Volume 28 Numbers 5-6 August-October 2013 ISSN 1010-6049 Egypt and Israel: Nighttime view from Suomi NPP satellite 2012 Taylor & Francis ‘hylor& Francs Group rerAcre SARSGeocarto International, 2013 Taylor & Francis Vol. 28, No. 5, 420-438, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2012.715208 7 tersrea:cmp Analysing spatio-temporal footprints of urbanization on environment of Surat city using satellite-derived bio-physical parameters Richa Sharma, Aniruddha Ghosh and P. K. Joshi* Department of Natural Resources, TERI University, New Delhi, India (Received 19 March 2012; final version received 17 July 2012) ‘Our study examines the relationships among various environmental variables in Surat city using remote sensing. Landsat Thematic Mapper satellite data were ‘used in conjugation with geospatial techniques to study urbanization and correlation among satellite-derived biophysical parameters namely, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), normalized difference built-up index (NDBI), normalized difference water index (NDW1), normalized difference bareness index (NDBal) and land surface temperature (LST). A modified NDWI (MNDW1) was, used for extracting areas under water. Land use/land cover classification was performed using hierarchical decision tree classification technique using ERDAS, IMAGINE Expert classifier with an accuracy of 90.4% for 1990 and 85% for 2009. It was found that city has expanded over 42.75 sq-km within two decades. Built-up, fallow and sediment land use classes exhibited high dynamics. with increase of nearly 200% and 50% and decrease of 55% respectively from 1990 to 2009. Vegetation and water classes were less dynamic with 20% decrease and 15% increase. The transformation of land parcels from vegetation to built-up, vegetation to fallow and fallow to built-up has resulted in increase of LST by 5.5 + 26°C, 6.7 4 ¥C and 3.5 + 29°C, respectively. Keywords: urbanization; LULC changes; expert classification; NDVI; NDBI; NDWI; NDBal; LST 1. Introduction Urbanization is taking over the world at an unprecedented pace and Indian cities are no exception to this, By 2050, India is expected to inhabit 0.9 billion urban population. tis projected that the present urban population of India will increase from 29.7% in 2009 to about 54.2% by 2050 (UN 2010). Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata already fall in the category of mega-cities and Chennai is soon going to join these along with Hyderabad and Bangalore (Joshi et al. 201 a,b). Apart from these cities, a number of other cities and urban agglomerations have also shown tremendous growth over the last decade (Taubenbick e7 al. 2009). Surat, the diamond city of India, for example, holds the potential of transforming into a mega city. Interestingly, not enough work has been done to study urban expansion and related impacts in Surat. The city has been expanding ever since 1951 when it had a population of 0.24 million that gradually increased to 0.49 million in 1971, to 1.52 million in 1991 and finally crossing 2.8 million Corresponding author. Email: pkjoshi27@hotmail.com (© 2013 Taylor & Francis Situated on the banks of river Tapi which perenniall Geocarto International 421 pont rents in 2001 reaching 4.46 million in 2011 and is expected to inhabit 5.57 million people by Due to its complex and dra : “ ramatically irreversil Jiang and Tian 2010), urban land transformat variables is often the mi ana phil charac reacluding vegetation cover, impervious built-up covers, . and soil properties, ete. are reroed by land use characteristics (Voogt and Oke 3003). eH nor ae i : mot {Be advent of geospatial technology, it has become possible to remotel Tear stisbles and the changing land use patterns and to analyse ‘ough a number of studies have been carried out their interactions (Carrega 2010). Th en these parameters a i a z f se parameters and how this relati fae Pa ise f0 another. Uddin er al. (2010) and Chen a ‘9 fea assification using four main indices viz. ize it ; 7 fr » normal ‘esetation index (NDVD, normalized difference water index (NDWh, nomatet uilt-up index (NDBI) and normalized difference bareness index (NDBal) 2. Study area Surat city, the commercial capital city of Guy Sameer jarat (India) serves as the administrative uurat district. Being a commercial