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What is This?
Oral Pharmacotherapy of
Childhood Movement Disorders
Terence S. Edgar, MD
ABSTRACT
Movement disorders, a common problem in children with neurologic impairment, are receiving increasing clinical atten-
tion. The differences in movement disorders between adults and children are striking; presentation is frequently insidious
and may be characterized by mild hypotonia. The clinical manifestations of extrapyramidal disorders are profoundly influ-
enced by the age of onset. The conditions reviewed in this article are expressed clinically by the occurrence of abnormalities
of movement and posture, often in association with disturbances of muscle tone. This article reviews empiric drug use
and recommendations for childhood movement disorders. (J Child Neurol 2003;18:S40S49).
This review considers the pharmacologic management of born infants,2 and it constitutes 10 to 15% of all cases of cere-
childhood disorders manifest clinically by alterations in bral palsy.3
muscle tone and the presence of abnormal movements. Spasticity is characterized by a velocity-dependent
Because abnormal movements are difficult to define, it is increase in the tonic stretch reflex. It presents as part of a
frequently simpler to describe various types of abnormal symptom complex that may or may not be associated with
movements and analyze their characteristics.1 Neverthe- motor movements. Early identification of the child who
less, the definition of terms is a particularly important start- will later develop spasticity or extrapyramidal symptoms is
ing point. made difficult by the evolution of the early lesion in cere-
Movement disorders may be divided into four major cat- bral palsy. This frequently presents in an insidiously asymp-
egories: (1) dyskinesias (dystonia, chorea and ballism, tics, tomatic manner that may be characterized by mild hypotonia.
myoclonus, and tremor), (2) hypokinetic-rigid syndromes Movement abnormalities are typically bilateral but may be
(parkinsonism), (3) ataxia, and (4) spasticity. A defect in the asymmetric, and half to three quarters of cases have a low
speed and accuracy of voluntary actions is common to all normal IQ or better.4 Associated neurologic abnormalities
categories (Table 1). in extrapyramidal cerebral palsy include dysarthria (in two
Movement disorders caused by nonprogressive lesions thirds), drooling, strabismus (one third), seizures (one quar-
in the developing brain are common among children. ter), sensorineural hearing loss, and spasticity.
Extrapyramidal or dyskinetic cerebral palsy is second only
to spastic cerebral palsy in frequency of occurrence and is EVALUATION OF ABNORMAL MOVEMENTS
ahead of the ataxic forms. Its incidence is 0.21 in 1000 new-
The determination of whether the present signs and symp-
toms are part of a static condition or are associated with
loss of previously acquired skills (degenerative disorder)
is critical to evaluating movement disorders in children.
Many unusual movements, especially in younger children,
Received March 17, 2003. Received revised May 7, 2003. Accepted for pub- may be transient and do not necessarily represent patho-
lication May 13, 2003. logic disorders.5
From the Department of Pediatric Neurology, Medical University of South Once it has been decided that abnormal movements are
Carolina, Charleston, SC.
present, the category of the involuntary movement (such as
Address correspondence to Dr Terence S. Edgar, Department of Pediatric
a dyskinesia, hypokinesia, or ataxia) must be determined.
Neurology, Medical University of South Carolina, 96 Jonathan Lucas Street,
Suite 309, Charleston, SC 29425. Tel: 843-792-3224; fax: 843-792-8626; e-mail: This is the second question. Separating seizures from a dys-
terencee@prevea.com. kinetic movement disorder can be confusing because both
S40
Downloaded from jcn.sagepub.com at VANDERBILT UNIV on August 23, 2013
Oral Pharmacotherapy of Childhood Movement Disorders / Edgar S41
attacks are paroxysmal, they may have a preceding sensory are connected to each other by multiple reciprocal loops and
phenomenon, and they are responsive to anticonvulsants. to the cortex and thalamus by parallel circuits. The medial
The third question is to determine the etiology of the globus pallidus and the substantia nigra pars reticularis
abnormal, involuntary movements. Is the disorder hereditary, represent the final output structures of the basal ganglia.
