train is going down the incline, Ans, 8.6 tons 362, A train of mass m is coasting down an inclined plane of angle « and coefficient of friction ‘with constant speed vy. Prove that the force needed to stop the train in a time + is given by ‘ma(sin a ~ 1 C080) + mvolr. MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS 262, A stone is dropped down a well and the sound of the splash is heard after time +r. Assuming the ‘speed of sound is ¢, prove that the depth of the water evel in the well is (Ve?+ ger ~ oF /20. Oe ee 2v5 sin y cos (7 (an cane tga ty B= PEERY ONCT A 4 th ttm rn em Incline is, Bras = = sina)” S65 A canon ecto hil which ah shape ot nln lane of ane with thera Ceea ae eee era ea ocpuchitad maine irenge fit Ses te tht nore forth projece eM th ll rotay we mat have # = en (E282), 3.66. Suppose that two projectiles are launched at angles a and f with the horizontal from the ‘same place at the same time in the same vertical plane and with the same initial speed. Prove that during the course of the motion, the line Joining the projectiles makes constant angle ‘with the vertical given by H(e+ A). 367. In {€ ponsible to solve equation (1), page 83, by the method of separation of variables? Explain, 368, When launched at angle @, with the horizontal a projectile falls a distance D, short of its target, while at angle ¢, it falls a distance D, beyond the target. Find the angle at which the projectile should be launched 20 as to hit the target. 38.69. An object was thrown vertically downward. During the tenth second of travel it fell twice as far fas during the fifth second. With what speed was it thrown? Ans, 16 ft/sec 810. A gun of muzzle speed uy is situated at height A above a horizontal plane. Prove that the angle ‘ti 'which it must bo fred s0 as to achieve the greatest range ‘on the plane is given by Oa" f cor ahi 0M). ‘B71, In Fig. 3-25, AB is a smooth table and masses m, = and’, are connected by a string over the smooth peg at B. Find (a) the acceleration of mass m: 4 & nd) the tension im the string mM n> Ane (0) Mg, mm, m™ mma @ meg 312, Work Problem 8.11 if the table AB has coefficient of friction ». 473, The maximum range of a projectile when fired down an inclined plane is twice the maximum ‘range when fired up the inclined plane. Find the angle which the incline makes with the horizontal. Ane, sin“11/282 MOTION IN A UNIFORM FIELD. FALLING BODIES AND PROJECTILES [CHAP.3 374, Masses m, and m, are located on smooth inclined planes of angles a, and ay respectively and are connected by fan inextensible string of negligible mass which passes lover a smooth peg at A (Fig. 3-26). tions of the masses. Ane. The accelerations are in magnitude equal to ‘my sin ay — my sin og mm 815. Work Problem 8.74 if the cooficient of friction between the mastes ms 608.09 816, Prove that the least horizontal fore F needed to pull ler of radius a and weight W over an obstacle of height (sce Fig. 8-27] is given in magnitude by WVEQa—Bya~b). 417. Explain mathematically why a projectile fired from ‘cannon A at the top of a lif at height H above the ground can reach a cannon B located on the ground, while a projectile fired from cannon B with the same ‘muzzle velocity will not be able to reach eannon A. 318, In Fig. 3-28 the mass m hangs from an inextensible string OA. It ie pulled aside by a horizontal string AB so that OA makes fan angle @ with the vertical. Find the tension in each string. Ans. ‘Tension in AB = mg tana; inOA = mg seca 378, A particle moving slong the + axis is acted upon by a resisting force which is such that the time ¢ for it to travel a is given by t= Azt+Ba+C where A, B and C are constants. Prove that the magnitude of the resisting force is proportional to the cube of the instantaneous speed, 380, A projectile is to be launched s0 as to go from A to B [which are respectively at the bases of a double inclined plane having angles « and fas shown in Fig. 8.28] and Just barely mise a pole of height H. If the distance between A and B is D, find the angle with the horizontal fat which the projectile should be launched. BBL. A. particle of mass m moves on a frictionless inclined plane of angle a and length 1. If the particle starts from rest at the top of the incline, what will be its ‘speed at the bottom assuming that air resistance is equal to av where is the instantaneous speed and « is con- stant? Fig. 8-29 382, Suppose that i Problem 9:29 the particle P is given an initial speed v at the top of the circle (or sphere). (a) Prove that if vp = Vb, the angle ¢ at which the particle leaves the circle is given by sin-1(j + of/3g8), (@) Discuss what happens if v9 > V96. 382. A cannon is situated at the top of a vertical cliff overlooking the sea at height H above sea level. ‘What should be the least muzzle velocity of the cannon in order that a projectile fired from it will reach ship at distance D from the foot of the cliff? 384, In Problem 8.88, (a) how long would it take the projectile to reach the ship and (b) what is the velocity on reaching the ship?CHAP. 3] MOTION IN A UNIFORM FIELD. FALLING BODIES AND PROJECTILES 88. 