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    Kurt Gieck and Reiner Gieck PDF

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    Kurt Gieck Reiner Gieck Engineering Formulas 7th Edition Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Gieck, Kurt + Reiner Engineering formulas. Translation of: Technische Formelsammiung. Includes index. 1. Engineering — Tables. |. Title. TA151.G4713 1986 620'.00212 85-23153 ISBN 0-07-024572-x English editions copyright © 1997,1990, 1986, 1982, 1979, 1974, 1967 by Gieck Publishing D-82110 Germering, Germany All rights reserved ISBN 0-07-024572-xX First published in the English Language under the title A COLLECTION OF TECHNICAL FORMULAE Seventh American edition published by McGraw-Hill, Inc. in 1997 English translation by J. Walters B. Sc. (Eng.), M. |. Mech. E R. Owen B. Sc., M. Sc. Printed in Germany c ; SOLID BODIES o sliced cylinder =" vy =F@n 40/1 An = adh © 40/2 Ay = ar [hythgtr+ © 40/3 + Vr? + (hy ~A)?/4 | = 2, Vv 3r h ca Am= 2rh 42 Ay = Amt grt grve +h c43 barrel Pe x 2g? j | v= Eaves) cad ad prismoid kh v= g hai t+ Ae+4 A) c45 This formula may be used for calculations involving solids shown in fig. C1...C3 and thus spheres and parts of spheres. a2 a4 d15 16 ARITHMETIC D; Powers, Roots a®/a? = a®-? = 26 (a3)? = (a2)? = a?" = 26 at = 1/a* a . (2) og b ayr+7Ve = 114 Viet - Vier = a,b20 er = Yar V2 - (ja) = a V-a = iVva;i-= y-T “i Not applicable to s i . culations Fe Vez = Va= +2; (y¥=2)? = -2 Exponents of powers and roats have to be non-dimensional quantities! Quadratic equation (equation of the second degree) Normal form x? + pr+g = 0 Solutions X27 a8 + Ve -q Vieta's rule pes te +X 0g = yey [erative caleuiation of an n-th root When x = ya, then x wt + [m- Yay + ll where Xg is the initially estimated ales of x. Repeatedly inserting the obtained x as a new value of x» gradually increases the accuracy of x, ARITHMETIC D 2 Powers, Roots — Binomial theorem Expansion of general algebraic expressions (a+b)? = a? + 2ab+0? di7 d 18 (ato)? = a3 + 3a?b + Bab? + bo d 19 (a+b) = ate Batt b + ER gn? 9? nln-i)(n-2) on-3 43 f + 72:3 a oe eG d 20 (a+bec? = a2 +2ab+2act+b? +2bc+c d2 (a-bteP = a®?-2ab+2act+b? -2bc+c? d 22 a?-b? = (a+b) (a-b) d 23 a+b? = (a+b) (a? - ab +b?) d 24 at- 69 = (a-d) (a? + ab +b?) d 25 alt= b" = (a-d) (a+ a2 b + a" Fb? +... et abnn 24 prmly Binomial theorem 425} (aren = (Blas (Bar b+ (2) ar? we (Bes be” n\ _ n(n-1)(n-2) ... (n-k+1)* ae (i) - T23 ok wn must be a whole, number i qa 4 4 aA i =2 22 =-3 235 54 d2g] (a+b) = 1a +zat ote b +a" b3 +65 = at+4ae-b + 6a?-b? + 4a-49 +58 Diagrammatic solution d 29 | Coefficient - Pascal triangle (a+b)? (a+b)! (a+b)? (a+oy 1 (a+b)* i 1 (a+b)® 1 t 5 1 (a+5)® 1 6 15 20 15 6 1 ‘Continue with each line starting and finishing with 1. The second and penultimate numbers should be the exponents, the others the sum of those to the right and left immediately above them. d 30 | Exponsnts: The sum of the exponents a and } in each separate tarm is ‘equal to the binomial exponent n. As the power of a decreases the power ‘of & increases. d 31 | Signs: (2 +5) is always positive (4 -b) is initially positive and changes from term to term d 32 | Examples: (a+b) = a8 +5a‘b + 10a°b? + 10479 + Sabé + BS (a-0)8 = + a5-5a‘h + 104°? - 10a%b9 + 5 abt - BS ARITHMETIC D Partial fraction expansion of rational functions 3 Proper fraction rational