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    livro psicologia educação

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    18 views55 pages

    Learner Differences and Learning Needs

    Uploaded by

    Manny15
    livro psicologia educação

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
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    »earson New International Edition Educational Psychology Anita Woolfolk Twelfth Edition Pearson Education Limited Edinburgh Gate Harlow Essex CM20 2JE Enaland and Associated Companies throughout the world Visit us on the World Wide Web at www.pearsoned.co.uk © Pearson Education Limited 2014 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reprailuced, stored in @ retrieval system, or transrnltieed in any form or by any means, electronic, mecharical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior mitten permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom fesued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Street, London ECIN 81°. ‘All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark th this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark awnership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this baok by such ewners, [son 10; 1-292-02128-2 azo ISBN 13: 978-1-292-02129-4 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data ‘A catalogue record for this book 1s avallable from the British Library Printed in the United States of America LEARNER DIFFERENCES anp LEARNING NEEDS LEARNER DIFFERENCES ano LEARNING NEEDS EAL | Every Student ) Education” programs have been discontinued and ALL students will acw be leis anew school year and your district has had 2 change in policy. "Specia included in general education classrooms full ime, You knew that you were going to have students with # witle range of abilities, social skill and motivation for learning in yourclasstoom, bur now you also have a student with severe asthma, 2 fairly high functioning student with Asperser’s syncliome, a student with severe leaming disabilities, and two students who are on medication for ADHD, itis not Gear what resources will bo available to you, but even co, you want to face this challenge with confidence and a sense of efficacy for teaching all suclents CRITICAL THINKING )* How vil you design 2 stancurcls-based curriculum that will alow all of the stuclents to lear to thoir fullest potential and demonstrate proficiency towerd } the standards? * What can you da te address the specilic problems of your students who have: boon identified with special needs? * How will you ramai confident in you new situation? OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES To answer the critical thinking question. you need an undesstanding of individ Our development ne family, there abilties, ane! temperament, and these 1s have important time avelyzing the concep of Intaligence and leaning styles stood. You probably will havo at least one student with special needs atin every way. Even among mer 8 hums beings sro marked cont implications for teaching, ocause these terms are co often risu in your class, whatever gracle you teach, sein this chapter we also explore both cornmon anc! less fraquentiy ‘ocouring learning probloms that siudente may have. Az we eizcuse each problem area, wo will eonsiclor how > teacher might recogrize predslams, seek help, anc plan instruction, incliving using the approach of response to ould be able to: intervention, By the time you have completed this chapter, Objective 1 + intelligence. Objective 2: c rreasurements tell 1wochars Objective 3: DY Objective 4: Di Objective S: Undersiane! tho spacial aducaticnal needs of stuclen’s with learning challenges. Objective 6: Recognize the special educational needs of scents who arc gifted andl talented. arning styles protections for contemparary education, 13 “Teachers! Casebook: Including Every Stuclont: What Would You Do? Language and | abals What Docs Intelligence Mear? Multiple Intelligences IMaltiple inteligences: Lessons for Teachers Intelligence as 9 Process Measuring Intelligence Gonder Differencacin Intlligence Learning end Thinking Styles Lestning Siyeutreterences Beyond EithoriOr Individual Differences and! the Law IDEA Section Stl Pratvetions Students with Learaing Challenges Rauroeciones and Learning Challenges Studlents with Learning Disabilities Stuclnais with Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders Laisane for Teachrst Loarning Disabilities and ACID Stuclens with Communication Disorcers Students With Fmatiana! ae Bahavioral Difficulties Students with (ntelloctual Disabilities ‘Stuctenis with Health and Sensory lpainrnen