385, 3.36, 3.88, 3.0, 395, 3.96. A. uniform chain of total length @ has a portion 0 yp, then a necessary and sufficient condition that W, move relative to the plane while W, not move relative to Ws is that aA + We) ~—% tose sine © cosa sina Fig. 3.88 Discuss the results in Problem 8.100 if any of the conditions are not satisfied. Give a generalization of Problem 3.100, Describe the motion of the particle of Problem 8.97 if E and B are constants, and have the same direction. ‘A bead of mass m j located on a parabolic wire with its axi vertical and vertex directed downward as in Fig. 8-34 and ‘whose equation is cz =a, If the coefficient of friction a my find the highest distance above the 2 axis at which the Particle will be in equilibrium Ams. jute Work Problem 2.104 if the parabola is replaced by a vertical cirele of radius 6 which is tangent to the 2 axis. Fig. 3.34 ‘A weight W is suepended from 3 equal strings of length I which are attached to the 8 vertices of @ horizontal equilateral triangle of side s. Find the tensions in the strings. Ans. WUVOR= Bet ‘Work Problem 8.106 if there are n equal strings attached to the m vertices of a regular polygon having 7» sides.CHAP. 3] MOTION IN A UNIFORM FIELD. FALLING BODIES AND PROJECTILES 85 8.108, 30, sant, 3.112, A rope passes over a fixed pulley A of Fig. 3-85. At one end of this rope a mass M, is attached. At the other end of the rope there is a pulley of mass Mz over which passes another rope with masses m, and m, attached. Prove that the accel- eration of the mass mm, is given by BmgMy — miMs ~ mMa ~ mM; Gia mV, + MG) + Arg dong ‘An automobile of weight W with an engine having constant instantaneous power P, travels up an incline of angle «. Assuming that resistance forces are r per unit weight, prove ‘that the maximum speed which can be maintained up the nes 2 incline 88 FEE Fig. 8.5 ‘An automobile of weight W moves up an incline of angle a, powered by an engine having ‘constant instantaneous power ®. Assuming that the resistance to motion is equal to xv per unit ‘weight where v is the instantaneous speed and « is a constant, prove that the maximum speed which is possible on the incline is (VW7aintat GW — W sin a)/24W. {A chain hangs over a smooth peg with length a on one side and length 5, where 0<#-<4, on the weevil Va- ve)” ether sd, Prove that the ine an fo the hn tale of even by [2B n(: Prove that a bead P whichis placed anywhere on a vertical frictionless wire (see Fig. 3-86] in the form of cycloid 2 = We tsing, = BL cose) ‘will reach the bottom in the same time regardless of the starting point and find this time. Ans. 2V8I9 Fig. 336Chapter 4 The SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR and the SIMPLE PENDULUM THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR » In Fig. 4-1(a) the mass m lies on a friction- less horizontal table indicated by the 2 axis. : Itis attached to one end of a spring of negligible mass and unstretched length ! whose other end is fixed at E. If m is given a displacement along the x axis @ [see Fig. 4-1(b)} and released, it will vibrate or oscillate back and forth about the equilibrium position O. To determine the equation of motion, note 1 — that at any instant when the spring has length fey lhe L+a [Fig. 4-1(b)] there is a force tending tore- SOOO store m to its equilibrium position. According 7 to Hooke's law this force, called the restoring G force, is proportional to the stretch x and is given by Fig. 1 Fy = ai w where the subscript R stands for “restoring force” and where « is the constant of propor- tionality often called the spring constant, elastic constant, stiffness factor or modulus of elasticity and i is the unit veetor in the positive ¢ direction. By Newton’s second law we have nO a asi ae nEtee = 0 o ‘This vibrating system is called a simple harmonic oscillator or linear harmonic oscillator. This type of motion is often called simple harmonic motion. AMPLITUDE, PERIOD AND FREQUENCY OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION If we solve the differential equation (2) subject to the initial conditions #=A and de/dt=0 at t=0, we find that x = Acoset where « = Vm @) For the case where A=20, m=2 and x=8, see Problem 4. Since cos ut varies between —1 and +1, the mass oscillates between x =—A and x= A. A graph of « vs. t appears in Fig. 4-2. 