ENERAL STUDIES Civil Services Mains Exam.-2013 (PAPER-IID) Book No.-I Ph, 011-25825591; 42437002; 9811489560 73-75; 1" Floor; Ring Road ;Beside GTB Metro Station Kingsway Camp;New Delhi. E Ph. 08447273027Es) Inclusive growth Inclusive growth basically means, “broad based growth, shared growth, and pro-poor growth”. Inclusive growth by its very definition implies an equitable allocation of resources with benefits accessible to every section of the society. Inclusive strategy involves 2 much greater role of the States, and closer coordination between the Centre and the States, than would be meeded for a parely corporate-led growth strategy. This is because most of the policy measures and institutional support required for small and medium entrepreneur- led growth lie in the domain of State Govemments and local badies. The Centre’s contributions would lie mainly in creating the ‘appropriate macroeconomic framework, financial gai@etor pol and national level infrasiucture. inclusive growth has been projected as the stratcyic pillar inhe forthcoming I2thfive year plan. ‘The policy designers are of the opinion that the ‘inclusive growth steategy for the 12ihfive year plan should be based on the experience of inclusive oulcomes of the Ifthfive year plan’. ‘The approach to 12thfive year plan titled “Faster, Sustainable and More Inclusive Growth” defines inclusive growth as: Inglusive growth should result in lower incidence of poverty, universal access 0 school education including skill and education, better opportunities for wage employment and livelihood, improvement in health outcomes, improvement in provision of basic amenities like water, clectricity, roads. sanitation and heusing. Has growth of Indian eeonomy been really inclusive during the last plan or desades of reforms? ‘This question demands a close empirical investigation. nce the last two. Since July 1991, Indian economy has witnessed several reforms encompassing all the major scciors of the cconomy (agriculture, industry, trade, foreign investment, technology, public sector, financial institutions and so on), The main objective of these reforms was to put the Indian econamy out of the low level equilibrium trap. These reforms have marked a steady break from the previous policy regime of state controlled and insulated economy. Duc to these policies. India saw robust rates of growth of GDP. Since the last decade or so, GIP and lavestment growth have recorded historical increase in India. However, ia the last two years, there is a sharp decline in growth rate due to the economic crisis at the slobal level. But the ecanomic survey of 2013 predicts that the recovery is on the way as far as growth is coneemed. Who is benefiting from this higher growth trajectory is the other important question. The questions that arise are:Can high growth provide beller and secure employment to the common people? Has this growth mace health and educational facilities more accessible te the common people? Has this high growth rate been able fo reduce real poverty? Al these issues are elosely related to the title of Lith and the current [2thfive year plan (2012-17). The policy designers initially believed that ‘generally higher GDP economic grawth will “trickle down’ to lower levels, But in India, this Stickle dawn’ has not worked. Therefore, we need special interventions in terms of redesigning the growth patiern and also inclusive programmes to address the needs of the excluded, “Inclusive growth’ as a strategy of economic development received attention owing to a rising, concem that the benefits of esomomic growth have not been equitably shared. Growth is inclusive when il creates economic opportunities along with ensuring equal access to them. Apart from addressing the issue of inequality, the inclusive growth may also make the poverty reduction efforts more effective by explicitly creating productive economic opportunities for thethe society. The inclusive growth by encompassing the Ritheno: several other benefits as well to the economy. ‘The concept “Inclusion” should be seen as a process of including the exeluded as agents ‘whose participation is essential in the very design of the development process, and not simply as welfierc targets of developmeni programmes (Planning Commission, 2007). Inclusive growth cefers to both the pace and the pattem of the economic growth. The fiteranare ‘on the subject draws fine distinction between direct income redistribution or shared growth and nclusive growth. The inclusive growth approach takes a longer term perspective as the focus is ‘on productive employment rather than on direct income redistribution, asa means of increasing incomes for excluded groups, Inclusive growth is, therefore, supposed 10 be inherently sustainable as distinet from income distribution schemes which can in the short run reduce the disparities, between the poorest and the rest, which may have arisen on account of policies intended to jampstart growth, While income distribution schemes can allow people to benefit from economic growth in the short run, inclusive oat ys people to “contribute to and benefit from economic growth”. The current policy objective of inclusive growth with stability given in the 12 FYP requires that thoes be productive and structural growth along with environmental security. Need for inclusive growth There are prudential, political and moral reasons . Practically. we need co build an inclusive society because human resource needs to be developed. Education, hcalth and skills for all, will mean huge employment, productivity, innovation, exports and so on, Politically, if there is no inclusive growth, conflicts will arise on a mass basis and could even tum into extremist movements ike naxalism and communalism which can strike a bady blow to the imegrity of the pation. At any rate, Constituion of India promises inclusive growth in the Preamble and the DPSPs and so the nation owes it co all. Morlly, it is inhuman to leave mitlions weak and estitute while the nation is growth at an impressive rate, ‘Challenges of achieving inclusive growth Achievement of inclusiveness is a challenge in the following way © The number of people to be targeted being so Jarge- hundreds of millions, the effort has to be commensurate © Fiscal, human and administrative resources necessary are huge © Institutional mechanisms for federal coordination, PPPs, strong LSG bodies(PRIs and Nagarapalikas) need to be developed = Decentralization is eructal as inclusive governance is an integral part of inclusive growth © Suitable laws that enable people-centered growth proccss- be it in land acquisition, environmental field, R&R,- are required Poverty ind recent achievements “he record in recent years of the anti-poverty strategies- the heart of inclusive growth- is encouraging. ‘The percentage of the population below the official poverty line has been falling fut even as that happens, the numbers below the poverty Tine remain large. According to the Tatest official estimates of poverty bused on-the Tendulkar Committee poverty line, as many 2° 29.8 pee cent of the population, that is, 350 million people were below the poverty line in 2009: 10. Questions have been raised about the appropriateness of the Tendulkar poverty line which 5 al al lal id al al all all sal il al ied sad al al aid i ll)comesponds to a family consumption level of "3.900 per month an mural areas and “4,800 per month in urban areas (in both cases fir a family of five). There is mo doubt that the Tendulkar ‘Committee poverty Tine represents a very low level of consumption and the scale of poverty even on this basis is substantial, An Expert committee under Dr. C. Rangarajan has been set up to eview all issues related to the poverty line keeping in view intemnational practives.