sporadic, or symptomatic to some known neurologic disor- The striatum is the major receiving area of the basal gan-
der? As a general rule, the etiology can be ascertained on the glia and is composed of the caudate nucleus and the puta-
basis of history and judiciously selected laboratory tests. men. It receives topographically organized, glutaminergic
The final question is how to best treat the movement excitatory input from the cerebral cortex. Cortical associ-
disorder (Table 2). ation areas project to the caudate nucleus, whereas senso-
rimotor areas preferentially project to the putamen.7 The
FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION striatum also receives dopaminergic input from the sub-
OF THE BASAL GANGLIA stantia nigra pars compacta and mainly excitatory input
from the centromedian and parafascicular nuclei of the
The basal ganglia consists of a set of four intimately con- thalamus.
nected structures6: (1) the striatum; (2) the globus pallidus, The output from the striatum gives rise to two func-
with its medial and lateral segments; (3) the substantia tionally opposed pathways (Figures 1 and 2), both using
nigra, which is divided into the pars compacta and pars -aminobutyric acid (GABA) as their neurotransmitter. The
reticularis; and (4) the subthalamic nucleus. These structures direct pathway originates in the striatum and projects
Figure 1. Direct motor circuit through the basal ganglia. Activated Figure 2. The indirect motor circuit through the basal ganglia. Acti-
pathways are shown with solid lines, and inhibited pathways are vated pathways are shown in solid lines, and inhibited pathways are
shown with dashed lines. A plus or a minus sign indicates the exci- shown with dashed lines. A plus or a minus sign indicates the exci-
tatory or inhibitory nature of the neurotransmitter of the pathway. In tatory or inhibitory nature of the neurotransmitter of the pathway. In
this pathway, excitatory cortical output stimulates the striatal this pathway, excitatory cortical output stimulates the striatal enkephalin
-aminobutyric acid (GABA)/substance P neurons that project to the (ENK) and -aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurons that project to the lat-
substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNR) and the medial globus pallidus eral globus pallidus (LGP). The lateral globus pallidus is inhibited, so
(MGP). The substantia nigra pars reticulata and the medial globus pal- the subthalamic nucleus (STN) is disinhibited. The excitatory sub-
lidus are inhibited, and the ventrolateral thalamus is released (disin- thalamic nucleus drives the substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNR)
hibited) from the tonic inhibition it received from the substantia nigra and medial globus pallidus (MGP) to inhibit the thalamus. The sub-
pars reticulata and the medial globus pallidus. The thalamus is there- thalamic nucleus can also be activated directly by the cortex. This path-
fore free to provide excitatory feedback to the cortex. The pathways way is used to suppress inappropriate motor behavior. Glu = glutamate;
are used to sustain an ongoing pattern of motor behavior. Glu = SNC = substantia nigra pars compacta.
glutamate.
are excited by dopamine, with a net facilitatory effect on
directly to the medial segment of the globus pallidus and the the thalamus. Glutamate, an excitatory neurotransmitter,
substantia nigra pars reticularis, inhibiting these nuclei. is primarily involved in pathways leading from the cerebral
The indirect pathway consists of the GABAergic neurons that cortex to the striatum. Most of the drugs used in the symp-
project to the lateral segment of the globus pallidus. tomatic treatment of movement disorders act through
Inhibitory neurons from the globus pallidus synapse on attenuation of dopaminergic transmission or enhance-
neurons of the subthalamic nucleus, which then provides ment of GABA transmission.
excitatory (presumably glutaminergic) input to the final
output structures of the basal ganglia (the medial globus pal- HYPERKINESIAS
lidus and the substantia nigra pars reticularis).
The major output from the medial segment of the globus Chorea and Ballism
pallidus and the substantia nigra pars reticularis is to the thal-
amus. GABA is the inhibitory neurotransmitter in this con- Definitions
nection by which information is relayed to the cerebral Chorea refers to involuntary, irregular, purposeless, non-
cortex. Fibers originating from the putamen terminate in the rhythmic, abrupt, rapid, and unsustained movements that
premotor and supplementary motor cortices, whereas cau- seem to flow from one part of the body to another. A char-
date-originating fibers terminate in the prefrontal cortex. Pal- acteristic feature of chorea is that movements are unpre-
lidal output inhibits the excitatory thalamocortical loop. dictable in timing, direction, and distribution (ie, random).