function iz) = Pix) _ aot ax + ax? +... + an t™ Qtx) ~ ty+byatbga +... + bya" ua n and m whole numbers Coefficients @,, by can be real or complex. If m are the zeros ‘of the denominator Q(x) the factorized torm from y(x) is: - 2 . Fe Ou” atenmP tena)... ng where real or complex zeros of Q(x) can occur ky, kz... kq times; @ is a constant factor. Partial fraction expansion For easy manipulation of y/x), @.g. for integration, the ex- pansion yx) into partial fractions is often appropriate 6 34fyy ~ Pe. An, Aw, At Ole) omy (xem (x=) oe OE A ge RE gy X=Mg (x~ iP (x=)? Aut, Age 4.4 Aaa Xone (x~ng)? ° (e—ng)*F Complex zeros occurin pairs {conjugate complex numbers) when (ix) has real coefficients. For expansion these pairs are combined to real partial fractions. If in d 33 the zeros ma = ij (mg is conjugate complex to nj} and if due to the pairwise occurrence ky = kp = &, the partial fractions of d 34 with the constants Aii.-- Az can be combined to the following partial fractions: eas] SpeeGu , Bese Ce |, Bint Gy wivaxth | (t+axeoP* (xtsaxe bh To obtain the constants Ay; to Agkg resp. Bri, Cry to Bry Ce coefficients of equal power in x at the left side of the equation are compared with those at the right side after having converted to the common denominator Q(z). Example: or-1 2 a c — Bert _ Buty, Agi , Aa2 ME) = caput Dae OG) eedeed et“ ieet) Bam1 Bye (o Pa Cys (HOT) + Ags e+) a2 + 2x + 5) + Aga lx? + 2x45) Qt) Q(x) 2x-1 = (Ag) + Bix? + Ag) + Age t2 Bt Cyl + + (PAg1 + 2Agp + Bis + 2C yy) 14 5Agy + 5Agy + Coy ‘Comparison of coefficients between left and right side: By = -1/2; Cy = 1/4; Agy = 12; Agz = - 9/4 W there are single zeros nj, the constants 411, Ag) ... Agi of equation d 34 can be obtained by: BB) Ay, = Plm)/O' fry); Agr = Plng)/Q' (ng); «-. A = Png)! Q'(ng) d 37 a 38 4 39 @ 40 a4 d 42 a 43 dg 44 a 45 od 46 ARITHMETIC D ‘ Logarithms General log t , system | tie Case of terminology l0da | a fog to base a logig = Ig 10 common log log, = In e natural log logs = Ib 2 log to base 2 The symbols in log, * = b arecalled: @ base * antilogarithm b logarithm (log) Rules for logarithmic calculations log, (xy) = loggxtlog,y log, = log,x -loga ¥ loge = A-loggx log, = d logax Exponential equation bX = d= grind hieraus: ox = O94 |, Vr loga Conversion of logarithms Igx = ige-Inx = 0.434284-Inx Gx = 2.302 585 «Ig x ige ibx = 1.442695 Sm (a ag Bg || aay Bea| Tag eel) 2) To form the determinants D;, D2,... (see D 7} substitute the r column for the first, second,... column of D, and evaluate in the same way as for D. For determinant of the nth order, find u;, from the for- lae: = Dy D; Dy uy = ap Dé te Bie te Note: For determinants of the nth order continue until determinants of the 3rd order have been obtained. avi a72 d73 a74 d75 d76 d77 ARITHMETIC Ds Algebraic equation of any degree Definition of an algebraic equation An algebraic equation has the form: Sole) = anx” + agp x" +... + gx? + ayx + ag. any terms whose coefficients a, are equal 0 for u < m may be left out. The solution of an algebraic equation involves the finding of zeros (roots) of the equation for which f,(x) = 0. Characteristics 1. The algebraic equation /,(x) = 0 of degree m has exactly 21 zeros (roots). 2. If all coefficients a, are real, only real or complex conjugate zeros exist as solutions. 