(Read ahead for detailed examination of issues) It ie well ewtablished that the pereeniage of the population in poverty has been falling consistently but the ratc of decline was too slow. The rate of decline in poverty in the period 3004-05 to 2009 10 was 1.5 percentage points per year, which is uwvice the rate of decline of 0.74 percentage points per year observed between 3993-94 and 2004-05. Normally, large sample surveys used for official estimates of poverssdife Conducted every five years, but because 2008-10 was a drought year, the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) felt that it would tend to overstate poverty and it was therefore decided to selvance the next large sample survey to 2011-12. The results of this survey — NSSO 68" Round details came out in 2013 June and are discussed ahead). NSSO 68" Round findings on poverty, consumption and inequality in consumption are: Poorest of poor in the country survive on barcly Rs 17 per day in villages and Rs 23-2 day in cities. According to the data, which relates to 2011-12 (July-June), five per cent population on the bottom rung had an average moathly per eapita expenditure (MCPE) of Rs 521.44 in mural areas and Rs 700.50 in urban areas. On the other end of the spectrum, top five per cent of the population had an MPCE of Rs 4,481 in rural arcas and Rs 10,282 in urban areas, The National Sample Survey Oflice’s (NSSO) 68th round of survey is based on samples consisting of 7,196 villages in rural India and 5,263 urban blocks except some remote areas, during July 201 1-June 2012, the release said.On an average on the all-India basis, MPCE was around Rs 1.430 for rural India and about Rs 2,630 for urban India Thus average urban MPCE. was about $4 per cent higher than average rural MPCE for the country as a whole, though there swore wide Variations in this differential aeross states”. Inter-group Equality inclusiveness is not just about bringing those below an official fixed poverty line to a level above it Its also about a growth process which is seen to be ‘fair’ by different socio-economic groups, that constitute our society. The poor are certainly one target group, but inclusiveness must abso embrace the concer of other groups such as the Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (SEs), Other Back- ward Classes (OBCs), Minorities, the differently abled and other marginalised groups. Women can also be viewed ax a disadvantaged group for this purpose These distinct “identity groups’ are sometimes correlated with income slabs the SCs and STs, for example, are in the lower income category and ull poverty alleviation strategies help them directly, Women on the other hand span the entire income spectrum, but there ane gender-based issues of inclusiveness that are relevant all along the spectrum. Inclusiveness from a group perspective goes beyond a poverty reduction perspective and includes consideration of the status ef the group as a whole relative to the general population. For example, narrowing the gap between the SCs or STs and the general population must be part of any reasonable definition @F imelusiveness, and this is quite distin from the concem with poverty, or inequality, though themyo are lated.‘Balance regional development (BID) and Inclusive growth “Another aspect of inclusiveness relates to whether all States, and indeed all regions, are se=a benefit from the growth process. The regional dimension has grown in importance in resem ‘years. On the positive side, as the PM mentioned in the 57" NDC speech(Sce ahead), many of jhe erstwhile backward States have begun to show significant improvement in growth ‘performance and the variation in growth rates across States has narrowed. However, Both the better performing and other States are inereasingly concerned about their backward regions, or districts, which may not share the general improvement in living standards experienced elewhere. Many of these districts have uaigque charseteristies including high concentration of iribal population in forested areas, or Minorities in urban areas. Some districts are also affected by left wing extremism, making the task of development much mare difficult. In the ‘Twelfth Plan, govt aims pay special attention to the scope for acceleraling growth in the States that arc lagging behind. This will require strengthening of States’ own capacities to plan, to implement and to bring greater synergies within thesdlpadministaton and withthe Central Government, A$ a first step, the Planning Commission is working with it"s counterpart Planning Boards and Planning Departments in all State Govemments to improve their capabilities. An important constraint on the growth of backward regions in the country is the poor state of infrastructure, especially road connectivity, schools and health facilities ead the avaifability of electricity, all of which combine to hold back development, Improvement in infrastructure must therefore be an important component of any region- ally inclusive development strategy. ‘The efforts of the govt in this regard are + FC eriteria = PC transfers special category states BRGF Green sevolution in the eastern region + North easter region Vision 2020 Special focus on North east ‘Molding that infrastructure deficiency in North-East is a "major concem”, Prime Minister ‘Manmohan Singh in 2008 announced linking of all state capitals there by rail to ensure betier ‘connectivity and earmarking of Rs 31,000 crores to improve roads. Releasing "Vision Document 2020 for the North-Fastem Region’ he suid besides developing rail ‘and air connectivity, the government is also committed to improve road facilities in the Eleventh Plan. For improving air connectivity, he announced that a green-field airport will come up at Itanagar to connect the region with the rest of the country. He said all villages on the Arunachal Pradesh border will soon be electrified at a cost of Rs 550 crore. The Vision Document, approved by the North-East Counell, also lays stress on promoting education in the region. Govt is to setup a NTFT and IIT at Shillong. Green Revolution in Eastern India The programme gets Rs 1,000 crore in bis Budget for 2013-14.[t was during Union Budget 2010-11 that for the first time, separate funds were allecated for the castem parts of the country. ‘The scheme, which comes under Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana, includes Assam; Bihar, Jharkhand, castern UP, Chhattisgarh, Odiithe and West Bengal. Rice was a priority crop under the scheme, The olher areas of focus fing activities such as water management, construction of farm ponds and repair is. The main moive behind this projectis to ensure food security. ‘The idea is to tap the eastern region for foo grains and pul Centre has also allocated Rs S00 crore for encouraging crop diversificstion to promote technological innovation. The original Green Revolution States face the problem of stagnaling yields and over-exploitation of water resources. The answer lies in erop diversification. BRGF The Backward Regions Grant Fund Programme (BRGF), launched in 2007, signifies a new approach io addressing persistent regional imbalanees in development ‘The programme subsumed the Rashtriya Sama Vikas Yojana (RSVY).The BRGF Programme covers 250 disricts in 27 States, of which 232 districts fall under the purview of Pars IX and IX-A of the Constitution dealing with the Panchayals and the Municipabilies, respectively. The remaining 18 icts arc covered by other local government stam R such as Autonomous District and Regional Councils under the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution and state specific arrangements as inthe case of Nagaland and the hill areas of Manipur. Objectives The Backward Regions Grant Fund is designed to redress regional imbalances