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Landform and Their Evolution PDF
Landform and Their Evolution PDF
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fter weathering processes have had a part of the earths surface from one landform
their actions on the earth materials into another or transformation of individual
making up the surface of the earth, the landforms after they are once formed. That
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geomorphic agents like running water, ground means, each and every landform has a history
water, wind, glaciers, waves perform erosion. of development and changes through time. A
It is already known to you that erosion causes landmass passes through stages of
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changes on the surface of the earth. Deposition development somewhat comparable to the
follows erosion and because of deposition too, stages of life youth, mature and old age.
changes occur on the surface of the earth.
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As this chapter deals with landforms and
their evolution first start with the question,
What are the two important aspects of
the evolution of landforms?
what is a landform? In simple words, small to
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medium tracts or parcels of the earths surface The evolutionary history of the continually
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are called landforms. changing surface of the earth is essential to be
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up landscapes, (large tracts of earths surface). and the processes that shape it.
Each landform has its own physical shape, size, Changes on the surface of the earth owe
materials and is a result of the action of certain mostly to erosion by various geomorphic
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geomorphic processes and agent(s). Actions agents. Of course, the process of deposition too,
of most of the geomorphic processes and by covering the land surfaces and filling the
agents are slow, and hence the results take a basins, valleys or depressions, brings changes
long time to take shape. Every landform has a in the surface of the land. Deposition follows
beginning. Landforms once formed may erosion and the depositional surfaces too are
change in their shape, size and nature slowly ultimately subjected to erosion. Running water,
or fast due to continued action of geomorphic ground-water, glaciers, wind and waves are
processes and agents. powerful erosional and depositional agents
Due to changes in climatic conditions and shaping and changing the surface of the earth
vertical or horizontal movements of land- aided by weathering and mass wasting
masses, either the intensity of processes or the processes. These geomorphic agents acting
processes themselves might change leading to over long periods of time produce systematic
new modifications in the landforms. Evolution changes leading to sequential development of
here implies stages of transformation of either landforms. Each geomorphic agent produces
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION 59
its own assemblage of landforms. Not only this, is linear flow as streams and rivers in valleys.
each geomorphic process and agent leave their Most of the erosional landforms made by
distinct imprints on the landforms they running water are associated with vigorous and
produce. You know that most of the youthful rivers flowing over steep gradients.
geomorphic processes are imperceptible With time, stream channels over steep gradients
functions and can only be seen and measured turn gentler due to continued erosion, and as a
through their results. What are the results? consequence, lose their velocity, facilitating
These results are nothing but landforms and active deposition. There may be depositional
their characteristics. Hence, a study of forms associated with streams flowing over steep
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landforms, will reveal to us the process and slopes. But these phenomena will be on a small
agent which has made or has been making scale compared to those associated with rivers
flowing over medium to gentle slopes. The
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those landforms.
gentler the river channels in gradient or slope,
Most of the geomorphic processes are the greater is the deposition. When the stream
imperceptible. Cite a few processes which beds turn gentler due to continued erosion,
can be seen and a few which cant be downward cutting becomes less dominant and
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seen. lateral erosion of banks increases and as a
consequence the hills and valleys are reduced
As the geomorphic agents are capable of to plains.
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erosion and deposition, two sets erosional
or destructional and depositional or Is complete reduction of relief of a high
constructional of landforms are produced
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by them. Many varieties of landforms develop
by the action of each of the geomorphic agents Overland flow causes sheet erosion.
depending upon especially the type and Depending upon irregularities of the land
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structure i.e. folds, faults, joints, fractures, surface, the overland flow may concentrate into
hardness and softness, permeability and narrow to wide paths. Because of the sheer
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friction of the column of flowing water, minor
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systematic and sequential stages in the deepen, widen, lengthen and unite to give rise
development and evolution of landforms. to a network of valleys. In the early stages,
In the following pages, under each of the down-cutting dominates during which
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geomorphic regimes i.e. running water, irregularities such as waterfalls and cascades
groundwater, glaciers, waves, and winds, first a will be removed. In the middle stages, streams
brief discussion is presented as to how cut their beds slower, and lateral erosion of
landmasses are reduced in their relief through valley sides becomes severe. Gradually, the
valley sides are reduced to lower and lower
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Streams are few during this stage with poor
integration and flow over original slopes
showing shallow V-shaped valleys with no
floodplains or with very narrow floodplains
along trunk streams. Streams divides are broad
and flat with marshes, swamp and lakes.