hub the region has witnessed the cit i ay “esulting in increased population. Also called the ‘Diamond City’, it is ly flows northeast to southwest42 R. Sharma et al The city is situated at e Arabian Sea, situated 22 km west of the city ) \ MSA und 7287, (rgure 1). The feion expenses hot summers with temperatures ranging from 38°C to 45°C. Winters aze mild but the month o January is particularly cold with temperature varying beeen 10 Sand 15°C. annual rainfall is 1143 mm (SI 2 E bo se ly teen 2L29°N and 21.12°N to 72.74°E and 72.94°E, spanning son aust seckm covering the city (city limits of 326 sq.km) and the peripheral agricultural fields along with part of the Tapi River. The study area mainly fal in the Chores cl vers parts of adjoining taluks of Olpad in North, faluk of Surat district but also covers parts o! 0 amr in East and Palsana in South-East. It is bound by Navsari on the South. 3. Materials and methods / vos Lantus Considering the availability of the good quality cloudefree data, [sat ct Thematic Mapper (TM) satellite images (Path/Row: 148/45) date 19 Ostober 1950 details and characteristics s and 23 October 2009 were used. The tein of satelite data ued : ble 1. The geometrically and radiometrically correct Te fora Tetlfed to a common Universe Transverse Mercator (oT™) ee procured from the Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Centre eros. usgs.gov/). i, Banas Kantha >” ae . ere — out Ss i sg Pan cf Shark ap ach Sasa ' . 4 2, & Feanthing e ay 2 pgs © ke ere, > ‘eres Kheda i 9 Pe (i kot 6 y = + Tasashen aff wiector aren. Geocarto International 423 Table 1. Landsat 5 TM sensor system characteristics. Band Spatial resolution Spectral resolution (jum) 1 30m x 30m Blue 0.45 — 0.52 2 30m x 30m Green 0.52 — 0.60 3 30m x 30m Red 0.63 — 0.69 4 30m x 30m Near infrared 0.76 — 0.9) 5 30m x 30m Short wave infrared 155 — 1.75 6 120m x 120m, ‘Thermal 10.40 — 12.5 7 30m x 30m Short wave infrared 2.08 — 2.35 4. Data preparation Spectral enhancement was done using vegetation indices that served dual purpose; one was to aid in classification and second to study relationship among biophysical Parameters and thermal response of urban environment. Bands 3 (ps, 0.63-0.69 um, red) and 4 (ps, 0.76-0.90 um, near-infrared) were used to speculate greenness (Purevdorj et al. 1998), bands 4 (p4, 0.76-0.90 um, near-infrared) and 5 (ps, 1.55 1.75 um, mid-infrared) were analysed to get an estimate about built-up intensity Zhang et al. 2009, Ma et al. 2010) and for assessing water content (Gao 1996, Serrano et al. 2000). Bands 5 (Ps, 1.55-1.75 um, mid-infrared) and 6 (Po, 10.4— 12.5 um, thermal infrared) were employed for assessing bareness intensity (Chen et al. 2006, Nasipuri and Chatterjee 2009). Apart from these indices, band 6 (poy 10.4-12.5 um, thermal infrared) was also used for retrieving land surface temperature (Chen er al. 2006, Uddin et al. 2010). A modified water index employing bands 1 (p,, 0.45-0.52 um, blue) and 5 (ps, 1.55-1.75 um, mid-infrared) was developed to extract distribution of water more accurately from the image. The methodology followed is shown in Figure 2 and explained in following section 4.1. Calculation of indices Different land use classes were extracted using NDVI, NDBI and MNDWI. Simultaneously, these along with NDBal and NDWI were used to investigate the correlation between various biophysical parameters (intensity of moisture, green- ness, built-up density and extent of bareness) and the thermal response of built-up areas in contrast to vegetated areas. 4.1.1, Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) Normalized difference vegetation index articulates the intensity of greenness in the area and is generally expressed as: NDvi = 243 a) Pat Ps It has been cited as the most frequently used index to study impacts of land transformations. The NDVI has often been related to variables such as leaf area, canopy coverage, productivity and chlorophyll density as well as to vegetation Phenology (Weiss et al. 2004). Zhou et al. (2004) expressed changes in NDVI as an424 R. Sharma et al. “Data Acquisition | + [_Calentating Indices | Knowledge Based Classification impact of urbanization Sulmasire, ‘on various biophysical Figure 2. Methodology flowchart. i lite vegetation \dicator of urbanization and verified association of