in development ‘by way of providing financial resources for supplementing and converging existing developmental inflows into the identified backward districts, so as to: ‘+ Bridge critical gaps in local inffastructure and other development requicements: that are nol being adequately met through existing inflows, «Strengthen, to this end, Panchayat and Municipality level goverance with more appropriate capacity building, to facilitate participatory planning. deetsion makin implementation and monitoring, to reflect local felt needs, bi + Provide professional support to local bodies Far planning, implementation =n monitaeiags their plans, 7 ‘+ Improve the performance and delivery of critical flanctions assigned to Panchayats ‘counter possible efficiency and equity losses on account of inadequate local capacity. The BRGF programme represents a major shift in appoach from top-down plans to pasticipative plans prepared from the grassroots level upwards. The guidelines of the Programme entrust the central role in planning and implementation of the programme to Panchayats in rural areas. ‘municipalities in urban areas and District Planning Committees at the district level constituted in accordance with Article 243 ZD of the Constitution to consolidate the plans of the Panchayats and Municipalities into the draft diswict plan. Special provisions have been made in the guidelines for those districts in J&K, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and ‘Tripura which do not have Panchayats, where village level bodies and institutions mandated under other frameworks such as the Sixth Schedule are to plan and implement the programme. The conviction that drives this new locally driven approach is that grassroots level democratic institutions know best the dimensions of poverty in their areas and are, therefare, best placed to undertake indi rally small, but overall, significant local interventions to sustainably tackle local poverty alleviation. There arc three features of BRGF that make it truly unique among, ives to combat backwardness. First, the approach of putting the Panchayuts and the ities at the centre stage of planning and implementation. Second, no Central funding stream is as ‘untied’ as the BRGE — the funds can be applied to any preference of the Panchayat! Municipality, so long as ie fills @ development yap and the identification of the work is decided with people’s participation Third, no other propramme spends as much funds, nearly 11 percent of the total allocation, fr eapacisy building and staff provisioning, ADCreation of capacity for effective planning at district and lower level is a key-pre requis participative planning. Hence the BRGF contains a specific component for the capacity BAH: Jit Panchayati Raj Institutions of Rs. 250 crore per year. A (ramework that looks upon capassty building in a very comprehensive fashion, encompassing taining, handholding and providing: ‘ongoing support to Panchayat elected representalives has been developed for States to follow. while undertaking capacity building. “the planning process undet BRGF is based on the guidelines for district planning issued by the Planning Commission. The process of integrated development cornmences with each district, undertaking diagnostic study of its backwardness and a baseline survey by enlisting professional planning support, to he followed by a well-conceived participatory district evelopment perspective plan to address this backwardness during the period of the Eleventh Five Year Plan. Such plans would integrate multiple mmes that are in-operation in the district concemed and, therefore, address backward ish a combination of resourees that flow to thé district. District Plans received from the various States indieate thatthe untied fund allccated to the districts are generally being used for filling infrastructural gaps in drinking ‘water, connectivity, health, education, social sectors, electrification, etc. The basket of warks taken up includes construction of school buildings /elass rooms, health sub-centees, drinking water facility, sanitation fieilities, anganwadi buildings, Panchayat buildings, irigation tankalchannels, street lights, link roads, culverts, soil and water conservation measures, ett. The BRGE has adopted the National Capability Building Framework (the NCBE) which envisages strengthening of institutional arrangements, including the infrastructure as well as sofiware support for capacity building of clecied representatives, the functionaries and other stakehoklers ‘af PRis and thereby improving the vigour of grassroots level democracy. ‘The finance ministey in May 2013 set up an cxpert- committee under the chairmanship of Chief [eonomie Adviser Raghuram Rajen to lock into 4 composite development index of states for allocation of money under the Backward Region Grant Fund (BRGF). Rajan committes would Consider exiteria such as the state's positing in national per capita income and human development indicators 19 evolve 2 composite index. The pane! would have five members but ‘experts as special invitees for deliberations. Finance Mnister Chidambaram in 2013- Sspecch said that the criteria for determining backwardness under BRGF are based en ‘of population and length of intemational borders. “It may be more relevant t0 ust ike the distance of the siale from the national average under critcria such as per capita STiteracy and other human development indicators.” of Urban Amenities in Rural Areas (PURA) is a Cental Sector scheme re-launched by ‘of Rural Development (MoRD), Government of India during remaining period of the *Pian wath support from Department of Economie Affairs and the technical assistance of Asian Development Bank. MoRD is implementing the PURA scheme under a Publi¢ Private Barinesship (PPP) Iramework beoween Cram Panchayat(s) and privale seetor partners with active ‘support of the state governments. “The scheme envisages development of rural infrastructure and is the first attempt at delivering 2 basket of infrastructure and amenities through PPP in the rural areas. The primary objectives of the scheme are the provision of livelihood opportunites and urban amenities in raral arcas to bridge the mural —urban divide. 1 wo al ad baad ad Waal acd ad baal ed bd Ged ‘add ‘cd ‘al aEss) Core finding shall be sourced from the Central Sector scheme of PEIRA and complemented by additional support through convergence of different Central Government schemes. The private sector shall also-bring into the project its share of ittvestment besides operationsl expertise. The scheme-would be implemented and managed by the private sector on considerations of economic viability but designed in a manner whereby it is fully aligned with the overall objective of rural development, Inclusiveness and Tnequality Inclusiveness also means greater altention to income inequality. The extent of measured by indices such as the Gini coefficient, which provide a measure of the inequal the distribution on a whole, or by measures thal focus omparticular segments such as the ratio of consumption of the top 10 per cent or 20 per cent of: ation to that of the bottom. 