Debian GNU/Linux

Debian:

8.1 28 August 2016

Debian GNU/Linux.

Copyright 1996-2016 by Software in the Public Interest, portions copyright 2004, 2005, 2006 Kamaraju Kusumanchi
Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this document provided the copyright notice and this
permission notice are preserved on all copies.
Permission is granted to copy and distribute modied versions of this document under the conditions for verbatim copying,
provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one.
Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this document into another language, under the above conditions
for modied versions, except that this permission notice may be included in translations approved by the Free Software
Foundation instead of in the original English.
 i

1 1
1.1 ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Debian GNU/Linux? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 , Debian, Linux?! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Debian GNU/Linux? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5 Debian GNU/Linux Linux? -
Debian, - ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.6 Debian GNU Free Software Foundation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.7 Debian ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Debian GNU/Linux 5
2.1 Debian ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 stable? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3 Debian? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.4 Debian -? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.5 CD frozen unstable?
, CD ! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.6 Debian -? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.7 ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3 Debian 7
3.1 Debian (//) ? . . . . 7
3.1.1 , -
- . ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.1.2 ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.1.3 . Kde,
Gnome, Xorg . . ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.1.4 ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.1.5 , ,
? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.1.6 , . ? . . . . . . . 9
3.1.7 ? -
, , ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.1.8 , ? . . . . . . . . . 10
3.1.9 ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.1.10 / Debian. ,
? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
 ii

3.1.11 I am currently tracking stable. Can I change to testing or unstable? If so, how? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1.12 (stretch). -
? - ,
? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1.13 . ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2 But what about Knoppix, Linux Mint Debian Edition, Ubuntu, and others? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2.1 I know that Knoppix/Linux Mint Debian Edition/Ubuntu/. . . is Debian-based. So after installing it
on the hard disk, can I use 'apt' package tools on it? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2.2 I installed Knoppix/Linux Mint Debian Edition/Ubuntu/. . . on my hard disk. Now I have a problem.
What should I do? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2.3 I'm using Knoppix/LMDE/Ubuntu/. . . and now I want to use Debian. How do I migrate? . . . . . . . 12

4 13
4.1 / Debian GNU/Linux? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.2 Debian GNU/Linux? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.3 Debian Linux? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.4 Debian Unix? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.5 Debian ( .deb) RedHat/Slackware/. . . Linux?
RedHat ( .rpm) Debian GNU/Linux? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.6 -Debian ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.7 , libtermcap? . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.8 AccelX? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

5 , Debian 17
5.1 Debian GNU/Linux? . . . . . . . . 17
5.2 ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.3 , Debian ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.4 ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.5 Debian GNU/Linux? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.6 ld: cannot nd -lfoo ?
- libfoo.so Debian ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.7 Debian Java ( , )? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.8 How can I check that I am using a Debian system, and what version it is? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.9 Debian , ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.10 ezmlm/djbdns/qmail? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.11 Flash (SWF)? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.12 Google Earth? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.13 VoIP? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.14 , Linux. ? . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

6 FTP- Debian 21
6.1 Debian? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.2 etch, lenny . .? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.2.1 ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.2.2 ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
 iii

6.3 sid? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.4 stable? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.5 ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.5.1 testing? ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.6 ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.7 FTP- Debian? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.8 dists/stable/main? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.9 ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.10 pool? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.11 incoming? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.12 apt-? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

7 Debian 27
7.1 Debian? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7.2 Debian? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7.3 Debian ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
7.4 control? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
7.5 conle? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.6 preinst, postinst, prerm postrm? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.7 (Essential), (Required), (Important), -
(Standard), (Optional) (Extra) ? . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.8 ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.9 , , (Recommends), (Suggests), -
(Replaces), (Breaks) (Provides) , (Depends)
(Conicts) ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.10 - (Pre-Depends)? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.11 (unknown), (install), (remove), (purge),
(hold) ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.12 (hold) ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.13 ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.14 ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.15 Debian? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

8 Debian 35
8.1 Debian? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
8.1.1 dpkg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
8.1.2 APT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
8.1.3 aptitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.1.4 synaptic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
8.1.5 tasksel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
8.1.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
8.2 , Debian ; ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
8.3 , Debian? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
8.4 How do I display the les of an installed package? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
8.5 , ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
8.6 Why is `foo-data' not removed when I uninstall `foo' ? How do I make sure old unused library-packages get
purged? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
 iv

9 Debian 41
9.1 Debian ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
9.1.1 aptitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
9.1.2 apt-get apt-cdrom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
9.1.3 mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
9.2 ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
9.3 - .deb? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
9.4 How can I keep a log of the packages I added to the system? I'd like to know when upgrades and removals
have occurred and on which packages! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
9.5 ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
9.6 , ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

10 Debian 45
10.1 Debian ? . . . . . . . . . 45
10.2 Debian? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
10.3 What special provisions does Debian provide to deal with modules? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
10.4 ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
10.5 Where can I get more information about Linux packages for Debian? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

11 Debian GNU/Linux 47
11.1 , ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
11.2 ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
11.3 Debian ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
11.4 X11? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
11.5 , . ,
Debian. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
11.6 rc.local ? . . . . . . . 48
11.7 ,
? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
11.8 , - , ? . . . . . . . . . . 49
11.9 , -
? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
11.10 mawk, gawk; vim, elvis; trn,
tin. Debian? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

12 Debian GNU/Linux 53
12.1 Debian? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
12.2 - - Debian? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
12.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
12.2.2 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
12.2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
12.2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
12.2.5 Usenet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
12.3 Debian GNU/Linux? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
12.4 ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
12.5 Debian? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
 v

13 Debian 57
13.1 How can I become a Debian member/Debian developer? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
13.2 Debian ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
13.3 Debian? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
13.3.1 Software in the Public Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
13.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

14 Debian GNU/Linux 59
14.1 CD- Debian ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
14.2 Debian ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
14.3 Linux . Debian
GNU/Linux ? . . . . . . 59
14.4 Debian ,
Debian? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

15 , Debian 61
15.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
15.2 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
15.3 Debian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
15.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
15.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

16 63
16.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
16.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
16.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
16.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
 vi
 1

1.1 ?
( !) Debian (Debian GNU/Linux ) Debian. ,
, :
. Unix-
. , ,
.
, , . ` Debian?' .
53. , . ` ' . 63.

1.2 Debian GNU/Linux?

Debian GNU/Linux  Linux .
Debian GNU/Linux:

: Debian 42551 .
; Debian . Debian
- (http://www.debian.org/distrib/ftplist) Debian.

: -
. , Debian GNU/Linux,
GNU
(GNU General Public License).
FTP- Debian 696 ( non-free contrib),
, .

: 1033 , -
, Debian . FTP- .

Linux Linux, Debian GNU/Linux.

, Linux - .
, .
, . -
, ,
Linux. () Linux
(), , -
, , .
Debian GNU/Linux  , Unix-
. Unix-
GNU, Debian GNU/Linux, ,
GNU.
 1. 2

Debian GNU (. Debian

(http://www.debian.org/social_contract#guidelines)). , ,
. , ,
, , , ,
; ,
.
Debian (Ian Murdock) 1993 GNU Free
Software Foundation. , Debian GNU.
Debian GNU/Linux ,
Linux. , , Debian Linux -
, Linux
, . . ` -
Linux . Debian GNU/Linux
?' . 59.

1.3 , Debian, Linux?!

, Linux  Unix- .
386 ( ), . Linux
(Linus Torvalds) .
, Linux- :

, Linux (Linux Filesystem Hierarchy

Standard), http://www.pathname.com/fhs/.
Unix-, GNU Free Software Foundation.

Linux, , GNU, FSF POSIX

(IEEE 1003.1), . ` Debian Unix?' . 14.
, Linux (http://www.linux.org/info/), . Linux Online (http:
//www.linux.org/info).

1.4 Debian GNU/Linux?

, Debian Linux, Debian
GNU/Hurd BSD , . , -linux
.
Debian GNU/Hurd.
Hurd  , GNU Mach. -
GNU.
GNU/Hurd http://www.gnu.org/software/hurd/, Debian
GNU/Hurd  http://www.debian.org/ports/hurd/.
A second eort is the port to a BSD kernel. People are working with the FreeBSD kernel.
-linux . http://www.debian.org/ports/#nonlinux.

1.5 Debian GNU/Linux Linux?

Debian, - ?
, Debian Linux:

(http://www.debian.org/social_contract), Debian -
100%. Debian .
Debian (http://www.debian.org/social_contract#
guidelines).
 1. 3

Debian -
, ( ) . -
Linux ;
Debian (. ` Debian' . 27).

Linux ,
, . Debian Linux,
,
Linux .
1033 , , 42551
Debian GNU/Linux. Debian
, ,
.
, , . `How can I become a Debian member/Debian developer?' . 57.

Debian 42551 (http://packages.debian.org/

stable/) 10 (http://www.debian.org/ports/). ,
GNU/Linux. . `
Debian GNU/Linux?' . 17, .
` / Debian GNU/Linux?' . 13.