Meanders if present develop over these broad
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upland surfaces. These meanders may
eventually entrench themselves into the
uplands. Waterfalls and rapids may exist where
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local hard rock bodies are exposed.
Mature
During this stage streams are plenty with good
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integration. The valleys are still V-shaped but
deep; trunk streams are broad enough to have
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wider floodplains within which streams may
flow in meanders confined within the valley.
The flat and broad inter stream areas and
swamps and marshes of youth disappear and
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the stream divides turn sharp. Waterfalls and
rapids disappear.
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Old
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Smaller tributaries during old age are few with Figure 7.1 : The Valley of Kaveri river near Hogenekal,
gentle gradients. Streams meander freely over Dharmapuri district, Tamilnadu in the form of gorge
vast floodplains showing natural levees, oxbow
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EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
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Valleys
Valleys start as small and narrow rills; the rills
will gradually develop into long and wide
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depressions eventually join and the stream heights indicating former river bed levels. The
valley gets deepened. At the foot of waterfalls river terraces may occur at the same elevation
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also, large potholes, quite deep and wide, form on either side of the rivers in which case they
because of the sheer impact of water and are called paired terraces (Figure 7.3).
rotation of boulders. Such large and deep holes
at the base of waterfalls are called plunge pools.
These pools also help in the deepening of valleys.
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Waterfalls are also transitory like any other
landform and will recede gradually and bring
the floor of the valley above waterfalls to the
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level below.
the bottom of the stream channel. Also, in the Figure 7.3 : Paired and unpaired river terraces
case of steep gradient streams, lateral erosion
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on the sides of the valleys is not much when
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compared to the streams flowing on low and When a terrace is present only on one side
gentle slopes. Because of active lateral erosion, of the stream and with none on the other side
streams flowing over gentle slopes, develop or one at quite a different elevation on the other
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sinuous or meandering courses. It is common side, the terraces are called unpaired terraces.
to find meandering courses over floodplains Unpaired terraces are typical in areas of slow
and delta plains where stream gradients are uplift of land or where the water column
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very gentle. But very deep and wide meanders changes are not uniform along both the banks.
can also be found cut in hard rocks. Such The terraces may result due to (i) receding water
meanders are called incised or entrenched after a peak flow; (ii) change in hydrological
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meanders (Figure 7.2). Meander loops develop regime due to climatic changes; (iii) tectonic
over original gentle surfaces in the initial stages uplift of land; (iv) sea level changes in case of
of development of streams and the same loops rivers closer to the sea.
get entrenched into the rocks normally due to
gradients and gets dumped and spread as a as a low cone. Unlike in alluvial fans, the
broad low to high cone shaped deposit called deposits making up deltas are very well sorted
alluvial fan. Usually, the streams which flow with clear stratification. The coarsest materials
over fans are not confined to their original settle out first and the finer fractions like silts
channels for long and shift their position across and clays are carried out into the sea. As the
the fan forming many channels called delta grows, the river distributaries continue
distributaries. Alluvial fans in humid areas to increase in length (Figure 7.5) and delta
show normally low cones with gentle slope from continues to build up into the sea.
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Floodplains, Natural Levees and Point Bars
Deposition develops a floodplain just as
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erosion makes valleys. Floodplain is a major
landform of river deposition. Large sized
materials are deposited first when stream
channel breaks into a gentle slope. Thus,
normally, fine sized materials like sand, silt and
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clay are carried by relatively slow moving
waters in gentler channels usually found in the
plains and deposited over the bed and when
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the waters spill over the banks during flooding
Figure 7.4 : An alluvial fan deposited by a hill stream above the bed. A river bed made of river
on the way to Amarnath, Jammu and Kashmir
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above the bank is inactive floodplain. Inactive
head to toe and they appear as high cones with
floodplain above the banks basically contain
steep slope in arid and semi-arid climates.
two types of deposits flood deposits and
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Deltas are like alluvial fans but develop at a leaving cut-off courses which get filled up
different location. The load carried by the rivers gradually. Such areas over flood plains built
is dumped and spread into the sea. If this load up by abandoned or cut-off channels contain
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is not carried away far into the sea or distributed coarse deposits. The flood deposits of spilled
along the coast, it spreads and accumulates waters carry relatively finer materials like silt
and clay. The flood plains in a delta are called
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delta plains.