10 per cent or 20 per cent of the population, or in terms of rural-urban, such as the ratio of mean consumption in urban versus fural areas. An aspect of inequality that has come sharply into focus in industrialised countries, in the wake of the financial crisis, is the problem of extreme concentration of income at the very top, that is, the top 1 per cent and this concer is also reflected im the public debate in India Inequality must be kept within tolerable limits (Art38, DPSP). Some increase in inequality in 2 developing country during a period of rapid growth and transformation may be unavoidable and it may even be tolerated if it is accompanied by sulliciently rapid impravernent in the living standards of the oor, However, an increase in inequality with little or no improvement in the living standards of the poor is a recipe for social tensions. As a society, we therefore need to diy as possible to the ideal of giving cvery child in India a fair opportunity in Tife, ‘which means assuring cvery child access to good health and quality education. India, HDI and LHDI: Human Development Report 2013 Over the past two decades, India has seen a big improvement in its human development index score, from 0.41 in 1950 1 00.554 in 2012, according to the latest report by the United Nations Development Program (2013). However, despite this improvement, India avertoek only four of the countries positioned above it in 1990: Swazilund, Kenya, Cameroon and Congo. The rise in India’s HDI score is partly thanks to it starting from a low base (countries with high HDI scores have limited room for improvement), and also a rapid increase in per Capita gross. national income. Despite the improvement, India remains in the “medium development” category, | 36" ina list of 186 countries that stretches from Norway af the top of the “very high human development” category to Niger at the battam of the “low human development” group. In 2011, India wos 134M in the ist, Since 2011, the UNDP report has included an inequality adjusted FEDI, also known as IDI, ‘which aims to capture the fleets of inequality on human development. If there is no inequality the IHDI equals the HIDE, while albig difference between the readings means greater inequality. India’s IHDI score was nearly 36 lower than its HDI reading. The most glaring inequality in india Es in education, the report says, even though it commends the introduction of the Rigi lr edieation Act, Success stories, such =s Coie ly show growth in investment in health and education, ‘with a special focus om “cnable poor people to-participate in growta,” the UNDP report says. India also fared poorly. and gender equality.SRIRA'S [ES Tuclusivenessas Empowerment Finally, inclusiveness is not just about ensuring & broad-based flow of benefits or cconomie opportunities, itis also about empowerment and participation, Itis a measure of the success = ceetnahieved in building a partcipatery democracy that people xe 79 Jonger prepared to Be passive recipients of betiefits doled out by the Govermnens ‘They are slowly beginning to vepand these benefits and opportunitics as rights and they also want #5 how they are cdmministered. ‘This brings to the fore issues of governance, ‘accountability and peoples participation to much greater extent than before “This also covers areas Tike access to informalion avout wovernment schemes, Knowledge of the relevant lass snd hhow to access justice, The rowing concem with governance has also foeused anention 00 corvuption, How to tackle: coruption is now at the contre stage of policy dchates, Empowerment refers 10 increasing the political, sociglgeducational, gender, or economic strength cf acd iduals and commurities. Sociokapies! empawernfent often adresses members of groups har socral diserimination processes have excluded from decision-making Proc ‘theough - for example - discrimination bused on caste, disability, toe, ethnicity, religion, ot gender. Indiz being 2 welfare state has many plans and programmes fOr ths ‘empowerment of the marginalised ‘roups which is the hallmark of a strategy to achieve an inclusive strategy. (The initiatives are discussed in various parts of the Study Material AP AF shen Pradech Scheduled Caste Sub-Plan/Schesuled Tribe Sub-Plan ‘Planning, Allocation and Utilization of Financial Resources Act 2012 stars Pradesh: made istory Tn December by passing a bill io give sisnico) status to the eared eases and scheduled Wibe sub-plans, ensoring allocation of und we these sections in proportion to their population, The law will also ensare total utilization of fimds allocated to recta sections in the planned budget. The state assembly passed “Andhra Pradesh Scheduled Caste Sub Plan/Scheduled Tribe Sub-Plan Planning, Allosation and Uri lization of Financial Resources Be ZOTT making it the first state inthe country 19 have such legislation. The bill was brought 3s the funds were either not being utilized or diverted for other purposes. Inclusiveness through Employment Programmes The 12" FYP says the following about the Mgnroga < Qne of the most important interventions for fostering inclusion during Eleventh Plan was the MGNREGA. While its achievements in et olinating poverty and preventing acute distress during times ‘of drought have been recorded aia appreciated, there are also some complaints agzins MGNREGA, primarily on the grounds Ft ies a dole, involving huge expenditures that could have been sper See productively There are glso complaints thal it is leading to increase in wages of agricultural labour and construction workers, There Is also evidence that wherever lane ‘productivity has improved and greater water security heen delivered, small and sarginal farmers working in MGNREGA sites rine reverted back to faaming and allied livelihoods. There is also evidence that MGNREGA is enabling crop diversification, particularly mo horticulae, ‘wherever it has adequately converged cath schemes of Agricultural Departments. An important lesson from this experience is that itis the quality of assets created, whieh will determine whether MGNREGA cam go beyond the safety ne! to become a springboard for entrepreneurship, e¥<% 3. the lowest income levels. ‘Accelerated growth in recent years hss yielded distnes Benefits to mht and the prosperity which this hae gencrated is visible to all, raising the expectations ofall s=ction* of the population, and creating a demand for fair share ofthe benetits of grow.lah aL ‘Eleventh Plan Achievements on Inelu: The following, are some important indicators showing: the Fleventh Plan sueceeded in fulfilling the objective of inclusive grow the data celate to the NSSO surveys, the time period for comparison is ) Aspiramts are ‘advised to insert the latest data, for example, NSSO-68— ‘revesled in 2013 June) © GDP growth in the Eleventh Plan 2007-08 te 201) iB per cent compared with 7.6 per cent in the Tenth Plan (2002-03 to 2006-07). p27 per cent in the Ninth Plan (1997-98 to 2001-02). The growth rate of 7.9 per eeat im tbe Eleventh Plan period is one of the highest of any country in that period which saw two Blobal crises. ‘Agricultural GDP growth accelerated in the Eleventh Plan, to an average rate of 3.7 per cent, compared with 2.4 per cent in the Tenth 2.5 per cent in the Ninth Plan. The percentage of the population below ty line declined at the rate of 1.5 percentage points (ppt) per year in the peried 2004-05 to 2009-10, twice the rate at whi it declined in the previous period 1993-94 to 200405. (When the data for the latest NSSO survey for 201 I-12 become available, itis likely that the rate of decfine may be close to 2 ppt per year. Indeca!!!!) ‘The rate of growth of real consumption per capita in rural areas in the period 2004-05 to 2011-12 was 3.4 per cent per year which was four times the rate in the previous period 1993.94 to 200405. The rate of uncmployment declined from 8.2 per cent in 2004 05 to 6.6 per cent in 2009- 10 reversing the trend observed in the carlier period when it had actually increased from 6.1 per cent in 1993-94 to 8.2 per eent in 2004-05. Rural real wages increased 6.8 per cent per year in the Eleventh Plan (2007-08 to 2011 12) compared to an average 1.1 per cent per year in the previous decade, led largely by the government's rural policies and initiatives. Complete immunization rate increased by 2.1 ppt per year between 2002-04 and 2007-08, compared to a 1.7 ppt fall per yeur between 1998-99 and 