Autism Spacteum Disorders and Asporger Syndrome Rosponse to Intervention (1) Students Who Are Gifted ard Talented Who Ato Thase Students? Identifying Gifted Students fesching Gifted Stuclants Summary Toachers’ Cesebook Including Every Students What Weuld Thay Do? is importane dat we da nor create hesuelicaps for people by the way we react wo thei INTELLIGENCE Because the concept of intelligence is so important, so controversial and 30 olten misunderstood in educazion, we will spend quite a few pages discussing it. But before we heyin, lets examine the pactice ‘af labeling people based on differences such as intelligence, ability, or disability. Language and Labels Bvety child is w distinctive eolleetion of talents, abilities, tions, But some students aly have leaning disabilities, coum nication disorders, emetional or belyioral disorders, intellectual disabibiies, physical disabilities, impeired vision or dilliculies hear Ing, autiom epecteues dieorders, tranmatie hetin injury, oe some come ‘ination of these challenges. cmhers have renudable gifts and gents, Even though we will use «crus like these throughout the chapter, a cation is in onder: Labeling Students is a contronesial issue. A label docs not tells hich methouls to use with indlivielual stuclents, For example, few specific “ucatinents" automatically fol low from a “diagnosis” of behavioral disorcer; many cllferent react ing strategies ind witavials are appropriate. Further, the hbels ean become self fulfilling prophecies, Fveryone—teachers, parents, chissinates, and even the students rhemselves—may see a label as A stiyina thal cannot be chinged. Mnally; labels are mistaken for explanations, a3 in, “Saatiigo gets into fights because he has a be: havior dlsorden” *Hlow do you kaow he his a behavior disorder “Heatuse he gets inte fights” (Friend, 2000). ‘On the other havc, some educalors argue that for younger stu: leals, at least, being labeled as “special needs" protects the child. vor example, if classmates know « stucent has intellectual disabili- lies (once callett mental rerardetion), they will be more willing to Accept his or her behaviors, OF cousse, diagnostic labels still open donts to some progeims, useful information, adaptive technology Labels probably both stig and equipment, oF financial assistanc matize and help students. DISABILITIES AND HANDICAPS. A disubilty is just what the word. implies aa inability to des something specific such as pronounce Words or sce oF wall, A handicap a distlvantage in certain sit tions. Some disabilities lesc 16 handicaps, but not inall contents, For exaniple, heing blind (@ visual distbilily) is a handicap if yeu want to drive & eat, but not when you sre composing music or talking on he lelephone, Stephen Hawking, the greatest living physicist, hss Lou Gelnrig’s disease and no longer can walk or (alk. He ance said that he is lucky that he became ¢ theoretical phiysicist "because its all in the mind, So my disability has not been serious hanclicap etsabili- Disability. The inability to do somathing pene suc 95 atk rhe Handicap Adiadventage ina particule situation, sometimes nused bya diab 132 dies, Some exlucatrs have suggested chat we drop the word Aemdtcap alvogetlver because the source of the wont is demeaning. Hemdieap came from the phrase “eap-in-hand,” used to describe people with disabilities wlio once were lorcecl to heg just to survive (Harder, prov, & Egan, 2003). Wwe can think of all human characreristics as being on a continue, for instance, fos very aente hetring to complete deafness. We al fal somewhere on that contiouum, anc our position on the continuam changes over our lifetimes. As we age, for example, there are likely to be changes in hicaring, vision, ancl even some aspects of intellecsueal ability, as you LARNER DIFFERENCES AND I TARNING NEEDS When speaking about a person with a disability, iis important that we avoid che language of pity, as in “confined te a wheelchaie" or “victim of AIDS,” Wheelchairs are not confining, Tliey allow people to get around. Using “victim of” or ‘suffering with’ makes the person seem powerless, On their resources Web site, the Cinited Spinal Association lfirs 4 lree pdf booklet with many ideas about disability, Every teacher should read it See Figure 1 for an exunple, Another way of showing respect co iucividuals with disabililes iy co Use "person First’ hinguage, discussed next, PERSON-FIRST LANGUAGE. Hecause everyone has a range of abilities, i maces sense to avoid Labels such as “emotionally disturbed saxtent® or “attisic student.” Nescribing, ‘complex person with ene or bwo words implies that the condition labeled is the most Important aspect