Natural levees and point bars (Figure 7.6)
are some of the important landforms found
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water deflecting it like it deflects the wind. When
the gradient of the channel becomes extremely
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low, water flows leisurely and starts working
Figure 7.6 : Natural levee and point bars
laterally. Slight irregularities along the banks
slowly get transformed into a small curvature
Point bars are also known as meander bars. in the banks; the curvature deepens due to
They are found on the convex side of meanders deposition on the inside of the curve and
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of large rivers and are sediments deposited in
erosion along the bank on the outside. If there
a linear fashion by flowing waters along the
is no deposition and no erosion or undercutting,
bank. They are almost uniform in profile and in
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width and contain mixed sizes of sediments. If the tendency to meander is reduced. Normally,
there more than one ridge, narrow and elongated in meanders of large rivers, there is active
depressions are found in between the point bars.
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Rivers build a series of them depending upon undercutting along the concave bank.
the water flow and supply of sediment. As the
rivers build the point bars on the convex side,
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point bars?
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Meanders
In large flood and delta plains, rivers rarely flow
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The concave bank is known as cut-off bank is more in the valley, channel bars and islands
which shows up as a steep scarp and the of sand, gravel and pebbles develop on the floor
convex bank presents a long, gentle profile and of the channel and the water flow is divided
is known as slip-off bank (Figure 7.8). As into multiple threads. These thread-like streams
meanders grow into deep loops, the same may of water rejoin and subdivide repeatedly to give
get cut-off due to erosion at the inflection points a typical braided pattern (Figure 7.9).
and are left as ox-bow lakes.
Braided Channels
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When rivers carry coarse material, there can be
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selective deposition of coarser materials causing
formation of a central bar which diverts the flow
towards the banks; and this flow increases
lateral erosion on the banks. As the valley
widens, the water column is reduced and more
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and more materials get deposited as islands
and lateral bars developing a number of
separate channels of water flow. Deposition
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and lateral erosion of banks are essential for Figure 7.9 : Satellite scenes showing braided channel
the formation of braided pattern. Or, segments of Gandak (right) and Son (left) rivers
alternatively, when discharge is less and load
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sometimes used to refer the collapse sinks.
through the bedding planes, joints or through Solution sinks are more common than collapse
the materials themselves. It is this downward sinks. Quite often the surface run-off simply
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and horizontal movement of water which goes down swallow and sink holes and flow as
causes the rocks to erode. Physical or underground streams and re-emerge at a
mechanical removal of materials by moving distance downstream through a cave opening.
groundwater is insignificant in developing When sink holes and dolines join together
landforms. That is why, the results of the work because of slumping of materials along their
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of groundwater cannot be seen in all types of margins or due to roof collapse of caves, long,
rocks. But in rocks like limestones or dolomites narrow to wide trenches called valley sinks or
rich in calcium carbonate, the surface water Uvalas form. Gradually, most of the surface of
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as well as groundwater through the chemical the limestone is eaten away by these pits and
process of solution and precipitation trenches, leaving it extremely irregular with a
deposition develop varieties of landforms. These
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two processes of solution and precipitation are Especially, these ridges or lapies form due to
active in limestones or dolomites occurring differential solution activity along parallel to
either exclusively or interbedded with other sub-parallel joints. The lapie field may
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rocks. Any limestone or dolomitic region eventually turn into somewhat smooth
showing typical landforms produced by the limestone pavements.
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action of groundwater through the processes
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in the Balkans adjacent to Adriatic sea. rocks (shales, sandstones, quartzites) with
The karst topography is also characterised limestones or dolomites in between or in areas
where limestones are dense, massive and
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diameters. Normally they are broad at their
bases and taper towards the free ends showing
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up in a variety of forms. Stalagmites rise up
from the floor of the caves. In fact, stalagmites
form due to dripping water from the surface or
through the thin pipe, of the stalactite,
immediately below it (Figure 7.11).