2002-04, Similarly, institutional deliveries increased by 1.6 ppt per year between 2002-04 and 200708 higher than the 1.3, ppt increase per year between 1998-99 and 2002.04. ‘Net enrolment rate at the primary level rose to a near universal 98.3 per cent in 2009-10. Dropout rate (classes 1 WIM} also showed improvements, falling 1.7 ppt per year between 2003.4 and 2009-10, which was twice the 0.8 pot fall between 1998-99 and 2003.04, Ending of gender based inequitics, discrimination and all forms of violence against girls and women is being accorded overriding priority in the Twelfth Plan. This is fundamental to enabling ‘women {o participate fully in development processes and in fulfilling their social, economic, civil and political rights, for more inclusive growth. Environmental Sustainability ‘While striving for faster and more inclusive growth, the Twelfth Plan must also pay attention (0 the problem of sustainability. No development process can afford to neglect the environmental ‘consequences of ecanomic activity, or allow unsustainable depletion and deterioration of natural resources. Unfortunately. the experience of development in many countries, and our own past ‘experience in some respects, Suggests that this can easily happen unless appropriate corrective ‘eps are taken at early stages. The Twelfth Plan must devise a siratczy of development which ‘effectively reconciles the ebjective of development with the objective of protecting the environment. ~~ ;: Es Development cannot tike place without additional energy and the energy. requiremest af development will have to be reconciled with the objective of protection of environment. Te economy depends heavily on coal and hydro power to mest its cnergy needs and the development of each of these energy sources involves potential trade-offs with conservation of Forests and the objective of avoiding displacement of people. We nood to manage: these ‘conificting objectives more efficiently, with adequate compensation for those dispossessed and propriate remedial steps to correct for loss-of forest cover where this is unavoidable. Nuclear energy is another important energy souree for the country, and has the greatest potential over tas nent 20 years, of providing a substitute for coal-based clevtricity. However, here toa) taviroamental and safety issues have arisen, cspecially after the Fukushima accident. ‘These concerns are being addressed The achievement of environmental sustainabi Limpact the life of communities in several dimensions. It will require the need develoy f new cnerey efficient practices in’ urban housing and transport to contain the growth in the demand for energy. It would mean use of Far nore energy efficient technologies in coal-based electricity generation such as the introduction of super critical and ultra super critical boilers. It would require active promotion of energy efficiency in industries, farms and offices, aad the promotion of more energy ¢: Jieient appliances through policies of branding and mandatory standards. Transport policies and related technotogics for more energy efficient vehicles will need to be developed and adopted. ‘The issue of sustainability also has a global dimension because of the threat of climate change caused by the accumulation of carbon dioxide and other Greenhouse Gases (GHG) in the tmosphers due to human activity. Since GIIG emission m any eountry accelerates the process of global warming, this is ebviously an area where 2 global cooperative solution is needed. Ne ‘ouniry will have sufficient incentive to contain iis own cmissions unless itis part of @ global ‘compact, Such a compact in turn is possible only if there isa fair distribution of the bur des: Developing countries have consistenily argued that sinos itis the industrialised countries that have historically contributed the bulk of the accumulated stock of GHG, and are also the most able to pay, they must bear bucden of global mitigation and adjustment. India is participating i the ongoing inlec- national negotiations under the UN Framework Convention on Climate ‘Change, but progress thus far has been minimal. We cannot, however, abstain ftom taking action to deal with climate change until aa ntemational solution is found. ft is known that India will be one of the countries most severe! ifected if global warming proceeds unchecked and as such appropriate domestic action *s necessary, A National Action Plan for elimate change has been evolved with eight component Missions, Implementation of these missions must be an integral part of the Twelfth Plan. Policies should be closely monitored te easure that we achieve the stated objective of reducing the ‘emissions intensity of aur GDP by 20 per cent 10:25 per cent between 2005 and 2020. Resolving the conflict berween energy and the environment is not without cost. It involves additional upfromt costs oth of mitigating the adverse impact on the environment and of ‘witching to more expensive renewable energy sources. These costs must be built into the east and the pricing of the cnergy produced. The reluctance to bear these costs arises largely because the cost of environmental damage is not properly measured. It is only when this is done that the cout of avoiding such damage can be compared -with the environmental benefits to reach 2 fadonal decision on Winether the costs are worth it Pert of the problem is that the conventional vhays of measuring GDP in terms of production do not take aecount of environmental damage ‘aused by production of certain goods which shollld prop-exly be reflected 2s a subtraction from GDP. Only if GDP is adjusted in this way fOr envirsamental costs that growth of adjusted GDP can be called a measure of the increase i S@lal production in the economy, Recognising this 19Sa a . problem, the Planning Commission has commissioned ss) Professor Partha Dasgupta to prepare a template for estimating green would measure national production while allowing for negative effects I the aftermath of recent disaster in Uttarakhand, the State govemment decid Green GDP concepi(July 2013) ‘The capabilities we need to develop to achieve the Gbjestine of Geter, more inclusive and ‘sustainable growth ate to be discussed: human capabilities whseh are im many ways the most important; institutional capabilities and the development of infrastructure which is a general capability enhancer for all agents. Both the Central and State Governments have a large role to play in developing these capabilitics and the Twellils Plan af the Central and State level should accord high importance to this effort. 4 The development of human capabilities must be Bt priarity as proper development of human capabilities will also ensure that our growth is more inclusive in the sense that the marginalised and disadvantaged sections of our society will be more able to access ‘opportunities thrown up by the grawth process. ‘The most fundamental of all human capabilities is life itself and the steady rise in life expectation in the country suggests that significant progress has been made in this dimension. Life expectancy which was only 32 years at the time of Independence is now 67 years. In other words, every Indian can expect to live twice as long as was the casc al Independence! Nevertieless, the level of life expectancy in India remains lower than in many emerging market coon- omies and it is appropriate to plan for significant further improvements i this important dimension The infant mortality rate (IMR) is another dimension of human capability where we are making progress. IMR fell ftom 80 in 1991 10.66 in 2001 and at a faster rate thereafter to 47 in 2010. The Tate of decline was 14 in.the first period and 19 in the scc- ond period. Nevertheless, the level of IMR remains high and we need to do much better