CIVIL ENGINEERING For UPSC Engineering Services Examination, GATE, State Engineering Service Examination & Public Sector Examination (BHEL, NTPC, NHPC, DRDO, SAIL, HAL, BSNL, BPCL, NPCL, etc) ENGTH OF MATERIA me LE.S MASTER fe eee eae Office: Phone: Delhi - 110 016 s_master@yahoo.co.inIES Master Office: F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 Phone: 011-41013406, 7838813406, 9711853908 Website: www.iesmaster.org, E-mail: ies_master@yahoo.co.in © Nopart of this booklet may be reproduced, or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior permission of IES MASTER, New Delhi. Violaters are liable to be legally prosecuted. 10. ne 12,CONTENTS 10. AL 12, Strength of Materials — Shear Force and Bending Moment - Deflection of Beam ‘Transformation of Stress and Strain -- Combined Stress- 319-342 Bending Stress in Beam. 343-389, Shear Stress in Bea: - 390-430 Torsion of Circular Shaft -- -- 431-473 Columns -. - 474-490 Springs - ~ 491-507 ‘Thick and Thin Cylinder/Sphere ----------- Moment of Inertia -- TF Nee om wi ee eee1 Strength of Materials ets INTRODUCTION * Our concern in Strength of Materials topic is to study the behaviour of a material when itis subjected to forces and moments. + Each member of a structure is made up of certain materials, which could be a rigid material or a deformable material Rigid and Deformable Material Arrigid material is one which does not undergo any change in its geometry, size or shape. On the other hand, a deformable material is the one in which change in size, shape or both will occur when itis subjected toa force/moment. The geometrical changes produced are called deformations and hence the name deformable material. All materials are actually deformable p and the idea of rigid material is only a conceptual idealization. A rigid material term has been used just for the simplification in the analysis, B For example when we perform the analysis of a frame as shown here, we assume that length of member BC will not change. Which means that member BC has been assumed to be axially rigid, Thus joint B and C will move rightwards by equal amount and the analysis will become simplified A D STRESSES AND STRAINS + When we apply forces on solids, deformations are produced if the solid is restrained from motion either fully or partially. + Ifthe solid is not restrained, it may undergo displacements without change in shape or size and these displacements are termed as rigid body displacements, If the solid is restrained by some other force, Known as reaction. which keeps the solid in equilibrium, the force will be transmitted through the medium of the solid to the restraining support. + Stresses (defined as force/area) are generated as a yesistance to the applied esternal forces or as of restrainted deformations, result In the analysis and design of structures we are required to find out stresses and deformations/deflection (which is related to strain), we broadly (a) Normal classified as: (©) Shear StressIES MASTER Strength of Materials 2 NORMAL STRESS Normal stresses can be: (@) Axial stress (b) Bearing stress (© Bending stress Axial stress: It is the load directed along the axis of the member (Le. Normal to the section) wy L L ale {Ft foaa~P 1 T a Normal stress at a point = Fy = 6 p= foaa Note: Normat stress could be tensile or compressive. [When siress is constant or uniform over @ section, the stress is called simple stress} Bearing stress: Compressive stress arising when one body is supported by another is called bearing stress. Itis a type of normal stress, Bending stress: Bending tension aid compression produces normal stress. Bending compressive stress bending moment Bending tens stress Sign convention -» Tensile stress (+) ve: Compressive stress (1 veIES MASTER Note: Line of action of the axial of the section, foaay = a foaas =m Moment about y-axis Px = Moment about y. Px Equations (1) and (2) are defining the SHEARING STRESS {tis the stress acting in the plane of a section (@) Direct shear stress ©) Indirect shear stress Direct Shear Stress Shear stress is created due to direct a Indirect Shear Stress Indive stress “et shear stress arises due to (a) ten. arises in an indirect manner whe Moment. il Engineering | force for uniform: stress distribution passes through the centroid ob | fer foment about x-axis due to uniform stress constant (uniform stress) about x-axis due to load P ‘axis due to load P coordinate of centroid of an area, The shearing stress could be ition of forces in trying to cut through the material y y eaten) fr ‘() is the divect shear stress Direct sh parabolic. 