Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Faculty Electromechanics
Specialisation Electromechanics
4-th year
1-st term
Students Coursebook
1
Maritime English
Maritime English
Contents Page
2
Maritime English
Maritime English
3
Maritime English
Maritime English
Unit 1
Objectives of Unit 1
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Cover letters and examples
1.3 English Tenses Graphic Comparison
Self-assessment test
Progress test
Answer to self-assessment test
References
4
Maritime English
Maritime English
OBJECTIVES OF UNIT 1
1.1 Introduction
Merchant seamen spend long periods away from home. Not only they, but their
families, must be aware of the potential effects of this separation. Although the job pays very
well, there is a long-standing joke among seafarers: "How do you spot the merchant seaman?
He has a Rolex on his wrist and divorce papers in his pocket."
Before you start applying for jobs online it's important to prepare to complete online
job applications and to gather all the information you'll need to apply. For instance, if you are
in the States, go to the nearest Coast Guard Center to pick up the application for a Merchant
Mariner Credential (MMC), the drug test forms and the medical forms.
In order to apply for a job online and to complete online job applications, you'll need
an email address to use for job searching, Internet access, an up-to-date resume, a cover letter
for some jobs, your employment history, and your availability to work if you're applying for a
part-time job.
In addition, as part of the job application process, you may need to take an online employment
test and provide employment references.
Here's advice and tips on how to apply for a job online.
Using a job search engine can save you a lot of online job search time. When you use
a job search engine, you can search for jobs all in one place, rather than having to visit all
these sites independently.
Company web sites are a good source of job listings, especially if you know what
companies you are interested in working for. You can go directly to the site and search for
and apply for jobs online directly on many company web sites. At most company sites, you
can apply for all level positions online - from part-time hourly jobs to top management
positions.
Before you start looking for jobs and completing online job applications, you'll need
an updated version of your resum ready to upload. You may also need a cover letter to apply
for some jobs. Make sure your resume includes your current contact information and work
history. Have a basic cover letter ready that you can customize for each job you apply to.
Some sites let you upload an existing resume from Microsoft Word on your computer
with the click of a button. On other sites, you may need to copy and paste from your resume
5
Maritime English
Maritime English
into an online profile or use a resume builder that is incorporated into the job application
system.
Download a sample job application form and complete it before you start your online
applications. Print and fill it out so you know exactly what information you will need to enter
when you apply for jobs online.
Use the completed sample job application as a guide when you're completing your
own job applications.
When applying for a job a cover letter should be sent or posted with your resume. If
you are not sure what to write, review these cover letter samples.
Your cover letter should be specific to the position you are applying for, relating your
skills and experience to those noted in the job posting. Your cover letter is your first (and
best) chance to make a good impression! Review cover letter tips to help ensure your cover
letter gets noticed.
Remember that your first job as an offshore crew member can be the beginning of an entire
career, so don't be discouraged if you are not making a great deal of money in the beginning.
If you are a good worker, you will continue to build a reputation and get future jobs, as well
as make more money.
Types of cover letters, including application letters, inquiry letters, prospecting letters, and
other types of letters used to apply for jobs or inquire about jobs, plus examples of each type
of cover letter and when to use them.
Application Letters
An application letter is sent or uploaded with your resume when applying for jobs. The job
application letters you send explain to the employer why you are qualified for the position and
why you should be selected for an interview.
Samples:
1. This is an actual job application that a 17 year old boy submitted to McDonalds in
Florida and they hired him because he was so honest and funny!
6
Maritime English
Maritime English
Exercise. You have to send a cover letter to a crewing company. Make the necessary changes
in the following sample letter.
Name
Title
Company
Address
City, Zip Code
Date
I am writing to apply for the position of PR. ABCD is a fast-moving global institution and an
outstanding communications pioneer, now poised to guide the direction of print journalism.
As the current Media Relations Coordinator of the XYZ company, I am a practiced business
liaison and an able administrator. These strengths, combined with deep and varied
employment and internship experience as a journalist and media consultant with FGH and
LMD, prepare me to make a strong and immediate impact at ABCD.
I am excited about the opportunity to join the ABCD team as it moves to the center of the
print media conversation. Thank you for your time and consideration.
Sincerely,
Your Signature
Your Typed Name
7
Maritime English
Maritime English
Legend
action that takes place once, never or several times
actions that happen one after another
moment in time actions that suddenly take place
action that started before a certain moment and lasts beyond that
moment
period of time actions taking place at the same time
8
Maritime English
Maritime English
Self-assessment Test
Give the right order of the following paragraphs of cover letter:
Contact Name
Title
Company Name
Address
City, Zip Code
Signature
FirstName LastName
9
Maritime English
Maritime English
Progress tests
1. Write a cover letter and use the folowing layout:
Contact Information
The first section of your cover letter should include information on how
the employer can contact you. If you have contact information for the
employer, include that. Otherwise, just list your information.
Your Contact Information
Your Name
Your Address
Your City, State, Zip Code
Your Phone Number
Your Email Address
(space)
Date
(space)
Employer Contact Information
Name
Title
Company
Address
City, Zip Code
(space)
Salutation
(space)
Dear Mr./Ms. Last Name:
(space)
First Paragraph:
The first paragraph of your cover letter should include information on
the position you are applying for, including the job title.
(space between paragraphs)
Middle Paragraph(s):
The next section of your cover letter should describe what you have to
offer the employer. Mention why you are qualifed for the job and how
your skills and experience are a match for the position for which you
are applying.
(space between paragraphs)
Final Paragraph:
Conclude your cover letter by thanking the employer for considering
you for the position. Include information on how you will follow-up.
(space)
Closing:
(space)
Sincerely yours,
(double space)
Signature:
Handwritten Signature (for a mailed letter)
(double space)
Typed Signature
10
Maritime English
Maritime English
2. Translate:
The biggest hurdle you will face in trying to get offshore employment is
the absence of offshore work experience. Once you get your foot in the
door, it is like any other job: It's just a matter of sustaining your
employer's interest in the necessity of keeping you, based on their
experience with you.
Contact Name
Title
Company Name
Address
City, Zip Code
I'm writing to express my interest in the Web Content Specialist position listed on Monster.com. I have
experience building large, consumer-focused health-based content sites. While much of my experience
has been in the business world, I understand the social value of the non-profit sector and my business
experience will be an asset to your organization.
My responsibilities included the development and management of the site's editorial voice and style, the
editorial calendar, and the daily content programming and production of the web site. I worked closely
with health care professionals and medical editors to help them provide the best possible information to a
consumer audience of patients. In addition, I helped physicians learn to utilize their medical content to
write user-friendly, readily comprehensible text.
Experience has taught me how to build strong relationships with all departments at an organization. I
have the ability to work within a team as well as cross-team. I can work with web engineers to resolve
technical issues and implement technical enhancements, work with the development department to
implement design and functional enhancements, and monitor site statistics and conduct search engine
optimization.
Signature
FirstName LastName
11
Maritime English
Maritime English
Unit 2
Writing a CV
Objectives of Unit 2
2.1 What is a CV?
2.2 Information a CV should include
2.3 How to make a winning CV
Self-assessment test
Progress test
Answer to self-assessment test
References
12
Maritime English
Maritime English
OBJECTIVES OF UNIT 2
Personal details
Normally these would be your name, address, date of birth (although with age
discrimination laws now in force this isn't essential), telephone number and email.
13
Maritime English
Maritime English
Work experience
Use action words such as developed, planned and organised.
Even work in a shop, bar or restaurant will involve working in a team, providing a quality
service to customers, and dealing tactfully with complaints. Don't mention the routine, non-
people tasks (cleaning the tables) unless you are applying for a casual summer job in a
restaurant or similar.
Try to relate the skills to the job.
"All of my work experiences have involved working within a team-based culture. This
involved planning, organisation, co-ordination and commitment e.g., in retail, this ensured
daily sales targets were met, a fair distribution of tasks and effective communication amongst
all staff members."
Skills
The usual ones to mention are languages (good conversational French, basic Spanish),
computing
(e.g. "good working knowledge of MS Access and Excel, plus basic web page design skills")
and driving ("clean driving licence").
If you are a mature candidate or have lots of relevant skills to offer, a skills-based
CV may work for you
There is no single "correct" way to write and present a CV but the following general rules
apply:
It is targeted on the specific job or career area for which you are applying and brings
out
the relevant skills you have to offer
It is carefully and clearly laid out: logically ordered, easy to read and not cramped
14
Maritime English
Maritime English
Tips on presentation
Your CV should be carefully and clearly laid out - not too cramped but not with
large empty spaces either. Use bold and italic typefaces for headings and important
information
Never back a CV - each page should be on a separate sheet of paper. It's a good
idea to put your name in the footer area so that it appears on each sheet.