satellite: mrcarured Voge 7 abu dance with surface temperature. Gallo and Owen (1999) explai aie : eOErUra = association based on differences in surface properties of rural and urban en} 4.1.2, Normalized difference build-up index (NDBI) a h ference c itive to built-up areas and was thus used lized difference build-up index is sensi Normali a Ps Pa (2) Pst Pa NDB Zha et al. (2003) used NDBI to efficiently extract built-up areas Gensen 2005) This index serves as an indicator of surface urban heat island (SUHI) (Hua ai 2008, Li et al. 2009). e er index (NDWI) 4.1.3, Normalized difference water in . Normalized difference water index was first proposed by Gao (1996), for detecting vegetation liquid water through remote sensing: Ps NDWI = Pst Ps Geocarto International 425 Normalized difference water index is one of the various satelite-d indices that give an estimate of vegetation (Gabor and Jombach “20 Normalized difference water index has advantages over NDVI ae it ig less sensitive to atmospheric scattering. It can sense total amount of liquid present i auacked leaves and thus can efficiently supplement NDVI in land ce characterization. It is considered equivalent to thickness of water (Maki er al. 2004), 41-4. Normalized bareness index (NDBal) Normalized bareness index is proposed by Chen ef al. (2006) and Zhao and Chen (2005), to efficiently extract bare areas using the equation: Ps ~ Pe NDBal = 4) Pst D6 i {tis globally used to map out the bare areas and concrete surfaces, It Provides a Nery Bood contrast between bare surfaces and vegetated and moist land surfaces ta automatically map out bare areas. 4.1.5. Modified NDWI (MNDW1) Though NDWI could help estimate overall moisture content for land practices in an area but this could not be utilized for effective extraction of water bodies For this a modified water index (MNDWI) was developed by analysing the spectral response Pattern of different water bodies present in the study area. It was found that, the reflectance of water was highest in blue channel (0.45-0.52 um) and lowest in SWIR I channel (1.55-1.75 um). Following other normalized difference index, the functional form of MNDWI was expressed as: MNDWI ©) Modified NDWI has been used only for mapping the water, and has not been used for further bio-physical analysis, 42. Land surface temperature (LST) and surface temperature was derived using TIR band, band 6 (10.40-12.50 km). The dataset was resampled to 30 m from 120 m spatial resolution. The DN valve ‘were converted to spectral radiance using the following equation: Radiance = PSeaiaat * (QCa)] + La ) phere, Latax and Lavi (W/(m?/srpm) are spectral radiances for thermal band. (Bana 6) at digital numbers 1 and 255, respectively, ie. QCalyuy and QCalyiax values, while QCal represents the DN value,426 R. Sharma et al. The spectral radiance is thus used to obtain at-sensor brightness temperatures (also referred as blackbody temperature (Tp) assuming the uniform emissivity factor. R2 h=— 7 Be n+) o where Ty is at-sensor brightness temperature (in Kelvin), L is spectral radiance (in W/(m?/sr-um)), K (607.76 W/(m?/sr-wm)) and K,(1260.56 K) are pre-launch satel- lite calibration constants. Finally, LST was retrieved using mono-window algorithm (Qin et al. 2001, Sun et al. 2010) represented by Equation (8). Ts= {a(1 —C— D) + [b(1-C- D) + C+D] x Toensor ~DTa}/C, (8) where, T, is the LST in band 6, a and are constants of values —67.355351 and 0.458606, respectively, Tensor is at sensor brightness temperature computed using Equation (6) and T, refers to effective mean atmospheric temperature (Qin 2001). C and D are computed using emissivity and atmospheric transmittance derived from water vapour (g/cm?). C is product of emissivity and transmittance and D is given below, where ¢ is emissivity and z is transmittance: C=ext, @) D=(1-H(1+(1-8))t (10) 43, LULC characterization Employing visual image interpretation keys, five broad LULC lasses were identified. The classes are (i) Built-up: the category that includes urban features; (ii) Sediment: sediments along river and other sandy and silt deposition structures: ii) Vegetation: a broad class that included land under agriculture as well as urban vegetation and other canopy; (iv) Fallow: agricultural land without any vegetation Cover including agricultural