86CHAP. 4) THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR AND THE SIMPLE PENDULUM 87 a] ‘The amplitude of the motion is the distance A and is the greatest distance from the equilibrium position. The period of the motion is the time for one complete oscillation or vibration [some- times called a cycle) such as, for example, from x=A to z=—A and then back to 2=A again. If P denotes the period, then P = 2xlo = 2uVmie w The frequency of the motion, denoted by f, is the number of complete oscillations or eycles per unit time. We have zsilseved Spm a © In the general ease, the solution of (2) is 2 = Acoet + Bsinet where » = yal Cy where A and B are determined from initial conditions. As seen in Problem 4.2, we can write (6) in the form 2 = Ceos(wt—9) where » = yam ” and where Cc = VA*+B* and ¢=tan™'(B/A) (8) ‘The amplitude in this case is C while the period and frequency remain the same as in (4) and (6), ie. they are unaffected by change of initial conditions. The angle ¢ is called the phase angle or epoch chosen so that 0S =r. If ¢=0, (7) reduces to (8). ENERGY OF A SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR If 7 is the kinetic energy, V the potential energy and E=7+V the total energy of simple harmonic oscillator, then we have T= gmvt, V = eat ) and E = dmo! + dea? (10) See Problem 4.17. THE DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATOR In practice various forces may act on a harmonic oscillator, tending to reduce the magnitude of successive oscillations about the equilibrium position. Such forces are some. times called damping forces. A useful approximate damping force is one which is propor- tional to the velocity and is given by F, = pv = -poi = -9 $4 (a)88 THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR AND THE SIMPLE PENDULUM (CHAP. 4 where the subscript D stands for “damping force” and where f is a positive constant called the damping coeficient. Note that F, and v are in opposite directions. If in addition to the restoring force we assume the damping force (11), the equation of motion of the harmonic oscillator, now called a damped harmonic oscillator, is given by @: de @z , od mig = ~~ BG or mop t+ eget = 0 (2) on applying Newton's second law. Dividing by m and calling Bim = 2, dm = (as) this equation can be written aero ay where the dots denote, as usual, differentiation with respect to t. OVER-DAMPED, CRITICALLY DAMPED AND UNDER-DAMPED MOTION ‘Three cases arise in obtaining solutions to the differential equation (14). Case 1, Over-damped motion, y*>, ie. > 4xm In this case (14) has the general solution 2 = em(Aet+ Bes) where a = Waa (15) and where the arbitrary constants A and B can be found from the ini Case 2, Critically damped motion, y'= ot, ie. p= 4am In this case (14) has the general solution 2 = "(A + Bt) (18) where A and B are found from initial conditions. Case 3, Under-damped or damped oscillatory motion, y"CHAP. 4] THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR AND THE SIMPLE PENDULUM 89 between two successive maxima or minima] in the under-damped [or damped oscillatory] motion of Fig. 4-3 is called the period of the motion and is given by P ae Qe Arm (18) and the frequency, which is the reciprocal of the period, is given by cei gy (FF _ Vim # Pe ee (29) Note that if @=0, (18) and (19) reduce to (4) and (5) respectively. The period and frequency corresponding to 6=0 are sometimes called the natural period and natural Frequency respectively. The period P given by (18) is also equal to two successive values of t for which cos (At—4) = 1 [or cos(At—¢) = —I] as given in equation (17). Suppose that the values of « corresponding to the two successive values fy and ty+1= te +P are ty and znss respec tively. ‘Then Balin ‘The quantity 8 = In (xs/tnss) = yP (21) which is a constant, is called the logarithmic decrement. emerath = ee (20) FORCED VIBRATIONS ‘Suppose that in addition to the restoring force ~xri and damping force —évi we impress on the mass m a force F(t)i where F() = Focosat (22) Then the differential equation of motion is Gz = er - pl + Feconat (29) or E+ Ryd + ote = f,cosat (4) where y= Alam, t= alm, fy= Fylm (25) ‘The general solution of (24) is found by adding the general solution of ° (ee) B 4 Dyk + wt [which has already been found and is given by (15), (16) or (17)] to any particular solution of (24). A particular solution of (24) is given by [see Problem 4.18] 7) where (28) Now, as we have seen, the general solution of (26) approaches zero within a short time and we thus call this solution the transient solution. After this time has elapsed, the motion of the mass m is essentially given by (27) which is often called the steady-state solution. ‘The vibrations or oscillations which take place, often called forced vibrations or forced oscillations, have a frequency which is equal to the frequency of the impressed force but lag behind by the phase angle ¢.90 THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR AND THE SIMPLE PENDULUM (CHAP. 4 RESONANCE ‘The amplitude of the steady-state oscillation (27) is given by (29) ie (29) assuming y 0, i.e. 6 ~ 0, so that damping is assumed to be present. The maximum value of of in this case occurs where the frequency a/2x of the impressed force is such that oe (20) assuming that y7< Jot [see Problem 4.19]. Near this frequency very large oscillations may occur, sometimes causing damage to the system, The phenomenon is called resonance and the frequency a,/2r is called the frequency of resonance or resonant frequency. ‘The value of the maximum amplitude at the resonant frequency is f Aux = —— (81) Pera ‘The amplitude (29) can be written in terms of ay as a (32) VeF= aa) + A= 7) A graph of of vs. a? is shown in Fig. 4-4. Note that the graph is symmetric around