Be concise - a CV is an appetiser and should not give the reader indigestion. Don't feel
that you have to list every exam you have ever taken, or every activity you have ever
been involved in - consider which are the most relevant and/or impressive.
Be positive - put yourself over confidently and highlight your strong points. For
example, when listing your A-levels, put your highest grade first.
Be honest: although a CV does allow you to omit details (such as exam resits) which
you would prefer the employer not to know about, you should never give inaccurate or
misleading information.
CVs are not legal documents and you can't be held liable for anything within, but if a
recruiter picks up a suggestion of falsehoods you will be rapidly rejected. An application
form which you have signed to confirm that the contents are true is however a legal document
and forms part of your contract of employment if you are recruited.
The sweet spot of a CV is the area selectors tend to pay most attention to: this is typically
around
the upper middle of the first page, so make sure that this area contains essential information.
If you are posting your CV, don't fold it - put it in a full-size A4 envelope so that it doesn't
arrive creased.
15
Maritime English
Maritime English
Self-assessment Test
True or false?
Progress test
Exercise: Find the right place for the folowing words and phrases:
motivated /position / university/ organisational / assets / friendly /
management / administrative / own / prioritise
PROFILE
I am a ...(1), adaptable and responsible graduate seeking an entry-level
... (2) position in public relations which will utilise the ... (3) and
communication skills developed during ...(4). My reliability,
communication skills, responsibility and ... (5) nature are ... (6) I
would bring to the work. I have experience in project ... (7) and strong
organisational and ... (8) skills with the ability to work independently
and use my ... (9) initiative. I also have the ability to ... (10) whilst
under pressure meeting tight deadlines.
16
Maritime English
Maritime English
References
1. Murphy, R. Essential Grammar In Use. (1990), 1st ed. Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, (ISBN 0 521 35770 5)
2. Sweeney, S. (2004) English for Business Communication,
Cambridge University Press
3. http://www.kent.ac.uk/careers/cvquiz.htm
17
Maritime English
Maritime English
UNIT 3
Objectives of Unit 3
3.1 Interview tips
3.2 Interview examples
Self-assessment test
Progress test
Answers to self-assessment test
References
18
Maritime English
Maritime English
OBJECTIVES OF UNIT 3
Preparation is essential for the interview. Know yourself, your strengths and
weaknesses, what motivates you and above all demonstrate your enthusiasm for the
position;
Spend some time looking at our website and any other sources of information so you
can learn about who we are and what we do;
Be on time - if you are running late please contact the interviewer as soon as possible;
Appearance it is recommended to dress formally according to the position you have
applied for. How you dress often indicates how serious you are about the job and
yourself. But most importantly be comfortable;
Try to maintain good eye contact with the interviewers;
Be prepared to discuss your strengths, but just as importantly your areas for
development. We all have them so dont be afraid to discuss them.
Nerves - we are well aware that candidates can find interviews quite stressful and we
do make allowances for this. But take the time to relax beforehand, arrive in plenty of
time and prepare as much as possible;
Remember that the interview is a two way process, its just as important for you to feel
comfortable about the role and the company. Ask us any questions so please consider
these in advance. You may wish to write these down and bring them in with you.
Your CV has impressed, your research and networking activities have paid off and you have
landed an Interview with your company of choice. Now to make sure you turn this Interview
into a pot of gold and secure the job of your dreams. Below are some general tips and
guidelines that should assist you through the Interview:
1. Research
Most of you will have researched your company of choice thoroughly in order to get to this
point. For those who haven't, it is essential that you do some background research on the
company and the job before you walk in that door. The Interviewer will expect you to know a
little about the industry and the company and will be very impressed if you are familiar with
specific events, news and concerns relating to the business. Newspapers, industry and trade
magazines, local libraries and the Internet are all a good source of information. Feel free to
pick up the phone and ask the company for their annual reports any marketing materials -
19
Maritime English
Maritime English
most companies are more than happy to oblige. The very minimum information you will want
to know is what the company does, what job you are applying for and any well-known news
pertaining to the company e.g. Merger, big scandal, new CEO.
2. Be prepared
We would recommend you take with you a notebook and extra copies of your CV (in many
cases the employer will have misplaced it, have an unclear copy or simply expect you to
provide it). In many types of jobs, you may want to take with you examples of your work e.g.
past creative work if you are in advertising, design or similar roles, architectural plans you are
proud of if you are an architect, an example of something you have had published in a journal
etc. Employers are usually very impressed to see examples of your work - it shows you have
taken initiative and it makes their decision much easier.
Your first Interview is the first impression an employer will have of you and it is essential to
make a favorable first impact. You should always plan to dress conservatively for the first
Interview even if the job involves casual wear. You can always dress down in later meetings.
Men should wear dark suits, preferably in navy or charcoal grey. Pinstripes are fine. We
recommend you wear a white shirt which should be crisply ironed with a conservative
necktie. Socks and shoes should be dark, preferably black. Jewellery on men is usually not
favourably looked upon at the Interview.
Women are also advised to wear dark suits for that first Interview.
4. Be punctual
Make sure you arrive for the Interview a good 15 minutes early. Allow yourself plenty of time
for any potential mishaps e.g. traffic jams, unclear directions, public transportation difficulties
etc.
5. Attitude counts
This is the time to show off your interpersonal skills. Employers are looking for certain key
character traits and you need to demonstrate them at the Interview. Keep the following in
mind:
Listening skills. Make sure you let the Interviewer complete his sentences and you
don't interrupt. At the same time, show interest in what he is saying and encourage
him to talk and ask questions. Good listening skills and a friendly pleasant demeanor
are key attributes in any job.
Enthusiasm. In many cases, you will not be ideally qualified for the position, or you
may have a steep learning curve ahead of you. You need to demonstrate to the
Employer that you are extremely interested in the position and love what you do!
Enthusiasm is contagious and employers are always keen to add enthusiastic members
to their team. Your positive attitude will also rub off on the interviewer as long as it is
20
Maritime English
Maritime English
genuine and not overplayed and he will leave the Interview with a favorable 'feel'
about you.
Eye contact. Maintain eye contact with the Interviewer. Looking away continuously
suggests distractibility and disinterest. Looking down suggests shyness and lack of
confidence. By all means though keep it natural and feel free to nod your head and
smile and even laugh where appropriate.
Flexibility. You need to demonstrate to the Interviewer that you are flexible, ie willing
and able to adapt readily to new environments, demands, people, work styles etc. The
Interview is a good place to demonstrate this. Be sensitive to the Interviewer's
personal style by paying attention to his general behavior, his demeanor, his office
space and the types of questions he asks and tailor your answers accordingly.
Professionalism. Above all, BE PROFESSIONAL! Respect the Interviewer-
Interviewee boundaries at all times and do not behave in an overly friendly or casual
fashion with the Interviewer. Avoid bringing up any of your personal life unless in a
directly relevant manner, do not comment on politics, religion or any other
controversial topics dear to your heart, do not stray from the Interview topics unless
you have a common interest such as golf, and keep your answers factual, honest and
professional.
There is no telling what style an Interviewer will take and what questions he will come up
with. Interviews range from the very structured and professional ones conducted by HR
departments in multinationals and banks, to ad hoc conversations in small outfits where the
employer may ask you to simply talk about yourself. In most large corporations however,
certain questions are very standard and we recommend you take the time to really think about
them, develop answers and find evidence to support your answers from past experiences and
qualifications.
Here is an example interview that can give you ideas about how you can present yourself in
the best possible light. Greg is good at interviewing. He is likeable, and he is liable to get a
job offer after this interview. Pay attention!
(Greg arrives ten minutes early, checks in with the receptionist, and fills out his name card. He adjusts his tie,
buttons his suit jacket, and sits in the lobby. Five minutes later a secretary brings him into a conference room.
Several minutes later he stands to greet his interviewer.)
effort into improving my writing skills. More recently, I've been negotiating with corporate
clients on large orders. It's been fascinating learning about the sales side of the business.
Outside of work I play basketball in several local leagues, and I also tutor adults in the local
library for Project Read.
1-E 2- 3-
22
Maritime English
Maritime English
References
1. Murphy, R. Essential Grammar In Use. 1st ed. Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 1990 (ISBN 0 521 35770 5)
2. Sweeney, S. (2004) English for Business Communication,
Cambridge University Press
3. http://www.bdo.ro/interview-tips.html
land _something at = some place to bring a boat, ship to port at or near a place. The captain landed
the boat at a small island in hopes of finding a place to make repairs.