fallow; (v) Water; Tapi river and other small water storage tanks. ‘For LULC characterization, ERDAS IMAGINE Expert classifier (composed of Knowledge engineer and Knowledge classifier) module was employed to classify the satellite images. It employs hypothesis testing on the problem by evaluating various ules and conditions. It is a kind of hierarchical decision tree classification technique: ‘The rules here represent IF condition and THEN action statement. The condition part of the classification is based on the facts defined by the analyst. Hypothesis, wiles and condition are arranged in a dendritic fashion that symbolizes a decision tree and these are then inferred via., inference engine and are finally processed Gensen 2005). ‘The indices computed (NDVI, NDBI, NDWI, NDBal and MNDWI) served as the variables for the knowledge engineer with their threshold values being used to Gefine rules for each of the LULC classes. Twenty-five random point locations for tach land use were inspected to define the threshold values for each index. For Water Geocarto International 427 bodies, only MNDWI was used because of its efficiency in extracting water pixels from the image. Class specific threshold values were defined based on max-min alues from these range estimations and the decision tree thus generated executed to map LULC. “ ms The complete knowledge engineer is : presented in Figure 3. The hypotheses ar depicted ‘on the left side, followed by the rules and conditions. The first rule, which is bull-up areas and rooftops, determines the fist hypothesis, class built-up. ‘This rule itions on four indices, presented on the right side, all h Pre , all of which must be satisfied for the rule to be true. Similarly the rule for second hypothesis sediment to 2 Novi < 02, 2 Nowi< 02; 2 Noat>=015 2 noeat ¢.025 seams} mates atone et 2 NDBal >= 0.75 2 Now>a3| 2 Now>o 2 NDBI< 002 _ Neptaten | soins ke uban green 2 NDBa< 03 2 Nowl< 03} Bul. p == Builtup areas & rooftops 2 NoBI> 02 ‘2 NoBa> 06 Bee River & Waterboctiee 2 mow >= 03! oe 2 Noui< 02) 2 NDWI<-01 Brant Apical Felon paiee es) as _zihioes seine 2 novayeia2s| 2 NoBi>= 01 Figure 3. Hypothesis, rules and variables for 1990 and 2009 satell images.428 R, Sharma et al. be true, conditions on two indices must be satisfied; the rule for third hypothesis vegetation to be true, seven conditions on indices must be satisfied; the rule for Tourth hypothesis water to be true, condition on one index must be satisfied and the rule for filth hypothesis fallow to be true six conditions on indices must be satisfied. 44. Analysis of bio-physical parameters To assess urban land conversions and study their impacts on biophysical parameters, 300 points were generated using systematie random sampling, of which 150 points (control) were selected in regions where no changes in LULC have occurred from 1990 to 2009, and other 150 (experimental) points were selected from regions where changes in LULC have taken place. These points were employed to extract values of biophysical parameters for two time periods. These values were analysed to determine influence of LULC change on environmental health. Correlation and rearession analysis was performed to infer relationship between different indices Gefining biophysical environment. Comparison of regression analysis helped to Validate relationship among biophysical parameters. The correlation analysis illustrated how environment responds to stimulus of urbanization. 5, Results and discussion 5.1. Intensifying urban expanse Temporal LULC maps for 1990 and 2009 with five classes were prepared and were used for analysing extent of urban area. The classes mapped are built-up, sediment, Vegetation, water and fallow. Change-no change analysis (Table 2) between 1990 wna 2009 clearly show that there are obvious changes in the class areas. Temporal naps and area statistics ascertained that urban area has increased over time, which ig due to conversion of vegetation and fallow to built-up. Comparative analysis of Tand use patterns and statistics of 1990 and 2009 indicates an immense spread in urban land. The city’s urban spread has increased almost three-fold in past two decades, The urban extent has inereased from 21.45 sq.km in 1990 to 64.14 sq.km in 2009 (Figure 4). Overall the city has exhibited an extension in almost