3. Ifall coefficients a, are = 0 there are no solutions whose real part is > 0. If is of odd at least one zero is real, assuming all coeffi- cients a, are real. 5. The relationships between the zeros x, and the coefficients = are: =x = Gy4/a, for =1,2,...49 Txy- 3; = @p-2/a-1 for 1,2, A where i Ex XX = 2y-3/a)-2 for i,j,k = 1, a where i= j= Ky Xp dg tees X_ = (-1)" © agfay. a |. The number of positive real roots of the equation in question is equal to the number of sign changes of the coefficient series py Anats Ana2s += + 5 Ga, yy Ay or this value less an even number (Descartes' theorem). Example: fy(x) = 2x9 - 15x” + 16x + 12 = 0 has the signs + - + + and due to the 2 sign changes has either 2 of O positive real roots. continued on D 10 76 a7 dso ae dé2 d63 84 ARITHMETIC | D 10 Algebraic equation of any degree Continued from D9 7.The number of negative real roots of the equation in question is found by substitution x = -z: Here tha number of sign changes of the coefficient series Qn", Gq-1", Ap-2%, .-- » @2", @%, ao” is equal to the number of negative real roots or this value less an even number. Applied to the example on D 9, point 6: falz) = -225 - 152? - 162 +12-0 has the signs - = - + and therefore equation d 77 due to only one sign change has only one negative real root. ‘General solution if x; Is a root of an algebraic equation of nth degree fn (x) = 0, the degree of f, (x) can be reduced by one degree to f,-1 (2) = 0 when f, (x) is divided by (x-~x,). If another root xz is also known, the equation can be reduced by one degree further when divided by (x—x2), and so on. falz) ag + agg x tay gt +. + ax + ax + ay Sintemay) = fren (2) ay) 2 # agg xP +. + ag x + ay Foret e—m_) = fren (x) = ap" x77? + aig" 3 + + ag"x + ay” fa-2/(e-¥9) = --- ate. Fillemxq) = fox) = ani. There is a special case where the roots are complex conju- gates; after division the degrees of the equation is reduced by 2 degrees. Division of the algebraic equation f,(x) by (x-x,) is easily carried out by using the Horner mathad in D 11. Horner method The Horner method is a scheme for calculation which can be applied to the nth degree polynom P Pat) = ap x + agg a +... + ay + ag to solve the following problems: ® Calculation of the value of P,(x) for x = x9. * Calculation of the values of the derivatives P,'(x), P,"(x), ete. up to P,® (x) for x = xp. * Reduction of the degree of P,,(x) if there are known roots. * Finding of zeroes (roots). continued on D141 D 4 ARITHMETIC Algebraic equation of any degree Horner method (see scheme below): Set the coefficients a, to 2, and write the coefficients of the polynomial P, (x) - starting with the coefficient which is related ta the highest exponent — in the first line. ‘ Positions with no covered exponents have entries of 0. = Scheme 1 a dB5 ay ( yan” ay dyes t0ay-... aga ayag” aya 86 3) ag aga ay a ay alc a at [atl = bg = Palza) | d a7 Aly x98: ty aan Xp tna”... Zym™ X98)? d88 5) a ag yc ag. ag lag = by A/1!-Palcad) | deo 8)xp AB, Xp dneg™ Ay Aer --- Hay d90 ag = by = 1/28: Py'(xy) aot Xo mat . 