of the person. Actually, the ledividual bas many characteristics and Abilkie3, ancl to foraus on the dioabilty ie to mineapewent he indivielual. Av aleernative personirst® language or speaking of “students with 3 behavior dlsorder” or “scuclents placed at tisk.” Here, the emphasis is on the students Fist, Silents with learning disabilities NOT Leming disabled students Students receiving special education NOT. Special education students, A person with epilepsy NOT Anepileptic A chlid with a physival clisabitity NOT Actippled elit Childien diagnoses with autism AOL Autistic children ov antisties BIASES IN THE APPLICATION OF LABELS. Even thougit there ate many good tests and catefal procedures for identifying, students with ebsahilies and asing labels properly, racial and cthnle wivority students are overrepresented in the disubility categories and undervepresented in gifted programs, For example, based on thelr acusl aren DISABILITY ETIQUETTE see Rete iy nga 8 non gm by Ur al nce a tenia for 4133 134 ARNT R DIFFERENCES AND LEARNING NEEDS LABELS MAY PROMOTE FALSE STEREOTYPES When label take preaedonco over individ chars tonates, the labels themselves constitute 9 handicap. Stereotypes abou! people who uso whales night intarfere wth vocognition ofthis yeung girs other characterstics anal hor indialty. © Fon ay aumbers in schools, African American students sre abou! tice as likely to he identified as having « mental health condition and ieee daues as llkely to be ideneified as having an intellectual disability. And these students are more likely than White or Asian students 0 be placed outside of the geacral eslucation system for most of theie school day. The uppo- site ie true For Latina/o and Asian students, they are less likely to be diagnosed in almost all categories except heaciug impairments. Gifed programs have only about £% cach of African American and Jatina/o students, even though these students comprise about 1% tancl 20% of the school popalation, respectively (U.S, Department of Pslucation, 2047). Tor alinost four decades, educctoss have struggled to understand! she eauses of these ove and tinderreprenentations, Explanations include the higher poverty rues among, African American and Lutina/o anuilies, which lead t© poorer prenatal cue, nutction and health cue: systemic biases in texchers’ attitudes, curriculum, insiruction, ad the referral process itself; and teachers’ lack of preparation for working ellectively with eth- nic minority students (Friend, 2011). Yo deal with the referral problem, educators have recommended gathering more information about x student before a formal referral is made, Now long has the student been in the United States? What about proficiency with Faglish? Are there srmsual stressors such as being homeless? Does the curriculum build ‘on the students Funes of cultural knowledge? Ts the classroom culturally compatible and ‘enguyging? Is the tcacher knowledgeable about and respectful ofthe student's culture? Can the students abilities be assessed through alternative approaches such as oteativily tests ind porifelies or performances? Having more knowlege about the sturlentanc his or her circumstances outside of school should help texchers make better decisions about what programs are appropriate Gonzales, Brusce-Vega, & Yawkey, 1997; Natlonill alliance of Black School Educators, 2002). LEARNER DIFFERENCES AND | FARNING NFFDS Tnelligence is widely used! in placement de: 4 label in Hite in general Let us begin with a basic question. What Does intelligence Mean? STOP & THINK Who suas the most intelligent person in your high schoo? Write down a namo and the fist or 5 wards that come to mind when you see the! piersow in your minds eye. What mace you pick this inividual? # the idea that people vary In what we call Intelligence has been with us fora toay, time, Plato discussed similar variations over 2,000 years ago. Most extly theories about (he nanue of incelligence involved one or more of the following three themes: (1) the capacity tm learn, (2) the total knowledge a person has aequircd; aad 3) the abilily to adapt suc cessfully 1o new situations and to the enyironnieat in general. A recent «efuition captures lnese clemments ancl stresses higher order thinloings “the ability {0 reason dacuctively or induetively, think abstractly, use analogies, synthesize information, and apply it wo new domains” (Kanazawa, 20110, p. 281). INTELLIGENCE: ONE ABILITY OR MANY? ‘There are moderate to high correlations among scores on all meatal tests. In f4et, this consistent finding “is arguably. both the best established and the most striking phenamenan in the psychological study of intelligence” (van