Debian -
. -
,
WWW- . .
` ?' . 55.

Debian Debian  Debian (Debian Policy).

, Debian.

Debian (http://www.debian.org/intro/
why_debian).

1.6 Debian GNU Free Software Foundation?

Debian , (http:
//www.gnu.org/) (http://www.stallman.org/).
, Debian.
Debian FSF, -
. FSF , Debian GNU/Linux,
.
FSF  , GNU, Hurd (http://www.
gnu.org/software/hurd/). Debian FSF , Debian GNU/Hurd (http://www.
debian.org/ports/hurd/).

1.7 Debian ?
, .
Debra Ian Murdock, . (,
Ian (!), ee'-en.)
 1. 4
 5

Debian GNU/Linux

Debian GNU/Linux
(http://www.debian.org/releases/stable/installmanual).
Debian GNU/Linux.

2.1 Debian ?
Debian GNU/Linux:

8, (stable) jessie -
, , ,
.
(testing) , stretch ,
; ,
. , , ,
.
, . -
FTP- Debian
, , 
!

. ` Debian?' . 21.

2.2 stable?
. Debian
, . ,
- . security.debian.org (ftp://
security.debian.org).
: . - -
.
. Debian -
, .
. (http://www.debian.org/
security/faq) Debian (http://www.debian.org/doc/manuals/securing-debian-howto/).

2.3 Debian?
, - Debian (https://www.debian.
org/distrib/).
 2. Debian GNU/Linux 6

CD ( DVD) Debian GNU/Linux -

(http://www.debian.org/CD).

2.4 Debian -?
Debian - : -,
-, . Debian.
. Debian GNU/Linux (http://www.debian.org/releases/
stable/installmanual).

2.5 CD -
frozen unstable? , CD -
!
Debian CD

/dists/frozen -> jessie/

/dists/stable -> jessie/
/dists/testing -> jessie/
/dists/unstable -> jessie/

, , sources.list

deb cdrom:[< cd>]/ unstable main [. . . ]

, , -
. , Debian , CD- /.disk/info.
CD /README.txt.
, , , (http://www.
debian.org/releases/).

2.6 Debian -?
. Debian ,
FTP- .
CD-, CD, ,
. (http://www.debian.org/CD/netinst/).

2.7 ?
. - DVD Debian GNU/Linux, USB-
, TFTP. -
. ,
. -
, . .
Debian GNU/Linux (http://www.debian.org/releases/stable/installmanual).
 7

Debian

Debian. .
, , ,
, , .
, Debian, , Debian .
` Debian?' . 21.

3.1 Debian (//) -

?
- . , .
, Debian. , .
, .

 . .
.

, , . -
, .
( )
.

If you are a desktop user with a lot of experience in the operating system and do not mind facing the odd bug now and
then, or even full system breakage, use unstable. It has all the latest and greatest software, and bugs are usually xed
swiftly.

, , ,
, . , ,
.

, .
, .

3.1.1 , -

- . ?

, -
. .
- , . ,
, .
Linux (http://www.linux-on-laptops.com/) .
Debian, .
.
 3. Debian 8

Another option would be to ask in the debian-user mailing list by sending an email to debian-user@lists.debian.org. Messages
can be posted to the list even without subscribing. The archives can be read through http://lists.debian.org/debian-user/.
Information regarding subscribing to the list can be found at the location of archives. You are strongly encouraged to post your
questions on the mailing-list rather than on irc (http://www.debian.org/support). The mailing-list messages are archived, so
the solution to your problem can help others with the same issue.

3.1.2 ?

. () .
.
, . -
, , .
 - .

3.1.3 .

Kde, Gnome, Xorg . . ?

, . .
, . ,
. ,
, . .
. , 24 , 7
.
On the other hand, packages in testing or unstable can have hidden bugs, security holes etc. Moreover, some packages in
testing and unstable might not be working as intended. Usually people working on a single desktop prefer having the latest
and most modern set of packages. Unstable is the solution for this group of people.
, . ,
. , .

3.1.4 ?

, . , .
. , /
.
Actually, if you are an expert and if you are willing to spend some time and if you are real careful and if you know what you
are doing, then it might be possible to go from unstable to testing and then to stable. The installer scripts are not designed
to do that. So in the process, your conguration les might be lost and. . .

3.1.5 , , -

No. This is a rather subjective issue. There is no perfect answer as it depends on your software needs, your willingness to
deal with possible breakage, and your experience in system administration. Here are some tips:

. .
.

, , , -
. , ,
. , . ,
.

. ,
. , ,
, Debian.
 3. Debian 9

, ,
. , -
gcc gcc3 gcc4. labplot ,
, gcc4
,  . ,
, gcc4,  .

3.1.6 , . ?

, . -
, () - . -
, .
, , ( , ).

3.1.7 ? -

, , ?

The bug xes and improvements introduced in the unstable distribution trickle down to testing after a certain number of
days. Let's say this threshold is 5 days. The packages in unstable go into testing only when there are no RC-bugs reported
against them. If there is a RC-bug led against a package in unstable, it will not go into testing after the 5 days.
The idea is that, if the package has any problems, it would be discovered by people using unstable and will be xed before it
enters testing. This keeps testing in a usable state for most of the time. Overall a brilliant concept, if you ask me. But things
aren't always that simple. Consider the following situation:

, XYZ.

, 10 XYZ-3.6, XYZ-3.7.

After 5 days, XYZ-3.7 from unstable migrates into testing.

So on June 15, both testing and unstable have XYZ-3.7 in their repositories.

, XYZ , ,
XYZ-3.6 XYZ-3.7.

, 25 - RC-
XYZ-3.7 BTS.

XYZ ,
, 30 . , 5 ,
. 5 .
, RC-.

This new version in unstable, XYZ-3.8 is scheduled to enter testing on July 5th.

But on July 3rd some other person discovers another RC-bug in XYZ-3.8.

, XYZ RC- XYZ

5 .

So on July 8th, testing has XYZ-3.7 while unstable has XYZ-3.9.

This new version XYZ-3.9 is now rescheduled to enter testing on July 13th.

Now since you are running testing, and since XYZ-3.7 is buggy, you could probably use XYZ only after July 13th. That
is you essentially ended up with a broken XYZ for about one month.

The situation can get much more complicated, if say, XYZ depends on 4 other packages. This could in turn lead to an unusable
testing distribution for months. While the scenario above is immaginary, similar things can occur in real life, though they
are rare.
 3. Debian 10

3.1.8 , ?

One of the main reasons why many people choose Debian over other Linux distributions is that it requires very little
administration. People want a system that just works. In general one can say that stable requires very little maintenance,
while testing and unstable require constant maintenance from the administrator. If you are running stable, all you need to
worry about is keeping track of security updates. If you are running either testing or unstable it is a good idea to be aware
of the new bugs discovered in the installed packages, new bugxes/features introduced etc.

3.1.9 ?

Debian. .
The stable distribution is currently jessie; The next stable distribution will be called stretch. Let's consider the particular
case of what happens when stretch is released as the new stable version.

(oldstable) = wheezy; (stable) = jessie; (testing) = stretch; -

(unstable) = sid
sid, , .
sid ( stretch). ( jessie)
( ).
- . -
.
, , , (release-critical
 RC).
When testing is frozen, all the new bugxes introduced have to be manually checked by the members of the release
team. This is done to ensure that there won't be any unknown severe problems in the frozen testing.
' ' ,
,

The 'frozen testing' with no rc-bugs will be released as the new stable version. In our example, this new stable release
will be called stretch.
= jessie, = stretch.
.
.
sid , Debian
.

3.1.10 / Debian. , -

. /etc/apt/sources.list. ,
:

deb http://ftp.us.debian.org/debian/ unstable main contrib

(unstable ) Debian, -
.
lsb_release ( lsb-release).
, :

$ lsb_release -a
LSB Version: core-2.0-noarch:core-3.0-noarch:core-3.1-noarch:core-2.0-ia32:core-3.0-ia32:core-3.1-ia32
Distributor ID: Debian
Description: Debian GNU/Linux unstable (sid)
Release: unstable
Codename: sid
 3. Debian 11

, . sources.list , -
. , -
Debian. apt-pinning.
.

3.1.11 I am currently tracking stable. Can I change to testing or unstable? If so, how?

, /etc/apt/sources.list 'jessie'
'stable'. , .
, /etc/apt/sources.list 'testing'.
, 'unstable'.
Currently testing is called stretch. So, if you change the third eld of /etc/apt/sources.list to 'stretch', then also you will be
running testing. But even when stretch becomes stable, you will still be tracking stretch.
Sid. , /etc/apt/sources.list 'sid',
.
, Debian , -
, . ,
, , /etc/apt/sources.list , -
.
, , (
), , ,
.
, , aptitudeupdate
. ,
. , ,
.
, apt full-upgrade,
aptitude safe-upgrade aptitude full-upgrade. apt
aptitude.