The pallidum, in turn, is inhibited by the neostriatum, thus Ballism refers to very large-amplitude choreic movements
disinihibiting thalamocortical activity. of the proximal parts of the limbs, causing flinging and flail-
The key neurotransmitters in the basal ganglia are ing limb movements.
dopamine, acetylcholine, GABA, and glutamate. Many
other substances, such as enkephalin, dynorphin, sub- Pathophysiology
stance P, somatostatin, and cholecystokinin, serve as neu- Lesions of the subthalamic nucleus in humans or primates
romodulators. Dopamine is highly concentrated in the produce contralateral hemichorea.9 This is interpreted as
substantia nigra and is released in the postsynaptic area attributable to the loss of excitatory glutamate input into the
of the striatum from axons originating in the substantia medial globus pallidus. The resulting underactivity of pal-
nigra. The GABA-containing striatal neurons that form the lidal neurons liberates excessive thalamocortical drive to pre-
indirect pathway preferentially express dopamine type 2 motor cortical regions to cause chorea. The dyskinesia
receptors and are inhibited by dopamine, with a net observed in parkinsonism is attributed to inhibition by
inhibitory effect on the thalamus.8 Neurons of the direct dopamine (perhaps via D2 receptors) of striatal neurons
pathway tend to express dopamine type 1 receptors and projecting to the lateral pallidum via the indirect pathway.
Excessive inhibition of this indirect pathway leads to inac- dystonia in primates by lesions or by pharmacologic manip-
tivation of the subthalamus, resulting in chorea and ballism. ulation of the basal ganglia. The dopamine system is thought
to be intimately involved in the pathophysiology of dysto-
Management nia based on the observations that (1) dopa-responsive dys-
Only a few cases of chorea are due to etiologically treatable tonia is a levodopa pathway disorder, (2) levodopa deficiency
conditions (drugs, hyperthyroidism, and infections). In gen- produces dystonia in parkinsonism, (3) levodopa excess may
eral, mild chorea should not require any treatment because produce dystonia in Parkinsons disease and dyskinesias in
the consequences of therapy may be worse than any short- dystonia, (4) dopamine receptorblocking agents produce
term relief. There is no consensus on the optimal manage- dystonia, and (5) dopamine-depleting agents (tetrabenazine,
ment of autoimmune chorea, but both corticosteroids10 and reserpine) may ameliorate dystonic symptoms. However,
intravenous immunoglobulins have been used. Cortico- despite evidence implicating involvement of the dopamin-
steroids appear to be effective in the treatment of chorea ergic system, studies have not revealed a common neuro-
associated with heart transplantation.11 Nonspecific sup- chemical substrate. Although presumed to be a primary
pression of chorea can be attained with benzodiazepines (eg, motor disorder, the motor signs of dystonia may, in fact,
clonazepam 0.56 mg/day); however, drugs with anti- reflect aberrant sensory input.15
cholinergic properties may exacerbate symptoms.
Most choreas can be reduced by dopamine-blocking or Pharmacologic Therapies
dopamine-depleting medications; the choice depends on the Acute drug-induced dystonias can be caused by dopamine
severity of symptoms and concomitant disease. The more receptorblocking agents, including antipsychotic and
potent agents of treatment are the dopamine antagonists; the antiemetic agents, anticonvulsants, and quinine-related
more specific the D2 antagonism, the greater the chorea drugs. Decreasing the offending agent may treat dystonic
suppression. Haloperidol 0.5 to 20 mg/day and pimozide 1 to reactions associated with anticonvulsant therapy. Dystonia
10 mg/day are the most specific. Dose ranges are broad, induced by acute dopamine receptorblocking agents may
and initiation of low-dose therapy at bedtime, with gradual be relieved by the intravenous administration of diphen-
titration to beneficial levels, is recommended. Careful mon- hydramine. An intravenous anticholinergic agent or benzo-
itoring for unwanted side effects is mandatory. Patients with diazepine can also be used.
prolonged QT intervals are at risk for drug-induced ven- A trial of levodopa is indicated in all patients with limb-
tricular arrhythmias. With severe, disabling chorea, dopamine onset dystonia. Patients diagnosed with cerebral palsy and
depletion should be considered with reserpine 0.1 to 0.3 idiopathic torsion dystonia may, in fact, have dopa-respon-
mg/day in divided doses or tetrabenazine 12.5 to 100 mg/day sive dystonia. Small doses are used (100 mg two to three
in divided doses.12 Whereas some studies have suggested that times daily) in association with carbidopa. Generally,
sodium valproate may be effective in the treatment of chorea, responses are quite rapid, but some patients may require
other reports have been less conclusive.13,14 higher doses and prolonged therapy before a response is
observed.
