PGS.

NGUYN NH CHI

H C A I C U

(Ti bn ln th nht)

I HC THI-NGUYN
TRUNG TM HC LIU

NH XUT BN GIO DC
nhng ni dung c lin quan n "Hoa hc i cng" c tc gi trnh by tn
i y .
Trn trng tnh cm v cng sc ca Ph gio s Nguyn nh Chi bin nhng
tch ly ca mnh sau nhiu nm ng trn bc ging thnh nhng trang sch v
tm huyt dnh cho hc sinh, sinh vin v bn ng nghip.
Chng ti hy vng cun "Hoa hc i cng" sau khi c xut bn s l ti liu
ch cho sinh vin, cn b ging dy v nhng ngi yu thch nghin cu Hoa hc.
Cun sch c th cn c nhng thiu st, mong bn c thng cm v nhng thi
st nu c pht hin, bn c gi v Nh xut bn Gio dc - Cng ty CP sch
hc, Dy ngh 25 Hn Thuyn, H Ni.
NH XUT BN GIO DC
 M DU

0.1. I TNG V PHNG PHP CA HOA HC

Con ngi sng v hot ng trong th gii vt cht, Ngi ta ph
hnh thc tn ti c bn ca vt cht l cht v trng. Cht l dng tn ti c
cht cu to t nhng ht ring bit c khi lng ring ("khi lng ngh") v
chim mt the tch xc nh trong khng gian. Trng l nhng dng lng t
khng c khi lng ngh, v d trng hp dn, trng in t...
Theo quan im ca khoa hc hin i, cc ht c bn cht nh nguyn', v
tnh ht, va c tnh sng (cn gi l lng tnh sng ht). Trng cng c b
nh nguyn nh vy. 'Gia cht v trng c mi lin h mt thit. Tng tc gi
cc ht c thc hin qua trng.
Mc ch ca khoa hc t nhin trc ht l khm ph ra bn cht ca cc hi
tng t nhin, nhn thc cc nh lut ca t nhin v ng dng cc nh lut d
vo hot ng thc tin ca con ngi. Hoa hc l mt b phn ca khoa hc
nhin, nghin cu v cc cht v s bin i ca cc cht. i tng vt cht m
cc nh hoa hc quan tm nghin cu l cc cht hoa hc. 'Cht hoa hc l d
cht c thnh phn xc nh v nhng tnh cht c th. Mi cht hoa hc cu t
t nhng nguyn t ca mt hay mt s nguyn t hoa hc. Cc nguyn t d c
tn ti c lp hoc lin kt vi nhau to thnh phn t hoc tinh th. Hn hp
tp hp gm hai hay nhiu cht trong cc cht vn gi c tnh cht dc th
ca chng.
Mi cht hoa hc c thnh phn xc nh v cc tnh cht xc dinh. Cc tnh
cht li c phn chia thnh tnh cht vt l v tnh cht hoa hc. T
vt l l nhng tnh cht c th quan st c hay o c m khng cn lm th
i thnh phn hay bn cht ca cht . Tnh cht hoa hc l tnh cht m ta
mun quan st c hoc o c th cn phi thc hin bin i cht tc l t
cht ch th hin trong cc bin i hoa hc hay cn gi l cc phn ng hoa h
hiu c thnh phn v tnh cht ca cc cht ta phi nghin cu cc ch
v cc qu trnh. Hoa hc l khQiiloc_thcjhim. v i th c th coi nghin c
hoa hc gm ba bc chnh: quan st, miu t v gii thch. Cc nghin cu hoa
trc
HOAM CD
y C
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v 8. N ln nghin cu hin nay ca hoa hc c thc hin 5quy m
G
phn
m tc l quy m m con ngi c th quan st trc tip c. Tuy nhin
thch cc kt qu v m m ta quan st c li phi xem xt n cu to nguyn
v phn t tc l tm hiu vt cht mc vi m. Vi tin b ca k thut th
nghim ngy nay nhiu th nghim c tin hnh quy m vi m tc l mc
tng nguyn t, phn t.
Khi tin hnh nghin cu trc ht nh hoa hc xc nh h thng (gi tt l
h) dng lm i tng nghin cu. Sau tin hnh quan st v o lng thu
thp cc d kin bao gm c nhng thng tin nh tnh v nh lng.
lng ln cc d kin thu c t thc nghim, ngi ta thng tng kt li thnh
nh lut di dng mt pht biu hay mt mnh ton hc. T ngui ta c
nu gi thuyt gii thch cc kt qu thc nghim. Nu sau nhiu ln kim tr
gi thuyt th hin c tnh ng n th gi thuyt tr thnh l thuyt. L thuy
l mt nguyn l thng nht cho php gii thch hng lot s kin v nh lut
trong mt phm vi xc nh.