92 ag [ag {Medgar = Mam Me) ag3 * d94 {ag = ag by Vint Fy (x) 395 Examp!e 1 of the Horner method: Calculation of the values P, (x), P,' (x), Pa” {x}, and P,'" (x) forx =X; Xp = 4: P, (x) = 2° - 6x* + 11x - 6 d 96 ag? a 2, agi? d 97 1 -6 11 -6 d 98 Xp 4 4-8 12 d 99 <2 3 6 = P,(4) d100 4 4 8 * d1o1 1 2 (11 = Py) d102 4 4 d103 1 = Pa): V2; Py(4) = 1-2-8 = 12 [aos T= Py" (4) 1/31; Py (4) = 1-2-3-1 =918 105 106 a107 d108 4109 d1i0 d112 dita dis d116 dii7 118 d119 0120 Algebraic equation of any degree Explanation to the Horner method The value of a polynomial and its derivatives at a fixed point x = xo is to be calculated. The results of multiplications of xg with the multiplicants an,a,_s" etc. given by the dotted lines are written in the 2nd line (e.9. xg ° an” = x9 ag). Line 3 shows the results of the addition of tines 1 and 2. @.9. By! = ay yO + xg ag ; where aj! = a, y-9) = Ap-2™ + X09" An-1 This means especially: a= ag + x9 + ay” = by = Palo) the value of the polynomial at the point x = x9. Using the same scheme - starting from fine 3 = with multi- plications and additions leads to line 5 with a® = by = Py’ (XQ) the value of the first derivative of P,(x) at the point x = xp. This scheme can be repeated n-times, as a polynomial of degree n has exactly 1 derivatives. These calculations lead to: Pax) = ag” + a2 (xmxg) + ag (r-xp)? +... He tag (mag)? + gl (x-x9)" ARITHMETIC | Die = Pa (tg) + 1/1! + Py (tg) « (e-xg) + 1/2!» Py” (XQ) nag}? + Hee MAY PAOD (xq) > (mag) * Un! + Ba (x9) » (eg) Example 2 of the Horner method: Reduction of the degree if there is a known zero (root) xg, i.e. the finding of P,_; (x) using: Pa (x)f(e—Xa) = Poa). Given: P(x) = - 6x7 + 11x -6 with root. xg = 1. Scheme: a,” a, a, aq! 1 -6 W -6 xy 1 -5 6 7 =5 6 0 = P(t). Result: P,(1) = O shows, thatx = 1 is a raot of P, (x). Then Py_y(x) = 1x2 = 5x +6. The roots of this fast equation (x, = 2 and x, = 3) can be determined very easily using d 14, 122 d123 ARITHMETIC D Approximate solution for any equations 13 General Since the analytical determination of zeroes (roots) from algebraic or evan transcendental equations is only possible with restrictions, in D14 to D16 the following methods for approxi- mate solutions are given: Newton's method Secant-method Linear interpolation (Regula falsi). Starting with an approximate initial value any degree of accuracy can be reached by iteration. Example of an algebraic equation (polynomial): x¢-322 4+ 7x-5-=0. Example of a transcendental equation: x-la(z)-1=0. Procedure ® Graphical determination of the initial approximation by drawing the curve from a table of known values. @ Choice of one of the 3 afore mentioned methods. Please note that Linear interpolation is always convergent. For the ‘other methods convergence is only guaranteed under conditions given in 014 und D15. The disadvantage of this additional examination usually will be compensated by considerably faster convergence. ® Improved convergence can often be reached by starting with one method and continuing with another one; espe- cially when no improvement in results has been reached with one method after several iterations. ARITHMETIC | D Approximate solution for any equations 14 d125 126 d127 g128 di29 130 131 4132 133 Newton’s approximation method The value xo is the first approximation for the root rg of the equation f(x) = 0. ¥ The tangent is made at f(x9); the inter- section of the tangent with the x-axis is a better value than the starting point x9. Calculation of x, is made by: X= Xq — f%q)/f' (Xp). The improved value x2 is calculated using x, in a similar way: Hy = — Flr) /f' ) ete. Multiple repetition of this method leads to results of any desired accuracy. General rule Heer 7 te — FORME OR) i k=0.1.2.... Requirement for convergence of this method: #79 |s a single zero between x, und my maxima or minima of the function f(x) are not allowed. Convergence: Locally convergent. Comment: The values f(x,) and /'(x,) which are necessary for Newton’s methed can be calculated very easily using the Horner method given in D 11. Example: f(x) =x-Igx - 1. The starting value for a zero to fulfil F(x) = 0 may be x = 3. 