the resonant frequency and that the resonant frequency, frequency with damping and natural frequency (without damping) are all different. In case there is no damping, ie. y=0 or 8 =0, all of these frequencies are identical. In such case resonance occurs where the frequency of the impressed force equals the natural frequency of oscillation. The general solution for this case is t 2 = Acoset + Bsinot + Be sinet (83) From the last term in ($3) it is seen that the oscillations build up with time until finally the spring breaks. See Problem 4.20. enonantfeequeney Froquncy with damping Fig. tt ‘THE SIMPLE PENDULUM A simple pendulum consists of a mass m [Fig. 4-5] at the end of a massless string or rod of Iength 1 [which always remains straight, i.e. rigid). If the mass m, sometimes called the pendulum bob, is pulled aside and released, the resulting motion will be oscillatory. Calling @ the instantaneous angle which the string makes with the vertical, the differential equation of motion is [see Problem 4.23]CHAP. 4) THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR AND THE SIMPLE PENDULUM 91 ge = -Gsine (84) assuming no damping forces or other external forces are present. For small angles (e.g. less than 5° with the vertical], sin 4 is very nearly equal to 6, where 6 is in radians, and equation ($4) becomes, to a high degree of approximation, a _ 9 -— 1? (85) This equation has the general solution 9 = Acos Vgilt + Bsin Voit (86) where A and B are determined from initial conditions. For example, if @= 4, 9=0 at t=0, then 8 = Bcos gilt (87) In such case, the motion of the pendulum bob is that of simple harmonic motion. The period is given by P = 2nJflig (88) and the frequency is given by 1 fp = gval (69) If the angles are not necessarily small, we can show [see Problems 4.29 and 4.80] that the period is equal to T pra_ao po vi ee g S vi-Psinté . Ty 4 (2) p04 (1:8)! = ayia +() +(ES) i +( where = sin (0/2). For small angles this reduces to (88). For cases where damping and other external forces are considered, see Problems 4.25 and 4.114. (40) THE TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONAL HARMONIC OSCILLATOR ‘Suppose a particle of mass m moves in the zy plane 7 under the influence of a force field F given by F =~ ti ati un) where «, and x, are positive constants. In this case the equations of motion of m are given by @r_ ey mg = a2, mob = uy 2) and have solutions Fig. 4-6 = AjcosVa/mt + B,sinVaJmt, y = A,cosyVnjmt + B,sinyeymt (48) where Ai, Bs, As, Bs are constants to be determined from the initial conditions, The mass m subjected to the force field (41) is often called a two-dimensional harmonic oscillator. The various curves which m describes in its motion are often called Lissajous curves or figures. ‘These ideas are easily extended to a three dimensional harmonic oscillator of mass m which is subject to a force field given by F = ~eti — 60) — tk (4a) where «)*,% are positive constants.92. ‘THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR AND THE SIMPLE PENDULUM (CHAP. 4 Solved Problems SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR 4d. 42. A particle P of mass 2 moves along the axis attracted toward origin O by a force whose magnitude is numerically equal to 8x (see Fig. 4-7). If it is initially at rest at z= 20, find (a) the differential equation and initial conditions describing the motion, (b) the position of the particle at any time, (0) the speed and velocity of the particle at any time, ' asi and (@) the amplitude, period and frequency of the ae vibration, . (@) Let r= a1 be the position vector of P. ‘The acceleration 0; ae De ' ot Pic Set) = S21, The net force acting on P is : “Bei, Then by Newton's second law, @s, ® 22 = act or SE tte 0 Which is the required differential equation of motion. The initial conditions are 2=20, dx/dt=0 at t=0 ® (©) The general solution of (1) is 2 = Acon2t + Bainzt ® When ¢=0, 2=20 sothat A=20. Thos = meos2t + Bain2e ® Then de/dt = —40 sin2e + 20 cone ® 40 that on putting ¢= 0, ds/dé=0 we find B= 0, Thus (8) becomes = 20.cos2t © Which ives the position at any time (0) From (@) da/dt =~40 sin2t which gives the speed at any time, ‘The velocity is given by a 4 40 sine (@) Amplitude = 20. Period = 2r/2 =x. Frequency = I/period = Ws. (a) Show that the function A coset +Bsinet can be written as Ccos(ot—9) where C=A?+B and ¢=tan'(B/A). (b) Find the amplitude, period and frequency of the function in (a). ) Acoust + Bainet = VAPFR(—A— coset + —B— sinet ee (aR Jaa) = VATE ong conat + sn sine!) = VET Bem(et—9) = Combt—9 where cosy = A/VAPFB® and sing = B/VATTB, ie, tang=B/A or ¢=tan-'B/A, and C= VAT+H, We generally choose that value of ¢ which lies between 0° and 180°, ke OS 9am. * () Amplitude = maximum value = C = VATFBR Period = 2x/o. Frequency = w/2z.CHAP. 4) THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR AND THE SIMPLE PENDULUM 93 43. 