0.2. QUAN H GIA HOA HC V CC NGNH KHOA HC
Ngay t khi mi hnh thnh hoa hc c quan h mt thit vi c
khoa hc v k thut khc. Ngy nay khi khoa hc pht trin n trnh cao
th nh hng ln nhau v s xm nhp ln v nhau gia hoa hc v cc ngnh
khc cng mnh m v su sc.
Trc ht l s p dng ton hc v hoa hc. Cc mi quan h nh lng rn
ln trong hoa hc ch c th din t c nh cc phng php v cng c ton h
V d th hin trong mi lnh vc khc nhau ca hoa hc. V d hiu bn ch
ca cu to nguyn t, cu to phn t v tng tc gia cc loi ht khng th
thiu cc kin thc i s, hnh hc, vi phn, tch phn... e xy dng cc l thuy
ca nhit ng hoa hc ta phi dng khi nim hm s, o hm ring, vi phn,
tch phn... Ngc li thc t ca hoa hc v cng ngh hoa hc li l ng lc th
y s nghin cu v p dng ton hc c pht trin. Trong nhng nm gn y
s p dng tin hc vo hoa hc c tc dng rt mnh m n s pht trin ca h
hc v cng ngh hoa hc.
Mi quan h gia hoa hc v vt l hc c bit mt thit. Mi l thuyt ca
hoa hc v k thut hoa hc u c xy dng trn c s l thuyt vt l p d
cho cc h hoa hc. Cc l thuyt ca vt l v lng t, nhit, nhit ng lc h
in hc, t hc, quang hc... u l c s xy dng cc l thuyt v phng
php nghin cu, ng dng trohg hoa hc.
Hoa hc cng c nh hng n v chu nh hng ca nhiu ngnh khoa hc
v k thut khc. C th sng l h hoa hc phc tp, v vy vic khm ph ra
cc quy lut s sng gn lin vi vic tm hiu bn cht hoa hc trong cc h
6
Kin thc hoa hc l cc k quan trng i vi cc ngnh sinh , HOvt hc,
* HC O
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bit nhiu trungtn sng...
ti ca
V vy hoa hc l mn khoa hc c bn quan trng i vi cc ngnh m, a cht,
kh tng, thy vn,...
Tin b ca mi ngnh k thut u quan h mt thit vi vic s dng vt liu
v bo v mi trng sng. Vic ci tin phng php s dng cc vt liu sn c
trong thin nhin v vic tm kim cc ngun vt liu mi v c cc ngun nng
lng mi ch c th thc hin c khi c nhng tin b ca hoa hc. C th ni
rng trong thi i hin nay kin thc hoa hc l mt trong nhng yu t quan
trng nht ca tin b khoa hc k thut trong mi lnh vc hot ng khoa hc k
thut ca con ngi.
Con ngi sng trong mi trng cu to t cc cht hoa hc, thng xuyn tip
xc vi cc cht hoa hc v cc bin i hoa hc. Cuc sng ca loi ngi ch c th
c bo tn v ci thin nu con ngi bit bo v v ci thin mi trng sng
ca mnh. iu ny gn lin vi cc hiu bit hoa hc.
Cui cng, hoa hc l mt b phn ca khoa hc t nhin ng gp phn quan
trng vo hiu bit v th gii vt cht, hnh thnh th gii quan v phng php
hot ng ng n ca con ngi.
0.3. CON NG PHT TRIN CA HOA HC
Cch y hng triu nm, ngay t khi thot thai t loi vn, con n
du tm hiu cc vt liu dng lm cng c lao ng, v kh v vt dng. Sau
trong qu trnh tin hoa lu i, cng vi s pht trin ca tr tu, loi ngi dn
dn m rng nhn thc ca mnh i vi th gii vt cht chung quanh v khm
ph ra nhiu khc ng dng cc vt liu vo cuc sng. Ti khi nhng trung tm
vn minh ln u tin xut hin trn qu' t cch y 5, 6 nghn nm - nhng
quc gia chim hu n l Ai Cp, Lng H, Trung Quc, n - th hiu bit
ca con ngi v vt liu kh cao. Cc ngh luyn kim, gm, ch thuc nhum v
sn, thuc da, ko si, dt vi, lm dng, mt... hnh thnh. Vo cc thin nin
k th 2, 3 trc cng nguyn Ai Cp, Lng H, n , Trung Quc ngi ta
bit n nhiu hp cht hoa hc nh cc hng liu, du tho mc, dc liu, cht
mu nh xit st, son..., ngi ta bit cc qu trnh bay hi, lc, ln men...