1st step: 125 requires the value of the derivative f' (xp) to be calculated: f'Q) = lg(x) + Ig(e) = Iga) + 0.494.294. 2nd step: Determination of an improved value x, : From d125 the values xg = 3, f(xo) = 0.431364 and f(x) = 0.911415 lead to x, = 2.526710. Srd step: Determination of an improved x2: Using the values x, = 2.526710; f(x,) = 0.017141 and f’(x,) = 0.836849 equation d 126 to X = 2.506227; error + 0.000036. Using x2 the zero has an error of 0.000036. 4thstep: If the accuracy with x, is not sufficient further iterations must be carried out. 140 a141 142 d143 d144 di45 146 a7 d148 di49 150 ARITHMETIC D 48 Approximate solution for any equations Secant approximation method The derivative f'(x) of Newton's appro- ximation is replaced by the differential quotient: Two adjacent points f(x) and |{(*;) are connected by a straight line. The value x at the intersection of this line with the x-axis has to be determi- ned; x» Is the first approximation for the required zero rig. =x - ao tena ~ 08) Fey Fag) in the next step f(x;) is connected with f(x2). The intersection of this line with the x-axis is the next approximation. General Iteration rule: Xqat = Xk — £%) Me — Xho k=1,2,.. fled - f G11) fd * fl) Comment: An especially fast convergence often can be reached when the Secant and Newton approximation methods are used alternately. Convergence: Locally convergent. Example: f(x) =x-igx—1: x = 4; 4, <3. Flxq) = 1.408240; f(x.) = 0.491364, 1st approximation: xz = 3 - 0.431364 (9 - 4)/ (0,431 964 - 1.408 240) = 2,558 425. Error f(tq) = 0.043 768 2nd approximation calculated with x,, x2, f(xy) and f(x): Xq = 2.558425 — 0.043 766 (2.558 425 - 3)/ (0.043 768 - 0.431 364) = 2.508 562 Error fxs) = 0.001 982. Instead of continuing with the Secant method, Newton's method can now be used: For this reason f' (x2) has to be calculated: f'(x) = Igx + Ig (e) f' Qo) = 1g(2.558.425) + 0.434294 = 0.842267 X5" ©x2—f (va) /f" (xq) = 2.558 425 - 0.049 768/0.842 267 = 2.506 460. Error: f(xg*) = 0.000230. x5* leads to a smaller error than x3, which was found by only using the Secant method. ARITHMETIC D Series 18 Binominal series 180 fa) = (14x)? = 12 [ (T)a+($ jee (3) + a@ may be either positive or negative, a whole number or a fraction. Expansion of the binomial coefficient: (@ a@(a - 1) (a-2)(a@—3)...(a-nt+1 \ni 1-2-3 00 Examples: for d18t i: Qaaplstex4eeP? Fx i+. xl <4 ine 1 diez] Viex = (14x)? = te debited ee... ixl <4 1 eye tye Syd lel <1 183 = (1+ Ve oxi? tS ws xl< Vine (1+ x) Fort at Ta _| Taylor series areal f(xy = play + EQNie—ay + putting a = 0 gives the MacLaurin series: dies} f(x) = f(0) + £0), + £0) 2 + Examples: for all 186 er = oe 3 187 a® = Pena at diag} inx = | reo lex 4189] In(i+x) = eet 190 In2 = continued on D19 ARITHMETIC Fourier series Continuation of D21 y = 2ax/x for OSxSn/2 ¥ y= 2a(n-x)/n for n/2SxSn -2 ye -f(r+x) 38 [si _ sin (8x) , sin (5x) | y= 5p alsinx sn pe , sn Gal ws 234 d235 4236 d237 238) y = ax/x fo Ofx=En d2ag] y = a(2n-x)/x for mSx52n dado] y = f(2m+x) a_4alcosx , cos (3x) , cos (5x) j ati > Fa ae a «| d242) y= a sinx tor OSx8n d243] y = -a@ sing for nSxS2n 244] y = f(a +x) - 22. da a8 Ox cos (4x) , 245 3:5 d246] y = 0 for OSxEn = ah) Eeys3t 247} y = a sin (x 2) for 22435 d248] y = f(2t+x) 7 ¥ aaa] y = 28 (LA cogs + Suga - cagiés), A costes) oa) _ .] 