1. [for a ship] to come to port at a place. The ship landed at the wharf and the passengers got off. We
landed at the island's main city and waited for customs to clear us.
2. [for an airplane] to return to earth at an airport. We landed at O'Hare at noon. We were to land at
Denver, but there was bad weather.
23
Maritime English
Maritime English
a never-never land
an imaginary place where everything is perfect in a way that it is not in the real world
The film is set in a pre-war English never-never land of roses and sunny days.
find out/see how the land lies= to get information about a situation before making decisions or
taking action
I thought I'd better call my mother and see how the land lies before inviting myself home for
the weekend.
24
Maritime English
Maritime English
Unit 4
Main Engines
Objectives of Unit 4
4.1 Different types of marine engines
4.2 Causal verbs
4.3 Cause and effect
4.4 Terms relating to main engines
4.5 Measurements
Self-assessment test
Progress test
Answers to self-assessment test
References
25
Maritime English
Maritime English
OBJECTIVES OF UNIT 4
There are four main types of marine engine: the diesel engine, the steam turbine, the
gas turbine and the marine nuclear plant. Each type of engine has its own particular
application.
The diesel engine is a form of internal combustion engine similar to that used in a bus. It s
power is expressed as brake horsepower (bhp). This is the power put out by the engine.
Effective horsepower is the power developed by the piston in the cylinder, but some of t his is
lost by friction within the engine. The power output of a modern marine diesel engine is
about 40,000 brake horsepower. This is now expressed in kilowatts. By comparison the
engine of a small family car has an output of about 80 bhp. Large diesel engines, which have
cylinders nearly 3 ft in diameter, turn at the relatively slow speed of about 108 rpm. These
are known as slow-speed diesel engines. They can be connected directly to the propeller
without gearing. Although higher power could be produced by higher revolutions, this
would reduce the efficiency of the propeller, because a propeller is more efficient the larger
it is and the slower it turns. These large slow running engines are used in the larger merchant
ships, particularly in tankers and bulk carriers. The main reason is their low fuel consumption.
More and more of the larger merchant vessels are being powered by medium-speed diesel
engines. These operate between 150 and 450 rpm, therefore they are connected to the
propeller by gearing. This type of engine was once restricted to smaller cargo ships, but now
they are used in fast cargo liners as well as in tankers and bulk carriers. They are cheaper
than slow-speed diesel engines, and their smaller size and weight can result in a smaller,
cheaper ship.
In steam turbines high pressure steam is directed into a series of blades or vanes
attached to a shaft, causing it to rotate. This rotary motion is transferred to the
propeller shaft by gears. Steam is produced by boiling water in a boiler, which is fired by
oil. Recent developments in steam turbines which have reduced fuel consumption and
raised power output have made them more attractive as an alternative to diesel power in
ships. They are 50 per cent lighter and on very large tankers some of the steam can be used
to drive the large cargo oil pumps. Turbines are often used in container ships, which travel
at high speeds.
Gas turbines differ from steam turbines in that gas rather than steam is used to turn a
shaft. These have also become more suitable for use in ships. Many naval vessels are
powered by gas turbines and several container ships are fitted with them. A gas turbine
engine is very light and easily removed for maintenance. It is also suitable for complete
automation.
26
Maritime English
Maritime English
Nuclear power in ships has mainly been confined to naval vessels, particularly
submarines. But this form of power will be used more in merchant ships as oil fuels become
more expensive. A nuclear-powered ship differs from a conventional turbine ship in that
it uses the energy released by the decay of radioactive fuel to generate steam. The steam is
used to turn a shaft via a turbine in the conventional way.
Complete this diagram to form a summary of the basic types of marine engine.
27
Maritime English
Maritime English
3. Causal verbs
(a) General causal verbs: to make, to cause
(how they are used is shown in Part (B) following)
(b) Specific causal verbs: to increase, to raise, to reduce, to lower, etc.
(c) Verbs enabling something to happen: to permit, to allow, to let
e.g. The piston went down, permitting/allowing air to enter the cylinder. The
piston went down, letting air enter the cylinder.
28
Maritime English
Maritime English
Other links are: results from, is due to, arises from, is the result of
(Note: If this is not the only cause, the linking phrase must be modified by a
modal, e.g. may/can or a frequency adverb, e.g. often/sometimes.)
Exercise 1. These cause and effect pairs have been mixed up. Find the corresponding parts
and join them together using any of the linking phrases above as appropriate.
(a) poor lubrication a reduction in power
(b) instability fuel economy
(c) overloading accidents
(d) efficiency breakdowns
(e) heat loss good management
(f) carelessness structural strain
(g) careful navigation bad loading
(h) lack of maintenance friction
2. When both are clauses they can be linked as follows: cause: The engines reduced speed.
effect: The ship slowed down.
(d) by using specific causal verbs e.g. to raise (to cause to rise)
cause: The piston rises.
effect: The pressure in the cylinder rises.
e.g. The piston rises, raising the pressure in the cylinder.
29
Maritime English
Maritime English
Exercise 2. Study this diagram of an engine pressure indicator and complete the sentences
below using any of the cause and effect links studied so far.
Drum
Paper clip
Pencil
Spring
Control tap
Indicator cylinder
and piston
Engine cylinder
Flywheel
(h) The upward movement of the piston compression of the gas in the cylinder.
(i) The pressure of the gas the indicator piston.
(j) The indicator piston rises, the spring.
(k) The piston is attached to the arm holding the pencil, the pencil moves upwards ... the
rise on the paper.
30
Maritime English
Maritime English
Study this diagram of a two-stroke slow-speed diesel engine and learn the names of the principal
parts.
4.5 Measurement
Basic units
Study the table below showing the six basic units of the SI system and their symbols, and the two
supplementary symbols. Some have already been used in previous units.
31
Maritime English
Maritime English
2. Derived units I
These are units expressed in terms of base and supplementary units only, e.g. unit of area = square
metre = m2
[Note: Per is expressed by a stroke (/) and indicates that the unit in front of the stroke is
divided by the unit after the stroke.]
3. Derived units II
Some units have special names. These are shown in the table below.
frequency hertz Hz
newton
force N
joule
32
Maritime English
Maritime English
Some units are expressed in terms of other derived units only or other derived units and base-
units.
stress
2
pressure N/m
2
newton per square metre W/m
intensity of heat flow rate watt per metre degree Celsius
thermal conductivity 2
W/m C
coefficient of heat transfer
heat capacity
joule per degree celsius J/kg C
Self-assessment Test
T1. Complete the sentences below using the correct form of the verbs "let,"
"make," "have," and "get."
1.Professor ... each of her students write an essay describing their future
goals in life.
2.She ... her students use a dictionary while they were taking the test.
3.Mr Smith requested a copy of that expense report, so I ... the courier take
one over to him last week.
4.Diane thinks television is a waste of time, so she won't ... her children
watch TV.
5.My boss ... me get him coffee, and buy presents for his wife. He can't do
anything by himself!
6.The contract was very detailed, and it was essential that the wording be
absolutely correct. Therefore, I ... the agent recheck his work several times
to make sure there would be no misunderstandings.
33
Maritime English
Maritime English
Progress test
Here is a diagram of a four-stroke medium-speed diesel engine. See if you
can name the parts 1-12 indicated.
1.Professor Smith had each of her students write an essay describing their future goals in life.
2.She let her students use a dictionary while they were taking the test.
3.The captain requested a copy of that expense report, so I had the bosun take one over to him last week.
34
Maritime English
Maritime English
References
1. Blakey, T.N. English For Maritime Studies. 2nd ed. Hemel
Hempstead, Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd, 1987 (ISBN 0 13
281379 3)
2. Logie, C., Vivers, E., Nisbet, A. Marlins Study Pack 2 (book and
two audio cassettes). Edinburgh, Marlins, 1998 (ISBN 09531748 1 6)
3. Murphy, R. Essential Grammar In Use. 1st ed. Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 1990 (ISBN 0 521 35770 5)
4. http://www.englishpage.com/minitutorials/letexercise.htm
35
Maritime English
Maritime English
Unit 5
Objectives of Unit 5
5.1 What is a crosshead
5.2 Characteristics
5.3 Reported speech
Self-assessment test
Progress test
Answers to self-assessment test
References
36
Maritime English
Maritime English
37
Maritime English
Maritime English
OBJECTIVES OF UNIT 5
On smaller engines the connecting rod links the piston and the crankshaft directly, but this
transmits transverse forces to the piston, since the crankpin (and thus the direction the force is
applied) moves from side to side with the rotary motion of the crank. These transverse forces
are tolerable in a smaller engine; a larger engine's much greater forces would cause an
intolerable degree of wear on the piston and cylinder, as well as increasing overall friction in
the engine.