44, Work Problem 4.1 if P is initially at x = 20 but is moving (a) to the right with speed 30, (b) to the left with speed 80. Find the amplitude, period and frequency in each case. (@) The only difference here by dz/dt=30 at t Problem 4.1. becomes that the condition dz/dt=0 at t=0 of Problem 4.1 is replaced ‘Then from (5) of Problem 41 we find B=15, and (3) of = 20cos2t + 15 sin 2 @ Which gives the position of P at any time. ‘This may be written [see Problem 42) as 2 = VOOrE eR {Boat + Fett ne} Veo? + 05) Vi20y + (15) 25(4 con2e+ fsin31) = 25cos(2t—9) t @ ‘The angle ¢ which can be found from (2) Is often called the phate angle or epoch. Since the cosine varies between —I and +1, the amplitude = 25. ‘The period and fre- queney are the same as before, Le. period = 2s/2= and frequency = 2/2r = 1s. where cosé = fang (8) Im this case the condition de/dt=0 at 0 of Problem 41 is replaced by da/dt at t=0. ‘Then B= 15 and the position is given by = 20cos2t ~ 15 sin 2¢ which as in part (a) ean be written & = 25($ cos2t— B sin 20) 2B{cosy cos2t + siny sin2t) = 26 eos (2t—y) where cosy = 4, siny =—B. ‘The amplitude, period and frequency are the same as in part (a). The only difference fs in the phase angle, ‘The relationship between y and is y= +s. We often describe this by saying that the two motions are 180° out of phase with each other. ‘A spring of negligible mass, suspended vertically from one end, is stretched a distance of 20 cm when a 5 gm mass is attached to the other end. The spring and mass are placed on a horizontal frictionless table as in Fig. 4-1(a), page 86, with the suspension point fixed at Z. The mass is pulled away a distance 20 cm beyond the equilibrium position O and released. Find (a) the differential equation and initial conditions describing the motion, (b) the position at any time f, and (c) the amplitude, period and frequency of the vibrations. 15(080) dynes = 4900dynes, ‘Then since 4900 dynes stretches the spring 20cm, the spring constant is 45 dynes/em. Thus when the spring is stretched a’ distance 2 em beyond the equilibrium position, the restoring force is —245z1. Then by Newton's second law we have, if r=ai is the position vector of the ms ta) ee sHED = -o4sai or G54 492 = 0 o ‘The initial conditions are x = 20, dzx/dt=0 at t= 0 ® (8) The general solution of (1) is 2 = AcosTt + BsinTt ® Using the conditions (2) we find A= 20, B=0 sothat x= 20 cost (©) From © =20.cos7t we see that: amplitude = 20 em; ps Be! aoe; frequency = T/2z vvibjece oF T/2x eycles/see.4 46. ‘THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR AND THE SIMPLE PENDULUM (CHAP. 4 A particle of mass m moves along the « axis, attracted toward a fixed point O on it by a force proportional to the distance from O. Initially the particle is at distance 7, from O and is given a velocity v, away from O. Determine (a) the position at any time, (b) the velocity at any time, and (¢) the amplitude, period, frequency, and maximum speed. (@) The force of attraction toward O is ~xei where « ' posv ontant of propertly. ‘Then by Newton's mGE = —oi or an) Solving (2), we find 2 = Acosvelmt + B sin Vadmet (e) We elso have the initial conditions Figs Hay deldt=ry att ® From =) at ¢=0 we find using (0), that A= ap Thus 2 = mgconValmt + B sin vaTme © to that delat = xy Velmsin Valmet + Batra cos Valmet © From da/dt = vy at ¢=0 we find, using (6), that B= vpVmi/e ‘Thus (4) becomes 2 = 2ycon Velmt + v9 Vmile sin Velmt @) Using Problem 42, this ean be written = = VAT Way cos (Valmet @) o where = tenn! (volte) Vint @ (0) “The velocity is, using (6) oF (7), # Tm sin VaTmit + vp cos Vadim tt = Valen VaEF wae sin (VTE #4 = VET oalym sin (VeTmt— 9) Oy amplitude is given from (7) by Va + mole. From (7), the period is P= 2rVem- The frequency is # = 1/P = 2eVim/m. this speed ia Vag Feagim v= & ( The From (9), the speed is a maximum when sin (Veit ~ ¢) An object of mass 20 kg moves with simple harmonic motion on the « axis. Initially (t=0) it is located at the distance 4 meters away from the origin + =0, and has velocity 15 m/sec and acceleration 100 m/sec* directed toward #=0. Find (a) the position at any time, (b) the amplitude, period and frequency of the oscillations, and (e) the force on the object when f= =/10 sec. (a) If # denotes the position of the object at time f, then the initial conditions are dz/ét = 16, dz/dt = 100 at t=0 o Now for simple harmonic motion, ‘2 = Acosut + Bainot o Differentiating, we find de/dt_ = —Awsinet + Bu cosot ” Boldt = —Ast coset ~ Bot sinat wCHAP. 4] ‘THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR AND THE SIMPLE PENDULUM 95 4. 