all directions put growth is more densely oriented towards South. Due to better connectivity through roads and bridges urban spread has gradually crawled its way across the river to western parts as well (Sima Nagar). New settlements have come up at ‘Amroli, Nana Varachha, Choriyasi, Athwa, Vishal Nagar and sprawls around Sima Nagar and Jain Wadi, A denser sprawl has been observed at Udhana which is mainly smallindustrial town for diamond cutting and polishing works, thus alluring large population for employment opportunities. There has been a ‘Table 2, Change ~ no change statistics (in sq.km) for LULC from 1990 to 2009. Classes Built-up Sediment Vegetation Water Fallow Areas in 1990 Built-up 15.06 0.30 14 025471 21.45 Sediment 0.65 178 5.09 3.07 0.83 1144 Vegetation 35.51 124 218.45 088 45.01 301.09 Water 0.25 139 0.82 856 0.30 11.32 Fallow 1267 0.52 1687 0360-1157 41.98 Area in 2009 64.14 5.23 24237 13.12___-62.42 387.28 Geocarto International 429 Kosad Navi SS. Amro Nishal Nagar RN > @ Locations SS Navsarr \f\ HBB uit up 1990 8Km [ieee le Built-Up 2009 Figure 4. Urban expansion map. significant decrease in sediment areas and this ha i icant erat a ela is has been converted to vegetation (in Overall classification accurac xy of images is estimated 90.4% and 84.4% f “ 4% f for the year een 2008 sespeetly (Table 3). The accuracy values were found to be r ‘ompared to conventional supervised classification mi ra thod: (Punia eal. 2011, Wentz ef al, 2008). The 2009 mage has poorer accuracy for fallow and built-up cl p classes which is attributed to simil a fallow and less dense built-up areas. annie.ee 430 R. Sharma et al. Biophysical parameter analysis To study relationship between biophysical parameters under consideration, correlation analysis was carried out for 300 points (introduced in section 44) Selected using systematic random sampling (Table 4 and Figure 5). The analysis exemplified that LST shoots up as NDVI or greenness falls down (Figure 6). This felation of LST holds true for NDWI also, as lesser will be the water content higher ‘hill be the temperature due to lack of evaporation that brings about cooling. This also explains the basis of positive correlation between NDVI and NDWI (Table 4). Higher the NDVI values more would be the greenness. This results in. higher moisture content stored thus explaining a positive association between two indices. ‘Normalized difference built-up index represents built-up intensity of land and thus intensity of impervious surfaces, Higher NDBI represents more intense imperviousness ‘and lesser green cover, thus decreased moisture content. This indicates that LST-NDBI relationship would be opposite to that of LST-NDVI and LST-NDWI, ie. as NDBI increases LST will also rise up. Both NDBI and NDWI exhibited perfectly negative relationship as two indices have exactly same numerical values but antonymous signs: ‘Bareness index did not have a strong correlation with any of the parameters. NDVI_NDBal exemplifies a negative correlation with NDVI and NDWI and a positive one with LST and NDBI for both years. But this relationship, shows Inconsistency when analysed separately for control and experimental points showing positive values for the year 1990 (0.032 for control and 0.183 for experimental) and negative for the year 2009 (—0.09 for control and —0.20671 for experimental. Ladin ef al, (2010), also states that in some isolated cases NDBal and LST have positive variability with respect to each other: Table 3. Accuracy Assessment for 1990 and 2009 classification. 1990 2009 I eee Class name = PA@)— SC UA@%)~—CKappa PA (%) UA (%) Kappa Built-up 90.2 92 0.90 80.39 82 077 Sediment 86.27 88 0.85 771.59 90 0.87 ‘Vegetation 90.2 92 0.90 88.24 90 0.87 Water 93.88 92 0.90 90.91 80. 0.76 Fallow 91.67 88 0.85 86.96 80 0.76 Table 4. Correlation coefficient for the biophysical parameters for the year 1990 and 2009, Coefficient of correlation ene Biophysical parameters 1990 2009) NDWI-NDVI 0.9149 0.9470 NDWI-NDBI = 1.0000 = 1.0000 NDWI-NDBal —0,3945, 0.4153 NDWI-LST 0.6790 —0.8670 NDVI-NDBI —0.9149 —0.9470 NDVI-NDBal = 0.0915 0.2635 NDVI-LST 0.6880 0.8638 NDBI-NDBal 0.3945 0.4153 NDBI-LST 0.6790 0.8670 NDBal-LST 0.0636 0.2569 Geocarto International 431 ‘Year 1990 : a - ‘® Ww I _ @ en ‘0 Figure 5. Scatterplots and coefficient of determinatic : nation for 1990 ( d c ad ©) NDWI vs. NDVI, (and ) NDI v NDBL (©) nd (A NDWI ve NDI? hay .