A piston rod is attached to the piston and links it to the crosshead, which is a large casting
sliding in crosshead guides (UK: slidebar), allowing it only to move in the same direction as
the piston travel. The crosshead also houses the gudgeon pin on which the small end of the
connecting rod pivots. In this way, the transverse forces are applied only to the crosshead and
its bearings, not to the piston itself.
Internal combustion engines using crossheads make for easier maintenance of the top end of
the engine, since the pistons can be easily removed. The piston rod is mounted on the
underside of the piston and connected to the crosshead by a single nut in double acting
engines.
Large diesel engines (such as those fitted to ships) are of this pattern; the vast majority of
steam engines are also built this way.
In the case of the steam engine, a crosshead is essential if the engine is to be double acting -
steam is applied to both sides of the piston, which requires a seal around the piston rod.
Large diesels often have a plunger oil pump directly attached to the crosshead to supply oil
under high pressure to the crosshead bearing.
In many 19th century marine steam engines, the crosshead was a strong metal bar attached to
the piston rod and perpendicular to it, which was sometimes used to eliminate transverse
38
Maritime English
Maritime English
forces, as in a steeple engine, and at other times used as a linkageto side-rods in a side-lever
engine or to connecting rods in a square engine.
5.2 Characteristics
The disadvantages of the two stroke diesel trunk piston engine are that although it has a low
overall height, lubricating oil splashed up from the crankcase to lubricate the liner can find
its way into the scavenge space, causing fouling and a risk of a scavenge fire. There is also
the likelihood of liner and piston skirt wear, allowing air into the crankcase. This can
supply the required oxygen for a crankcase explosion should a hot spot develop. The
crankcase oil must have additives which can cope with contamination from products of
combustion, and the acids formed during combustion due to the sulphur in the fuel.
The majority of 2 stroke engines encountered at sea are of the "crosshead" type. In this type
of engine the combustion space (formed by the cylinder liner, piston and cylinder head),
and the scavenge space are separated from the crankcase by the diaphragm plate.
The piston rod is bolted to the piston and passes through a stuffing box mounted in the
diaphragm plate. The stuffing box provides a seal between the two spaces, stopping oil
from being carried up to the scavenge space, and scavenge air leaking into the crankcase.
The foot of the piston rod is bolted to the crosshead pin. The top end of the connecting rod
swings about the crosshead pin, as the downward load from the expanding gas applies a
turning force to the crankshaft.
To ensure that the crosshead reciprocates in alignment with the piston in the cylinder, guide
shoes are attached either side of the crosshead pin. These shoes are lined with white metal, a
bearing material and they reciprocate against the crosshead guides, which are bolted to the
frame of the engine. The crosshead guides are located in between each cylinder.
Using the crosshead design of engine allows engines to be built with very long strokes -
which means the engine can burn a greater quantity of fuel/stroke and develop more
power. The fuel used can be of a lower grade than that used in a trunk piston engine, with a
higher sulphur content, whilst high alkalinity cylinder oils with a different specification to that
39
Maritime English
Maritime English
of the crankcase oil are used to lubricate the cylinder liner and piston rings and combat the
effects of acid attack.
The most powerful diesel engines in the world are two stroke crosshead engines. Some of
these engines have cylinder bores approaching 1metre with a stroke of over 2.5 metres. The
crankshaft can weigh over 300 tons, with the engine weighing in excess of 2000 tons.
Statements
If we want to report what other people said, thought or felt, we can use the direct and
indirect speech (reported speech).
The direct speech: "I like it," he said. "Irene is late," he thought. "I will pass the exam," she
hoped.
The reported speech: He said he liked it. He thought that Irene was late. She hoped she
would pass the exam.
A) Verb tenses
We change the tenses in the following way:
1. Present - past
"I never understand you," she told me. - She told me she never understood me.
"We are exercising," he explained. - He explained that they were exercising.
4. Will - conditional
Will changes into the conditional.
"I will come on Sunday," he reminded me. - He reminded me that he would come on Sunday.
Notes
I shall, we shall usually become would.
"I shall appreciate it," he said. - He said he would appreciate it.
40
Maritime English
Maritime English
3. When the speech is made and reported at the same time and the fact is still true.
Michael: "I am thirsty." - Michael said he is thirsty.
4. With modal verbs would, might, could, should, ought to, used to.
George: "I would try it." - George said he would try it.
Mimi: "I might come." - Mimi said she might come.
Steve: "I could fail." - Steve said he could fail.
Linda: "He should/ought to stay in bed." - Linda said he should/ought to stay in bed.
Mel: "I used to have a car." - Mel said he used to have a car.
6. In if-clauses.
Martha: "If I tidied my room, my dad would be happy." - Martha said that if she tidied her
room, her dad would be happy.
7. In time-clauses.
Joe: "When I was staying in Madrid I met my best friend." - He said that when he was staying
in Madrid he met his best friend.
8. We do not change the past tense in spoken English if it is clear from the situation when the
action happened.
"She did it on Sunday," I said. - I said she did it on Sunday.
We must change it, however, in the following sentence, otherwise it will not be clear whether
we are talking about the present or past feelings.
"I hated her," he said. - He said he had hated her.
9. We do not usually change the modal verbs must and needn't. But must can become had to
or would have to and needn't can become didn't have to or wouldn't have to if we want to
express an obligation.
Would/wouldn't have to are used to talk about future obligations.
"I must wash up." - He said he must wash up/he had to wash up.
"I needn't be at school today." - He said he needn't be/didn't have to be at school that day.
"We must do it in June." - He said they would have to do it in June.
If the modal verb must does not express obligation, we do not change it.
"We must relax for a while." (suggestion) - He said they must relax for a while.
41
Maritime English
Maritime English
"You must be tired after such a trip." (certainty) - He said we must be tired after such a trip.
Self-assessment Test
scavenge space
stuffing box
crosshead guides
crosshead
diaphragm
piston rod
Progress test
Fill in the blanks with the following words:
fuels; stroke; operated; output; heat;
unit; steam; propulsive; burn; rose
The Two ... Crosshead Engine has long been the favoured main ...
power ... for most types of merchant vessels. As the price of oil ...,
developments in the design of these engines allowed them to ... the
poorer residual .... This combined with major improvements in
turbocharger design and waste ... recovery, raised their efficiency and
power ..., so they were able to supersede the ... turbine plants which ...
at much lower efficiencies.
42
Maritime English
Maritime English
References
1. Blakey, T.N. English For Maritime Studies. 2nd ed. Hemel
Hempstead, Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd, 1987 (ISBN 0 13
281379 3)
2. Logie, C., Vivers, E., Nisbet, A. Marlins Study Pack 2 (book and
two audio cassettes). Edinburgh, Marlins, 1998 (ISBN 09531748 1
6)
3. Murphy, R. Essential Grammar In Use. 1st ed. Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 1990 (ISBN 0 521 35770 5)
4. http://www.marinediesels.info/index.html
43
Maritime English
Maritime English
Unit 6
Objectives of Unit 6
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The rocker gear and valves
6.3 Turbocharging
6.4 The cylinder head
6.5 The fuel pump
6.6 The piston
6.7 The cylinder liner
6.8 The camshaft
6.9 The connecting rod
Self-assessment test
Progress test
Answers to self-assessment test
References
44
Maritime English
Maritime English
OBJECTIVES OF UNIT 6
6.1 Introduction
The medium speed 4 stroke trunk piston engine can be found on most medium to large
merchant vessels even if the main engine is either a steam turbine or a 2 stroke crosshead
engine. In these cases it will often be found that the electrical power is supplied by
alternators driven by medium speed 4 stroke engines.
They are the favoured method of propulsion on ships where head room is a minimum, for
instance, on ferries and passenger vessels, and where, as is the current trend for these ships,
diesel electric propulsion is utilised. Diesel electric propulsion allows the engines to be
placed wherever is most suitable, as they no longer have to be aligned with reduction
gearing and shafting as is the case with conventional installations.
Generally, medium speed engines run at between 250 - 850 RPM. Above this range they
are defined as high speed engines. Although not as powerful as their 2 stroke crosshead
cousins, the largest 4 stroke engines are delivering just over 2000kW per cylinder.