der Mass et aly 2006, p. 855). Because of these persistent is tercorrelations, some psychologists believe intelligence 1s a basic ability that wieets peifermance on all eoxaitively oriented tasks, from solving mathematical problems (0 analyzing postey to liking history essay examinations, Wiat eould explain these re- nul? Clisiles Speanian (1527) suggested mental energy, whieh he called g was used perform any mental test. Spearman added that each lest also requires some specitic, abilities a5 well—so ability to do any mental. task is hased on g + task-specitie abill- fies. Toray, psycholagisce generally agree that we can mathematically compate a com- non factor (@) across coyaltive Wests, but thia computed Factor is simply an indicntion fr measure of genceal Inteligenee—it is tot general intelligence sell (Benwzawa, 2010), fust having an overall mathematical indicator of intelligence isn't much help jn understanding, specific human abilities, so the notion of g does not have much ex. plutatory power lain, 2005) Raymond Cattell ancl John Horn’s dheory of fluil ancl eryseallizedl Intelligence ty ‘nore helpful in providiey, explanations (Catiell, 1962} Horn, 1998, Kanazawa, 2010), Fluid inteligonca is the mental efficiency ane reasoning, ability included in Karazawwa's cefini- tion of intelligence, quoted above. The neuophysiclogical uadezpinnings of fluid intel ligence aay be eclate 0 caages ty brain volume, myelialzation (coat lg of wera fiers that makes processing fasten), the density of dopamine receptors, or processing abilities the prefrontal lobe of the heain such as selective aliention and especially working enor (Waterheuce, 2008), a0 aspect uf heain finetioning, This aspect of intelligence increapes andl te adolescence Gabiout age 22) because it ix grounded in brain develop- tment, and then declines guadually with age, Fluid intelligence is seastive Wo injuries ancl dliscases In Conirst, crystallized intlligenco isthe ability to apply Uke problem-sofving meth- eds appropriate im your culnisal conwxt—de "application 1 new domains” part of Kanavawa's definition of intelligence. Crystallized intelligence can increase throughout the life span hecanse it includes learned skills ancl knowledge such as reading, fies, and linw to hail a eah make quill, or design a unit oa symbolism ia post, By invest- lug fuid inietigence in solving problems, we develop our crystallized intelligence, but dosiay tasks ix lite such as mathematical Feasoning draw on bot Guid ans erysealized, intelligence (Fenrer & MeAsdie, 2008; Finkcl Reynolds, McArdle, Gata, & Pederson, 2003; Tluat, 2000). ‘Thee most widely accepted paychumetiic view today is that intelligence, like sell concept, has many facets and is.a hienurchy of abilities, with general ability st the Lop anc Intellicenea” Ablity or abilities toaequire and use knowledge for solving probleme and adapting = the ene Gonoraliatolligenes (a) A gear fetor in eagritive ability lotecin varying deg te performance on all mental veal Fla tateltigence Mental tfficency, nonvedbal abies ‘grouncie! in brain development Caystatized intelligence Ability to apply culturally eppeved probiem-saking methods, 135 Connoet ane Extend to PRAXIS It MatpleInttliganese , 21) Meng teachers erronecly «dirs lint thoy must address each of thay design, Wht or sore ofthe teallstc impatient theory for dassieomn Iasuucion? Theory of multiple intoligonces Is Gardner's theory of ingeligance «| person's eight separate abilities: logical ‘mathematical, linguistic, musica, spatial, bocllykinexthati, ineaspersonl,insesparsonal, ned 136 V EARNER DIFFERENCES AND | FARNING NEEDS: hice specific abilities at lower levels of the hierarchy (Gartoll, 1997; Sternberg, 2000), Joba Carvall (1997) identities one general ability, a few broad abilities (such as {vid and cryitallized abilities, learning ancl memory, visual anclauctory perception, anil processing, spevd), and atleast 70 specific abilities such aa kanguage development, rremtory span, and, simple reaction time, General abiligy may be related 10 che maturation and functioning of the frontal lobe of the brain, whilc specifi abilities may be voanected to other parts of the bain (Byres fe Fess, 1998) Multiple Intelligences While Howard Garner was a developmental psychologist luing tesearch avith two very cllerent-groups—arrisically yilted! slucents at Hacvard’s Project Zeca and patients with, hrain injuies at Boston's Veicraus Administration Medical Center’ he staried thinking, thouta new theory ef intelligence, Time and time again at rhe VA Meclical Center, Gardner jrmerved biatncinjural paticnts who were lot opatiully, but could de all kinda oF v