3.1.12 (stretch). -

? - ,

/etc/apt/sources.list. ,
:

deb http://ftp.us.debian.org/debian/ testing main

deb http://ftp.us.debian.org/debian/ stretch main

/etc/apt/sources.list testing,
. stretch
Debian . , ,
.
stretch, ( stretch
).

3.1.13 . ?

If unsure, the best bet would be the stable distribution.

 3. Debian 12

3.2 But what about Knoppix, Linux Mint Debian Edition, Ubuntu, and others?
Debian, , Debian.
, .
, .
GNU/Linux, Debian (http://www.debian.org/misc/
children-distros) Debian.

3.2.1 I know that Knoppix/Linux Mint Debian Edition/Ubuntu/. . . is Debian-based. So after installing

it on the hard disk, can I use 'apt' package tools on it?

Debian. Debian. ,
apt , /etc/apt/sources.list.
Debian, . .
, ,
. - ,
Debian . ,
(.deb), .
For example, Knoppix is a Linux distribution designed to be booted as a live CD whereas Debian is designed to be installed
on the hard-disk. Knoppix is great if you want to know whether a particular piece of hardware works, or if you want to
experience how a GNU/Linux system 'feels' etc., Knoppix is good for demonstration purposes while Debian is designed to
run 24/7. Moreover the number of packages available, the number of architectures supported by Debian are far more than
that of Knoppix.
Debian, Debian. Debian
, Knoppix, . , ,
Debian Knoppix. , , Debian.

3.2.2 I installed Knoppix/Linux Mint Debian Edition/Ubuntu/. . . on my hard disk. Now I have a

problem. What should I do?

You are advised not to use the Debian forums (either mailing lists or IRC) for help as people there may base their suggestions
on the assumption that you are running a Debian system. These xes might not be suited to what you are running, and
might even make your problem worse.
, . ,
, , , Debian,
.

3.2.3 I'm using Knoppix/LMDE/Ubuntu/. . . and now I want to use Debian. How do I migrate?

Debian .
.
Debian , .
( /home) , Debian ,
( ) .
, ( /etc/ ,
, /var/).
 13

4.1 / Debian GNU/Linux?

Debian GNU/Linux ,
, Linux. . Linux FAQ (http://en.tldp.org/FAQ/Linux-FAQ/
intro.html#DOES-LINUX-RUN-ON-MY-COMPUTER).
Debian GNU/Linux 8 :

amd64: 64- AMD AMD64 Intel -

EM64T, 64- ;
arm64: 64- ARM.
armel: ARM ;
armhf: armel ARMv7 .
i386: Intel , Intel 386, 486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium II
(Klamath Celeron), Pentium III AMD, Cyrix ;
ia64: Intel IA-64 (Itanium);
mips:MIPS SGI  Indy Indigo2; mipsel: MIPS
 Digital DECstation;
powerpc: IBM/Motorola PowerPC, PowerMac Apple Macintosh
CHRP PReP;
ppc64el: 64- PowerPC ,
PowerPC/POWER.
s390x: 64- IBM System z, s390.

The development of binary distributions of Debian for hurd-i386 (for GNU Hurd kernel on i386 32-bit PCs), mipsel64
(for 64 bit MIPS in little-endian mode), powerpcspe (port for the Signal Processing Engine hardware), sparc64 (for 64 bit
SPARC processors), sh (for Hitachi SuperH processors), and x32 (for amd64/x86_64 CPUs using 32-bit pointers) is currently
underway.
m68k Etch (Debian 4.0), -
Debian. Amiga ATARI
Motorola 680x0, x>=2 MMU. , -
, ,
.
hppa ( Hewlett-Packard PA-RISC ) alpha ( Compaq/Digital
Alpha) Squeeze (Debian 6.0) .
arm, armel.
Support for the 32-bit s390 port (s390) was discontinued and replaced with s390x in Jessie (Debian 8). In addition, the ports
to IA-64 and Sparc had to be removed from this release due to insucient developer support.
 4. 14

. (http://www.debian.org/ports/).
, , PCMCIA (PC Card)
(http://www.debian.org/releases/stable/installmanual).

4.2 Debian GNU/Linux?

Beside Linux, Debian provides a complete, binary distribution for the following operating system kernels:

FreeBSD: provided through the kfreebsd-amd64 and kfreebsd-i386 ports, for 64-bit PCs and 32-bit PCs respectively.
These ports were rst released in Debian 6.0 Squeeze as a technology preview. However they were not part of the
Debian 8 Jessie release.

, :

avr32  32- Atmel,

hurd-i386  32- . GNU Hurd 
, GNU,
sh  Hitachi SuperH.

NetBSD, netbsd-i386 ( 32- )

netbsd-alpha ( Alpha), ,
.
. (http://www.debian.org/ports/).

4.3 Debian Linux?

Debian Linux -
Linux. Linux
Debian, , .
Debian GNU/Linux Linux (http://www.pathname.com/fhs/).
, -, Debian -
Linux .
Debian GNU/Linux , Linux Standard Base (http://www.linuxbase.
org/). LSB  , .
Debian Etch LSB Release 3.1, . Linux Foundation Certication (https://www.
linux-foundation.org/lsb-cert/productdir.php). Debian
Linux Standard Base debian-lsb (http://lists.debian.org/debian-lsb/).

4.4 Debian Unix?

Linux Unix. ,
Unix System V, , BSD. ,
Unix , . -
, .
, POSIX.1 (IEEE 1003.1-
1990) Unix-
.
Linux POSIX.1, POSIX ,
POSIX.1 ( FIPS 151-2) ; Linux -
POSIX. , Debian
, . (
, , POSIX.1).
Unix GmbH (, ) Linux-, -
FIPS 151-2 ( POSIX.1).
Unix, Unix Linux 2.0, Lasermoon Linux-FT.
 4. 15

4.5 Debian ( .deb)

RedHat/Slackware/. . . Linux? RedHat (-
.rpm) Debian GNU/Linux?
Linux
.

, , , Debian Linux-, -
, , , , , .
, . . RedHat
Slackware , Debian GNU/Linux,
. ( )
Linux.
Alien (http://packages.debian.org/alien).
, , , -
- . .
Debian ( ) -
.
Debian, -
Debian, - ,
, .
: Linux (, , Debian GNU/Linux) , -
/usr/local/ . -
, , .

4.6 -Debian ?
/usr/local/ Debian. -
/usr/local/src/. ,
foo.tar /usr/local/src/foo. /usr/local/bin/,
/usr/local/lib/, /usr/local/etc/.
/ - ,
/usr/local/, /usr/local/.
, , :

ln -s /usr/local/bin/foo /usr/bin/foo

, , ,
Debian Debian. ,
, Debian (. `
Debian?' . 53).

4.7 ,
libtermcap?
Debian terminfo ncurses, termcap
termcap.
terminfo ncurses libtinfo5.
libncurses libtinfo, , , -
, libtermcap libncurses.
, termcap
, . Debian
termcap-compat, libtermcap.so.2, /etc/termcap, 2005
.
 4. 16

4.8 AccelX?
AccelX termcap. ` , -
libtermcap?' . 15.
 17

Debian

5.1 Debian
GNU/Linux?
Linux, Debian GNU/Linux :

GNU , ,
gcc, g++, make, texinfo, Emacs, Bash Unix;
Perl, Python, Tcl/Tk , ;
TeX (LaTeX) Lyx, dvips, Ghostscript;
Xorg, Linux,
X-, GNOME, KDE Xfce;
a full suite of networking applications, including servers for Internet protocols such as HTTP (WWW), FTP, NNTP
(news), SMTP and POP (mail) and DNS (name servers); relational databases like PostgreSQL, MySQL; also provided
are web browsers including the various Mozilla products,
a complete set of oce applications, including the LibreOce productivity suite, Gnumeric and other spreadsheets,
WYSIWYG editors, calendars.

More than 42304 packages, ranging from news servers and readers to sound support, FAX programs, database and spreadsheet
programs, image processing programs, communications, net, and mail utilities, Web servers, and even ham-radio programs
are included in the distribution. Other 696 software suites are available as Debian packages, but are not formally part of
Debian due to license restrictions.

5.2 ?
, ,
/usr/share/doc//copyright, .
 , Debian GNU/Linux;
Debian ( ` control?' . 28), .
Debian, /usr/share/doc//changelog.Debian.gz, ,
Debian.

5.3 , Debian ?
Debian (http://www.debian.org/distrib/ftplist),
indices/Maintainers. , -
.
 5. , Debian 18

- Debian (http://packages.debian.org/) -
 Debian.

5.4 ?
Debian, ,
C/C++ . ,
build-essential. , -
, Debian.
, ,
, , , autoconf gettext.
Debian , Debian.
, , , , -
Debian. , -
( build-essential),
, (Build-Dependencies).
, ,
:

# apt-get build-dep foo

# apt-get source --build foo

, Linux, Debian,
kernel-package. . ` Debian?' . 45.