Nhiu hot dng nghin cu hoa hc c tin hnh vo trc v u cng
nguyn. Trong thm cung ca cc nh th Ai Cp c cng nh trong lu i ca cc
hong Trung Hoa nhiu gio s v do s mit mi lm cc th nghim nhm bin
i cc kim loi khng qu thnh vng hoc ch thuc trng sinh bt t v cc
dung mi vn nng. Nhng hot ng l mm mng ca tro lu gi kim thut
lan trn khp chu u vo thi Trung c sau ny.
Cng vi nhng hot ng thc tin, nhng suy ngh c nht ca loi ngi v
bn cht s vt cng xut hin rt sm ti trung tm vn minh c. Trung Quc
rng
t nhng
c sth
cakmi
thvt7-5th trc
l nmCng
nguyn
nguyn
t "kim,
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ng (kim
hnhloi,
ni
g, nc. la. t) v hai lc lng nguyn thy i lp "Dng" v "m" l ng
lc thc y mi qu trnh bin hoa ca vt cht. Nhng quan nim tng t cng
c thy trong kinh V ca An xut hin vo khong th k th 6 trc
Cng nguyn.
Trit hc t nhin v bn cht ca th gii vt cht pht trin c bit rc r
C Hy Lp. Vo khong th k th 7-5 trc Cng nguyn, Hy Lp thnh
hnh quan nim coi cc cht u to ra mi vt l Nc, Khng kh, La v t
(khi xng bi Empedocles v cc nh trit hc khc), Sau ny Aristoles pht trin
hc thuyt ca Empedocles v cho rng bn nguyn t ch l cht mang cc tnh
cht chnh ca vt cht l Nng, Lnh, Kh, m. Cc tnh cht ny kt hp i m
to thnh cc nguyn t. V d Lnh v m kt hp vi nhau to thnh Nc, Ln
v Kh kt hp vi nhau to thnh t, Nng v m kt hp vi nhau to thnh
Khng kh, Nng v Kh kt hp vi nhau to thnh La (xem hnh 1.1). Khi bin
i lng Lnh cht trong mt nguyn t ta c th bin i nguyn t ny thnh
nguyn t khc. Trn c s quan nim nh vy Aristotles pht biu l thuyt v
ngun gc ca cc khong vt v kim loi l do hi m v hi kh tng tc vi
m thnh. Hc thuyt Nguyn t-NnTnh
g cht ca Aristotles v sau tr thnh c
l lun ca tro lu gi kim thut (Alchemie) ko di sut thi Trung c.

Lnh
Hnh 0.1. Bn nguyn t ca Aristotles
Bn cnh thuyt duy tm ca Aristotlcs v cu to vt cht cng chnh C Hy
Lp xut hin hc thuyt duy vt u tin v cu to vt cht, l hc thuy
nguyn t ca Dcmocritos (vo khong 400 trc Cng nguyn) cho rng mi vt
u cu to t nhng ht rt nh gi l nguyn t (ting Hy Lp atomos ngha l
khng th phn chia). Nguyn t l gii hn phn chia cui cng ca vt cht. Theo
Democritus, cc nguyn t lin tc chuyn ng xoy v thng xuyn va chm
8
nhau, chng cc k cng v khng th b bin i. Cc nguyn t c th t hp
phn tn..., nh vy t cc nguyn t c th to ra mi vt th k c c th con
ngi cng vi tinh thn v cm gic. Nhng lun im ca Democritos hon ton
c lp vi quan im duy tm v bn cht s vt v b bi bc trong sut hn h
nghn nm.
Vo th k th t trc Cng nguyn, thnh ph Alexandria bn b a trung
hai c thnh lp v tr thnh mt trung tm khoa hc ln vi Vin Hn lm khoa
hc Alexandria v Th vin Alexandria. Ti y cc kin thc v "Ngh thut b
mt" Co Ai Cp hoa hp vi trit hc v k thut th cng Hy Lp c truyn
rng ri vng a Trung Hi. Mi th k tn ti ca Vin Hn lm khoa hc
Alexandpia gp phn thu thp, hon thin v m rng kin thc v k thut hoa
hc th cng v t truyn sang Hy Lp ri sang La M v cc ni khc vn
a Trung Hi. Kin thc hoa hc di tn gi "Ngh thut b mt thing ling"
thnh hnh v lan truyn khp lnh th rng ln ca quc La M t chu u
sang Cn ng v c chu Phi, nh vy tp trung v kinh La M mt l
ca ci khng l v thu ht v y nhiu nh bc hc v th th cng t khp m
ni. Khoa hc v k thut th cng La M t ti trnh cao th hin tro
hai tc phm l bi th De Rerum natura (V bn cht s vt) ca Lucretius v b
sch Historia naturalis (Lch s t nhin) ca Plinius.