tasks, und other pationts who hadl the opposite set of abilitics and problems. He also. worked with young ehildeen at enjeet Zero who could draw expertly but not eratt a yood Gardner concluded that there are several separate meatal «ili- touts Ureory of multiple inteligiences that describes at leush weruence, andl vice ver es, and developed lls now wight Separate intelligences (1983, 2005, 2091, WHAT ARE THESE INTELIGENCES? ‘The eight intelligences in multiple intelligence (MD) Unvory are linguistic (Verbal), auusicel, spatial, loglcal-matematical, bodily-Lincsthetic (movement), intemersontl Canelerstancing, others), inkrapersonal (understanding self), and namralist (observing aud understanding anual and bunite-neele patterns and syatems). Gardner atresscs that there may be more kinds of incelligence—eight is not a nnagic number Recently, he has speculated dhat there way be at splitual intelligence ancl ‘an existential inveligence—the abilities 1 contemplate big questions about che meaning, of life (Gardner, 2009). As Garelner witnessed firsthand In his cary research with veterans, wad students individuals may exee) in-one of these eight areas, but have ao remickable abilities, or may even hare problems, in the other sevcit, Table | summarizes these eight intellinences. Gardner believes that intelligence has «1 biological base An intelligence is a “biopsychologieal potential to proces information in certain ways in order fo solve problems or create products that are viJued in al least ove culture ce comtnmnity” (ard ner, 2009, p, 5), Varying cultures sind eras of history place diflerent valies on the eight intelligences, A oararalise intelligence is eviieal in farming cultures, whereas vecbal ancl mathematical intelligences are important in techoologicsl cultures. In fact, Gardner suige ests what industelilized cultures usually label a “intelligence” is just « combination, OF linguistic and logical mathematical skills, especially those cult in modern, secular schools (2009). CRITICS OF MI THEORY, Gardner's MI theory has aol received wcte acceptance in the scientific community, even thongh many educators thave embraced! it Lynn Waterhouse 2006) concluded tht thers have been nw published sucties that validate multiple intel jgences theory, The eight intelligences are notinelependeng, there www correlations among, the abilities, In fact, logical mathematical and spatial intelligences are highly correlated Gautler, 2001), 50, these “separule abilities” may not be su separace after all, Evidence linking masieal and spatial abilities has prompted Gardner to consider that here may he connections «mony the intelligences (Gardnex, 1998), fe addition, some critics sug gest that several intelligences are really calents Chodily-kinesthetic skill, tausical abylicy) or peesontlty traits (interpersonal ability), Other “intelligences” are not ness at all. Many’ reseuichers have identified verbul and spatial abilities as cleruents of intelligence. Danicl Willinyliaon (2004) bits heen even more bhnnt, "Ha the end, Garelner’s theory is not thst helptul, For scientists the tieory is almost certainly Incurreet, For educators, the dating applications forwarded by others in Gardner's mame (and of whieh he disapproves) are unlikely to help students” (p, 24) LEARNER DITTFRENCES AND LEARNING NEEDS TABLE 1 Bight Intelligences Howard! Gardno’s theory of maltinle intelligences suggests that there are eight kinds of human aalites, An inlvchal right have strongihs or waaknassee in one ar several ares. CORE COMPONENTS) a Mothnsnatician for muerical pattern; ability to hand long hina of rontoning, Linguistic Poet, Journalist, Sensitivity to the sounds, shythms, and meanings of words; sansiivty 10 the ditterant functions of langtane. Campane Votnist | Abilties to produce and approciateshyttm, pitch, aed timbre appcation of the forms Sf mesial oxpeansivonot, Spatial Navigator, Sculptor | Capacities 0 pecesive the viualpotis worl ecurately and to perform tansformations tn one's inital perceptions, Rodiykinosthotic | Dancer, Athlore Abities to control one’s bady movements and tohandle objects skilfully Capmction to dlcara and respand appropriately {a tho rioack, tomparamonts, matations, and desires af thar peaple. et Saleen Interpersonal Thee Inrapersonal Porson with dataed, | Access to one’s onn feelings and the ability sccurate salt todizentmnote among them and cay on knowledge them to-guice behavier; knowledge of one’s vin strengths, weaknessos, destes, and intoliaence Naturalist Bovanist,Farmos | Abilities to rocagnize plants and animals, to Henter make eistinctions in tha natural werld, to Undrstared systems and dafine eatagorioz Iperhogs