5.5 Debian GNU/Linux?

There is a list of packages which still need to be packaged for Debian, the Work-Needing and Prospective Packages list
(http://www.debian.org/devel/wnpp/).
For more details about adding missing things, see `How can I become a Debian member/Debian developer?' . 57.

5.6 ld: cannot nd -lfoo -

? - libfoo.so Debian -
?
Debian , ( libfoo.so.x.y.z ) -
 . libfoo-dev libfooX-dev (
libfooX, X  ).

5.7 Debian Java ( , )?

Debian Java , Java
Development Kits Runtime Environments. Debian , , Java.
Running a Java applet requires a web browser with the capability to recognize and execute it. Several web browsers available
in Debian, such as Mozilla or Konqueror, support Java plug-ins that enable running Java applets within them.
Java Debian (http://www.debian.org/doc/manuals/
debian-java-faq/).

5.8 How can I check that I am using a Debian system, and what version it is?
, , Debian,

 5. , Debian 19

lsb_release -a

( Distributor ID) ( Release Codename).

Debian:

$ lsb_release -a
No LSB modules are available.
Distributor ID: Debian
Description: Debian GNU/Linux 7.4 (wheezy)
Release: 7.4
Codename: wheezy

/etc/debian_version,
, base-les.
, Debian ,
() . Debian
. . foo,
dpkg list foo. , :

dpkg --status foo

, :

dpkg -l

Note that the existence of the program dpkg shows that you should be able to install Debian packages on your system.
However, since the program has been ported to many other operating systems and architectures, this is no longer a reliable
method of determining if a system is Debian GNU/Linux.

5.9 Debian , ?
Debian GNU/Linux
( kbd), ,
.
.

Nearly all of the software in Debian supports UTF-8 as character set. Legacy character sets, such as ISO-8859-1 or
ISO-8859-2, should be considered obsolete.

Currently, support for German-, Spanish-, French-, Hungarian-, Italian-, Japanese-, Korean-, Dutch-, Polish-,
Portuguese-, Russian-, Turkish-, and Chinese-language manual pages is provided through the manpages-LANG packages
(where LANG is the two-letter ISO country code). To access an NLS manual page, the user must set the shell
LC_MESSAGES variable to the appropriate string.
, LC_MESSAGES 'italian'. man
/usr/share/man/it/.

5.10 ezmlm/djbdns/qmail?
(Daniel J. Bernstein) (http://cr.yp.to/software.html)
, . 2007
: [. . . ] , , -
. . (http://cr.yp.to/distributors.html) .
(2016-03), ezmlm-idx
( mlmmj Debian jessie); djbdns sid (
), . #516394 (https://bugs.debian.org/516394) #796118 (https:
//bugs.debian.org/796118), dbndns; publicle ,
publicle-installer Debian contrib.
(qmail, daemontools, ucspi-tcp) Debian.
 5. , Debian 20

5.11 Flash (SWF)?

Debian gnash swfdec  SWF.

5.12 Google Earth?

Google Earth is available for GNU/Linux from Google's web site, but not only it is not Free Software, but is completely
undistributable by a third party. However, googleearth-package (in the contrib-section) might be helpful in using this software.

5.13 VoIP?
IP : SIP H.323.
Debian main. ekiga.

5.14 , Linux. -
?
, :)
ndiswrapper , Windows (
) Linux. . Debian - ndiswrapper (http://wiki.debian.
org/NdisWrapper).
 21

FTP- Debian

6.1 Debian?
: (stable), (testing) (unstable). -
( ` testing? ?'
. 23). , (oldstable) (. . )
(experimental).
Experimental is used for packages which are still being developed, and with a high risk of breaking your system. It's used by
developers who'd like to study and test bleeding edge software. Users shouldn't be using packages from there, because they
can be dangerous and harmful even for the most experienced people.
Debian, . ` Debian' . 7.

6.2 etch, lenny . .?

. Debian ,
, . Debian (
, unstable, stable,
).
stable  jessie (. . Debian GNU/Linux 8), testing 
stretch. , jessie , stretch  .
unstable  sid, sid -
( ` sid?' . 22).

6.2.1 ?

Aside jessie and stretch, other codenames that have been already used are: buzz for release 1.1, rex for release 1.2, bo for
releases 1.3.x, hamm for release 2.0, slink for release 2.1, potato for release 2.2, woody for release 3.0, sarge for release 3.1,
etch for release 4.0, lenny for release 5.0, squeeze for release 6.0, and wheezy for release 7.

6.2.2 ?

(Toy Story) Pixar.

buzz (Buzz Lightyear)  ,

rex  ,

bo (Bo Peep)  , ,

hamm  -,

slink (Slinky Dog)  ,

 6. FTP- Debian 22

potato  , , (Mr. Potato),

woody  ,

sarge  ,

etch  (Etch-a-Sketch),

lenny  ,

squeeze  ,

wheezy  -,

jessie  -, ,

stretch  .

sid  , .

(https://lists.debian.org/debian-devel/1996/06/msg00515.html) -
(https://lists.debian.org/debian-user/1997/04/msg00011.html) , ,
Debian, Pixar ( ).

6.3 sid?
sid unstable  , .
, testing, stable. sid
.
sid : Sid  ,
:-)
1

6.4 stable?
stable/main/: , Debian
GNU/Linux.
Debian (DFSG) (http://www.debian.org/
social_contract#guidelines) .

stable/non-free/: , , -
.
, .
, - .
(, CD-)
, , .

stable/contrib/: , DFSG
, - ,
non-free.
1 sid , FTP- : , -

unstable - ,

, . , , ,

. , -

. ,

sid.

, , stable sid,

unstable, . . (. `

pool?' . 24) , ,

, -

(, ).
 6. FTP- Debian 23

6.5 ?
testing , unstable.
They must be in sync on all architectures where they have been built and mustn't have dependencies that make them
uninstallable; they also need to have fewer release-critical bugs than the versions currently in unstable. This way, we hope
that `testing' is always close to being a release candidate.
testing , (http://www.debian.org/
devel/testing).

6.5.1 testing? ?

When the testing distribution is mature enough, the release manager starts `freezing' it. The normal propagation delays
are increased to ensure that as few new bugs as possible from unstable enter testing.
- testing - . ,
, , , testing -
.
.
testing , unstable .
- ,
testing ,
testing stable.
testing ,
, , . .
(http://www.debian.org/releases/testing/).
,
testing .
, -
(http://bugs.debian.org/release-critical/). NoRCBugs
(http://wiki.debian.org/ReleaseGoals/NoRCBugs), , -
critical, grave serious. , ,
RC (http://release.debian.org/testing/rc_policy.txt).
stable
. . Debian (http://www.debian.org/distrib/archive).

6.6 ?
unstable .
, .
, GNU/Linux,
, :-)
unstable main, contrib non-free, ,
stable.

6.7 FTP- Debian?

- Debian , Debian GNU/Linux, -
.
dists  distributions (); -
Debian ( ).
pool , . ` pool?' . 24.
:
 6. FTP- Debian 24

/tools/: DOS , , /
Linux.

/doc/: Debian, Debian,

. .

/indices/: ( Maintainers ).

/project/: , .

6.8 dists/stable/main?
2 , .
binary-- -
, binary-i386  , Intel x86, binary-sparc 
Sun SPARCStation.
- (http://www.debian.org/
releases/). . ` / Debian GNU/Linux?' .
13.
binary-* Packages(.gz, .bz2) , -
.
pool.
, source/,
. Sources(.gz, .bz2).
, : , -
, debian-installer/binary-.

6.9 ?
Debian . , -
, ,
.
pool ( ` pool?' . 24) -
.
FTP-, apt-get source _.
- contrib non-free ,
, Debian. , ,
(., .: rmware-misc-nonfree);
, ,
(.: broadcom-sta-dkms).

6.10 pool?
, . -
(main, contrib non-free) .
:
, .
, , apt-cache showsrc _
Directory:. , apache pool/main/a/apache/.
, - , , lib*, , -: ,
libpaper pool/main/libp/libpaper/.
2 dists/stable/main, dists/stable/contrib, dists/stable/non-free dists/unstable/main/ . .
 6. FTP- Debian 25

6.11 incoming?
, , ,
, - incoming
. , ,
incoming http://incoming.debian.org/. ,
GPG MD5 .changes .dsc .

6.12 apt-?
- Debian, ,
Debian,
apt. , Debian, ,
Debian. , Debian (https:
//wiki.debian.org/HowToSetupADebianRepository).

3 dists, . , -

, , - .

. dists ,

apt.
 6. FTP- Debian 26
 27

Debian

Debian.
, ,
` Debian' . 35 ` Debian' . 41.