49. Using conditions (1) in (2), (8) and (4), we find 4=A, 15 = Bo, —100=—Aw2 Solving simultaneously, we find A= 4, w=65, B=~8 so that 2 = Acos5t ~ 3sin dt © which ean be written, = Beos(Gt—9) where cos =f, sing = —f Cc) () From (6) we sce that: amplitude = 6m, period = 2/6 sec, frequency = 5/2 vib/see. (©) Magnitude of acceleration = d2/dt? = —100 cos 5t +75 sin St = 15 m/sec? at Force on object = (mass)(acceleration) = (20 kg)(7S m/sec?) = 1500 newtons, fo. A 20 Ib wt object suspended from the end of a ver- tical spring of negligible mass stretches it 6 inches. LLMs (a) Determine the position of the object at any time if initially it is pulled down 2 inches and then re- leased. (b) Find the amplitude, period and fre- quency of the motion. (a) Let D and E (Fig. 49] represent the position of the fend of the spring before and after the object is put on on the spring. Position H is the equilibrium position of the object. Choose a coordinate system as shown in Fig. 49 s0 that the positive 2 axis is downward with origin at the equilibrium position, By Hooke's law, since 20 Ib wt stretches the spring Jt, 40 Ibwt stretches it 1 ft; then 40(5 +2) Ibwt stretches it (5+2)ft. Thus when the object is at position F there is an upward force acting on it of ‘magnitude 40(5++ 2) and a downward force due to its weight of magnitude 20. By Newton's second law we thus have BE = omarion or Miso = 0 savin, f= Acces + Binet Now at €=0, #= 5 and defdt=0; thus A= j, B= 0 and sm beat ® () From (¢): amplitude = § ft, period = 24/8 = x/4 sec, frequency = 4/= vib/see. Work Problem 4.7 if initially the object is pulled down 3 inches (instead of 2 inches) and then given an initial velocity of 2 ft/sec downward. In this ease the solution (1) of Problem 4.7 still holds but the initial conditions are: at == and di/dt=2, From these we find A=} and B={, s0 that = = feos8t + pains = EA com (8 #14) ‘Thus amplitude = VI/4 ft, period = 25/8 = 2/4 and frequency are unaffected by changing the init , frequency = 4/r vib/aee. Note that the period 1 condi A particle travels with uniform angular speed » around a circle of radius b. Prove that its projection on a diameter oscillates with simple harmonic motion of period 2n/a about the center. ‘Choose the cirele in the zy plane with center at the origin O aa in Fig. 4-10 below. Let @ be ‘the projection of particle P on diameter AB chosen along the # axis.96 THE 4.10. ‘THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR AND THE SIMPLE PENDULUM [CHAP. 4 If the particle is initially at B, then in time ¢ we will have 2BOP=#= ot. Then the position of P at time ¢ is F = deosutit bsineti a ‘The projection @ of P on the » axis is at distance ris 2 = beoset from O at any time t. From (2) we see that the projection Q oscillates with simple harmonic motion of period 2/2 about the center O. Fig. 4-10 DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATOR ‘Suppose that in Problem 4.1 the particle P has also a damping force whose magnitude is numerically equal to 8 times the instantaneous speed. Find (a) the position and (b) the velocity of the particle at any time. (c) Ilustrate graphically the position of the particle as a function of time ¢. y (a) In this case the net force acting on P is Fig. 4-11] ~8:i 898i. Then by Newton's sec- ond law, ey taal = at "P @2, yee on Peat ae = 0 Fig t-it ‘This has the solution [see Appendix, page 852, Problem C.14] 2 = eA + BH When t=0, 2=20 and do/dt=0; thus A=20, B=40, and 2= 200 the position at any time & (+20 gives (b) The velocity is given by ae Sei = sore 24 (©) The graph of 2 vs. tis shown in Fig. 412, Tt is seen that the motion is non-oscillatory. ‘The par- tiele approaches O slowly but never reaches it. ‘This is an example where the motion is eritically damped. Fig. 412 A particle of mass 5 gm moves along the « axis under the influence of two forees: (i) a force of attraction to origin O which in dynes is numerically equal to 40 times the instantaneous distance from O, and (ii) a damping force proportional to the instantaneous speed such that when the speed is 10 cm/sec the damping foree is 200 dynes. Assuming that the particle starts from rest at a distance 20cm from O, (a) set up the differential equation and conditions describing the motion, (b) find the position of the particle at any time, (c) determine the amplitude, period and frequeney of the damped oscillations, and (d) graph the motion. (@) Let the position vector of the particle P be denoted by = al as indicated in Fig. 4-18, Then the force of attr ton (directed toward 0) is Taotierani 02 ny ‘The magnitude of the damping force f is proportional to at the speed, 40 that. f= idz/dé where @ is constant. “Then | 2} ——e since / = 200 when d2/dt=10, we have @=20 and = —[ ng J =20deldt. To get f, note that when dz/dé>0 and P 2 >0 the particle is on the positive x axis and moving to Fig. 4418CHAP. 4) THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR AND THE SIMPLE PENDULUM 97 the right, ‘Thus the resistance force must be directed toward the left, This ean only be secom- plished if de t= -20%f ” ‘This same form for f is easily shown to he correct if z>0, di/dt<0, x <0, de/dt>0, £<0, dafdt <0 {sce Problem 4.45). Hence by Newton's second law we have te ae, sTei = -20%8 — 4001 ® Pe, ye or Ser ste = 0 w Since the particle starts from rest at 20 em from 0, we have 20, dx/dt=0 at t=0 © ‘where we have assumed that the particle starts on the positive le of the 2 axis [we could just ag well assume that the particle starts on the negative side, in which ease z= —20). (8) 2 = eat is a solution of (6) if @tdet8 = 0 or «= de Vien 8) = 222i ‘Then the general solution is 2 = eA con2t + B sin 2) © Since 2=20 at t=0, we find from (6) that