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Figure 7.12 : A glacier in its valley
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As glaciers continue to move, debris gets the glacier disappears. Such lakes are called
removed, divides get lowered and eventually cirque or tarn lakes. There can be two or more
the slope is reduced to such an extent that cirques one leading into another down below
glaciers will stop moving leaving only a mass in a stepped sequence.
of low hills and vast outwash plains along with
other depositional features. Figures 7.13 and Horns and Serrated Ridges
7.14 show various glacial erosional and Horns form through head ward erosion of the
depositional forms described in the text. cirque walls. If three or more radiating glaciers
cut headward until their cirques meet, high,
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EROSIONAL LANDFORMS sharp pointed and steep sided peaks called
horns form. The divides between cirque side
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Cirque walls or head walls get narrow because of
Cirques are the most common of landforms in progressive erosion and turn into serrated or
glaciated mountains. The cirques quite often saw-toothed ridges sometimes referred to as
are found at the heads of glacial valleys. The artes with very sharp crest and a zig-zag
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accumulated ice cuts these cirques while outline.
moving down the mountain tops. They are
deep, long and wide troughs or basins with The highest peak in the Alps, Matterhorn
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and the highest peak in the Himalayas,
very steep concave to vertically dropping high
Everest are in fact horns formed through
walls at its head as well as sides. A lake of water
headward erosion of radiating cirques.
can be seen quite often within the cirques after
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Figure 7.13 : Some glacial erosional and depositional forms (adapted and modified from Spencer, 1962)
68 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
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in glaciated areas.
glacial valley. The faces of divides or spurs of
such hanging valleys opening into main glacial
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Moraines
valleys are quite often truncated to give them
an appearance like triangular facets. Very deep They are long ridges of deposits of glacial till.
glacial troughs filled with sea water and Terminal moraines are long ridges of debris
making up shorelines (in high latitudes) are deposited at the end (toe) of the glaciers. Lateral
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called fjords/fiords. moraines form along the sides parallel to the
glacial valleys. The lateral moraines may join a
What are the basic differences between terminal moraine forming a horse-shoe shaped
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glacial valleys and river valleys? ridge (Fig. 7.13). There can be many lateral
moraines on either side in a glacial valley. These
moraines partly or fully owe their origin to glacio-
Depositional Landforms
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The unassorted coarse and fine debris dropped
fluvial waters pushing up materials to the sides
of glaciers. Many valley glaciers retreating
by the melting glaciers is called glacial till. Most rapidly leave an irregular sheet of till over their
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of the rock fragments in till are angular to sub- valley floors. Such deposits varying greatly in
angular in form. Streams form by melting ice thickness and in surface topography are called
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ground moraines. The moraine in the centre of the
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Figure 7.14 : A panoramic diagram of glacial landscape with various depositional landforms
(adapted and modified from Spencer, 1962)
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION 69
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on the surface of the ice or seeps down along processes and forms?
the margins or even moves through holes in Some of the changes along the coasts take
the ice. These waters accumulate beneath the
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place very fast. At one place, there can be
glacier and flow like streams in a channel erosion in one season and deposition in
beneath the ice. Such streams flow over the another. Most of the changes along the coasts
ground (not in a valley cut in the ground) with are accomplished by waves. When waves break,
ice forming its banks. Very coarse materials like the water is thrown with great force onto the
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boulders and blocks along with some minor shore, and simultaneously, there is a great
fractions of rock debris carried into this stream churning of sediments on the sea bottom.
settle in the valley of ice beneath the glacier Constant impact of breaking waves drastically
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and after the ice melts can be found as a affects the coasts. Storm waves and tsunami
sinuous ridge called esker. waves can cause far-reaching changes in a
pu short period of time than normal breaking
Outwash Plains waves. As wave environment changes, the
intensity of the force of breaking waves changes.
The plains at the foot of the glacial mountains
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or beyond the limits of continental ice sheets Do you know about the generating forces
are covered with glacio-fluvial deposits in the behind waves and currents? If not, refer
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form of broad flat alluvial fans which may join
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Drumlins are smooth oval shaped ridge-like to explain the concept of evolution of coastal
features composed mainly of glacial till with landforms: (i) high, rocky coasts (submerged
some masses of gravel and sand. The long axes coasts); (ii) low, smooth and gently sloping
of drumlins are parallel to the direction of ice sedimentary coasts (emerged coasts).