7.1 Debian?
,
. Debian:

Binary packages, which contain executables, conguration les, man/info pages, copyright information, and other
documentation. These packages are distributed in a Debian-specic archive format (see `
Debian?' . 27); they are usually characterized by having a '.deb' le extension. Binary packages can be
unpacked using the Debian utility dpkg (possibly via a frontend like aptitude); details are given in its manual page.
Source packages, which consist of a .dsc le describing the source package (including the names of the following les), a
.orig.tar.gz le that contains the original unmodied source in gzip-compressed tar format and usually a .di.gz le that
contains the Debian-specic changes to the original source. The utility dpkg-source packs and unpacks Debian source
archives; details are provided in its manual page. (The program apt-get can be used as a frontend for dpkg-source.)

,
. control, . ,
, C GNU (gcc)  binutils,
. gcc, binutils,
(dpkg) , binutils,
gcc . ( , , . dpkg(8).)
. ` , , (Recommends), (Suggests),
(Replaces), (Breaks) (Provides) , (Depends)
(Conicts) ?' . 31.
Debian :

;
;
;
FTP-.

7.2 Debian?
( -) Debian , ,
. - Debian
.deb.
 7. Debian 28

Debian deb(5).
( Debian GNU/Linux), , .deb
, dpkg-deb(1).

7.3 Debian ?
Debian : <foo>_<>-
<Debian>_<Debian>.deb
Note that foo is supposed to be the package name. Checking the package name associated with a particular Debian archive
le (.deb le) can be done in one of these ways:

Packages , FTP- Debian.

;
.

dpkg info foo_VVV-RRR_AAA.deb ( VVV, RRR AAA  , ,

, ). , , ,
-.

VVV , . ,
, 19990513 1.3.8pre1.
RRR Debian, Debian ( ,
). Debian, ,
Debian Makele (debian/rules), Debian control (debian/control),
(debian/p*) , .
The AAA component identies the processor for which the package was built. This is commonly amd64, which refers to
AMD64, Intel 64 or VIA Nano chips. For other possibilities review Debian's FTP directory structure at `
FTP- Debian?' . 23. For details, see the description of Debian architecture in the manual page
dpkg-architecture(1).

7.4 control?
control 5 Debian (Debian Policy
Manual) (. ` Debian?' . 53).
control Debian hello :

Package: hello
Version: 2.9-2+deb8u1
Architecture: amd64
Maintainer: Santiago Vila <sanvila@debian.org>
Installed-Size: 145
Depends: libc6 (>= 2.14)
Conicts: hello-traditional
Breaks: hello-debhelper (<< 2.9)
Replaces: hello-debhelper (<< 2.9), hello-traditional
Section: devel
Priority: optional
Homepage: http://www.gnu.org/software/hello/
Description: example package based on GNU hello
The GNU hello program produces a familiar, friendly greeting. It
allows non-programmers to use a classic computer science tool which
would otherwise be unavailable to them.
.
Seriously, though: this is an example of how to do a Debian package.
It is the Debian version of the GNU Project's `hello world' program
(which is itself an example for the GNU Project).

Package . , .
( ) Debian.
Version , , ( )
Debian, . ` Debian ?' . 28.
Architecture , .
 7. Debian 29

Depends , .
Installed-Size , .

.
Section , Debian FTP-.
Priority , ; , ,
apt aptitude, (., ),
. ` (Essential), (Required), (Important),
(Standard), (Optional) (Extra) ?' . 30.
Maintainer , .
Description .
. 5 (-
) Debian (Debian Policy Manual), . `
Debian?' . 53.

7.5 conle?
Conle ( /etc),
. , ,
, .
, , :

dpkg --status

Conles:.

7.6 preinst, postinst, prerm postrm?

, .
control Debian.
:

preinst This script is executed before the package it belongs to is unpacked from its Debian archive (.deb) le. Many
'preinst' scripts stop services for packages which are being upgraded until their installation or upgrade is completed
(following the successful execution of the 'postinst' script).

postinst This script typically completes any required conguration of the package foo once foo has been unpacked from its
Debian archive (.deb) le. Often, 'postinst' scripts ask users for input, and/or warn them that if they accept default
values, they should remember to go back and re-congure that package as needed. Many 'postinst' scripts then execute
any commands necessary to start or restart a service once a new package has been installed or upgraded.

prerm .
.

postrm , foo, /
, . (. ` ?' . 30.)

Currently all of the control les can be found in the directory /var/lib/dpkg/info. The les relevant to package foo begin
with the name foo and have le extensions of preinst, postinst, etc., as appropriate. The le foo.list in that directory
lists all of the les that were installed with the package foo. (Note that the location of these les is a dpkg internal; you
should not rely on it.)
 7. Debian 30

7.7 (Essential), (Required), -

(Important), (Standard), (Optional) -
(Extra) ?

Debian
. :

(Required)  , .
, .
, , ,
dpkg , . ,
, , ,
.

(Important)  , Unix-.
Other packages which the system will not run well or be usable without will be here. This does NOT include Emacs or
X or TeX or any other large application. These packages only constitute the bare infrastructure.

Standard packages are standard on any Linux system, including a reasonably small but not too limited character-mode
system. Tools are included to be able to send e-mail (with mutt) and download les from FTP servers.
This is what will be installed by default if users do not select anything else. It does not include many large applications,
but it does include the Python interpreter and some server software like OpenSSH (for remote administration) and
Exim (for mail delivery, although it can be congured for local delivery only). It also includes some common generic
documentation that most users will nd helpful.

Optional packages include all those that you might reasonably want to install if you do not know what they are, or
that do not have specialized requirements.
X, TeX .

(Extra)  , , -
, , , , , ,
, - .

Debian ,
. - ,
.
, (Essential), -
. .

7.8 ?

A virtual package is a generic name that applies to any one of a group of packages, all of which provide similar basic
functionality. For example, both the konqueror and refox-esr programs are web browsers, and should therefore satisfy any
dependency of a program that requires a web browser on a system, in order to work or to be useful. They are therefore both
said to provide the virtual package called www-browser.
Similarly, exim4 and sendmail both provide the functionality of a mail transport agent. They are therefore said to provide
the virtual package mail-transport-agent. If either one is installed, then any program depending on the installation of a
mail-transport-agent will be satised by the presence of this virtual package.
, Debian , , -
, , .
update-alternatives, . ` mawk, gawk; vim,
elvis; trn, tin. Debian?' . 50.
 7. Debian 31

7.9 , , (Recommends),
(Suggests), (Replaces), (Breaks)
(Provides) , (Depends) (Conicts)
?
Debian ,
( ) (, )
().

A , A. A -
, . ,
.
A , ,
A, , .
A , , A (
).
A , A , . -
, A , .
.
A , , , ( ) -
A.
, . -
, .
A , A. -
,
.

More detailed information on the use of each of these terms can be found in the Debian Policy manual, section 7.2, Binary
Dependencies, see ` Debian?' . 53.

7.10 - (Pre-Depends)?
Pre-Depends is a special dependency. In the case of most packages, dpkg will unpack the archive le of a package (i.e., its
.deb le) independently of whether or not the les on which it depends exist on the system. Simplistically, unpacking means
that dpkg will extract the les from the archive le that were meant to be installed on your le system, and put them in
place. If those packages depend on the existence of some other packages on your system, dpkg will refuse to complete the
installation (by executing its congure action) until the other packages are installed.
, dpkg , .
, .
Debian a.out ELF,
. ,
, , LibC.
, .

7.11 (unknown), (install),

(remove), (purge), (hold) ?
, ( dpkg/apt/aptitude).
:

(unknown)  , .
 7. Debian 32

(install)  ;
remove - the user wants the package removed, but does not want to remove any existing conguration le.
(purge)  , ;
(hold)  , , . .
, .

7.12 (hold) ?
: dpkg, apt aptitude.
dpkg :

dpkg --get-selections \* > selections.txt

selections.txt, , -
, libc6, :

libc6 install

libc6 hold

dpkg:

dpkg --set-selections < selections.txt

apt

apt-mark hold _

apt-mark unhold _

aptitude

aptitude hold _

aptitude unhold _

7.13 ?
Debian ,
.
Source packages are distributed on most of the same mirrors where you can obtain the binary packages. If you set up your
APT's sources.list(5) to include the appropriate deb-src lines, you'll be able to easily download any source package by
running

apt-get source _

To help you in actually building the source package, Debian source packages provide the so-called build-dependencies
mechanism. This means that the source package maintainer keeps a list of other packages that are required to build their
package. To see how this is useful, run

apt-get build-dep _

.
 7. Debian 33

7.14 ?
-.
devscripts. , .
:

apt-get source _

cd _-*

( ):

sudo apt-get build-dep _

( , , Debian
):

dch -l local 'Blah blah blah'

, , :

debuild -us -uc

, ,

sudo dpkg -i ../*.deb

devscripts, :
__*.dsc, __*.tar.gz
__*.di.gz (, Debian .di.gz ).
(. ` ?' . 32) dpkg-dev,
:

dpkg-source -x __-.dsc

_-.
If you just want to compile the package, you may cd into the foo-version directory and issue the command

dpkg-buildpackage -rfakeroot -b

( , fakeroot),

dpkg -i ../__-_.deb

7.15 Debian?
For a more detailed description on this, read the New Maintainers' Guide, available in the maint-guide package or at
http://www.debian.org/doc/devel-manuals#maint-guide, or the Guide for Debian Maintainers, available in the debmake-
doc package or at https://www.debian.org/doc/devel-manuals#debmake-doc.
 7. Debian 34
 35

Debian

8.1 Debian?
Debian , -
, .
, .
, , aptitude synaptic, -
apt, , , dpkg .
See Chapter 2. Debian package management (http://www.debian.org/doc/manuals/debian-reference/ch02.en.html) of the
Debian reference (http://www.debian.org/doc/manuals/debian-reference/) for more information about the Debian package
management utilities. This document is available in various languages and formats, see the Debian Reference entry in the
DDP Users' Manuals overview (http://www.debian.org/doc/user-manuals#quick-reference).