1 stress distribution is Sion or compression (b) torsion. ‘The fi igure helow shows that 'n members are subjected to tension/compressionIES MASTER Strength of Materials 4 Normal of Senet Indirect shear stress Torsional shear stress is zero at centre and max at extreme point w, | stress produced due Torsional shear stress | to torsion distribution EQUALITY OF SHEAR STRESS ON PERPENDICULAR PLANES 1. Shear stress on oppistte faces of an element are equal in magnitude-and opposite in direction 2 Shear stress on adjacent and perpendicular faces of an element are equal in magnitude and have ditections such that both stresses point towards or both point away from the line of tateweetans of the faces. These shear stresses are called complimentry shear stress To prove the above statements we consider a case of pure shear i.e. when only shear stress is acting and no normal stress is acting, Ifwe cut out an element as shown in the figure (a) below and consider its equilibrium, then as the stress clement shown is very small. shear stress over the face will be uniform, hence Porce equilibrium) (Force equilibrium) € equal and opposite) | Similarly Anti clockwise couple = clockwise couple (Moment equilibrium) > xb Xclaz(t,xaxgh= IES MASTER Civil Engineering ‘qual in magnitude and are directed such that ‘ay from the line of intersection of planes. SIGN CONVENTION FOR SHEAR STRESS Shear stress on adjacenet ” faces are 6 both points towards or both points aw: y ord Cy face x facd ye O28 Ove [xtc ve Le, cutward normal on the face points toward (9 ve waxis Ove + Ashear stress acting on positive face is (ve if it acts in (+) ve coordinate direction ve if it acts in ©) ve coordinate direction + Ashear stress acting on negative face is (ve if it acts in (-) We eostalinate divection Ove fit acts in (4) ve coordinate direction Thus ©6=0 os (@) ve direction Negative direction e829 60-0 ness L oe 1 Love sseatcees © ve face | Positive face ® 0=6 Positive Shear Stress Shear Negative Shear Stress ‘stress STRESS UNDER GENERAL LOADING CONDITIONS Stress at any point under most general loading condition is as shown below in the figure y Stress at any maine ferennn o-IES MASTER Strength of Materials 6 ty, = shear stress on x-face in z-direction. 6, = normal stress on plane normal to x face in x-direction. Stress is not a vector because its resultant cannot be obtained by parallelogram law of vector addtion. It is a mathematical quantity called tensor Stress tensoi is represented as: Su Gy Tae (ets tensor) =f yt Teg ty Oe Stress is a 2nd order tensor. Note: Magnitude has only one dimension hence it is a 3° = zero-order tensor. Direction has three dimension (x-direction, y-direction and z-direction) hece it is a 3" = Ist order tensor. Stress has dimensions (3° = 2nd order tensor). + Atany point we have 9-stress component 3Normal stress component (0,., 6, 6..) 6—Shear stress component (typ 1 oe But we know from complimantry shear stress concept that fy = Sox Hence only 6-stress components are require to define the condition of stress at a given point. ‘They are Sa 8p On ay hn In 2D conditions: vyedireetion ‘ ig Lec,» x-direction ‘There are 4-stress elements at a point. They are o,, 6, ty. t,,- But ty components are required to define condition of stress at a point, They are coer sar Thus only three stresses Note: In 3D-condition, 9 stress elements exist > 6 sires components are require to define condition of stress at u point In 2D-condition, 4 stress elements exist —» 3 stress components are require to define conditions Of stress at a point. —|IES MASTER Civil Engineering 7 DESIGN OF MEMBERS + Fora member to be safe, stresses in the member generated due to external effects must be less than the allowable stress, Allowable streses = Yield stress Fos. ‘Margin of safety = (F.o.s. = 1) + For ductile materials Factor of safety is applied on yield stress + For brittle material F.o.s. is applied on ultimate stress. Strength of material is not the only eriterion that must be considered is designing structures, Stiffness hardness, toughness and ductility are the other properties which helps in chosing the type of material Thi NORMAL STRAIN Normal strain is defined as deformation per unit length, Normal strain where, 6 = Change in length and L = Actual length, ‘The above value gives only the average value of strain, The corect value of strain at any position is a5 ar Connseting wies * 43 = differential elongation (small elongation) setthinewie J essed AL = differential length (small length) i \ ‘body + Normal strain is measured using extensometer. b * Normal strain on the surface of an element is measured using wire strain Sauge. Figure shows that on a body a loop of wire is pasted and then it is it on ONE Paper stressed. Due to stress, strain occurs and length of the wire as well as die foncing Me Paver of wire changes, cement Note: Because of increase in length of wire and decrease in diameler, electrical resistivity of wire changes ond if current is passed through the wire, its value changes on straining. By correlating the change in current with change in length, strain can be mencured MATHEMATICAL DEFINITION: OF STRAIN I". w ate the three displacement components occurring respectively in x, y and 2 direction of co-ordinate axis. the basic definition of strains will be ‘ormal strain in x-direction shearing strain & ou Normal strain in y-direction le ke = shearing strain Normal strain in z-direction ee shearing strainJES MASTER Strength of Materials 8 STRESS STRAIN CURVE If'we a take prismatic bars (bar of constant x-section throughout the length) of different lengths and ar of x-section and plot load-deformation curve, the lozd-deformation curve will be different for different bare However if stress-strain curve is plotted it will be almost same for all the bars. Thus, stress-strain curve is a characteristi¢ property of material and does not depend upon the dimension of pasticular specimen used. Hence stress strain curve is used to study the properties of a material but not the load deformation curve. Stress-Strain Curve for Mild Steel (Low Carbon Steel-Ductile Steel) a TF P Stress a t we 6 . ae i i ! i To Tte= enue anges Stress =F 7 i : ! ; 7 ~ initial length q : i : ! initial area Seana } 012% 13.13% 101K — 0-308 e000 ga OA = Linear curve Proportional limit Elastic limit Upper yield point Lower yield point DE = Plastic region = Strain hardening region Necking region Ultimate stress point A B ic} D Fracture point SOME IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT STRESS-STRAIN CURVE OF MILD STEEL Region OA + From 0 to A stress is proportional to strain SHSSS = constant = E = modulus of elasticity Strain + Strains are infinitesimal + Volume of specimen increases due to tension Region AD + Beyond A, strain increases more rapidly as compared to stress. + Tf specimen is unloaded at point B, the unloading curve will be B-A- + Upper yield point corresponds to the load reached just before yield starts. + Lowe eld point corresponds to the load required to maintain yieldIES MASTER Civil Engineering 9 + Since upper yield point is transient, the low: of material. sield point should be used to determine the yield strength + Volume of specimen increases, Region DE * Once yield stress: reached, the specimen undergoes large deformation with a relatively small increase in applied load * This deformation is eaused by slippage of the material along oblique surfaces and ie due therefore Primarily to shearing stresses. The deformations are parmanent. Volume of specimen dese cay change. + Note that under uniaxial tensile stress, max shear stress is at 45° (oblique) angle to normal stress. Region EF * After undergoing: large strains that occur during yielding in region DB, the steel begins to strain harden. * During strain hardening, the material undergoes chan; ges in its crystalline structure, resulting in increased resistance of the material to further deformati, ion Region FG * After point F (ultimate stress) the diameter of a portion of the specimen begins to decrease, because of local instability. This phenomenon ve called necking. * After necking has begun, somewhat lower loads are sufficient to keep the specimen elongating further untill it finally ruptures, Cup * Rupture occurs along a cone shaped surface that forms an angle of approx 45° with the original surface of the specimen (cup-cone failure) Cone * This indicates that shear is primarily responsible for the failure of ductile ‘materials and confirms the fact that, under an axial load, shearing stresses are largest on surfaces forming an angle of 45° with the load 458 a5° * Perventage reduction in aren at the time of fracture is approx. 50% Test speciment at the 50 = Ao~Atacure 199 time of tensile failure Ay (Cup-Cone Failure) For all practical purposes, Proportional limit, elastic limit and yield point are assumed to be same. Stress- strain curve may vary depending upon the temperature of specimen, rate of loading (static load does not affect the properties of material. but dynamic load affects the properties of material), manufacturing processes such as rolling and on the fact that whether the specimen is being loaded fee the Ist times or as it is a reloading case ete, * Rate of stressing for tension test is 6-60 N/mm*/see to determine + Rate of loading actually depends on what strer strength). yield stress or proof stress. ‘nath is to be found out. (ie. yield strength or ultimate Length dimension of specimen to be te ‘sted depends on the product for which tensile test is to carried out ie. for sheet or wire or tube ete.IES MASTER Strength of Materials 10 Mild Steel in Compression + [f structural steel (mild steel) is subjected to compression instead of tension, the stress strain eurve will essentially be same through its initial straight line portion and through the beginning of the ortion corresponding to yield and strain hardening. For larger value of strain, stress-strain curve will diverge. + In compression no necking occurs. Tension Compression + Note that modulus of elasticity in tension = modular of elasticity in compression. ie =o Stress Strain Curve for Other Materials + Some of the physical properties of structural metals, suchas strength; ductility and corrosion resistance, can be greately affected by alloying, heat treatment and the manufacturing processes used. Quenched, tempered alloy steel Pare iron + For these d-different grades of steel, yield stress, ultimate stress and fracture strain (ductility) differ greatly. + All of them possess the same modulus of elasticity [.e. stiffness with in linear range is same} + Note that, as.yield strength increases, ductility falls Aluminium and Copper + For ductile materials which do not have clarify defined yield point, yield strength is defined by offset method. (Al, Cu).IES MASTER Civil Engineering 1 0.2% proof stress = fy jx Stress Stress strain curve the aluminium A line parallel to the initial straight line portion of stress-strain diagram is drawn through a point of 04256 strain. The point where it euts the stress-strain curve, gives the yield strength or proof stress at 0.2% strain, Offset yield stress or 0.2% proof stress is not a material property. It is used only for calculation purposes, [eu=%| Note: The stress strain diagram of many materials is actually a curve on which there is no definite proportional limit, In such cases stress-strain proportionality is assumed to exist upto a stress at which the strain increases at a rate 50% greater than that shown by initial tangent to stress-strain diagram. Ifa line is