Advances in design and materials have led to an increase in efficiency, together with an
increase in turbocharger pressure ratios which allow a greater quantity of fuel to be burnt
per cycle. Medium speed engines have a higher power to weight ratio than the slow speed
two strokes, but due to the higher speeds tend to have reduced maintenance intervals. The
largest of these engines have a bore of 640mm and a stroke of 900mm (Wartsila 64),
although engines which are nearly "square" are more the norm. A square engine is one
where the bore is equal to the stroke.
45
Maritime English
Maritime English
The name "Trunk Piston" refers to the piston skirt or trunk. The purpose of the skirt or
trunk in four-stroke cycle engines is to act in a similar manner to a crosshead. It takes the
thrust caused by connecting-rod angularity and transmits it to the side of the cylinder liner,
in the same way as the crosshead slipper transmits the thrust to the crosshead guide. With
such engines, which are termed trunk-piston engines, the engine height is considerably
reduced compared with that of a crosshead engine of similar power and speed. The engine-
manufacturing costs are also reduced. It means of course that there is no separation between
the crankcase and the liner and piston. This has its disadvantages, especially when
considering the choice of lubricating oils when burning high sulphur residual fuels.
The 4 stroke marine diesels used for main or auxiliary power on board ship will have
multiple inlet and exhaust valves fitted to the cylinder heads. On the medium speed engines
this normally takes the form of two inlet and two exhaust valves per unit. The reasons for
this are as follows:
The area of the valve openings must be large enough to provide for an efficient gas
exchange process. If the area is too small then not enough air will be pushed/drawn
into the cylinder during the induction stroke, and on the exhaust stroke the engine
will be doing work pushing the exhaust gas out of the cylinder.
The cylinder head must accommodate inlet and exhaust valves, so unlike a two
stroke engine, one large central exhaust valve is not possible.
If the valves are too large, then the strength of the cylinder head will be
compromised.
Keeping the exhaust valve temperature within acceptable limits is of paramount
importance. It is easier to cool a smaller valve.
The moving parts and springs are of smaller proportions reducing the inertia of the
parts and the power demand on the engine.
A symmetrically designed strong cylinder head is achieved.
Exhaust valves are subject to arduous conditions, and require regular overhaul. To aid this,
exhaust valves are often fitted in separate cages. This allows the exhaust valve to be changed
and overhauled without removing the cylinder head. The cages have water cooling passages
connected to the cylinder head cooling water.
46
Maritime English
Maritime English
The cage is of cast steel. The cooled seats are made from a heat resistant molybdenum steel
which may be stellite faced. The exhaust valve may be of a similar material or of a nimonic
alloy.
Inlet valves are subject to much less arduous conditions and are not usually fitted in
separate cages.
Two different sized springs are fitted to aid positive closing of the valves. The reason for
fitting two springs are that if one fails, the other will prevent the valve dropping down into
the cylinder. The two springs have different vibration characteristics, so the incidence of
resonance is reduced. (resonance is where two items vibrate at the same frequency thus the
amplitude of the vibration is amplified.)
Most medium speed four strokes use push rods and rocker gear to open and shut the valves
at the correct time. Operated by cams, mechanically timed to the crankshaft, the pushrods
transmit the motion to the rocker gear, which pushes the valves open at the correct time.
Because there are two of each valve mounted in the cylinder head, the rocker gear must
operate both valves simultaneously. Various methods are used including master and slave
arrangements (Sulzer ZA40) and yoke (Fiat).
A hydraulic operating system was introduced in place of push rods and rocker gear on the
Sulzer ZA50. This had the advantage of being able to adjust the timing of the closing of the
valves to suit operating conditions.
47
Maritime English
Maritime English
6.3 Turbocharging
Increased power for an engine of the same size OR reduction in size for an engine
with the same power output.
Reduced specific fuel oil consumption - mechanical, thermal and scavenge
efficiencies are improved due to less cylinders, greater air supply and use of exhaust
gasses.
Thermal loading is reduced due to shorter more efficient burning period for the fuel
leading to less exacting cylinder conditions.
The turbocharger consists of a single stage impulse turbine connected to a centrifugal impeller
via a shaft.
The turbine is driven by the engine exhaust gas, which enters via the gas inlet casing. The gas
expands through a nozzle ring where the pressure energy of the gas is converted to kinetic
energy. This high velocity gas is directed onto the turbine blades where it drives the turbine
wheel, and thus the compressor at high speeds (10 -15000 rpm). The exhaust gas then passes
through the outlet casing to the exhaust uptakes.
On the air side air is drawn in through filters, and enters the compressor wheel axially
where it is accelerated to high velocity. The air exits the impeller radially and passes through
a diffuser, where some of the kinetic energy gets converted to pressure energy. The air
passes to the volute casing where a further energy conversion takes place. The air is cooled
before passing to the engine inlet manifold or scavenge air receiver.
The nozzle ring is where the energy in the exhaust gas is converted into kinetic energy. It is
fabricated from a creep resistant chromium nickel alloy, heat resisting moly-chrome nickel
steel or a nimonic alloy which will withstand the high temperatures and be resistant to
corrosion.
Turbine blades are usually a nickel chrome alloy or a nimonic material (a nickel alloy
containing chrome, titanium, aluminium, molybdenum and tungsten) which has good
resistance to creep, fatigue and corrosion. Manufactured using the investment casting process.
Blade roots are of fir tree shape which give positive fixing and minimum stress concentration
at the conjunction of root and blade. The root is usually a slack fit to allow for differential
expansion of the rotor and blade and to assist damping vibration. On small turbochargers and
the latest designs of modern turbochargers the blades are a tight fit in the wheel.
Lacing wire is used to dampen vibration, which can be a problem. The wire passes through
holes in the blades and damps the vibration due to friction between the wire and blade. It is
not fixed to each individual blade. The wire can pass through all the blades, crimped between
individual blades to keep it located, or it can be fitted in shorter sections, fixed at one end,
joining groups of about six blades. A problem with lacing wire is that it can be damaged by
foreign matter, it can be subject to corrosion, and can accelerate fouling by products of
combustion when burning residual fuels. Failure of blading due to cracks emanating from
lacing wire holes can also be a problem. All the above can cause imbalance of the rotor.
48
Maritime English
Maritime English
The turbine casing is of cast iron. Some casings are water cooled which complicates the
casting. Water cooled casings are necessary for turbochargers with ball and roller bearings
with their own integral LO supply (to keep the LO cool). Modern turbochargers with
externally lubricated journal bearings have uncooled casings. This leads to greater overall
efficiency as less heat energy is rejected to cooling water and is available for the exhaust
gas boiler.
Bearings are either of the ball or roller type or plain white metal journals. The ball and
roller bearings are mounted in resilient mountings incorporating spring damping to prevent
damage due to vibration. These bearings have their own integral oil pumps and oil supply,
and have a limited life (8000 hrs). Plain journal bearings are lubricated from the main
engine oil supply or from a separate system incorporating drain tank, cooler and pumps. Oil
is supplied in sufficient quantity to cool as well as lubricate. The system may incorporate a
header tank arrangement to supply oil to the bearings whilst the turbocharger comes to rest
should the oil supply fail. A thrust arrangement is required to locate and hold the rotor
axially in the casing. In normal operation the thrust is towards the compressor end.
Labyrinth seals or glands are fitted to the shaft and casing to prevent the leakage of exhaust
gas into the turbine end bearing, or to prevent oil being drawn into the compressor. To
assist in the sealing effect, air from the compressor volute casing is led into a space within
the gland. A vent to atmosphere at the end of the labyrinth gives a guide to the efficiency of
the turbine end gland. Discoloring of the oil on a rotor fitted with a roller bearing will also
indicate a failure in the turbine end gland.
A labyrinth arrangement is also fitted to the back of the compressor impeller to restrict the
leakage of air to the gas side
Cylinder heads for 4 stroke engines are of a complex design. They have to house the inlet and
exhaust valves, the fuel injector, the air start valve, relief valve and indicator cock. The
passages for the inlet air and exhaust gas are incorporated, as are the cooling water passages
and spaces.
Normally manufactured from spheroidal graphite or nodular cast iron which is easy to cast.
Although not as strong as cast steel, which is difficult to cast into complex shapes due to its
49
Maritime English
Maritime English
poor fluidity, it maintains a reasonable strength under load. Adequate cooling is essential to
prevent thermal fatigue due to uneven expansion throughout the casting, and bore cooling has
been introduced along with cooling spaces to ensure effective cooling of the "flame plate"
(the underside of the cylinder head which forms the top of the combustion chamber).