8.1.1 dpkg

. dpkg .
:

: dpkg help

( ) : dpkg info foo_VVV-RRR.deb

(. . ): dpkg install foo_VVV-RRR.deb

Debian ( ): dpkg unpack foo_VVV-RRR.deb. ,

;
.
preinst (. ` preinst, postinst,
prerm postrm?' . 29).

, : dpkg congure foo. ,

postinst (. ` preinst, postinst, prerm postrm?' .
29). , conles. ,
congure (. . foo), - Debian (. . foo_VVV-RRR.deb).

blurf ( blurf*) Debian: dpkg fsys-tarle

foo_VVV-RRR.deb | tar -xf - 'blurf*'

( ): dpkg remove foo

( ): dpkg purge foo

, ( ) foo*: dpkg
list 'foo*'
 8. Debian 36

8.1.2 APT

APT is the Advanced Package Tool, an advanced interface to the Debian packaging system which provides the apt-
get program. It provides commandline tools for searching and managing packages, and for querying information about
them, as well as low-level access to all features of the libapt-pkg library. For more information, see the User's Guide in
/usr/share/doc/apt-doc/guide.html/index.html (you will have to install the apt-doc package).
Starting with Debian Jessie, some frequently used apt-get and apt-cache commands have an equivalent via the new apt binary.
This means some popular commands like apt-get update, apt-get install, apt-get remove, apt-cache search, or apt-cache show
now can also be called simply via apt, say apt update, apt install, apt remove, apt search, or apt show. The following is an
overview of the old and new commands:

apt-get update -> apt update

apt-get upgrade -> apt upgrade
apt-get dist-upgrade -> apt full-upgrade
apt-get install package -> apt install package
apt-get remove package -> apt remove package
apt-get autoremove -> apt autoremove
apt-cache search string -> apt search string
apt-cache policy package -> apt list -a package
apt-cache show package -> apt show package
apt-cache showpkg package -> apt show -a package

apt apt-get apt-cache,

, . -
apt-get ( ).
apt-get ,
. dpkg, apt-get .deb,
.deb , /etc/apt/sources.list. apt-get dpkg
.deb1 .
apt-get:

To update the list of packages known by your system, you can run:

apt update

( )

foo :

apt install foo

apt remove foo

apt source _

To list all packages for which newer versions are available, run:

apt dist-upgrade

( ):

apt upgrade

,
- :

apt full-upgrade
1 , ,

, Red Hat, rpm

 8. Debian 37

( upgrade ,
. full-upgrade .)

Note that you must be logged in as root to perform any commands that modify packages.
Note that apt-get now also installs recommended packages as default, and thanks to its robustness it's the preferred program
for package management from console to perform system installation and major system upgrades.
apt apt-cache.
, ,
, .
apt-cache:

, :

apt search

apt show

apt-cache depends

To print detailed information on the versions available for a package and the packages that reverse-depends on it:

apt-cache showpkg

apt apt(8), apt-get(8), sources.list(5),

apt-doc /usr/share/doc/apt-doc/guide.html/index.html.

8.1.3 aptitude

aptitude  Debian GNU/Linux,

apt. aptitude curses.
, .
aptitude . -
,
.
apt-get, aptitude :

;
, ,
;
. ,
mutt, , ;
. .
`tasksel' . 38;
aptitude in full screen mode has su functionality embedded and can be run by a normal user. It will call su (and ask
for the root password, if any) when you really need administrative privileges.

aptitude , ( aptitude),
. apt-get. ,
foo, aptitude install foo.
Note that aptitude is the preferred program for daily package management from the console.
For more information, read the manual page aptitude(8) and install the aptitude-doc package.
 8. Debian 38

8.1.4 synaptic

synaptic is a graphical package manager. It enables you to install, upgrade and remove software packages in a user friendly way.
Along with most of the features oered by aptitude, it also has a feature for editing the list of used repositories, and supports
browsing all available documentation related to a package. See the Synaptic Website (http://www.nongnu.org/synaptic/) for
more information.

8.1.5 tasksel

.
Debian , Debian, -
. tasksel aptitude.
Typically, the Debian installer will automatically install the task associated with a standard system and a desktop
environment. The specic desktop environment installed will depend on the CD/DVD media used, most commonly it will
be the GNOME desktop (gnome-desktop task). Also, depending on your selections throughout the installation process,
tasks might be automatically installed in your system. For example, if you selected a language other than English, the task
associated with it will be installed automatically too and if the installer recognises you are installing on a laptop system the
laptop task will also be installed.

8.1.6

dpkg-deb

This program manipulates Debian archive (.deb) les. Some common uses are:

: dpkg-deb help
, - Debian: dpkg-deb contents foo_VVV-RRR.deb)
Debian : dpkg-deb extract
foo_VVV-RRR.deb tmp foo_VVV-RRR.deb tmp/. -
.
: dpkg-deb control foo_VVV-RRR.deb tmp.

, , dpkg-deb extract, ,
dpkg install.
dpkg-deb(1).

8.2 , Debian ; ?
( ) Debian GNU/Linux , .
start-stop-daemon, -
(,
).
, .

8.3 , Debian?
,

dpkg --list

, (
), , .
To learn the status of packages whose names match any pattern beginning with foo, run the command:
 8. Debian 39

dpkg --list 'foo*'

, :

dpkg --status _

8.4 How do I display the les of an installed package?

foo,

dpkg --listles foo

, , , .

8.5 , ?
, foo, :

dpkg search foo

foo . (
.list /var/lib/dpkg/info/ ,
, .)
 dlocate.
dlocate -S foo

zgrep foo Contents-ARCH.gz

, foo. Contents-ARCH.gz
( ARCH ) (main, non-free,
contrib) FTP- Debian ( , /debian/dists/jessie). Contents ,
, . , ,
foo, Contents.
dpkg search , ,
.
apt-le search foo
If you install the apt-le package, similar to the above, it searches les which contain the substring or regular expression
foo in their full path names. The advantage over the example above is that there is no need to retrieve the Contents-
ARCH.gz les as it will do this automatically for all the sources dened in /etc/apt/sources.list when you run (as root)
apt-le update.

8.6 Why is `foo-data' not removed when I uninstall `foo' ? How do I make sure old unused
library-packages get purged?
Some packages are split in program (`foo') and data (`foo-data') (or in `foo' and `foo-doc'). This is true for many games,
multimedia applications and dictionaries in Debian and has been introduced since some users might want to access the raw
data without installing the program or because the program can be run without the data itself, making `foo-data' optional.
: , .
, .
, , libdb4.2, libdb4.3, libdb4.2
.
In these cases, `foo-data' doesn't depend on `foo', so when you remove the `foo' package it will not get automatically
removed by most package management tools. The same holds true for the library packages. This is necessary to avoid circular
dependencies. However, if you use apt-get (see `APT' . 36) or aptitude (see `aptitude' . 37) as your package
management tool, they will track automatically installed packages and give the possibility to remove them, when no packages
making use of them remain in your system.
 8. Debian 40
 41

Debian

One of Debian's goals is to provide a consistent upgrade path and a secure upgrade process. We always do our best to make
upgrading to new releases a smooth procedure. In case there's some important note to add to the upgrade process, the
packages will alert the user, and often provide a solution to a possible problem.
You should also read the Release Notes document that describes the details of specic upgrades. It is available on the Debian
website at http://www.debian.org/releases/stable/releasenotes and is also shipped on the Debian CDs, DVDs and Blu-ray
discs.