Along high rocky coasts, waves break with Storm and tsunami waves cause drastic
great force against the land shaping the hill changes irrespective of supply of sediments.
sides into cliffs. With constant pounding by Large rivers which bring lots of sediments build
waves, the cliffs recede leaving a wave-cut deltas along low sedimentary coasts.
platform in front of the sea cliff. Waves
gradually minimise the irregularities along the The west coast of our country is a high
shore. rocky retreating coast. Erosional forms
The materials which fall off, and removed dominate in the west coast. The east
from the sea cliffs, gradually break into smaller coast of India is a low sedimentary coast.
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fragments and roll to roundness, will get Depositional forms dominate in the east
deposited in the offshore. After a considerable coast.
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period of cliff development and retreat when
coastline turns somewhat smooth, with the
addition of some more material to this deposit What are the various differences between
in the offshore, a wave-built terrace would a high rocky coast and a low sedimentary
coast in terms of processes and
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develop in front of wave-cut terrace. As the
erosion along the coast takes place a good landforms?
supply material becomes available to longshore
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currents and waves to deposit them as beaches EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
along the shore and as bars (long ridges of sand
and/or shingle parallel to the coast) in the
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nearshore zone. Bars are submerged features
and when bars show up above water, they are Wave-cut cliffs and terraces are two forms
called barrier bars. Barrier bar which get keyed usually found where erosion is the dominant
shore process. Almost all sea cliffs are steep
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lagoons would gradually get filled up by flat or gently sloping platform covered by rock
sediments from the land giving rise to a coastal debris derived from the sea cliff behind. Such
plain. platforms occurring at elevations above the
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Along low sedimentary coasts the rivers appear smashed against the cliff along with lashing
to extend their length by building coastal waves create hollows and these hollows get
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plains and deltas. The coastline appears widened and deepened to form sea caves. The
smooth with occasional incursions of water in roofs of caves collapse and the sea cliffs recede
the form of lagoons and tidal creeks. The land further inland. Retreat of the cliff may leave
slopes gently into the water. Marshes and some remnants of rock standing isolated as
swamps may abound along the coasts. small islands just off the shore. Such resistant
Depositional features dominate. masses of rock, originally parts of a cliff or hill
When waves break over a gently sloping are called sea stacks. Like all other features,
sedimentary coast, the bottom sediments get sea stacks are also temporary and eventually
churned and move readily building bars, coastal hills and cliffs will disappear because
barrier bars, spits and lagoons. Lagoons of wave erosion giving rise to narrow coastal
would eventually turn into a swamp which plains, and with onrush of deposits from over
would subsequently turn into a coastal plain. the land behind may get covered up by
The maintenance of these depositional features alluvium or may get covered up by shingle or
depends upon the steady supply of materials. sand to form a wide beach.
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION 71
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from wave erosion. Beaches are temporary
features. The sandy beach which appears so Do you know, the coastal off-shore bars
permanent may be reduced to a very narrow
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offer the first buffer or defence against
strip of coarse pebbles in some other season. storm or tsunami by absorbing most of
Most of the beaches are made up of sand sized their destructive force. Then come the
materials. Beaches called shingle beaches barriers, beaches, beach dunes and
contain excessively small pebbles and even mangroves, if any, to absorb the
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cobbles. destructive force of storm and tsunami
Just behind the beach, the sands lifted and waves. So, if we do anything which
winnowed from over the beach surfaces will be disturbs the sediment budget and the
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deposited as sand dunes. Sand dunes forming mangroves along the coast, these coastal
long ridges parallel to the coastline are very forms will get eroded away leaving human
common along low sedimentary coasts.
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and tsunami waves.
Bars, Barriers and Spits
WINDS
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formation to mass wasting and running water deposition of sediment from basin margins, a
as sheet floods. Though rain is scarce in deserts, nearly level plain forms at the centre of the
it comes down torrentially in a short period of basin. In times of sufficient water, this plain is
time. The desert rocks devoid of vegetation, covered up by a shallow water body. Such
exposed to mechanical and chemical types of shallow lakes are called as playas
weathering processes due to drastic diurnal where water is retained only for short duration
temperature changes, decay faster and the due to evaporation and quite often the playas
torrential rains help in removing the weathered contain good deposition of salts. The playa
materials easily. That means, the weathered plain covered up by salts is called alkali flats.