Cracking of cylinder heads can occur due to poor cooling causing thermal fatigue. Poor
cooling can be the result of scale build up within the cooling spaces due to inadequate water
treatment. Overloading of the unit causing high peak pressures is also a cause as is incorrect
tightening down of the cylinder head. Cracking normally occurs between the valve pockets
and/or cooling water spaces. Cracked cylinder heads can be repaired by specialised welding;
but this must be done under the guidance and with authorisation from the classification
societies.
Medium speed four stroke engines are equipped with jerk type fuel pumps, one for each
cylinder. A plunger operated by a cam reciprocates in a barrel.
The plunger has a helix machined into it which also forms a vertical groove and an annular
groove at the base of the helix. The barrel is located in the pump body which has spill ports,
connected to the suction side of the pump, drilled so that they are above the top of the plunger
when the cam is on the base circle. The plunger is keyed to a sleeve which has a gearwheel
(pinion) machined into it. The pinion meshes with a rack which can rotate the plunger relative
to the barrel. The rack is connected to the engine governor.
As the plunger moves upwards in the barrel, injection will commence once the plunger has
closed off the spill ports and the pressure builds up. As soon as the helix or scroll passes the
spill ports the pressure above the plunger will immediately drop, even though the plunger is
still moving upwards. It should therefore be evident that the amount of fuel injected into the
cylinder is dependent on the position of the helix relative to the spill port. When the vertical
groove is lined up with the spill port, then no injection will take place and the engine will
stop.
The plunger is machined to very fine tolerances, as is the matched barrel in which it
reciprocates. Wear due to abrasive particles in the fuel will mean that the pump will take
longer to build up the injection pressure required. Wear due to erosion also takes place on the
top edge of the plunger and the edge of the helices and spill ports. This, together with the
wear in the plunger and barrel, will lead to the injection timing becoming retarded, for which
adjustment may have to be made.
On the scroll or helical fuel pump, although the end of injection can be varied, the start of
injection (i.e. when the top of the plunger covers the spill ports) is fixed. Fuels of different
qualities may require advancing or retarding the start of injection, in addition to which if the
injection timing is advanced when the engine is running at loads below the maximum
continuous rating, then a saving in fuel can be achieved.
Different engine manufacturers achieve this Variable Injection Timing (VIT) using different
methods.
50
Maritime English
Maritime English
The Wartsila 64 engine uses a fuel pump with two plungers and two barrels with common
suction and discharge. The plunger for controlling the start of injection (timing) has a helix
in the top of the plunger, while the plunger for controlling the end of injection (metering) is a
conventional scroll type fuel pump plunger.
Both plungers are operated by the same cam. As they move upwards in their respective
barrels injection will not start until the helix on the timing plunger has covered the spill port.
This point is controlled by rotating the plunger in the barrel by means of a rack and pinion.
End of injection is controlled in the normal way, when the helix on the metering plunger
uncovers the spill ports. The MAN B&W 32/40 engine has a separate camshaft for the fuel
pumps that can be advanced or retarded as the engine is running. The final drive gear on the
timing gear train has an internal helically toothed sleeve bolted to it. The gear wheel and
sleeve can be moved axially by means of a hydraulic piston. The toothed sleeve meshes with
a matched helical gear fixed to the camshaft.
The camshaft is fixed so that it cannot move axially. Therefore as the sleeve moves up and
down controlled by the hydraulic piston, so the fuel pump timing is advanced or retarded.
The camshaft for the inlet and exhaust valves utilises two different profiles for economy and
full power operation. The camshaft can move axially from one set of cams to the other whilst
the engine is running similar to the method used for reversing the engine direction as shown
on the camshaft page.
Pistons for medium speed trunk piston engines which burn residual fuel are composite
pistons; i.e the crown and the skirt are made of different materials.
The crown is a heat resisting steel forging which may be alloyed with chromium,
molybdenum and nickel to maintain strength at high temperatures and resist corrosion. It is
dished to form a combustion chamber with cutouts to allow for the valves opening. The
topland (the space between the top ring and the top of the piston) may be tapered to allow for
expansion being greater where the piston is hottest.
51
Maritime English
Maritime English
The skirt can either be a nodular cast iron or forged or cast silicon aluminium alloy.
Aluminium has the advantage of being light, with low inertia, reducing bearing loading.
However because aluminium has a higher coefficient of expansion than steel, increased
clearances must be allowed for during manufacture. This means that the piston skirt
clearance in the liner is greater than that for cast iron when running at low loads. The skirt
transmits the side thrust, caused by the varying angularity of the con rod, to the liner. Too
big a clearance will cause the piston to tilt.
The piston pin for the con rod small end bearing is located in the piston skirt. The piston pin
floats in the piston skirt and is located in place by circlips. Depending on the material used
for the skirt (esp. cast aluminium), a bushing may be used for the pin.
The piston rings may be located in the crown or in both crown and skirt. Normally, the rings
are chrome plated or plasma coated to resist wear. Because the liner is splash lubricated, an
oil scraper (oil control) ring is fitted to the piston skirt.
The piston is oil cooled. This is achieved by various means; The simplest is for a jet of oil to
be directed upwards from a hole in the top of the con rod onto the underside of the crown. A
more efficient method is to use an oil catcher as shown in the picture above. This directs oil
into the cooling spaces on the underside of the crown where the cocktail shaker effect of the
reciprocating piston ensures a positive cooling effect. It is unusual for the oil return
temperature to be monitored (unlike the 2 stroke slow speed crosshead engine, where both
temperature and quantity are monitored).
Some engines are fitted with one piece pistons manufactured from either cast iron or silicon
alloy aluminium . These cannot be used with residual fuel, because the higher temperatures
causes burning of the piston crown. Aluminium also suffers from carbon build up above
300 C. Ring grooves in aluminium pistons usually take the form of a chrome plated cast
iron insert.
At each stroke a different part of the freshly oiled skirt is in contact with the part of the liner
52
Maritime English
Maritime English
wall absorbing the side thrust. This reduces wear and the risk of seizure.
The rings rotate, so the ring gap is not always in the same position; this reduces local
overheating due to blowby.
Because the loading on the spherical bearing is symmetrical, and because the piston is
symmetrical (no hole for piston pin), the piston can be made with smaller clearances which
reduces piston rocking.
The cylinder liner is cast separately from the main cylinder frame for the same reasons as
given for the 2 stroke engine which are:
The liner can be manufactured using a superior material to the cylinder block. While
the cylinder block is made from a grey cast iron, the liner is manufactured from a
nodular cast iron alloyed with chromium, vanadium and molybdenum. (Cast iron
contains graphite, a lubricant. The alloying elements help resist corrosion and
improve the wear resistance at high temperatures.)
The cylinder liner will wear with use, and therefore may have to be replaced. The
cylinder jacket lasts the life of the engine.
At working temperature, the liner is a lot hotter than the jacket. The liner will expand
more and is free to expand diametrically and lengthwise. If they were cast as one
piece, then unacceptable thermal stresses would be set up, causing fracture of the
material.
Less risk of defects. The more complex the casting, the more difficult to produce a
homogenous casting with low residual stresses.
Where the cooling water space is formed between the engine frame and the jacket, there is a
danger that water could leak down and contaminate the crankcase if the sealing O rings were
to fail. As a warning, "tell tale" holes are led from between the O rings to the outside of the
engine. modern engines tend not to use this space for cooling water. Instead a separate water
53
Maritime English
Maritime English
jacket is mounted above the cylinder frame. This stops any risk of leakage of water from the
cooling space into the crankcase (or oil into the cooling water space), and provides the
cooling at the hottest part of the cylinder liner.
Note that the liner opposite is fitted with a fireband. This is sometimes known as an
antipolishing ring. It is slightly smaller in diameter than the liner, and its purpose is to remove
the carbon which builds up on the piston above the top ring. If this carbon is allowed to build
up it will eventually rub against the liner wall, polishing it and destroying its oil retention
properties.
The liner must be gauged regularly to establish the wear rate and check that it is within
manufacturers tolerances. The wear rate for a medium speed liner should be below
0.015mm/1000hrs. Excessive wear is caused by lack of lubrication, impurities in fuel air or
Lubricating oil, bad combustion and acid attack.
6.8 Camshaft
There are several different methods of manufacturing camshafts for medium speed 4 stroke
marine diesel engines. On the smaller engines, the camshaft may be a single forging
complete with cams.