9.1 Debian ?
ftp Debian, ,
, dpkg. , dpkg
.
, , .
, . . Debian 
- .
. ,
. .

9.1.1 aptitude

aptitude Debian GNU/Linux `aptitude'

. 37.
aptitude ,
/etc/apt/sources.list. Debian, , ,
:

http://ftp.us.debian.org/debian stable main contrib

ftp.us.debian.org ( ) Debian . .
http://www.debian.org/mirror/list.
Or you can use the redirector service httpredir.debian.org which aims to solve the problem of choosing a Debian mirror. It
uses the geographic location of the user and other information to choose the best mirror that can serve the les. To take
advantage of it use a source like this one:

http://httpredir.debian.org/debian stable main contrib

sources.list(5).
To update your system from the command line, run

aptitude update
 9. Debian 42

aptitude full-upgrade

, , .
, aptitude
Debian GNU/Linux . -
(http://www.debian.org/releases/stable/releasenotes).
, ,
.
aptitude(8) /usr/share/aptitude/README.

9.1.2 apt-get apt-cdrom

aptitude apt-get, APT ( `APT'

. 36).
apt-get, APT
.
apt-get, /etc/apt/sources.list `aptitude' . 41.

apt-get update

apt-get dist-upgrade

, , . .
apt-get(8) `APT' . 36.
-, DVD BD,
apt-cdrom. ,
APT.
, ,
/var. , apt-get
clean apt-get autoclean, (: apt-move).

9.1.3 mirror

Perl () , mirror-master, -
FTP.
mirror .
.mirrorinfo. mirror
, ,
.
The mirror program is generally useful for updating local copies of remote directory trees. The les fetched need not be
Debian les. (Since mirror is a Perl script, it can also run on non-Unix systems.) Though the mirror program provides
mechanisms for excluding les with names matching user-specied strings, this program is most useful when the objective is
to download whole directory trees, rather than selected packages.

9.2 ?
. , . -
, Debian start-stop-daemon, , -
.
 9. Debian 43

9.3 - .deb?
. , ,
aptitude clean.

9.4 How can I keep a log of the packages I added to the system? I'd like to know when
upgrades and removals have occurred and on which packages!
log dpkg .
dpkg (

2005-12-30 18:10:33 install hello 1.3.18 2.1.1-4

), (

2005-12-30 18:10:35 status installed hello 2.1.1-4

) If you'd like to log all your dpkg invocations (even those done using frontends like aptitude), you could add

log /var/log/dpkg.log

to your /etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg. Be sure the created logle gets rotated periodically. If you're using logrotate, this can be achieved
by creating a le /etc/logrotate.d/dpkg with the following lines

/var/log/dpkg {
missingok
notifempty
}

dpkg dpkg(1).
aptitude , , ,
/var/log/aptitude. , !
 script(1).

9.5 ?
. cron-apt;
cron.
.
: ,
.

9.6 , ?
Debian, Debian
apt-cacher.
apt-cacher Debian, -
Packages, Releases Sources, ,
. apt-cacher HTTP- Debian , .
, , -
.
 9. Debian 44
 45

10

Debian

10.1 Debian
?
.
There's only one common catch: the Debian C libraries are built with the most recent stable releases of the kernel headers.
If you happen to need to compile a program with kernel headers newer than the ones from the stable branch, then you
should either upgrade the package containing the headers (linux-libc-dev), or use the new headers from an unpacked tree of
the newer kernel. That is, if the kernel sources are in /usr/src/linux, then you should add -I/usr/src/linux/include/ to your
command line when compiling.

10.2 Debian?
Users who wish to (or must) build a custom kernel are encouraged to use the Debian package target included with recent
versions of the kernel build system. After conguring the kernel, simply run the following command:

make deb-pkg

The new kernel package will be created in the directory one level above the kernel source tree, and it may be installed using
dpkg -i.
( )
Linux-, linux-source- ( ).

10.3 What special provisions does Debian provide to deal with modules?
A conguration le containing modules to be manually loaded at boot time is kept at /etc/modules. However, editing this
le is rarely needed.
Other module conguration is kept in the /etc/modprobe.d/ directory. More information about the format of those les can
be found in the modprobe.conf(5) manual page.

10.4 ?
. linux-image-NNN.prerm , .
:

dpkg --purge linux-image-NNN

(NNN, , )
 10. Debian 46

10.5 Where can I get more information about Linux packages for Debian?
Further information is maintained in the Debian Linux Kernel Handbook (http://kernel-handbook.alioth.debian.org/).
 47

11

Debian

GNU/Linux

11.1 , ?
libpaper1, .
/etc/papersize.
PAPERSIZE. -
papersize(5).

11.2 ?
/dev . , /dev/sr0
cdrom.
, ,
, . . :

adduser

, .
,
, . ,
, groups.
, udev ,
; - ,
/etc/udev.

11.3 Debian ?
kbd, /etc/kbd/cong.

11.4 X11?
Debian X11 /etc/X11/app-defaults/.
X, .
, .
 11. Debian GNU/Linux 48

11.5 , . -
, Debian.
Unix Debian init 1 . init ( ,
/etc/inittab) , /etc/init.d/rcS.
/etc/rcS.d/ ,
, , ,
.
init , -
( id /etc/inittab). Uni-,
System V, Linux 7 :

0 ( ),
1 ( ),
2 5 ( ),
6 ( ).

Debian id=2, , '2' ( -

), /etc/rc2.d/.
Debian insserv,
/etc/init.d/ LSB, startpar,
.
, /etc/rcN.d/ /etc/init.d/.
, /etc/rcN.d/ ,
/etc/init.d/. , ,
'K'; . ,
'S'; . 'K' 'S'
. , , .
/etc/init.d/ : start, stop,
reload, restart force-reload , .
.
, reload

/etc/init.d/sendmail reload

sendmail .
, invoke-rc.d /etc/init.d/, service.

11.6 rc.local -
?
rc.local . Debian
, . ,
.
, - (System V)
foo. :

foo /etc/init.d/.
Debian update-rc.d , -
.
1 Debian GNU/Linux sysvinit systemd,

Linux. . https://wiki.debian.org/systemd.
 11. Debian GNU/Linux 49

, (,
).
/etc/init.d/foo start.

, foo , /etc/init.d/ -
update-rc.d foo defaults 19. defaults ,
( , LSB, )
2 5, 0, 1 6. ( update-rc.d
sysv-rc LSB Default-Start Default-Stop foo , update-
rc.d le-rc (v0.8.10 ) .) 19 , foo
, 19, , 20 .

11.7 , -
?
, - , Debian -
, . , , dpkg
, ,
.
, . -
dpkg ,
, .

11.8 , - , -
?
, login-local
login Debian login.
:

/bin/login login-local.

/bin/login login ( ,
/bin/login).

dpkg-divert --divert /bin/login.debian /bin/login

Debian login /bin/login

/bin/login.debian.

cp login-local /bin/login

dpkg-divert list, , () .
dpkg-divert(8).
 11. Debian GNU/Linux 50

11.9 ,
?
:

dpkg-scanpackages __ _OVERRIDE [_] > my_Packages

__  , - Debian (
.deb).

_OVERRIDE  ,
FTP- Debian indices/override.main.gz Debian- main.
.

_  , my_Packages.

my_Packages, :

dpkg --merge-avail my_Packages

APT, sources.list(5).

11.10 mawk, gawk; vim, -

elvis; trn, tin. -
Debian?
, - , -
.
. .
, ( )
,
, Debian .
, .
'', , 
tin trn, . news-reader,
tin trn. ,
/etc/alternatives/news-reader , , /usr/bin/trn.
-
; , , .
, , , ,
Perl update-alternatives.
, , x-window-manager, :

update-alternatives --display x-window-manager

update-alternatives --cong x-window-manager

( ).
- ( , ),
/usr/local, .
, :
 11. Debian GNU/Linux 51

update-alternatives --install /usr/bin/x-window-manager \

x-window-manager /usr/local/bin/wmaker-cvs 50

install /etc/alternatives/NAME,
NAME . ,
/etc/alternatives/NAME, ( , -
).
, :

update-alternatives --remove x-window-manager /usr/local/bin/wmaker-cvs

 11. Debian GNU/Linux 52
 53

12

Debian GNU/Linux

12.1 Debian?
: http://www.debian.org/releases/stable/installmanual.

Debian GNU/Linux -
. ,
.
debian-reference http://www.debian.org/doc/user-manuals#
quick-reference.

Debian , , . . -
Debian, .
, , ,
Debian.
debian-policy http://www.debian.org/doc/devel-manuals#
policy.

, Debian. http://www.
debian.org/doc/ ,
Debian GNU/Linux.

Debian: ,
/usr/share/doc/.

Linux: Debian- doc-linux HOWTO

mini-HOWTO Linux (http://www.tldp.org/).

man Unix: ,
man- Unix. , ls, man ls.
man man .
Debian , man- ,
:

 man-db, man, .
 manpages, . (. ` Debian ,
?' . 19).

info GNU: , GNU,

man-, info-, GNU info, M-x info
GNU Emacs, Info.
Its main advantage over the original `man' pages is that it is a hypertext system. It does not require the WWW,
however; info can be run from a plain text console. It was designed by Richard Stallman and preceded the WWW.

