5:

,
, ,
.

5.1 ?
, , , ,
, .. (Radiographic Testing RT)
,
.
( ) .
.
( )
, (
). ,
,
.

5.2
1895 Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845-1923),
Wuerzburg 1. Roentgen, -
( Crooke),
,
(barium platinocyanide).
, ,
. , Roentgen
,
,
.
, ,
-Roentgen, 1900,
1902 Roentgen.
, .
1912, Laue, Knipping, Frederick
. , W. D. Coolidge General Electric Co.
,
. , Dr. H. H. Lester
1920 Watertown Arsenal Watertown
.
,
, , .

(American Society for Non Destructive Testing ASNT) 1941
A (The American Industrial Radium and X-ray
Society).

.
,
. 1896, Henri Becquerel (1852 1908)
. ,
Ernest Rutherford (1871 1937),
.

1
 Becquerel, Marie Curie
Pierre Curie .
.
1898, Curie pitchblende
. Curies
pitchblende, , Marie Curie.
. , 26 1898,
,
. .
Curies
2, 192
60, -.
,
. , 191
59 . ,
.
, 191 192 59 60.
.

(encapsulation) ,
.

5.3
,
,
.
. ,
.
,
: (
), ( ), (
, ) 3.

,
.
,
. -
. ,
.
(. . 5.1)
. -
. -, , .
, , 192
60, .

2
 5.1 .

1 ,
.

5.3.1

.
1 cm2 1 sec.
1000 /cm2sec, 1000
.
.
(exposure). Roentgen (R)
.
0,000258 coulombs .

Roentgens Roentgens , .
. ,
, .

, (. .
5.2).

3
 5.2 .

, :

d1 2
I2 = I1 (5.1)
d2

, 1 2 d 1 d 2 , . ,
, .

5.3.2

.
: ()
( , <500 kV, ),
() Rayleigh ( ,
20% ), () Compton (
0,1-3,0 MeV ), ()
( , 0,51 MeV,
-).
,
, .
,
.

:

I = Io ex (5.2)

e : ( 2,7)
Io : ( )

4
 :
x :

5.3.3

(. . 5.1). , ,
4.
(Half-Value Layer
HVL), mm (. . 5.3).
( ) 50% . HVL
( , ),
( , ),
( HVL ).

5.3 .

(HVL) .
,
(5.2) x, HVL:

0,693
0,5 = 1 ex = (5.3)
HVL

HVL
. ,
. ,
4 , 2 .
(shielding), HVL ,
,
1% .
, HVL ,
:

5
 I
r= = (0,5) HVL (5.4)
Io

, r, .
, (5.4)
:

log r
= HVL (5.5)
log 0,5

5.1 5.2, HVL ,

, .

HVL (mm)


(keV)
50 0,06 4,32
100 0,27 15,10
150 0,30 22,32
200 0,52 25,00
250 0,88 28,00
300 1,47 31,21
400 2,50 33,00
1000 7,90 44,45

5.1 HVL, ,
.

HVL (mm)

-192 44,5 12,7 4,8 3,3 2,8
-60 60,5 21,6 12,5 7,9 6,9
5.2 HVL, ,
.

5.3.4
, . ,
() .

6
5.3.5
,
. ,
.

5.3.6
, , , .

. ,
.

5.3.7
.
.
,
.

5.3.8
(ionization) .

.
, . ,
(penetrating radiation) (ionizing radiation).

.
, .
.
,
.

5.4

.
(Ir-192, Co-60, .)
.
. ,
, .
(. .
5.4). ( )
, , (
).

7
 5.4 .

(Flat Panel Detectors FPD),
. ,
, .
,
. 30%
. ,
. , ,
.
5 : () ,
, (aSi:H) 6
, () 7
( - Computed Tomography),
( PSP - Photostimulable Phosphor Plate) .

5.5
( Coolidge),
,
(. . 5.5).

, .
. , , .
,
. , 97-99%
, 1-3% .

8
 5.5 .

( ) (.
. 5.6), , (. . 5.6), .

5.6 () . () .

, X
-, .
.
X.
amperes.
. (
) .
, .
. milliamperes (mA)
.
,
. m
, X .
, ,
. ( kV)
, .
. kV
( ), ,
( mA) .
.
,
( , ).

.

9
 . ,
, (3249 C),
. ,
.
.
, ,
. . ,

,
.
,
. , , ,
.
,
, (
). , ,
.
8 100 keV
400 keV. ,
( mA) . 400 keV
.
, , , Van de Graaff.
5.3
.

100 keV 2,5 mm
150 keV 6,5 mm
200 keV 6,5 mm 12,5 mm
250 keV 8,5 mm 21,5 mm
300 keV 9 mm 51 mm
400 keV 12,5 mm 76 mm
1.0 meV 20 mm 100 mm
2.0 meV 25,5 mm 127 mm
6.0 - 10.0 meV 76 mm 406 mm
10.0 - 20.0 meV 250 mm 610 mm
15.0 - 30.0 meV 305 mm 760 mm

192 12,5 mm 38 mm
137 16,5 mm 51 mm
60 25,5 mm 127 mm
5.3 .