for our chiklren. We must strive to bring the IMR down to 28 by the end of the Twelfth Plan, Maternal mortality rates (MMRs) are another indication of weakness in our performance. MMR has been falling over time, thanks to the initiatives for promoting institutional deliveries under the NRIIM. The percentage of women ving birth in institutions with the benefit of skilled birth attendants has increased fram, 33 per ‘ent in 2005 to 73 per cent in 2009. We nced to do even better, and the Twellth Plan must bring MMR down to | per 1,000 by the end of the Plan period. ‘While there has been progress in the dimensions discussed above, the decline in the child sex ratio rings an urgent alam. This is an area of grave concem since it implics that society is denying life 9 female children, and increasingly resorting to female foeticide. The spread of jagnostic and medical Facilities has paradoxically actually worscned the situation, as the fallin chifd sex rate is being seen in the more developed areas and cities. Education India has a young population, and consequently, the labour force, which is expected to decline in most developed countries and even in China, is expected to increase over the next 20 years. This *demogniphie dividend’ can add t our growth potential through its impact on the supply of labour and also, via the falling dependency ratio, on the rate of domestic savings. Besides, a ‘young population brings with it the aspirations and the impatience of youth, which in turn can hecome strong drivers for Bringing about change and innovation. To reap this demograp\ dividend we must ensue that Gur ‘younger citizens come into jhe lubour force with highcr levels ‘of education and the skills lediad to support rapid growth. The SSA has brought us close to the target of universalisation of mary ‘education and the Right to Education Act (RTE) 2009 zy ‘. snakes eight years of elementary cducation a findamental Fi for all the children. The MDM Han creas eneured that celention in schools has improved greatly. However, the Tearming aaa for a majority of children continvé #9 be disappointing ‘Addressing the quality issue i caaeechoals is critical for the effective development of human capabilities and for achieving the Ghjective of equallty of opportunites, The quality of jgachers and, even more important, their eivation and accountability will noed to be improved. Many of the children who are presently eval are firct-pencration Iepmers, and these children ness supplementary instruction. This #s not easy due to shortage of qualified tachers in many schools across the country. New and Mor cutie approaches such as multigradc leaming, which has “heen successfully tried in Tamil ‘edu, could be adopted in such eases. ‘The success of the SSA has put pressure on expanding the capacity of secondary schools and the Rashtriya Madhyamil wha Abhiyan (RMSA) g@@gesses this issue. ‘Although there is dable Foes an providing secondary schoo! access the dropow! ‘between clententary ‘and sccondary schools continuc to be high, and between the secondary and post-secondary stage “fey ae even higher. This isa partienary serious problem for girls, who have to travel longer eee ey reforms in secondary schooling would recive special attention aimed at fostering ctitical thinking and analytical Gills, and preparing students for further education, ‘All this requires innovative approaches, some of which are already in evidence in certain States ‘The last deggele has also seen a huge increase in the demand [et higher education and this is crpedied to increase further a5 mere children complete S00) and more and more jobs are seem fo require higher. level qualifications. However, ow NaNe education institutions also suffer ftom problems of quality. Too many of eur universities producing graduates in subjects that Sa reputed by fhe changingjob market and the quali also #9! SO it should be, Higher reation policy has to be driven by three “E's: expansions °q° ‘and excellence. Of these, the third E, ‘excellence’. is the most difficult to ‘achieve. India cannot hope to be competitive in an saan aly knourledes driven world if our higher eueaion institafions do not come up to the Hah standards of excellence needed 1 be able to be lob ally compotitive. Not even oné Indian aie gy figures in the ‘atest Hist of tbe Lap 200 universities jn the world, We should wark towards ensuring thet there ae at least five by the ‘end of the Twelfth Plan. For this, universilies at the top of the quality hierarchy should be jdentificd and generously supported 50 Uhat they can wach the top league. Cenires of excellence within exists universities shauld be created. A special initiative should bo launched (0 attract 5 ‘aljbre faculty from around the world on non- TEomanent aching assignments. All these initiatives should be pooled inte an India Excellence Tnitintive in the Twelfth Plan. ‘skill Development Sahil Development Mission is being launched to ski at leas’ 450 million individuals by the roe ofihe Twelfth Plan, Skill development programmes i the past have been run mainly by the government, with insufficient connection with Mars demand, ‘To ensure that skills match omsed, special efforts are needed to ensure that employ" ‘and enterprises play an integral role ee coreeption and implermcatation of vocational training prOerom%, including managing Trustial Training lnstintes (Ts) anda the devia of faculty. An cnabling framework is sree) that would attract pevale snvestment in Vocdtions! Training through Public-Private Partnership (PEP). We should try tsps on te reSp°00"5 strengths of the public and private vector entities engaged in till dewelmpment MBBS ‘be required investments, setting up fitst 12 on os ig st et el el ee elrate fis, ensuring fficieney in oporalions and management and enabling post-training employment will be the primary responsibilities of private sector entities while the government vwill provide the enabling framework and the Tequisite financial sup- pact especially in respect of SC, ST, Minorities and differently abled persons and other deprived seetions of society. 12" Plan and Skills The foundations of growth in any economy are alvays based on the skills and knowledge of the human resources. This is « critical element to addressing the challenges and opportunitics for growth in this highly competitive and globalised world. As India moves rapidly towards achieving ambitious economic and social targets, engaging the human resources for skills development willbe critical for ensuring success as a knawledge ¢sonomy. India has seen a rapid growth in the last few years. This growth cannot be called inclusive as it has not been able to bring about development at the graswoot levels. The overall skill gap in the couniry is estimates! at over 10 million per year and growing. For India the challenge magnifies due to unprecedented issues of scalability ie. reaching out to 00 million by 2022 coupled with multiple challenges in implementation. 