even catagories of irteligerce). Source: From "hile laligences Go to Schoo, "by H.Cardner nT Hole, Educational Rosen 180 Copynghc® 1aebey ts Pmercan Ltestions Respeh Assocton. isis "y permis ofthe pubs ‘No eductirol hleunien ad aration, eiacby J Kae. Ponte by rene al Copy 242 by Prentice lok Reytintaby pamesin of Pawson cuca e, Upp ade mer So there is not yet strony research evidence that adopting « multiple Intelligences approwel will eahance learning. In one of the lew carelully designed evaluations, Callalnan, Tomlinson, and Plucker (1997) found no sigaificant ysins in eitherachievement or selFeoncept for students who parvietpated in STAR, x amultple intelligences approach, 0 ilemnifying and promoting talent in students who were at risk of tailing. GARDNER RESPONDS, In respuase to these criticisms, defenders of MI theory sty that the critics have a very nusrow view of intelligence andl research about intelligence Gardacr based iis theory on a set of cites that integrated a wiele range of research ie. psychology: + Potential isolation by beain damage «The existence of prodigies and other exceptional individuals who are experts én some i athers areas and average or below + Aa klentifishle core operation or set of operations: + A distinctive developmental (rajecory, culutinating, tn expert pesformances 137 138 LEAPNER DIFFERENCES AND LFARNIOIG NFED: Aa evolutionary history and evolutionary plausibility + Support front experimental psychological casks + Evidence from psychometric findings + Suscepthility to oneuding in symbvl spstem (Gardaer, 2009, p. 5) Gardner's supporters believe newer rescureh methods that look models and stucly intelligence in cultural contexis will support MI theory (Con, 2004 Gardner & Mori, 2006), In addition, Gardner (2003, 2009) also bas sesyvonded co erities by identifying a aumber of myths, wisconceptions, and aisuses eelaied 1 mul v intelligences theory and schooling. For example, he stresses that an inte ine as a sensory system—there is no “auditory intelligence” oF “viswal intelligence," tntelligences are not the same as learning styles. (Gardner doesn't b lieve that people actually have consistent learning styles.) Another misconception is that makinle intelligences theory disproves the idea of geneval intelligence, Garelner does not deny the existence of a yeneral ability, but he does question how useful general intelligence is ax an explanation for human achievements. Stay (ned for more developments, MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES GO TO 3.HOOL, Fitst lets consider a tew misuses of MI theory in schools. Catthner particularly deplored an educational peoket in Australia thot proclaimed different ethnic groups had certain specific intelligences: but others, Gardiner weit on television Ia. USL Lb Eall this program what IC really was— Spreudoscience” and “veiled racism" (2009, p, 7), The project ws cancelled, Another misuse is that some terchers embrace « simplistic version of Gaedner's theury. They include every “intalligence” in every lessen, no matter how’ inappropriate. A better Way e use the Uheory 5 10 focus on six Enuy: Points—narvative. logical qutotitative, aesthetic, experiential, intespersonal, and exitential/foundational—in dc signing a curriculum (Gardiner, 1991). For example, io Ceach about evolution, teachers might use the Entry Points ag follows (Kornhaber, Fierros, && Veeaems, 2004): Navettive: Proviee viel stories about Darwin's voyage to the Galapayos Islands ow wad tional folktales about the dilfexent plants and animals, Logical-quantitative: Examine Davwin's atiempts to aap the disiriburions of the species ‘or pone logical problems about whar would happen to the ecosystem iF ane species disappeared, Aesthetic: Exumine Darwin's drawings of the species he studied on thre Galapagos Ts Taal. Experiential: Do laboratory activities such as breeding fruit lies or completing, vietual simulations of evolutioniry processes, caret 1cims oF hold debates. hil why species die out or whut the lations: Consiclar questions purpose is for variation in species Multiple Intelligences: Lessons for Teachers al 20 years of work on his multiple intelligences theory, Gardner belicves twa les sony are midst inyportant for teachers (2009), First, teachers should tale the individual dittereaces among stuelents seriously and differenciate their instruction fo connect with each student, Much of this text will help you do just that. Second, any discipline, skit for concept should he taught in several appropriate ways Chul no eight ways every tine), Anything worth knowing has different repeeseatitions av

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