Dystonia and Athetosis In most situations in which there is no response to lev-
odopa, various agents can be used on a trial-and-error basis.
Definition Open-label and double-blind studies have substantiated the
Dystonic movements are characterized by simultaneous beneficial effect of anticholinergic agents in children and
co-contraction of agonist and antagonist muscles produc- adults with focal, segmental, and generalized dystonia.16,17
ing patterned, twisting movements that are sustained at Initiation of trihexyphenidyl at 2 to 4 mg/day can by increased
the peak of movement and often result in abnormal postures. by 2.5 mg every other week to a maximal dosage as high as
The speed of the movement varies widely from slow 60 mg/day in children. Side effects (dry mouth, constipation,
(athetoid dystonia) to shocklike (myoclonic dystonia). blurred vision, urinary retention, anorexia, confusion, and
Whereas primary dystonia often begins as an action dysto- psychosis) are frequently avoided with a slow titration. Fur-
nia and may persist as the kinetic (clonic) form, symptomatic thermore, pilocarpine eye drops or oral physostigmine can
dystonia often presents as fixed postures (tonic form). be used to minimize side effects. Response rates as high as
Athetosis is used to describe a class of slow, writhing, con- 60% have been reported.18
tinuous, involuntary movements, often associated with sus- If there is a limited response to the anticholinergic
tained contractions that produce abnormal posturing. In this agent, consider combination with pimozide. Pimozide, a
regard, athetosis blends with dystonia. However, the speed potent dopamine antagonist, should be initiated at 1 mg/day
of these involuntary movements can sometimes be faster, and can be gradually titrated weekly to a maximum dosage
blending with those of chorea, and the term choreoatheto- of 6 to 12 mg/day. Experience with the atypical neuroleptic
sis is used. agents is limited. The dopamine-depleting agents tetra-
benazine and reserpine may be effective in the treatment of
Pathophysiology primary and secondary dystonia.19 Marsden et al proposed
Although most lesions causing dystonia are in the lentiform triple therapy (Marsden cocktail), comprising a dopamine
nucleus, particularly the putamen, it is difficult to produce depletor, a dopamine-blocking agent (pimozide), and an
anticholinergic agent (trihexyphenidyl) in cases of severe agitation, a rebound increase in tics, tachycardia, and pro-
dystonia.20 fuse sweating can be associated with the abrupt discontin-
An alternative approach is combining an anticholiner- uation of clonidine. Clonazepam (0.55 mg/day) is sometimes
gic agent with progressively increasing doses of a benzo- beneficial in the treatment of clonic tics.
diazepine.21 Benzodiazepines bind to the GABAA receptor-ion The dopamine receptorblocking drugs (neuroleptic
channel complex, increasing chloride entry into the cell agents) are the most effective drugs used to treat tics. How-
and thus enhancing GABA-mediated inhibition. The pri- ever, acute dystonic reactions and tardive syndromes may
mary side effect is sedation, which is controlled by modi- complicate their use. Haloperidol is effective in approxi-
fying the dose. There are no double-blind studies exploring mately 80% of cases.29 Start administration at 0.25 mg/day
the clinical utility of benzodiazepines in dystonia. and increase by 0.25 to 0.5 mg increments every week,
Oral baclofen is a GABAB agonist that stimulates the according to response, to a maximum of 5 to 10 mg/day. The
metabotropic GABAB autoreceptor. The mechanism of ben- long-term risk of tardive dyskinesias prevents the chronic
efit in dystonia is not known. Dosage ranges for oral baclofen use of haloperidol in children except as a last resort.