(¢) and (0) NDVI vs. NDBI, (f)and (p) NDVI vs. NDBal, (@)and (q vs. LST, (h) and (1) NDBI vs. NDBal, (i) and (s) NDBI vs. LST, (j) and toe oaat oan432 R. Sharma et al. ‘Year 2009 (Continued), Geocarto International 433 Figure 6. Biophysical parameters in 1990 and 2009 (NDWI, NDVI, NDBI and NDBal), 5.3. Thermal response of urban vs. rural areas 5.3.1. Temperature analysis The analysis of experimental and control points were used to assess thermal response of vegetation, fallow and built-up. Results of experimental points indicate that the average temperature of built-up is relatively higher than that of vegetation areas. The incfease in temperature has been observed for vegetation to built-up (8.8 + 2.6°C) and fallow land to built-up (6.6 £ 2.8°C) conversions, while the changes in built-up density have resulted in an increase of 8.6 ++ 2.8°C. Control point analysis revealed434 R. Sharma et al. LST in degrees Mo M22 Ml s.77 2-0 1 LST in degrees Mo. HR 2-31 Wi w- 38-97 38-44 Figure 7. The land surface temperature for 1990 and 2009. teanatts ha intesed by 3-2 34°C. Hen, the net ineenein the temperature ee ce ig around 5.5 26°C, vegetation eal i £ ae repent in este) in 1990 steal demonstrates the Ghat alloy ined hse highest EST falloned by bala aed vegetation has Kast surface temperatures 5.3.2. Heat istand analysis ‘The LST maps forthe two years give an indication of higher temperature inbuil-up thus establishing the basis for the urban areas as compared to the vegetation areas t f heat island. Areas that were formerly under vegetation but have been taken over by 0 SEEEESS’~'=xr Geocarto International 435 “sy | | x wo | | si® ge | x 0 a = @ Py’ a4 a AX . 2 . 2 8, nar Bae napctoe 2s | . ~y Bie ma Bo a SPS i og ore Ae 8 20 | | [Se Vegeatas aaa | A Tifalow x T2Buitup as J @ T2Falow — 75per. Mov. Avg (72 Vegetation) er. Mov. Ave. (T-2 Built-up) Sper. Mov. Avg. (7-2 Fallow) Figure 8. Graph depicting surface temperature measurements for different land uses and their moving averages (in 1990, ie. T-1 and 2009, i.e. T-2) built-up show elevated temperatures as compared to the surrounding areas. Urban areas are characterized by impervious surfaces that decrease local infiltration, Percolation and soil moisture (Brun and Band 2000) and owing to their thermal Properties trigger heat island phenomenon. Land surface temperature is one of the Key factors that control physical, chemical and biological processes in the environment and in turn is governed by them, Urbanization in particular changes the thermal environment due to physical properties of its urban fabric (Pu ef al, 2006) and encourages the development of heat island. 6. Conclusion Zhe study found that anthropocentric land transformations adversely impact the biophysical parameters that govern health of environment. The alterations between LULC from vegetation to built-up, vegetation to fallow and fallow to built-up has resulted in increase of LST by 5.5 + 2.6°C, 6.7 +3°C and 3.5 + 29°C, respectively. Various environmental variables in the zone of urban expansion have changed in a manner that has undesirable impact on environment with elevated temperatures, dropped moisture contents, enhanced imperviousness and decreased and/or degraded vegetation cover. The study also aimed at studying the inter-relationship of these parameters and it Was found that LST-NDVI and LST-NDWI vary inversely while LST-NDBI. NDVE-NDWI has positive correlation. The NDBI-NDWI display perfectly negative relationship. Though an attempt was made to utilize NDBal also, as one of the parameters but no strong evidences could be extracted from the study to establish a relationship between the changing land use pattern and bareness436 R. Sharma et al. intensity, Although NDBal has been successfully employed by Chen er al. (2006) but jn this work some inconsistent results were obtained for this index. The proposed MNDWI was very efficient in mapping water and can be used for future application ere dimension reduction is necessary. ibaa land transformation are increasingly altering the thermal behaviour of the surface, this in-turn affects the overall biophysical properties of the area. More detailed study is required to investigate the relationship