Alternatively the camshaft can be built up in single cylinder elements, each element made
up of the fuel, inlet, and exhaust cam on a section of the camshaft with a flange on each
end. So that the element can be used on any unit in the engine, the number of holes for
fitted bolts in the flanges must be sufficient to allow the cam to be timed for any unit on the
engine. For example, on a six cylinder engine, the flanges must have 6 equi spaced holes or
a multiple thereof. The cams must be hard enough to resist the wear and abrasion due to
impurities in the lub. oil, yet they must be tough enough to resist shattering due to shock
loading. The cams are therefore surface hardened using the nitriding process.
On the larger engines it is usual to manufacture the camshaft and cams separately. The
nitrided alloy steel cams are then shrunk on to the steel shaft using heat or hydraulic means.
Because the cams are fitted progressively onto the shaft, if the bores in the cams were all
the same diameter, it would be very difficult, if not impossible, to fit the first cams all the
way along the length of the shaft to the correct position. To overcome this problem the
54
Maritime English
Maritime English
camshaft is stepped, with the largest diameters at the end which has the cams fitted first.
The larger bored cams fit easily over the small diameter steps till they reach the correct
position on the camshaft.
Keys are not generally used to locate the cams as they would act as stress raisers.
Most medium speed engines are unidirectional (i.e. they only rotate one way). This is
because they either are driving an alternator, or because if they are used as direct main
propulsion they tend to be driving a controllable pitch propeller. In the case where the
engine is reversing, then the camshaft has two sets of cams, one for ahead operation, and
one for astern.
The camshaft is either chain or gear driven from the crankshaft. Because the engine is a
four stroke, the camshaft will rotate at half the speed of the crankshaft. (the valves and fuel
pump will only operate once for every two revolutions of the crankshaft).
In a case where the cams are shrunk on the camshaft, if a cam becomes damaged and has to
be replaced, then it can be cut off using a cutter grinder. Care must be exercised not to
damage the camshaft or adjacent cams during the operation. The replacement cam is fitted
in two halves which is then bolted on the camshaft in the correct position and the timing
rechecked.
The connecting rod in a medium speed 4 stroke engine is subject to an inertia whip loading
due to the mass of the con rod swinging about the piston pin. (Because of the lower speed
of a 2 stroke engine, the whip loading is not large enough to influence the design of the con
rod). Added to this, the inertia loads due to the mass of the reciprocating parts cause a stress
reversal from high compressive stress (during power and compression stroke) to a low
tensile stress between the exhaust and inlet strokes.
This loading of the rod influences its design, and to withstand the loading described above,
connecting rods are often forged from a manganese molybdenum steel in an I or H section
which reduces its mass from one made of round section steel (and thus reduces the whip
loading) while maintaining strength. This is not always the case, as can be seen from the
pictures shown, and often a round section rod is of sufficient strength.
The advantage of using a vee engine is that the overall length of the engine is reduced for a
given power output.
If a normal bottom end arrangement is used then the con rods must be placed side by side
which means the opposite cylinders are offset. The crankpins must be long enough to
accommodate two bottom ends side by side, and of large enough diameter to resist bending.
The increased length of the crankshaft means a longer engine.
Two alternative arrangements are pictured (right). Both allow the cylinders to be opposite
one another. However, both arrangements restrict access to the crankcase, and because the
design of the bottom ends are different, more spares have to be carried.
Because of the stress reversal mentioned above, bottom end bolts have a limited life. This
varies from engine to engine, but is generally around 12-15000 hours. If a bottom end bolt
was to fail in operation, then the results would be disastrous.
Bottom end bolts should be treated with care when removed from the engine during
overhauls. They should be inspected for any damage to the surface from which a crack
could start. This damage could be due to corrosion (water in LO) or because of incorrect
handling.
56
Maritime English
Maritime English
Self-assessment Test
O ring
stud
thrust piece
oil catcher
circlip
piston pin
Progress test
Use all of the following expressions of cause and effect: because,
since, as long as, due to the fact that, as.
Note that all of these expressions are synonyms of 'because'. Mind
the punctuation:
Example:
Because he had to work late, we had dinner after nine o'clock.
We had dinner after nine o'clock because he had to work late.
1. They received a high mark on their exam ... they had studied
hard.
2. They had to leave early ... their train left at 8.30.
3. ... you have the time, why don't you come for dinner?
4. ... the test is difficult, you had better get some sleep.
5. We will be staying for an extra week ... we haven not yet
finished.
57
Maritime English
Maritime English
References
1. Blakey, T.N. English For Maritime Studies. 2nd ed. Hemel
Hempstead, Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd, 1987 (ISBN 0 13
281379 3)
2. Logie, C., Vivers, E., Nisbet, A. Marlins Study Pack 2 (book and
two audio cassettes). Edinburgh, Marlins, 1998 (ISBN 09531748 1 6)
3. Murphy, R. Essential Grammar In Use. 1st ed. Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 1990 (ISBN 0 521 35770 5)
4. http://www.marinediesels.info/
58
Maritime English
Maritime English
Unit 7
Objectives of Unit 7
7.1 How an engine starts on air
7.2 Adverb clauses
Self-assessment test
Progress test
Answers to self-assessment test
References
59
Maritime English
Maritime English
OBJECTIVES OF UNIT 7
Air start
Large Marine Diesel Engines are started using high pressure compressed air. The air is
admitted into the cylinder when the piston is just past TDC and continued until just before
the exhaust valve opens. There is always more than one air start valve open: - a situation
known as overlap. This ensures that the engine will start in any position. The opening of the
main air start valves is controlled by a set of pilot valves located in the air start distributor,
which in turn are timed to operate by a drive linked to the main camshaft. In the example
shown, a small camshaft is used to control the opening and closing of the air start pilot
valves.
60
Maritime English
Maritime English
The drawing shows the principle of operation of an air start system. Large air receivers are
used to store the compressed air. The diagram shows the isolating valve open so air is being
allowed as far as the automatic valve and the air start control valve.
When the engine is required to start, a low pressure air signal is sent to the air start control
valve (which can also be hand operated in an emergency). The air pushes a piston down
which opens the valve and allows high pressure air to flow to the pilot valve and the
automatic valve operating pistons. The pilot valve is forced down onto the cam profile and
the automatic valve opens and high pressure air is led to the main air start valves and the
pilot valve. When the pilot valve cam follower is on the lowest point on the cam, air flows
to the operating piston of the main air start valve for that particular cylinder, opening the
valve and allowing high pressure air to flow into the cylinder.
When the pilot valve is lifted by the cam, the pilot valve vents and the main air start valve
closes. When the start air signal is taken off the air start control valve, the system vents and
the automatic valve shuts.
An interlock blocking valve will operate, for instance if the turning gear is left in, and this
will stop high pressure air from reaching the air start control valve and thus either the
automatic valve or the pilot valve.
61
Maritime English
Maritime English
A slow turning valve is fitted. This will open instead of the main automatic valve if the
engine has been stopped for more than 30 minutes during manoeuvering. It will only supply
enough air to turn the engine over very slowly. This is a precaution in case a cylinder has
had oil or water leak into it which would cause damage to the engine when starting. If the
engine completes a full revolution on the slow turn, then the main automatic valve opens
and the engine will start. (note: The operating system for the slow turning has been omitted
for simplicity).
"He saw Mary when he was in New York" and "They studied hard because they had a test"
are adverb clauses. Adverb clauses express when, why, opposition and conditions and are
dependent clauses. This means that an adverb clause cannot stand by itself - in other words,
"When he went to New York." is not a complete sentence. It needs to be completed by an
independent clause. Example: He went to the Guggenheim museum when he was in New
York.
Punctuation When an adverb clause begins the sentence, use a comma to separate the two
clauses. Example: As soon as he arrives, we will have some lunch. When the adverb clause
finishes the sentence there is no need for a comma. Example: He gave me a call when he
arrived in town.
TIME
after, before, when, while, as, by the time (that), as soon as, since, until, whenever, the first
time (that), the next time (that), the last time (that), every time (that)
Examples:
He was talking on the phone when I arrived.
We will finish before he arrives.
We will finish after he comes.
She began cooking while I was finishing my homework.
By the time he finished, I had cooked dinner.
We waited until he finished his homework.
I have played tennis since I was a young boy.
62
Maritime English
Maritime English
OPPOSITION
although, even though, though, whereas, while
Examples:
He bought the car even though it was expensive.
Though he loves doughnuts, he has given them up for his diet.
Whereas you have lots of time to do your homework, I have very little time indeed.
Mary is rich, while I am poor.
CONDITION
if, only if, unless, whether (or not), even if, providing (that), in case (that), provided (that), in
the event (that)
Examples:
If he comes, we will have some lunch.