250 yer for -tSxin y¥ 251) y = f(-x) = f(2n+x) -nO] K 28 4k GR x 08, (gn) , cos ou , sinx _ sin (20) ¥ sin (32) & 1 2 3 aa ARITHMETIC D 28 Laplace-Transformation 290 d 292/293 294 295 296 0297 General: The Replace: Transformation L {ftt)} based on the Integral- function Fis) = fino ee dr 0 converts the time function fit), which has to be zero for <0 and which must be given completely for 120, into a picture function. The part e-*' in d290 is used as an attention factor to get convergency of the integral for as many time functions as possible; here is s=a+iw with o=0 a complex operation variable. |n this picture-domain differential equations can be solved and unique, non periodical processes (e.g. oscillating) can be handled; the desired time behaviour is reached finally by inverse transformation in the f-domain (see D 28). Definitions: a Otte {fin} = Fes fine Sde | b'{F(s)} = fhe) = phy [ise ds Oy- ie abbreviated description abbreviated description: f(t) eo» F(s) F(s) =———~ f(t) Calculation rules (operation rules) LAM) + AID} = Fils) + Fels) Life ftt)} oF ils) L(flt-7)} = eTF Fs) Linearity Translation Convolution Ault) fot) fh (1) folt)-dt \ - é Ault): falt-1) de AlO* fl) o—* Fy (8) Fels) deaf) ren Lipa} s-F(s)-f(0") Variable transform. Differen- tiation Lif} =F F(s)-s-f(0"7)-F' (0%) ay esr) ” SF (s)— EAs 1 Integration uf J rtn-ar} = + Hs) ARITHMETIC D 30 Complex numbers Complex numbers (continued) in the polar coordinate system: 0353 z = r(cospti-sing) = a+ib 364 roe Vaeve? 4355 p= arctan 2 sing = b | cosp = 2 | tang = = 4356 Zye2q = ry-Fe[Cos(gp, + Pp) + i-sin( Gs + G2)] 4 n a3s7 Hot re + [eosl@s—ge) + i-sin(g—@a)] (z2 * 0) 368 2” = A [costag) + i-sin(ng)] (n > 0, integer) 4359 \r- Yr (cos gr enk + isin prank ) fork = 0,1,2,...,.4- 1. If k = Q this is the principal root, if k = 1,2,...,a-1 these are the ad- ventigious roots (1 is an integer). ® VV are the n-th unit-roots. The n-roots which fulfil 2” = 1 are 360 zfs cos 22K 4 |. sin 2% axk for k= 0,1,2,...,A-1 (nis an integer) 361 e'? = cosp+i-sing ere 1 ip =e = 362 e cos@ —i-sing coset 4383 jet#[ = Vcas’g + sin?g = 1 ie 4 gle | ip gcip 364 cosy = Ste" | sing = £—2— 2 2i 365 Inz = Inr+i(p+2mk) (k = 0, £1, +2,...) Wor, = rg and q,=q,+2mk, then z, =z, Note: @ should be measured along the arc, k is any arbitrary integer. FUNCTIONS OF A CIRCLE E General terms Right angled triangle . ae opposite @ ©: TEs hypotenuse o Bl soa: Adjacent 2 hypotenuse c adjacent, 5 opposite a opposite . e 8} tang = adjacent 9.732 11.732 | 1.000 /0.577 | 0.268 Relations between sine and cosine functions Basic equations e 13 Sine function ¥ e 14} Cosine function y A sin (ka - ¢) A cos (ka - g) —— sine curve with an A=1 and k=1 —-— sine curve amplitude of A=15 and k=2 cosine curve A=1 and k=1 or sine curve with a phase shift of =-n/2 FUNCTIONS OF A CIRCLE E Acute angle triangle Oblique angle triangle Sine Rule e 67 sina:sinf: siny = a:b:c = —b_ = —£ 268 a sin sina ain? sing a = c 269 b= gna Sin any Sin .