Mt s ng gp ca lch s pht trin hoa hc n t nhng ngi Arp theo
o Hi. H tip nhn cc kin thc hoa hc t nhng bn vit tay ca Xyri, Ba T
An , Hy Lp, Alexandria v pht trin cc hot ng gi kim thut ca h. V
th k th 8 kinh Baghdad l mt trung tm khoa hc t c nhiu thnh t
rc r trong nhiu lnh vc khc nhau. Mt s kin thc hoa hc ca ngi Arp
c trnh by trong cun "Sch 70 chng" ca Giabia-ip-Gaia v cun "Sch v
nhng b mt" ca Ar-Razi, l nhng nh gi kim thut ni ting.
Tro lu Gi kim thut chu u thnh thnh vo thi Trung c (khong t
th k th 10 n th k 14 sau Cng nguyn) vi nh hng ca Nh th Thi
cha gio lan trn khp chu u. Hc thuyt ca Aristotles c gii gio s trnh
by v gii thch theo cch ph hp vi cc gio iu ca Nh th v tr thnh c
ca trit hc kinh vin. Cng vi s pht trin vai tr chnh tr v kinh t ca cc
thnh ph, nhiu ngh th cng hoa hc pht trin, c bit l ngh luyn kim.
Nh cc cuc vin chinh thp t, ngi chu u lm quen vi cc thnh tu hoa h
th cng Bizantium v cc ni khc, t pht trin cc ngnh ngh th cng
hoa hc ti cc thnh ph chu u. Cc nh gi kim thut chu u trung c mc d
LHOAHmit
mi pCDaK
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.H mc tiu vin vng tm "hn trit hc" bin cc kim loi
vi 9 khng
qu thnh vng nhng cng tch ly dc nhiu hiu bit thc t, pht hin
hin
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 th lch s hoa hc cng chuyn sang giai on mi: Thi k Hoa Y hc v H
thut. Cc nh hoa hc v thy thuc lc ny cho rng nhim v ca hoa hc
phc v i sng con ngi, l iu ch thuc cha bnh v ci tin cc qu trn
sn xut, c bit l qu trnh luyn kim. Cc ngh khai m, luyn kim v gia cn
kim loi pht trin mnh vo cc th k 15, 16. Mt s sch xut hin vo thi k
ny m t chi tit cc qu trnh cng ngh luyn kim vi nhiu tn tui nh
V.Biringuccio, A.Agricola... Tro lu Hoa Y hc lin kt hoa hc vo nhim v cha
bnh, vi cc nh bc hc nh Th. Paracelsus, A. Libavius, J.B. van Helmont... C
nh hoa y hc coi trng vic xc nh khch quan bng thc nghim thnh phn
ca cc vt th phc tp, nh vy phng php thc nghim tht s xm nhp v
nghin cu hoa hc. Trong thi k ny kin thc v cc cht hoa hc c tip t
m rng.
Vo th k 17 trong khi cc hiu bit thc t v hoa hc tch ly c kh
phong ph th tin b v l thuyt vn rt chm chp. Nhu cu pht trin sn xut
i hi cc nh hoa hc phi gii quyt nhiu vn l thuyt. Mt trong nhng
vn lin quan n s pht trin nhanh chng ngnh luyn kim l vic gii thch
mt cch khoa hc hin tng bin i cc "cht t" (xt kim loi) thnh kim loi
v hin tng t chy kim loi. e gii thch bn cht hin tng chy nh hoa
hc c G. E. Stahl xut kin cho rng mi vt th chy c (bao gm c
loi) u c cha mt nguyn t m Stahl gi l "phlogiston" (c th dch thn
Hn - Vit l "nhin t*). Nguyn t ny c gii phng khi ta t chy v nu
nng vt th. Cc cht d chy nh than, du, lu hunh... l nhng cht c cha
nhiu phlogiston. Khi nung nng kim loi mt phlogiston v con li "cht t",
ngc li "cht t" khi kt hp vi phlogiston th li to thnh kim loi. Thuyt
"phlogiston" c ph bin rng ri trong cc nh hoa hc chu Au sut hai th k
17 v 18. Nhiu nh hoa hc c gng tch phlogiston trng thi t do nhng
tht bi. Thuyt "phlogiston" c tc dng tch cc l gip cho vic h thng hoa c
ti liu hoa hc thc nghim phong ph thi , nhng qtian nim v s tn ti m
"nguyn t chy" hoang ng nh vy thc cht l sai lm.