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debris in deserts is moved by not only wind
but also by rain/sheet wash. The wind moves Deflation Hollows and Caves
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fine materials and general mass erosion is
Weathered mantle from over the rocks or bare
accomplished mainly through sheet floods or
soil, gets blown out by persistent movement
sheet wash. Stream channels in desert areas
of wind currents in one direction. This process
are broad, smooth and indefinite and flow for
may create shallow depressions called
a brief time after rains.
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deflation hollows. Deflation also creates
numerous small pits or cavities over rock
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS surfaces. The rock faces suffer impact and
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abrasion of wind-borne sand and first shallow
Pediments and Pediplains
depressions called blow outs are created, and
Landscape evolution in deserts is primarily
pu some of the blow outs become deeper and
concerned with the formation and extension of wider fit to be called caves.
pediments. Gently inclined rocky floors close
to the mountains at their foot with or without Mushroom, Table and Pedestal Rocks
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a thin cover of debris, are called pediments. Many rock-outcrops in the deserts easily
Such rocky floors form through the erosion of
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susceptible to wind deflation and abrasion are
mountain front through a combination of
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termed as parallel retreat of slopes through wind action and action of sheet floods.
backwasting. So, through parallel retreat of
slopes, the pediments extend backwards at the
Depositional Landforms
expense of mountain front, and gradually, the
mountain gets reduced leaving an inselberg Wind is a good sorting agent. Depending upon
which is a remnant of the mountain. Thats how the velocity of wind, different sizes of grains are
the high relief in desert areas is reduced to low moved along the floors by rolling or saltation
featureless plains called pediplains. and carried in suspension and in this process
of transportation itself, the materials get sorted.
Playas When the wind slows or begins to die down,
Plains are by far the most prominent landforms depending upon sizes of grains and their
in the deserts. In basins with mountains and critical velocities, the grains will begin to settle.
hills around and along, the drainage is towards So, in depositional landforms made by wind,
the centre of the basin and due to gradual good sorting of grains can be found. Since
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION 73
wind is there everywhere and wherever there are equally important. There can be a great
is good source of sand and with constant wind variety of dune forms (Figure 7.16).
directions, depositional features in arid regions Crescent shaped dunes called barchans
can develop anywhere. with the points or wings directed away from
wind direction i.e., downwind, form where the
Sand Dunes wind direction is constant and moderate and
Dry hot deserts are good places for sand dune where the original surface over which sand is
formation. Obstacles to initiate dune formation moving is almost uniform. Parabolic dunes
form when sandy surfaces are partially covered
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with vegetation. That means parabolic dunes
are reversed barchans with wind direction
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being the same. Seif is similar to barchan with
a small difference. Seif has only one wing or
point. This happens when there is shift in wind
conditions. The lone wings of seifs can grow
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very long and high. Longitudinal dunes form
when supply of sand is poor and wind
direction is constant. They appear as long
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ridges of considerable length but low in height.
Transverse dunes are aligned perpendicular
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wind direction is constant and the source of
sand is an elongated feature at right angles to
the wind direction. They may be very long and
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EXERCISES
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(iv) Which one of the following sentences best defines the term Lapies ?
(a) A small to medium sized shallow depression
(b) A landform whose opening is more or less circular at the top and
funnel shaped towards bottom
(c) A landform formed due to dripping water from surface
(d) An irregular surface with sharp pinnacles, grooves and ridges
(v) A deep, long and wide trough or basin with very steep concave high walls
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at its head as well as in sides is known as:
(a) Cirque (c) Lateral Moraine
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(b) Glacial valley (d) Esker
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) What do incised meanders in rocks and meanders in plains of alluvium
indicate?
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(ii) Explain the evolution of valley sinks or uvalas.
(iii) Underground flow of water is more common than surface run-off in
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limestone areas. Why?
(iv) Glacial valleys show up many linear depositional forms. Give their
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(v) How does wind perform its task in desert areas? Is it the only agent
responsible for the erosional features in the deserts?
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(ii) Limestones behave differently in humid and arid climates. Why? What is
the dominant and almost exclusive geomorphic process in limestone areas
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Project Work
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