The case of although

Frequency

In the random samples from the British National Corpus which consist mostly of newspaper
articles the concessive marker although appears to introduce both negative and positive aspects as
shown in table 1. The differences between positive, negative and neutral sentences introduced by
this marker are quite balanced in spite of the fact that it is commonly believed that although
introduces a negative result and even though introduces a positive one.

Table 1

POSITIVE NEGATIVE NEUTRAL

9 10 8

The following examples correspond to negative, neutral and positive reviews:

Although William Hills make Souness the 6-4 on favourite to remain manager next year,
it's still a shattering blow to his credibility (negative).
Unleaded petrol did not reach our garages until 1986, although the USA had it in 1975
and Japan from 1977.(neutral)
Police with truncheons waded in at the San Siro stadium as fighting broke out, although
there were no immediate reports of severe injuries.(positive)

In the first example we can see that although is used to convey a negative consequence in spite of
favourable conditions.

In the second example two separate facts are stated but they do not imply negative nor positive
meaning.

The third example introduces a positive consequence proceeded by a negative action.

Position
Concerning its position in written context, we can identify that although appears in part dealing
with both description and evaluation and shown in Table 2. This concessive marker appears both
in the middle and at the beginning of the examples I analysed. The following two examples
illustrate its position.

Police with truncheons waded in at the San Siro stadium as fighting broke out, although
there were no immediate reports of severe injuries.
Although in non-stop pain, he has put off the operation until the Formula One
championship season is over.

Table 2

Position Evaluation Description

Within the sentence 12 15

S-N N-S S in the middle

14 12 1

The most frequent structure using although is the prototypical structure of concession in general,
with the satellite occurring in first position and this also happened in the case of my samples.

Pragmatic meaning

As for the pragmatic meaning of this marker, I analysed it using the following: evaluation,
polarity, effect and function.

1. Evaluation: Appraisal Theory

According to Appraisal Theory the concessive marker although could be positioned
under either attitude or engagement.
Table 3. Although according to Evaluation

Attitude Appreciation Judgement Affect

4 2 0

Engagement Disclaim

22

Next I shall give some examples of the findings. For example, a very common use of although is
showing appreciation:

For although David Kelly and Lee both hit the woodwork, Bennett brought off a string of
super saves.

Another use of although is that of showing judgement, which in the case of my corpus seemed to
be prevalent:

It was an honour to be captain in Cyprus and although I'd like to say it was not
important, it is nice.

Turning to engagement, the prototypical position is that of disclaim, as shown below:

Although recovery is normally complete victims can suffer months of continuing

problems -- as footballer Lee Sharpe has discovered.

Concerning polarity, concessive relations were can be positive, negative or neutral. I found six
examples of neutral polarity, the rest falling into the negative and positive categories. Table 4.

Polarity although

Polarity Positive 9 Negative 10 Neutral 8

The following examples show positive, negative and neutral polarity respectively:

He's a great leader and although he has done so much, he still has a great future in front
of him.

In this example we can see the emphasis of an action that the subject has another following
positive future action.

And although I have to admit that this tale of a French prince who is turned into a frog
by his wicked aunt and grows up to be a prince among frogs and a secret agent to boot,
didn't grab me, it will surely keep the little ones enthralled

This example shows the contrast between positive expectation and negative reality.

It is not just cost that has made the DIY holiday so popular, although traditionally they
have been the break for those on a tight Budget.

This example uses although to introduce another fact which is regarded as neither positive or
negative.

Effect

Concerning Discourse Effect I will follow Trvanac and Taboadas scheme consisting of four
types of effect: reversal, intensification, downtoning, and no change. The most frequent effect is
that of downtoning a positive.
Table 5. Effect although.

Downtoning a Downtoning a Reversal of a Intensifying a

positive negative negative positive

7 1 5 5

Reversal of a Intensifying a No change

Positive negative
0
5 2

Respectively, the following examples represent each case found in Table 5:

Although recovery is normally complete victims can suffer months of continuing

problems -- as footballer Lee Sharpe has discovered.

What the writer does in this example is soften the positivity provided in the first clause. The
writer, in the nucleus, expresses positivism with words such as recovery and complete, but then,
in the satellite he minimizes the effect using suffer and continuing problems.

There is still no childhood vaccine although researchers at Southampton University --

funded by the National Meningitis Trust -- believe one may be developed in five to ten
years.

In this example the written softens the negativity of the first clause. In the nucleus the negativity
is shown through no childhood vaccine and the satellite a softening of this negative effect is
presented through one may be developed.
 Police with truncheons waded in at the San Siro stadium as fighting broke out, although
there were no immediate reports of severe injuries.

This example is of a reversal of a negative because in the nucleus we have a negative

connotation implied by fighting broke out but in the satellite the effect is positive.

And thank goodness, because we could have ended up with Eldorado -- although there is
nothing funnier than that.