, -
dwww, dhelp doccentral, , yelp.
 12. Debian GNU/Linux 54

12.2 - - Debian?
. Debian .
.
Debian (http://www.debian.org/support).

12.2.1

Debian (http://www.debian.org/MailingLists/).
doc-debian /usr/share/doc
/debian/mailing-lists.txt.
Debian : debian--. : debian-announce, debian-
user, debian-news. - debian--, debian-
--request@lists.debian.org subscribe . , -request
. ,
, .
, - (http://www.debian.org/MailingLists/subscribe).
, - (http://www.debian.org/MailingLists/
unsubscribe).
, : <listmaster@lists.debian.
org>.
. , ,
, ( )
. -
. . ,
, . .
(http://www.debian.org/MailingLists/#disclaimer).
Debian WWW http://lists.debian.org/.

Debian, , :

. Debian (http://www.debian.org/
MailingLists/#ads).
. Debian, , .
; , -
, .
, . ()
.1
. ` Debian?' . 55 .

12.2.2 -

debianHELP (http://debianhelp.org/) Debian (http://forums.debian.net/)

-, Debian, .
( Debian.)

12.2.3

, , -
Debian (http://wiki.debian.org/).
1 debian---REQUEST@lists.debian.org.
 12. Debian GNU/Linux 55

12.2.4

. ,
xyz, xyz@packages.debian.org.

12.2.5 Usenet

, Debian, Linux USENET comp.os.linux.*

linux.*. Linux Usenet , ,
Linux Online (http://www.linux.org/docs/usenet.html) LinuxJournal (http://www.linuxjournal.com/helpdesk.php).

12.3 Debian GNU/Linux?

, Debian:

Debian WWW (http://search.debian.org/).

Google (http://groups.google.com/): .
For example, to nd out what experiences people have had with nding drivers for NVIDIA graphic cards under Debian,
try searching the phrase NVIDIA Linux driver. This will show you all the posts that contain these strings, i.e. those
where people discussed these topics. If you add Debian to those search strings, you'll also get the posts specically
related to Debian.
Any of the common web spidering engines, such as DuckDuckGo (https://duckduckgo.com/) or Google (http://www.
google.com/), as long as you use the right search terms.
For example, searching on the string evince gives a more detailed explanation of this package than the brief description
eld in its control le.

12.4 ?
( ) . Debian , 
 Debian (http://www.debian.org/social_contract).
Debian GNU/Linux (BTS),
, . ,
, .
: http://www.debian.org/Bugs/.
.
request@bugs.debian.org help .

12.5 Debian?
Debian, , , Debian. -
:

WWW. http://www.debian.org/Bugs/Reporting.
Debian doc-debian. /usr/share/doc
/debian/bug-reporting.txt.
FTP. Debian doc/bug-reporting.txt.

reportbug,
, -
. , -
, .
. ,
,
debian-bugs-dist.
 12. Debian GNU/Linux 56
 57

13

Debian

(http://www.debian.org/donations) ( , -
), ( FTP -
), ( ) .
. Debian? (http://www.debian.org/intro/help).

13.1 How can I become a Debian member/Debian developer?

The development of Debian is open to all, and new users with the right skills and/or the willingness to learn are needed
to maintain existing packages which have been orphaned by their previous maintainers, to develop new packages, to write
documentation, to do translation work, to help with the Debian website, to provide user support, etc.
The description of becoming a Debian member can be found at the New Member's Corner (http://www.debian.org/devel/
join/newmaint) at the Debian web site.

13.2 Debian ?
, , -
. , .
Debian (http://www.debian.org/mirror/size) .
- -
. .
, ,
, -, , , ,
<debian-admin@lists.debian.org>.

13.3 Debian?
Debian , , -
, .
Debian (http://www.debian.org/donations). ,
, .
, Debian.
Software in the Public Interest, , .

13.3.1 Software in the Public Interest

Software in the Public Interest (SPI) IRS 501(c)(3) , -

. .
 13. Debian 58

GNU , -
,
, .
SPI .
Debian .
SPI : http://www.spi-inc.org/.

13.3.2

There are a number of organizations created in dierent countries that hold assets in trust for Debian. The donations page
(http://www.debian.org/donations) lists the trusted organizations individuals can donate to. At the time of this writing
there are three of them: Verein zur FA rderung Freier Informationen & Software (http://www.s.de/) (in Germany), the
Debian France Association (https://france.debian.net/) (in France), and debian.ch (http://debian.ch/) (Switzerland and
the Principality of Liechtenstein). Additional aliate organizations in other countries are listed in Organizations (https:
//wiki.debian.org/Teams/Auditor/Organizations) page in the Debian Wiki.
 59

14

Debian GNU/Linux

14.1 CD- Debian ?

! , ,
CD-, -. . , -
CD- Debian. , ,
GPL, .

CD-, , Debian,

.

14.2 Debian ?

. Debian , , -
, non-free.

CD- , ,
. , CD-
CD , .
: CD-.
, , , .

14.3 Linux . -
Debian GNU/Linux
?

Yes. Debian-derived distributions are being created both in close cooperation with the Debian project itself and by external
parties. One can use the Debian Pure Blends (https://www.debian.org/blends/) framework to work together with Debian;
DebianEdu/Skolelinux (https://wiki.debian.org/DebianEdu/) is one such project.

There are several other Debian-derived distributions already on the market, such as grml, LMDE (Linux Mint Debian
Edition), Knoppix and Ubuntu, that are targeted at a dierent kind of audience than the original Debian GNU/Linux is,
but use most of our components in their product.

Debian ,
, .
. ` , - , ?' . 49.
 14. Debian GNU/Linux 60

14.4 Debian ,
Debian?
, .  ;
, , .
 61

15

Debian

Debian . -
 , https://wiki.debian.org/ReleaseGoals/. ,
,
.

15.1
Debian ,
. :

(https://wiki.debian.org/ReleaseGoals/SecurityHardeningBuildFlags), -
,
, ( ,
),
, .

All of these are done in an ongoing basis. For the rst item, a set of security hardening build ags that try to prevent known
attacks such as stack smashing, predictable locations of values in memory, etc. is used. The target is to cover at least all
packages that are part of the basic installation as well as packages that had to be updated through a Security Advisory
since 2006. As of this writing, around 400 packages have been modied since this eort was rst started. All the issues
are tracked in the BTS (https://bugs.debian.org/cgi-bin/pkgreport.cgi?tag=goal-hardening;users=hardening-discuss@lists.
alioth.debian.org).

15.2 -
Debian - , . ` Debian
, ?' . 19.
,
. Debian -
, . ,
() .
GNU ftp://ftp.gnu.org/pub/gnu/ABOUT-NLS
GNU , GNOME KDE -
. Debian , ,
Debian , .
, , ,
Debian.
Debian :
 15. , Debian 62

, debconf: ,
Debian,
.

: ,
.

UTF-8 debian/changelog debian/control. , , -

.

Debian, ,
.

15.3 Debian
Debian, . -
.
Microsoft Windows:
Microsoft Windows BIOS. CD-ROM, DVD-ROM USB-
, ,
Debian.

15.4
Complete Debian system on other architectures. Notice that even though some architectures are dropped for a given release,
there still might be a way to install and upgrade using the latest sid.

15.5
Debian GNU/Hurd, Debian BSD, FreeBSD (http://www.debian.
org/ports/kfreebsd-gnu/). AMD64 (kfreebsd-amd64) Intel (kfreebsd-i386).
 63

16

16.1
(FAQ) ... (J.H.M. Dassen (Ray))
(Chuck Stickelman). . (Susan G. Kleinmann) (Sven Rudolph)
Debian GNU/Linux FAQ. (Santiago Vila),
(Josip Rodin). - (Javier Fernandez-Sanguino).
:

Debian-1.1, (http://www.perens.com/),
Linux, (http://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/~ijackson/),
Debian (http://lists.debian.org/),
dpkg Debian (. `
Debian?' . 53),
, -
. :-)
, Debian (http://people.cornell.edu/pages/kk288/debian_
choosing_distribution.html), GPL, -
(. ` Debian' . 7).

, .
. .

16.2
.
<doc-debian@packages.debian.org>, wishlist debian-faq (http:
//bugs.debian.org/debian-faq).

16.3
WWW Debian http://www.debian.org/
doc/FAQ/.
, HTML PostScript http://www.debian.org/doc/
user-manuals#faq. .
debian-faq. debian-faq-ru, debian-faq-fr .
SGML-, ,
debian-faq, SVN: svn://svn.debian.org/svn/ddp/manuals/trunk/debian-faq http://svn.debian.org/viewsvn/
ddp/manuals/trunk/debian-faq/.
 16. 64

16.4
DebianDoc SGML DTD ( LinuxDoc SGML).
DebianDoc SGML , ,
, HTML, , TeX DVI, PostScript, PDF GNU info.
DebianDoc SGML Debian debiandoc-sgml.