- a - b e70 c gaa ony ang si"y Cosine Rule e71 a? = b? + c? — 2be+cosa e72 b2 = ¢2 + @ - 2ac-+cos ps e73 c2 = at + b? - 2ab+cosy (for obtuse angles the cosine is negative) Tangent Rule a+f | aty fty om | ato. Pg | ase 1G bee tan" @ ane ‘tan 258 Bene tan 25% bre tan BY Half-angle Rule 2. 2. B, _@ Pe ems} tmg= 85 | tng - 8 | ten § tee Area, radius of incircle and circumcircle e76 A= Pbe-sina = fac sing = dabesin y e7] A = Ysb-as-b)s-o = @s ¢ {f B= a& - b) Gs -t primary yl >a 168 value a Ratios between inverse hyperbolic functions arsinh x = arcosh x = | artanh x = arcoth x = '60 tarcoshy1+22 +arsinhyx?-1! arsinh ar sinh —— proms vee a x i241 i) x fet antanh ar fear tanh = eso xarcosh Vie 1 4 62 arcoth —s arcoth- artanh> For the defined x values of 158 163 arsinh(—x) = —arsinh x £64 artanh(-x) = -artanh x arcoth(—x) = -arcothxy Addition theorems f65] arsinh a + arsinhb = arsinh (aye?+1 + bya +1) #66] arcosha + arcoshb = arcosh {ab + \(a*-1)(b°—1)] f67| artanha + artanhb = artanh 258 — 168] arcotha + arcothb = arcoth 2224 * Sign + forx > 0:-forx <0 eooc P(ANB) P(ANA) *) Venn Diagrams STATISTICS Basic theory of probabilities Gi Theoretical probability P(A) if E is the set of outcomes of an experiment all of which are assumed to be equally tikely and an event A is satisfied by a subset A of them, then P(A) = n(Aj/n(E). Experimental probabllity P(A) If an event A is satisfied by a certain outcome of an experiment and, when the experiment is repeated m times under exactly the same conditions, A occurs r times out of n, then P(A) = limit (r/n) ase Axioms to the probability P(A) & 0, event A has the probability P(A) fA) = number of events in which A occurs number of possible events = relative frequency = P(Aj) = 1-0. The sum of the probabilities of all possible events Aj taking place must be 1-0. P(AnB)®) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A B®) lf A and B cannot take place at once, then = P(A)+ P(B) and the events are said to be disjoint. P(A/B) = P(AnB)iP(B)" is called the probability of A condi- tional on B (the probability of the event A, given ‘that the event B has happened). lf the events are independent (if the knowledge that one event has occurred has no effect on the probability of the other occurring)assuming P(A} resp. P(B) + 0. P{A/B) = P(A), and P{BIA) = P(B) P(A) x P(8) if events are independent. P(A) x P(A) = 0, as A and A are mutually exciusive. The rectangle represents the sum of all events 4 The large circle represents the event A The small circle represents the event B Hatched area shows the conjunction of the different cases. LAS SD) SOs QD Avs A a a8 Ane (*not" A) (4 “or” B) (A “and” B) (B “but not A) Gs STATISTICS Special distributions eqoud fenbe jo “UMOUY SI Ua9Mjaq UONNQUISIp 94) INoqe UOJEUOY ‘OU pur BN]eA WWW PUR Win)xew AjUO UayM UOHeDIddy qexrse apisino SI anjea yore i aseuy ‘g‘e jeA 2b z 10 e=4 - anh g= au uo a + at we-9) TF |esre- | "ag ajqeueA WopueY 1) = (dp = ay “eNjeA URW B PUNOIE 4ND20 UO!INGLISIP pau) 2 ‘yu09 = GQ = d -119Q YMA SanjeA peunseauwi se ‘aoijoesd ul paule}qo Ua 3 3 ss 8 - ge ‘vonnquy | x 20 “Sip reiwoUlg ayy tf zzho oetthe =U} 32 Jo ese9 jereds T a 86 Ota ou aE s “d0ue oe yoy AUG {ZL 5 89s) ) awn joujuCs Aq palidiinw ¥ eyes aunyies -eqoid ayy Sanid Aq xe jo juswsoe|dey ‘suOHeiNo}es AN|geI|eas JO) Pash 0 = 110) oer en uonnquisip = -ueuod uossiog Ou) = =z e-| o

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