A = 20, i, 2 = 67420 cos2t + B sin 2) o ‘Thus by differentiation, alae = (e240 sin 2¢ + 2B e08 24) + (~2¢~%)(20 cos 2t + B sin 2) © Since dz/dt=0 at ¢=0, we have from (8), B= 20. Thus from (7) we obtain x = 206-(cos 2¢ + sin 2t) = 20VBe-* cos (2t ~ =/4) © using Problem 42. (c) From (9): amplitude = 20yZe-em, period = 2e/2 =r see, frequency = 1/s vib/see. (@) ‘The graph is shown in Fig. 4-14, Note that the amplitudes of the oscillation decrease toward zero as ¢ increases, T freer} Fig. 414 4.12. Find the logarithmic decrement in Problem 4-11. Method 1. ‘The maxima (or minima) of # occur where dz/dt = 0, Prom (9) of Problem 4.11, dafdt = —80e-* sin at = 0 when t= 0,=/2,2,89/2,22,52/2,.... ‘The maxima occur when ¢=0,7,2x,...; the minima ‘occur when t= +/2,8x/2, 9/2, -.- ‘The ratio of two successive maxima is ¢-M®/e-%0 or e-%/e-229, ete, Le, o®, Then the logarithmic decrement is 8 = In (e*) = 2r.98 4.13, 44, 415. ‘THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR AND THE SIMPLE PENDULUM [CHAP. 4 Method 2. From (9) of Problem 4.11, the difference between two successive values of t, denoted by ty and y41, for which cos (2¢~#/4) = 1 (or 1) is , which is the period, ‘Then 20v2 aa aias Or and 8 = Ineyfegys) = Be Method 8. From (19), (18) and (20), pages 88 and 88, we have dem anf a= we = (2) (or) Fae = 3) Vien = Then 20, «=40 [Problem 4.11, equation (9), 5 Determine the natural period and frequency of the particle of Problem 4.11. ‘The natural period is the period when there is no damping. In such ease the motion is sriven by removing the term involving di/dt in equation (3) or (4) of Problem 4.11. ‘Thus Prd + Be = 0 or = = AcosavEt + Bsin2VFe ‘Then: natural period = 2-/2VF sec = x/VZ sec; natural frequency = V3/x vib/see. For what range of values of the damping constant in Problem 4.11 will the motion be (a) overdamped, (b) underdamped or damped oscillatory, (c) critically damped? Denoting the damping constant by f, equation (8) of Problem 4.11 is replaced by ae dey or Me 4 Bae $24 — dori Sts bE tee = 0 ‘Then the motion is: (a) Overdamped if (/5}* > 82, ie. p> 20y2. (©) Underdamped if (8/5)? < 82, Le. p< 2073. [Note that this is the case for Problem 4.11 where = 20.) 2oy2. (©) Critically damped if (A/5)2 = 82, Le. Solve Problem 4.7 taking into account an external damping force given numerically in Ib wt by fv where v is the instantaneous speed in ft/sec and (a) £=8, (b) = 10, (0) p= 12. ‘The equation of motion is 20 ate ~ ade 52H. oe = wey — aon — anoren pik or Gates oe = 0 (a) If p=8, then ds/dt? + 128de/dt+ 642 =0. ‘The solution 2 = e-M(A cos 4.8t + B sin 4.81) 1/6, defdt=0 at 1=0, we find A= 1/6, B= 2/9 so that, Using the conditions = fgets conse + 4 sin g.8t) ‘The motion is damped oscillatory with period 25/4.8 = e/12 sec. 5 5 64t cos (4.8¢ —58°8)) Be (48t—58°8) (®) If #=10, then da/de? + 16deldt + 642 ©. ‘The solution is emia + BO) ye then Solving subject to the i gore tan.CHAP. 4) ‘THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR AND THE SIMPLE PENDULUM 99 ‘The motion is critically damped since any decrease in p would produce oscillatory motion. (© If p=126 then as/dt® + 20de/de + 642 = 0. The solution is a= Aes Bet Solving subject to initial condi ives A= 1/6, B= —1/24; then 2 = ‘The motion is overdamped. ENERGY OF A SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR 4.16. (a) Prove that the foree F=—szi acting on a simple harmonic oscillator is con- servative. (b) Find the potential energy of a simple harmonic oscillator. i yk (@) Wehave ¥xE = | 2/82 aay afaz| = 0 so that F is conservative, mr 0 0 (he per pein hen WV whe B= PY ot ey ae a met = — (Eee te) ‘Then aV/ex =x, V/dy=0, aV/02 responding to 2 =0, we find from which V ao that V = feat, yer? be, Assuming V=0 com 4.17. Express in symbols the principle of conservation of energy for a simple harmonic oscillator. By Problem 4.16(6), we have Kinetic energy + Potential energy = Total energy or fmt get = 5 which ean also be written, since v= dz/dt, as 4m(dz/dt?+ feat = BL ‘Another method. The differential equation for the motion of jimple harmonic oscillator is m@eld = ex ‘Since dz/dt = v, this can also be written as deg de de, mot =, s or m= Ws, ie, mogd = —ae Integration yields jo + fea? = EL FORCED VIBRATIONS AND RESONANCE 4.18. Derive the steady-state solution (27) corresponding to the differential equation (24) on page 89. ‘The differential equation ty, 9s E+ ays ote = fycosat w Consider particular solution having the form e = ecosat + sina ®100 ‘THB SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR AND THE SIMPLE PENDULUM (CHAP. 4 where o, and cy are to be determined. Substituting (2) into (1), we find (Cate, + Brees + wtey) conat + (—atey — 2yae; + u%ey) sinat = fy cosat {rom which matey + Byace + whey = fo, whey 2ymey + eg ® or (at — toy — 2yaey = —fo, Brae, + (a? ate, = 0 6) Solving these simultaneously, we find fale? = at) Bove 0° Saar ae > Bare o ‘Thus (2) becomes Jollet ~e!)cosat + 2ya sin at] (a= at}? + aya 2 Now by Problem 4.2, page 92, (?— a) cosat + 2yasinat = V(u?