He would have invited me if he had known.
Even if she saves a lot, she won't be able to afford that house.
They won't be able to come whether or not they have enough money.
Unless she hurries up, we won't arrive in time.
In the case you need me, I'll be at Tom's.
Only if you do well on your exams will we give you your bicycle.
Self-assessment Test
Give the right from of the verbs in brackets:
If it rains, we (stay) at home.
He will arrive late unless he (hurry) up.
Peter will buy a new car, if he (get) his raise.
If he studied more, he (pass) the exam.
I would lower taxes if I (be) the President.
They would buy a new house if they (have) more money
If he (know) that, he would have decided differently.
Jane (find) a new job if she had stayed in Boston.
Progress test
Choose the phrase which best completes the conditional statement.
1. If he comes,
A. we will go to lunch. B. we would go to lunch. C. we went to lunch.
2. I would buy a yacht
if I have a lot of money. if I inherited a million dollars. if I win the
63
Maritime English
Maritime English
lottery.
3. If he studies a lot,
A. he might pass the exam. B. he would pass the exam. C. he is going
to pass the exam.
4. I would get a new job
A. if I was you. B. if I am you. C. if I were you.
5. He will surely fail his exams
A. if he not work harder; B. unless he begins to study; C. if he weren't
serious.
6. I wont leave on Saturday
A. if she will come to visit; B. if she won't come to visit; C. if she
comes to visit
7. If this storm gets worse,
A. we will have to go inland. B. we must to go inland; C. we have to
get inland.
References
1. Murphy, R. Essential Grammar In Use. 1st ed. Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 1990 (ISBN 0 521 35770 5)
2. Logie, C., Vivers, E., Nisbet, A. Marlins Study Pack 2 (book and
two audio cassettes). Edinburgh, Marlins, 1998 (ISBN 09531748 1 6)3.
http://www.marinediesels.info/4_stroke_engine_parts/The_4_stroke_
4. http://esl.about.com/library/quiz/bl_conditionals1.htm
64
Maritime English
Maritime English
Unit 8
Objectives of Unit 9
9.1 Watch arragements
9.2 Handing/Taking over the watch
9.3 Getting in touch
Self-assessment test
Progress test
Answers to self-assessment test
References
65
Maritime English
Maritime English
OBJECTIVES OF UNIT 8
The chief engineer of every ship shall, in consultation with the master, ensure that
watchkeeping arrangements are adequate to maintain a safe engineering watch.
The term "engineering watch" means either a person or a group of personnel comprising the
watch or a period of responsibility for an officer during which the physical presence in the
machinery spaces of that officer may or may not be required.
The officer in charge of the engineering watch is the chief engineer officer's representative
and is primarily responsible at all times for the safe and efficient operation and upkeep of
machinery affecting the safety of the ship and is responsible for the inspection, operation and
testing, as required, of all machinery and equipment under the responsibility of the
engineering watch.
The composition of the engineering watch shall at all times be adequate to ensure the safe
operation of all machinery affecting the operation of the ship, in either automated or manual
mode, and be appropriate to the prevailing circumstances and conditions.
When deciding the composition of the engineering watch, which may include appropriately
qualified ratings, the following criteria, inter alia, shall be taken into account:
(a) the type of ship and the type and condition of the machinery;
(b) the adequate supervision, at all times, of machinery affecting the safe operation of
the ship;
(c) any special modes of operation dictated by conditions such as weather, ice,
contaminated water, shallow water, emergency conditions, damage containment or
pollution abatement;
(d) the qualifications and experience of the engineering watch;
(e) the safety of life, ship, cargo and port, and protection of the marine environment;
(f) the observance of international, national and local regulations; and
(g) the maintenance of the normal operations of the ship.
The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall not hand over the watch to the relieving
officer if there is reason to believe that the latter is obviously not capable of carrying out the
66
Maritime English
Maritime English
watchkeeping duties effectively, in which case the chief engineer officer shall be notified.
The relieving officer of the engineering watch shall ensure that the members of the relieving
engineering watch are apparently fully capable of performing their duties effectively.
Prior to taking over the engineering watch, relieving officers shall satisfy themselves
regarding at least the following-
(a) the standing orders and special instructions of the chief engineer officer relating
to the operation of the ship's systems and machinery;
(b) the nature of all work being performed on machinery and systems, the personnel
involved and potential hazards;
(c) the level and, where applicable, the condition of water or residues in bilges,
ballast tanks, slop tanks, reserve tanks, fresh water tanks, sewage tanks and any
special requirements for use or disposal of the contents thereof;
(d) the condition and level of fuel in the reserve tanks, settling tank, day tank and
other fuel storage facilities;
(e) any special requirements relating to sanitary system disposals;
(f) the condition and mode of operation of the various main and auxiliary systems,
including the electrical power distribution system;
(g) where applicable, the condition of monitoring and control console equipment, and
which equipment is being operated manually;
(h) where applicable, the condition and mode of operation of automatic boiler
controls such as flame safeguard control systems, limit control systems, combustion
control systems, fuel-supply control systems and other equipment related to the
operation of steam boilers;
(i) any potentially adverse conditions resulting from bad weather, ice, or
contaminated or shallow water;
(j) any special modes of operation dictated by equipment failure or adverse ship
conditions;
(k) the reports of engine room ratings relating to their assigned duties;
(l) the availability of fire-fighting appliances; and
(m) the state of completion of engine room log.
Engineers should not only depend on instruments to tell them the engines condition, but also
rely on the human sense of touch.
As they walk along the top plates they check for the relief valves and air start valves that they
are not leaking back by resting a hand on the connecting pipework. The reason for this action
is that if a relief valve is leaking back the pipework will be hot, due to hot combustion gases,
sometimes this is caused by the relief valve having lifted and not re-seating properly. A sharp
tap on the top of the valve with a hammer can reseat it. However if leaking for some other
reason, this will affect the efficiency of the combustion process and the valve should be
replaced.
Similarly if an air-start valve is leaking back, the pipework will be hot due to the combustion
gases. Here however the similarity ends! A leaking air-start valve can allow the gases to flow
back down the air supply pipework and into the air-start vessel, where it can combine with the
compressed air/oil vapour and cause the vessel to explode.
67
Maritime English
Maritime English
To avoid the possibility of such an explosion involving compressed air, the individual air-
start isolating valves and compressed air vessel outlet valves should be shut at all times
except when manoeuvring. Any suspect air-start valves should be replaced, and compressed
air vessels drained of the mixture of air, water and oil, the oil having been carried forward by
the air compressor lubrication.
A hot crankcase door can be indicative of a bearing or other engine component running hot.
An oil mist forms on the inside of the crankcase and the crankcase gets progressively hotter
due to lube-oil overheating in an attempt to cool the bearing/s.
One sure-fire way of confirming this is by walking along the bottom plates of the engine room
and running a hand along the crankcase doors; any overheating problems will soon manifest
themselves through the skin on the back of a hand, much faster than relying on the oily-mist
detector or in the extreme situation of the crankcase explosion doors lifting.
Lastly lets look at the propeller drive shaft bearings and stern gland. The propeller shaft will
have been aligned to the main engine at the shipyard where the ship was built, and alignment
subsequently checked in dry dock during yearly survey. However, the larger ships of today
such as VLCC, LNG or Container ships have a lot of fore and aft movement, especially if
sailing light-ship or in ballast, so there is a lot of stress on the prop shaft which is transmitted
as torque to the shaft bearings.
Moving on down the tunnel the rest of the bearings are checked in the same manner, until we
reach the stern gland. The stern gland should always have a trickle of seawater running out of
it and this ensures not only a cool running gland but also that the gland packing and shaft are
being lubricated. Again laying a hand on the gland will tell if it is running hot carefully
slackening off the gland adjusting nuts in sequence will increase the flow of seawater through
the packing and cool the whole stern gland down.
All this touching of pipes and components by hand to check for excessive heat soon becomes
second nature to the experienced watch-keeper.
Self-assessment Test
Give the right answer:
Progress test
T1. Give the right phrasal verbs with 'up'
Jane and I want to ... up smoking.
Could you ... me up at 6 o'clock?
We must ... up or we will miss the bus.
Can you ... me up at the station?
I usually have to ... up at half past six.
I must ... up my cabin today.
Jane and I want to give up smoking.
Could you wake me up at 6 o'clock?
We must hurry up or we will miss the bus.
Can you pick me up at the station?
I usually have to get up at half past six.
I must tidy up my cabin today.
69
Maritime English