12° Plan aims lo increase the percentage of the workforce which has received formal skills through vocational education and training trom about 12.0 per cent al present to 25.0 per cent by, the end of the Twelfth Plan. This would mean that abaut 70 million more people have to Be imparted formal skills in the next five years. Priorities are + Accreditation and certification system need revamp ‘© Reorientation of curriculum on a continuous basis to make it responsive to the industry needs + reach out to the millions of dropouts/disadvantaged ones and «resolve the problem of unemployability of even the so called “trained” by continuous: retraining © Disseminating information about the availability and effectiveness of taining programs is crucial. The role Fmployment Exchanges, NCWT and the SCVTs could play is dissemination of information on the nature and quality of taining particularly with respect to enrollment, institutional capacity, completion information and graduate follow— up data from all registered vocational institutions. This will enable the government and the stakeholders to see whether the system is responding to employers” needs and devise, policics accordingly. (National Council for Vocational Training (NCVT) State Councils for Vocational Frainings (SCVTs)) = meet theneed for establishing flexible leaming pathways inicgrated to schooling on one end and higher education on the other through National Vocational Education Qualification Framework (NVEQF). This would mean addressing the issues of vocationalisation of school education through creative means. © imparting soft skills alongside has become highly relevant and has global precedence. = The system of Industrial Training Institutes and Industrial Training Centres need significant expansion and allease of fresh energy to skill in numbers required. © Public-Private Parmerships in financing, service delivery, and provision of workspaces and training of trainers ae being promoted but a robust mechanism to regularly assess them is clearly found Semin: E -. ‘‘of Still Development cruelly depends on other issues Uke 0 of Titeracy at all general state of employes sate of labor markets, Fanctioning of fabour inteisive Peres and industries, ant nppropriateness and sirens of social program. ~ the level of eh: evens cursory aance on these parameters confirms dull development of ‘the 7s workforee. Therefore, an integrated 21 vents have vo join hands ‘pnd support the ongoins policy efforts. fie at the forefront of ™mP" mentation of thes? policies, they must not allow avaper the progress of Hie reapoctive Skil Development Missions. kill development has ‘heen accorded # VETY high priority durin rmbor of fndvstial THini utes (ITs) ithe county Nt fast five years with the ‘addition of 4,000 more inetitutes and capact ta .75 Bak persans aamualy 9 OO motipe expanding workforce in th kill Development ‘Cosporation bas also been activelypparmnering PVATE sector pi nement the process of SHAME: that daunt purssit of yust and all ySDA was set up ip 2015- NSDA (NSDA) by Minister's ‘National, Council on Skill Development (PMNCSP), the Ce TNSDCE) and the Oice of Adviser to the In June 2013, Governmett consityted the National Stil evelopment ABEREY subsuming the PHM ‘ational Skill Development PM on Skill Development ats af the Government of ‘The NSDA yall coordinate and harmonize the skill development efor India and jhe private sector 10 achieve the skilling targets ‘of the 12th Plan and ‘peyond. ft will Inavout to bxidge the socal Tepenal, gender and economle dinide by ensuring that the stalling needs of the ae amaged and margcalized EOS Tike SCs, STS OBCS, eegferealy-abled persons ave EET Nim of unrough the various SK development ‘Coordination Bo women 3 programmes. wile the Cente Ministries and atonal Skill Development COMPOSE ¢NSDO) will continae qo implement. schemes qn their remit, the NSDA ‘will develop and monitor overarching Framework for skill developmsa® anchor ‘onal Skills Qualifications Framework (NSQY and facilitate the setcng UP of professional i bois in adition to the existing ones. of a Cabinet body chalred by 2 person of ie rank: and status autonomous eral and other support staf NSDA will be =" ‘py a Director Gon Minister supp! an, india is iraplemonting the US concept of Trained io moetnewer challenges. Visualizing Community colleges Faced wiin the ask of skiing 500 million you that iis workforce is sanity collezes 10 ensure Gall development to be sof the country’s education S95 develop community college PLS Higher Education Dislogve snetudes this as a priority( 2013). - ' iu mmunity colleges (nce ‘commonly called jumtor colleges) are primarily community college. states. 00 etnutions of higher edveation. *Agier graduating, from a © Kberal arts college For 0 1 hree years to complete two-year publ insficr to a university 4 some students thbachelor’s degree, while others enter the workforce. Community colleges are often geared toward Tocal students and local needs. Students who could not afford eampus or off-she housing at @ four-year college, or for offer reasons cannot relocate, can attend courses while staying in their Jocal community (though some eolleges do offer student housing). Also, community colleges can avork witi local businesses to develop customized training geared toward local needs, whereas a four-year institution generally focuses on state-wide or national needs. Nutrition Poor leaming outcomes in our schools are partly because of poor quality of teaching but they are also partly due to high ineidence of child malnutrition, which reduces learning ability. India has had the largest and the longest running child development geozrarmme in the world in the form of ICDS, but the problem of malnutrition remains large. rales noe available on matauteion, ‘The latest data on child malnutrition are fom the National Family Health Survey (NFIS- 3) conducted in the period 2005-07 which pre-dates the Eleventh Plan. The full impact of the Fleventh Plan programmes on this aspect of human capability is therefore not yet known, Surveys undertaken by the State Governments seem to sugzest that mal- nutrition has fallen in many States. The next Annual Health Survey for 2012-13 wil include data on mal- nutrition and these data will provide a reliable basis for assessing what has happened since NFHS-3. Meanwhile, the ICDS programme will be expanded and comprehensively restructured in the ‘Twelfth Plan to make it more effective. Malnutrition is also 2 problem among adults, especially women. The incidence of anemia and lowbody mass among women is very high in the country. The causes of this persistent malnutrition are not welll understood. The availability of food, especially better quality food: provlucts such ax fruits, vegelables and dairy products is significantly better today than it was im the past. Nevertheless, the incideace of mal- nutrition remains high. ‘There is a nced to bring this dimension of human capability t0 the fore front of policy attention. The Food Security Ordinanes promulgated in July 2013 (discussed elecwhere) will address some of these issues, but the problem of nutrition is actually much more complex and a multidimensional approach is necessary, Health, Health is another criieal dimension of human capability, which needs much greater attention in the Twelfth Plan. At present, less than 30 per cent of outpatient and less than half of inpatient health care capacity of the country is in the public sector, and the majority of the population relies on private health care provision which often imposes # heavy financial burden. It is, therefore, essential to expand public sector capacity in health care especially in the rural areas. The NRHM, launched during the Tenth Plan, made an important start in expanding health care facilities in rural areas, While additional infrastructure has been created, there are large shortages of personnel, especially specialists in rural health facilities, reflecting the fact that wained human resources in health are in short supply and it takes many years to set up new medical colleges to thai the required number of doctors. Ideally, the public health care sysiem must be expanded to adéress the health needs of the vast majority of citizens, recognising that upper-income groups may opt for private health eare. The Twellth Plan will therefore $86 the transformation of the NRHIM into a National Health Mission, covering beth niral and urbail afeas. Unlike rural residents, those in urban areas have access 10 private health care prowinler But private health care is costly and large qumbers of