Here, the author starts with a positive structure in the nucleus: thank goodness, but goes on to intensify
the effect by using a superlative in the satellite.

Although many of the leading manufacturers, including SmithKline Beecham, have

changed the formula of their drinks in the last few years so that they contain less sugar,
dentists say they're still getting far too many cases of two, three and four-year-olds with
decaying milk teeth.

In this example the writer reverses de positive impression given by the nucleus with a counter-
evidence backed by scientific research and a specific example: far too many cases of (children)
with decaying milk teeth.

Although it's usually impossible to prove the connection beyond a shadow of doubt, the
finger of suspicion has pointed directly at sweet, sugary drinks

This last example depicts intensifying a negative as in the nucleus we can find a negative
emphasis expressed through the word impossible and in the satellite we find the expression the
finger of suspicion was pointed directly at.

Function

Concessive markers can have different functions in texts as follows: convincing the reader,
preventing false implicatures and informing about surprizing events.

Table 7. Functions

Prevent false implicatures Convince the hearer Inform about surprising

15 10 events

The most common encountered function was that of preventing false implicatures. An example
of this is the following:

It was an honour to be captain in Cyprus and although I'd like to say it was not
important, it is nice.

Convincing the hearer is the second most occurring and in this particular example the satellite
introduces a new piece of evidence which supports the one given in the nucleus:

Jackson, runner-up four years ago, is one of four Britons to have taken the Silver,
although by finishing second in the 1896 final Grantley Goulding was also last.

Informing about surprising events is the least occurring:

It is not just cost that has made the DIY holiday so popular, although traditionally they
have been the break for those on a tight budget.

Conclusions on although

Although is one of the typical concessive markers, but is less used than others which are
atypical, yet still frequent (like but).
The satellite can be placed both in the beginning or in the end, and rarely in the middle.
In terms of Appraisal Theory, the main classifications according to attitude and
engagement are appreciation and disclaim, respectively.
There is no preference about the polarity being negative or positive, but neutral polarity
remains a rarity.
The least frequent discourse effect in constructions with although is no change.
The main discourse function of this although is to prevent false implicatures.
The case of however

In the following random selection from the British National Corpus which consist mostly of
newspaper articles the concessive marker however introduces both negative and positive aspects
as shown in table 8. I observed that the presence of however is more prevalent in negative
excerpts.

Table 8. Frequency of however.

POSITIVE NEGATIVE NEUTRAL

6 8 3

The following examples correspond to negative, neutral and positive:

I don't like these sort of people, but we will hear what she'll say to us, however, I shan't
fetch you any victuals, woman, but I will give you some pence.

Here the positivity in the nucleus is annulled by a negative condition. His example is quite
interesting as it uses both however and but, the latter two times.

Designed, planned and supervised personally by Jack Nicklaus, its challenging 7,000 yds
will test the best of players. However a longer handicap man will enjoy an equally good
game from the forward tees.

This example is neutral as it balances the aptitudes of two different groups of people: the best of
players in the nucleus and longer handicap man in the satellite.

Dalglish had Risom training at Ewood Park last year but did not pursue matters.
However, Lyngby are ready to part with the Danish international as soon as their interest
in the European Cup is over -- and following Rangers 2-0 win that is likely to be in 10
days time.
Here the nucleus gives a negative connotation in the past with the structure did not pursue
matters whilst the satellite annuls it with a positive outcome.

Position

Concerning its position in written contexts, however is only placed in the part dealing
with the writers evaluation as shown in table 9.

Table 9.Position of however in analysed corpus.

Position Evaluation

Within the text 27

S-N

Within the sentence 27

An example of this position is the following:

However, we think that Club Couples should be more than slightly special, and to this
end our Couples Club reps will be on hand with a few ideas, designed with a slightly
more subdued mood in mind.

Pragmatic meaning

Regarding its pragmatic meaning however is analysed concerning: evaluation, polarity, effect
and function.

Evaluation: Appraisal Theory

Table 10. However according to Evaluation

Attitude Appreciation Judgement Affect

 14 3 0

Engagement Disclaim

17

Beginning with attitude, the subtype most utilised with 14 times, was that of appreciation,
followed by three cases of judgement and no case of affect.

Many of those which we have helped into independence are now household names, such
as, Age Concern, National Association of Citizens' Advice Bureaux. However, the ranks
are much more numerous as you can see.

In this case the writer shows appreciation because he emphasizes the great number of those
which we have helped into independence. Nonetheless, the following example expresses
judgement because it evaluates something based on a set of rules and regulations:

However, Schillaci, Italy's sensation of the 1990 World Cup missed a penalty two minutes
from time, after being foul by goalkeeper Giovanni Galli.

In the case of engagement I found four cases of disclaim, where the author, in the nucleus, rejects
the position given in the satellite:

I don't like these sort of people, but we will hear what she'll say to us, however, I shan't
fetch you any victuals, woman, but I will give you some pence.