Na sau th k 18 cc cng trnh nghin cu v iu ch v xc nh tnh ch
ca cc cht kh c tin hnh rng ri v c nh hng nhiu n s pht trin
cc quan nim c bn trong hoa hc. Vo thp k 80 ca th k 18, kh xy
J.Pristley, C.W.Scheele v A. Lavoisier khnikph mt cch c lp gn nh ng
thi. Nh nh hoa hc Php A. Lavoisier gii thch ng n hin tng ch
l s kt hp gia cc nguyn t ca cht chy vi kh xy. Cch gii thch ca
10
Lavoisier hon ton ph hp vi thc nghim v gii p c1nhng HOAHCkh
C.UCNaCkhn
TTC m
trc y thuyt "phlogiston" khng vc qua ni, do l thuyt ca Lavoisier
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thc
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ng" mi ng n, vi mt h thng khi nim chnh xc nh nguyn t, hp cht
xit, mui, axit... cng vi cch phn loi cc cht, danh php cc cht v k hiu
cc cht hoa hc. Hoa hc tht s tr thnh mt khoa hc.
Trong khong 60 nm u th k 19 cc nh hoa hc v vt l hc lin tc
khm ph ra cc nh lut nh lng, to c s hnh thnh hc thuyt nguyn
t - phn t. Nh ni, quan nim nguyn t xut hin t thi c v sau
thng xuyn tr li trong tm tr loi ngi. Tuy nhin khai nim nguyn t vn
cn mang ngha trit hc hn l mt khi nim khoa hc c th. Nhiu nh khoa
hc, c bit l nh bc hc Nga M.v. Lomonosov vo cui th k 18 c quan
nim kh dng n v nguyn t v phn t. Tuy nhin phi n du th k 19
khoa hc mi c cc bng chng thc nghim cn thit d bin quan nim
nguyn t v phn t thnh mt hc thuyt khoa hc.
S thit lp thuyt nguyn t vo nm 1808 gn Hn vi tn tui nh bc
Anh J. Dalton. Theo l thuyt ca Dalton mi nguyn t u cu to t cc ht nh
nht gi l nguyn t. Cc nguyn t ca mt nguyn t th ging nhau nhng kh
nhau vi nguyn t ca cc nguyn t khc. Hp cht cu to t cc nguyn t c
hai hay nhiu nguyn t c kt hp vi nhau theo t s xc nh v n gin. B
cht ca phn ng hoa hc l s tch ri cc nguyn t khi cc cht kt hp chn
li theo cch mi to ra cht mi.
Khi nim phn t ra i sau khi nim nguyn t v gn Hn vi cc khm
ph v cc inh lut kh. gii thch bn cht cc nh lut v cht kh nh bc
hc A. Avogadro nu ra gi thuyt v s tn ti cc phn t kh. Avogadro ch
rng cht kh cu to t cc phn t kh. Khi cc cht kh tham gia phn ng hoa
hc cc phn t kh b phn tch thnh cc nguyn t, ri cc nguyn t kt hp v
nhau theo kiu mi to thnh cc phn t mi ca cc cht sn phm phn ng
Gi thuyt ca Avogadro c thc nghim hon ton xc nhn, khi nim phn t
tr thnh mt khi nim c bn ca hoa hc, gi thuyt Avogadro tr thnh nh
lut Avogadro.
S hnh thnh hc thuyt nguyn t -phn t a hoa hc vo mt k
mi vi ton b h thng cc khi nim c bn ca hoa hc m chng ta s ng n
ny Trong cng vic ny phi k n cng lao ca nh hoa hc s. Cannizar, n
h thng hoa v lm sng t cc khi nim nh nguyn t, phn t... hiu
chnh khi lng nguyn t ca mt s ln nguyn t hoa hc, c bit l cc kim
loai T hoa hc c phn chia thnh nhiu chuyn ngnh: hoa v c, hoa hu c
hoa l hoa phn tch... v hnh thnh nhiu l thuyt lm nn tng cho khoa hc
hoa hc nh cc l thuyt v nhit ng lc hc, ng hoa hc. in hoa hc... li
u th k 20 vi s khm ph ra cu to nguyn t v s pht trin l thuy
lngthtgii
vo hoavthc,
vi mktca
v lin chthov
a hcc
c li
binbc
i vo
hoamt
hc.thi k pht trin mi, i s