urban residents especially stam Gwellers eannot afford it, An important component of the National Health Missict will be the Uteem Health Initiative for the Poor, providing public sector primary = .selected low-income urban areas. vee orage of healcare provessionals ia {Me SOU and their supply in this sector. We ed ropidly if we want t folfill our commitmmery we ing. and. waining programmes for ealimaass gare facilities in There is a massiv therefore be expan Thawfore plan for an expansion of professionals, particularly in the public S600" institutions. Finally, atiaiament of good healt outcomes 5 ot just 2 mater of providing ourative CAS We rire io give much greater attention (0 PUBIC health which has traditionally : replect. We also necd to foeus much more &” provision of clean drinking water end s tio, ‘which can _make a major contribution © proved health, This was the expenense ie Pr dstrialised countries over a hundred Yeas 2605 fond this isalso truc for us today sine longer-term objective of Health Policy mrt to the provision of Universal Health Cas (UBC), whereby anyone who wanis i acyured of access to a well defined set oF health iritlements. Puuiing a UHC systerr in place ‘vile fae, bot we need © SH building: appropriate architecture Drinking Water and Sanitation The problem of providing safe drinking walt is particularly a plans have erephasised progearmmes forex Fave not bad as rmuch success, 25 desired. ye accelerating and serious problems of water quality Peer is that rurn drinking, wer Sobers 0 not Mquifer management. Excessive dal ‘groundwater for irrigation is aay tables eausing drinking, watec hand PUMPS 1 Gry aud fowering of the water table is also causing $3 the water non-potable. A sustainable Tinity and ebernical pollution, makin tion to the rural drinking water problem Tas 10 be found as part of a holistic approaet for aquifer management ation and clean drinking wwater sve critical 430" aay other, Without proper sentation the incilenes se dianhocal diseases due to contaminated Geinking water will not come down, and Wilnow elequate water supply, improved sanitation fs rneraiynot possible. It is, therefore, 60809 sr nlopts habitation aporoach to saitation une eeattronatisc the integration of water SURDIY wh gantation in each habitation. The problem fof sanitation in urban areas is also Very serious since almost all our cities, including even the MGoee covtals and rnajor metros, have 2 TEE DEES of the population (45 per cent in Delhi) (pot enonected 19 the sewer system. (Hoan a eeopment most give top priority 10 plat. SE for shee aor sewerage 25 an integratod whole ting nie ‘gecount the likely expansion of the ‘ahan popalstion. "gphancing Human Capabilities through Tnformati Fee ability to access information is an importa Tack of ready access information is often a mart impediment #1 being of the people, With improvemet jin literacy and education, information technology, we are in a position provide our people with aeeess to Frctoding obtaining bir records, land retorts, payment records for The rapid spread of mobile telephony: fnclading if rural areas has facili jpnovations which directly benefit the ordiaaey “cligen. Farmers in some parts of ths ¢ounisy °° able to subscribe 10 ‘commercial serviecs which del fiver relevant information for a particular crop fo the farmer through Short Message Service (sas). The hospitals in Bengslura get an SMS alert ‘ahen the next vaecination is due, 16 ute in the rural areas. Successive anding the coverage of rural drinking w= but they The incidence of ‘slipped back” hubitations appears 10 ave emerged in mummy areas. Part of he fully rmcgrated with national system of Ieading to lowering of jvants of health and are complementary to in efforts to improve the well: ‘and developments in information, Such innovations parents of babies bere in manicipalSRIRAM need © be encouraged. Yet another human capability thal is important is the ease snd effectiveness of establishing identity. The Aadhar project, which provides a unique identification (UiID) number, backed by biometric data eaplure, to establish, identity unambiguously. is a major Step forward. Identity can be difficult to establish, especially Tor the poor, when they move from their place of origin, whether by choice or by compulsion. The UID project has already enrolled 250 million persons. Experiments with using Aadhar to make payments under MGNREGS electronically into no frill bank accounts which can be arcesssd through mobile phones have begun in 51 distics. It will soon be possible for large-scale use af the Aadhar platform to make ‘various types of government payments due to individuals in-a seamless manner electronically avoiding problems of misuse and leakage. The Asdhar plotform will also facilitate a shift fromgthe physical delivery of subsidised: commodities through the Public Distribution Sane to a system of cash payment. iff desired. Some States have indicated that they would be interested in such ashi. ‘target to mave the rmajor subsidies and beneficiary payments to a cash basis linked to the end of the Twellth Plan period would be a major step towards improving efficieney, {Followed up in the Chapter on PDS and Food Security. Read ahead) x Development of Institutional Capabilities The Twelfth Plan also necds to focus on developing the capabilities of our institutions ‘he increasingly complex ancl demanding tasks expected of them. We have three 1¢¢ (Legislature, Executive and Judiciary) and three tiers of government ( Panchayats/ULRs). The capabilites of thesc institutions to deliver on their mandat= ‘greatly improved. The gaps are most evident at the lowest level of PRIs and ULB: "gained personnel are lacking and the training systems are also inadequate. Implementation Capability Planning Commission says that the capacity to implement is low at all levels of government. The gouemment simply does not function with the efficieney that iS required im the tweny-first entary. This is partly because of the luck of motivation at various levels, but it is primarily Fecance govemmental systems and procedures are largely process-driven. They are not outcome ‘oriented. Accountability is often viewed as adhering to procedures with no incentive to depart from procedures to secure better results. Unless this weakness is overoome, mere provision of ‘more funds for programmes implemented in the same old way willl not help, ‘Where implementation rests within ane ‘Ministry, there are problems of (i) insufficient attention 10 evidence-based anafysis in the design of policies and programmes, (i) insufficient concurrent ‘evaluation that would give foodhack on outcomes achieved and (iii) lack of willingness or ability to bring about systemic changes needed to improve outcomes. [Even when it is known that & change in procedures will help, it takes very long to bring about that change. ‘The problem is rectly multiplied when the cffectiveness of @ programme depends, as it often does, on actions ‘hat have to be taken by several different Ministries. Inter-ministerial consultations take far too long, and more importantly, are typically not oriented 2 resolving problems. This is because ‘each Ministry works in a silo, applying its own tules and procedures. The effort is to seek a “consensus if possible, with litle ability to overrule positions taken by individual Ministries in the interest of a holistic problem solving approach. Resolving conflicting stands by consensus is of course desirable if possible.“but beyond a point, it may not be possible, and some systems for ‘conflict resolutionrare needed. To deal effectively with these problems it may be necessary to redesign governmental decision- imuking systems. There has been a reat deal of Sys-tem redesign in the private sector in response a