— al}? + dyFa? cos (at — 9) o where tang = 2ya/(a*—w?), 0S ¢ 57. Using (7) in (6), we find as required tnt Vea att ae # 4.19. Prove (a) that the amplitude in Problem 4.18 is a maximum where the resonant fre- quency is determined from «= /u?—2y' and (b) that the value of this maximum amplitude is f/(2yVa?— 7). Method 1. The amplitude in Problem 4.18 is LIVE AP RE a It is a maximum when the denominator [or the square of the denominator] is a minimum. ‘To find this minimum, write (ot oA + pte = at — But —2yA)at + ot at — Bo BME + (8 2yPP + at — (ot — By [at — (ot 298) + Aye? — 7) ‘This fs a minimum where the first term on the last line is zero, ie. when a? value is then 4y%(4!—7!), ‘Thus the value of the maximum amplitude is HaWe=~. Method 2. The function U = (ew)! + 4y4 has a minimum or maximum when Wa awit oe = 0 oe oem = 0 0 VHB where 0, Thus a= Ve=2y? gives the minimum value. 420. (a) Obtain the solution (33), page 90, for the case where there is no damping and the impressed frequency is equal to the natural frequency of the oscillation. (b) Give a physical interpretation. (a) The case to be considered is obtained by putting 7=0 or # = (28) or (24), page 89. We thus must solve the equation Beate = fycosut o and «=. in equationsCHAP. 4) ‘THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR AND THE SIMPLE PENDULUM 101 ‘To find the general solution of this equation we add the general solution of Btot = 0 @ to a particular solution of (1). Now the general solution of (2) is 2 = Acosut + Bsinot cH ‘To find a particular solution of (1) it would do no good to assume a particular solution of the form fe = cyeosut + ey sin at ® since when we substitute (4) [which is identical in form to ()] into the left side of (1), we would got zero. "We must therefore modify the form of the assumed particular solution (4). As seen in Appendix C, the assumed particular solution has the form 2 = tle, covet + ey sinet) “6 ‘To see that this yields the required particular solution, let us differentiate (6) to obtain B= ten, sinot + ve, coset) + (cy cost + ey sin vt) o He we, coat — ay sin wt) + 2(— 26) sin ot + aes c08 w!) ” Substituting (6), (6) and (7) into (2), we find after simplifying —2we, sin ut + Beep coset = fa coset from which ¢ ‘quired particular solution (6) is ‘The general solution of (1) is therefore x = Acosut + Bainat + fol2s)tsinut (6) © and y= fol2s. ‘Thus the re- (u/2a)t sin st. (6) The constants A and B in (8) are determined from the initial conditions. Unlike the case with damping, the terms involving A and B do not become small with time, However, the last term involving ¢ increases with time to such an extent that the spring will finally break. A graph of the last term shown in Pig, 4-16 indicates how the oscillations build up jn magnitude. 0 a force hangs in jon of the 421. A vertical spring has a stiffness factor equal to 8 Ibwtper ft. At given in Ibwt by F(t) = 12sin4t, t= 0 is applied to a 6b weight whi equilibrium at the end of the spring. Neglecting damping, find the posi weight at any later time t. Using the method of Problem 4.7, we have by Newton's second Iw, oe SSE = we + sina ee or Foe 16s = Ot sinae o Solving, 2 = Acosdt + Bsint — 8 cosdr then A=0, B=2 and 4t — Bt con de ® [As ¢ gets larger the term —8¢ cos4t increases numerically without bound, and physically the spring will ultimately break, The example illustrates the phenomenon of resonance. Note that the natural frequency of the spring (4/2 ~2/r) equals the frequency of the impressed force,102 422. Work Problem 4.21 if F(t) = 80 cos6t, ¢ THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR AND THE SIMPLE PENDULUM In this case the equation (1) of Problem 4.21 becomes Pld + 162 = 160 cost fand the initial conditions are =0, defdt=0 at t=0 ‘The general solution of (2) is A cost + B sin4t ~ 8 cost Using conditions (2) in (8), we find A=8, B=0 and = = Sleosdt—cosst) = 8(cos(St—1) — cos (6t+#)) = 16sint sinSt (CHAP. 4 © ® ® ‘The graph of 2 vs. t is shown by the heavy curve of Fig. 4-16, The dashed curves are the curves £16 sin t obtained by placing sin ‘#1. If we consider that 16 sin¢ is the amplitude of sin t, we see that the amplitude varies sinusoidally. ‘The phenomenon is known as amplitude ‘modulation and is of practical importance in communications and electronics. THE SIMPLE PENDULUM 428, Determine the motion of a simple pendulum of length J and mass m assuming small vibrations and no resisting forces. Let the position of m at any time be determined by 4, the arclength measured from the equilibrium position O [seo Fig. 4-17]. Let ¢ be the angle made by the pendulum string with the vertical. If T is a unit tangent vector to the circular path of the pendulum bob m, then by Newton's second law Gir = —mosino® o + since my. Fh = —Ssine ® For small vibrations we can replace sin # by # 0 that to a high degree of accuracy equation (2) can be replaced by ae Teste = 0 ® which has solution Fig. 47 @ = Acos Veit + Bsinvalt king as 4 = syconvalt From this we see that the period of the pendulum is 2eVi/g. Initial conditions @=%, de/dt=0 st t=0, we find A=6, B=0 and so