between these parameters and their spatio-temporal variation. There is a need to study other factors (e.g. socio economic) that might be associated with urbanization and contributing in changing al behaviour. “ Invonted of a rapidly urbanizing world, studying these parameters is of prime importance to judge the effect of the urbanization-related development on the environment and its sustenance. Such studies would aid in better understanding of the environment and its relationship with variations in bio-physical parameters. ‘Adverse variability in these parameters results in climatic problems at local levels such as altered rainfall patterns, generation of heat waves and urban heat islands that threaten the sustenance of urban societies in the long-run. Acknowledgements RS and PKS acknowledge Department of Science and Technology (DST), Ministry of Scienes and Technology. Government of India and AG acknowledges Council of Setentific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Government of India for support. The experimental ar computational facilities of TERI University have been used: support to this research is eres gekrowledged by authors. Authors also acknowledge anonymous reviewers for construc comments and suggestions to improve quality of manuscript. References ‘Alberti, M., 2005. The effects’of urban patterns on ecosystem funetion. 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Geocarto International, 2013 Vol. 28, No.5, 439-482, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2012.724453, (S) wercresacan® Comparative evaluation of horizontal accurac i : y of elevations of selected ground control points from ASTER and SRTM DEM with respect to CARTOSAT-1 DEM: a case study of Shahjahanpur dist Uttar Pradesh, India Kishan Singh Rawat’, Anil Kumar Mishra", Vinay Kumar Schgal® Nayan Ahmed® and Vinod Kumar Tripathi! , Water Tecnology Cente, Indian Agricultural Research Inatitte, Pasa, New Delhi, 10012 ew pul ,Divsio of deviultral Physics, tndian Agricultural Research Intute New Delhi, 110012 India; ‘Division of Soll Science and Chemistry, Indian Agricultural Research institute, New Delhi, 110012 India; “Centre for Water Engineering é& Management, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi 835205, India eens (Received 27 April 2012; final version received 22 August 2012) Digital elevation model (DEM) data of Shuttle Radar Topogr: (SRTM) are distributed ala horzonalrxobutom of 90m Gm Sry or US) ar the world, Advanced Spaeborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) DEM data provide 30 m horizontal resolution, while CARTOSAT-1 GRS:PS) aives 2.6 m horizontal resolution for global coverage. SRTM and ast os data are available freely but 2.6 m CARTOSAT-| daa ae costly. Hence nu ,, we found out @ horizontal accur electet d control points (GCPs) from SRTM and ASTER with ret io CARTOSAT] DEM to implement this result (observed from horizontal accuracy) for those areas where the 2.6m horizontal resolution data are not availabe. In addition to this: the present study helps in providing a benchmark against which the future produets (with horizontal resolution less than CARTOSAT-I) with respect to CARTOSAT-1 DEM can be evaluated. The original SRTM image contained ‘olds that were represented digitally as — 140; such voids wee inital filed using the measured values of elevation for obtaining accurate DEM. Horizontal accuracy analysis between SRTM- and ASTER derived DEMs with respect (0 RTOSAT-1 (IRS-P5) DEM allowed a qualitative assessment of the horizontal component of the error, and the appropriable statistical measures were used to estimate their horizontal accuracies. The horizontal accuracy for ASTER and SRTM DEM with respect to CARTOSAT-I were evaluated using the root mean square eror (RMSE) and relative root mean square error (R-RMSE). The results from this study revealed that the average RMSE of 20 selected GCPs was 2.17 for and 2.817 for ASTER, which are also validated using R-RMSE test which proves that SRTM data have good horizontal accuracy than ASTER with respect to CARTOSAT-I because the average R-RMSE of 20 GCPs was 3.7 x 10" and 5.3 x 10~* for SRTM and ASTER, respectively. a Keywords: ASTER; CARTOSAT-1; contour; DEM; elevation; SRTM; voids “Corresponding author. Email: mishranilkumar@gmailcom (© 2013 Taylor & Francis