are from 40 to 180 mg/day. The main side effects are lethargy, Pimozide has a more selective antidopaminergic action
dry mouth, and dizziness. Rapid decreases in the dose of oral with fewer side effects. The initial dosage is 1 mg/day at bed-
baclofen may produce psychosis and seizures.22 time and should be increased by 1 mg every 5 to 7 days to
Paroxysmal dystonias are preferentially treated with a maximum of 8 mg/day.30 Pimozide may cause a prolonga-
the anticonvulsant carbamazepine or phenytoin if kine- tion of the QT interval on the electrocardiogram. Flu-
siogenic, carbamazepine if nocturnal, or acetazolamide if phenazine is preferred over haloperidol and pimozide
nonkinesiogenic.2325 because it has a lower incidence of sedation and other side
effects. The initial dosage is 1 mg/day at bedtime and should
Tics and Tourette Syndrome be increased by 1 mg every 5 to 7 days to a maximum of
15 mg/day.31 Risperidone, a neuroleptic with both dopamine-
Definition and serotonin-blocking properties, has been shown to be
Tics consist of abnormal motor movements (motor tics) or effective in reducing tic frequency and intensity in some
abnormal sounds (phonic tics). When both types of tics are patients.32,33
present for a period of more than 1 year, the designation of A variety of medications, including calcium channel
Tourette syndrome is commonly applied. blockers (verapamil, nifedipine), carbamazepine, thiori-
dazine, baclofen, and buspirone, may be effective in sup-
Pathophysiology pressing tics. However, the response to these medications
The anatomic localization and biochemical nature of tics and is less predictable. The efficacy of the dopamine agonist per-
Tourette syndrome are unknown. There is compelling evi- golide in the treatment of tics is probably on the basis of
dence to support the view that overactivity of striatal presynaptic inhibition at low dosages.34 Tetrabenazine, a
dopamine contributes to tic disorders. Dopamine receptor monoamine-depleting and dopamine receptorblocking
antagonists suppress tics, whereas dopaminergic agents drug, is a powerful antitic drug but, unfortunately, is not avail-
such as amphetamines may exacerbate them. A postmortem able in the United States.35
study of the brains of patients with Tourette syndrome
revealed an increased density of presynaptic dopamine
nerve terminals, which was attributed to dopamine hyper- Myoclonus
innervation of the striatum.26
Definition
Treatment Myoclonic jerks are sudden, brief, shocklike, involuntary
Most patients with mild tics can avoid the use of medica- movements caused by muscular contractions (positive
tions. The mere presence of tics is not a sufficient reason myoclonus) or inhibitions (negative myoclonus), usually
for drug treatment. If pharmacologic treatment is used, arising from the central nervous system.
complete suppression of tics is seldom attainable without
the risk of intolerable side effects, and complete symptomatic Pathophysiology
eradication is therefore not the goal. All medications are ini- Myoclonus occurs as a result of excessive discharge from
tiated at the lowest possible dose and are gradually increased a group of neurons with subsequent spread through the
until sufficient benefit is obtained or intolerable side effects neural axis. The clinical features of myoclonus and results
supervene. of electrophysiologic investigations enable differentiation
2-Adrenergic receptor agonists such as clonidine or into three major categories: cortical, subcortical (brain
guanfacine provide effective treatment.27,28 The initial dosage stem), and spinal myoclonus. Myoclonus is a nonspecific sign
of clonidine is 0.05 mg/day and should be increased by of a number of nervous system disorders, the detailed mech-
0.05 mg every week to a maximum of 0.3 mg/day in three anisms of which are unclear. Many epilepsy syndromes of
divided doses. Side effects include sedation, insomnia, and infancy and childhood feature myoclonus as a prominent
dryness of mouth. A withdrawal syndrome characterized by symptom.
judging of distance), with its characteristic overshooting and barrier is very poor, with more than 90% of the absorbed drug
undershooting of a target. remaining in the systemic circulation. Oral baclofen is par-
ticularly useful for symptomatic problems, such as flexor
Treatment spasms, stiffness, and pain in patients with spinal cord injury
Double-blind and open-label studies have reported benefi- and demyelinating myelopathies. In a double-blind, crossover
cial clinical effects of amantidine (200 mg/day) in Friedreichs trial of children 2 to 16 years of age with successive 4-week
ataxia and olivopontocerebellar atrophy.48,49 Other medica- treatment periods, baclofen (up to 60 mg/day) was signifi-
tions reported to have some benefit include thyrotropin- cantly more effective than placebo in reducing spasticity and
releasing hormone, 5-hydroxytryptophan, physostigmine, allowing active and passive limb movements.50 Sedation
and clonazepam. However, the long-term efficacy of these appears to be dose related and can be minimized by initiat-
medications has been uniformly disappointing. ing treatment at a low dose and gradually titrating upward.
Along with sedation, it may cause impairment of cognitive
TREATMENT OPTIONS IN function, dizziness, weakness, and ataxia. There is some
SPASTICITY MANAGEMENT controversy regarding baclofens effect on seizure activity.51
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