5.6

10
 .
, .
(binding energy) ,
.
. ,
,
.

.
,
(. ).
,
.
,
192 60.
170, 137, 226.
, , ,
.
.
, .
(decay) (activity)
.
(.. ).
.
(half-life)
. ,
. ,
Ci (Curie, ) q (Becquerel, ). Ci
3,7x1010 Bq .
192, 100 Ci,
, 75 , , 50 Ci.
, 25 Ci, .
60, 5,3 . .
192 310 KeV, 470 KeV 600 KeV, 60
, 1,17 1,33 MeV. ,
60 (. 5.1).
(5.6)
.
, :

= = (0,5) (5.6)

f D : (. , , , )
L H : ( , , , .)
t : ( , , , .)

11
,
:

log
= (5.7)
log 0,5

Ci . Ci
, .

(Bq Ci) .
.
,
. ,
. ,
, ,
.
,
1,5 mm x 1,5 mm.
, .
-.
. 192
60 22 kg 225 kg , . ,
,
(. . 5.7). -
( )
.

5.7 .

5.7
.
.

5.7.1

12
 (sensitivity)
, (contrast)
(blur) . 5.8
(step wedge),
. (..
) . , (. )
.

5.8 .

5.7.2
. , ,
. ,

( ) ( ) (.
5.8). :

C = (5.8)

.
.
.
.

13
 ( ), ,
(
), .

, ,
. ,
. ,
, X (. . 5.9).
.

5.9 , /
.

, ,
. , , (latitude),
, .
. ,
, ,

.

5.7.3
()
.
, () . ,
,
. 5.8, C = OD - OD .
.

5.7.4
,
.
.
. ,
.
( ).

14
 , (I),
(I t ). (transmittance):

= log (5.9)
It

, , (.
I t /I ), (I/I t ) ,
, (5.9), . 10%
, 0,1 10,
1. , 1%, 0,1% 0,01%, 2, 3, 4, .

5.7.5

. .
.
,
(geometrical unsharpness), ().

, (. . 5.10).
, ,
(). (U g ) :

b
Ug = ds (5.10)
a

d s : .
a : .
b : ( ,
).

15
 5.10 .

: ()
(
), () (
), ()
, , ( ).
,
( , ).
,

.
.
,
.
, :
X, (kV) (mA)
X, , ,
, ,
, , ,
.
, , ,
.
Curie-
(. . 5.11). 5.11 9 ,
192, 45,5 cm,
Ilford F PQX1 20C, 1,75.
16
 5.11 192.

, ,
192 12,5 mm,
50 mm. 45,5 cm, ,
, . Ir-192
100 Ci 30 . 5.11,
104 .

5.7.6
,

(.. , , .), .
,
, ,
.
(backscattering) , ,
0,25 mm.

5.7.7
10
.
(, , ),
.

(image quality indicators - IQI). IQI (penetrameters)
. IQI
,
.

17
,
. IQI
( )
, , ,
. IQI ,

.

5.8
, ,
11.
, ,
12.
.

. ,
,
(). 13
(. . 5.12),

.

5.12 .

, () 14
.
,
.
:

: ,
,
.
(As Low As Reasonably Achievable):

, , ,

18
 ,
,
.
: ,
,
, .

15, :

: .
,
.

.
:
.
:
.
,
.
: , ,

(.. ).
: ,
.
:
, .

: , , , ,
. :
: (

). .
Roentgen (R).
: , (D)
. , ,
.
SI Joule/kg. , Gy (gray). ,
m = 2 kg = 10 Joule,
: D = E/m = 10 Joule/2 kg = 5 Gy. rad (Radiation
Absorbed Dose), 1 Gy = 100 rad.
. , Roentgen
rad .
( ) , ,
.
:
, . ( ) , ,

19
 (D) (W R ), o
:

= D WR (5.11)

SI Sv ().
, mSv (= 0,001 Sv, ).
rem (Roentgen Equivalent in Man), 1 Sv = 100 rem. 5.4
W R (ICRP103).

WR
1
1
() 1
2-5
, 20

5-20

5.4 .

, , 2 Gy ,
-, ,
(5.11), H T = 2 Gy x 1 = 2 Sv. -, T = 2 Gy x 20 = 40
Sv. , - 20 .
20 mSv 0,1 %, 25%
25,1%.
: .
mR/hr, mrem/hr, rad/min, mGy/sec, .
( = x ).
:
. , t ,
.
( eff ) (H ) (T)
W T .
16 :

: 20 mSv/yr
: 1 mSv/yr

,

, ,

20

,
.

(. . 5.13): )
, ) , )
.

5.13 .

, . ,
1 mSv (100 mrem) 1 mSv
17 (. . 5.14).

21
 5.14 .

5.9

, ,
, ,
.

5.9.1

, , ,



,

5.9.2

( )

22
5.10
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23