drawn parallel to the initial straight line portion of stess strain curve from 0.2% strain, it cuts the stress-strain curve at the point where strain rate inereases at a rate 30% ‘more than that shown by initial straight line, This is the concept behing chosing 0.2% proof stress as the yield stress. The point A, as shown below, is choosen as the yield stress Asner Stress: A {| Stope 1x, Stain strain =e) Various ductile materials are Al, Cu, Mg, Pb, Nickle, Boron, Bronze, Nylon, Teflon ete.IES MASTER Strength of Materials 12 Stress Strain Diagram for Brittle Material (Tension Test) Direction of load Brittle materials which comprises cast iron, glass, stons, high carbon steels ete, are characterised by the fact that rupture occurs without any noticeable prior change in the rate of elongation, Strain at rupture is much smaller as compared to ductile material (rupture strain is elastic) Rupture stress = ultimate stress No necking occurs and rupture oceurs along a surface perpendicular to load. ‘Thus ‘Normat stresses are primarily résponsible for the failure of brittle materials. ‘Type of Failure in Torsion Test: Brittle material fails at 45° Duetile material fails at 90° {Because brittle material failes due to normal stress which is max at 45° to the axis in case of torsion, while in ductile material failure is due to shear which, in case of tonsion, occurs at 90° to the axis.) However, in Tension test Brittle material fails at 90° Ductile material fails at 45° ‘Torsion CO Fracture of (a) mild steel and (b) cast iron in tarsiIES MASTER Civil Engineering 13 Brittle Materials in Compression + For most brittle material, the ultimate strength in compression is much larger than ultimate strength in tension, + This is due to the presence of laws, such as microscopic cracks as cavities, which tend to weaken the materials in tension, while not appreciably affecting its resistance to compressive failure. + Linear elastic range in compression is larger as compared fo that in tension. ‘+ Modulus of elasticity is same in tension and compression, BRITTLE FRACTURE * A material which is ductile at normal temperature may become brittle at very low temperature Similarly, material which is brittle at normal temperature may became ductile at very high temperature. + Atsub-zero temperature, a structural steel may fail by brittle fracture, In this case modulus of elasticity @ remains same but ductility reduces greately. Thereby, leading to failure without sulticient price warning (due to large scale deformation). Brittle fracture will also occur at sections whore due to irregularity, stress concentration occur. TRUE STRESS AND TRUE STRAIN ‘True stress-strain curve Engineering stress-strain curve Strain ‘True stress Note: True stress curve is below engineering stress curve in compression because resisting area in compression increases. * js elongation or contraction takes place, x-sectional area and length of the test specimen also changes, Till now we have been plotting stress-strain curve using original length and oviginal area, IFeteeee oa Sizain are plotted corresponding to actual area of x-section and actual length at any time, during straining, we get true stress-strain diagram, * It should be noted that there is no decrease in true stress during necking (although applied load value decreases), + The results obtained from tensile and compressive stresses and true strains are used. This is not the stress is plotted against engineering strain. tests will yield essentially the same plot when true case for large values of strains, when engineering + In practical eases we will use only engineering stress and engineering strain curve (ifwe are with in Proportional limit the two curves will essentially be same) 5 P Engineering stress =IES MASTER Strength of Materials 14 Engineering strain P True stress = True strain = ab where 4, = original area of specimen L, = original length of specimen Aand L are area of x-section and length at any point during straining. + True strain for finite increment of loading such that length changes from Ly to L is given by RELATION BETWEEN TRUE STRESS AND ENGINEERING STRESS + Volume of the test specimen in elastic range increases during tension and decreases during compression, But in plastic zone, volume is constant. However if volume changes are not considered in elastic zone than Agly = AL In tension In compression The volume of a tensile specimen is essentially constant while plastic deformation occurs. If the initial] diameter of the specimen is 4,, show that when the diameter is d, the true strains is c, = 2 In @,/d). Sol: If the volume is constant then eee mee 4 Zod any a L ay “=In{ |=In(i+e) Sol: cE Inf +4) ato) ‘Thus He esl (te) PROPERTIES (OF! MATERIALS Elasticity The property of a material by virtue of which, it returns to its original dimension during unloading is called elasticity and the material is called elastic. If material is unloaded before elastic limit (B) is reached, the unloading curve will follow the original curve. When material is unloaded before elastic limit the original dimension of the member is regained instantly ) linearly elastic material (©) non linearly elastic material + Hhowever. material is stressed beyond elastic limit and than unloaded, it will have a residual strain and the unloading curve will be different from original loading curve. The unloading curve will be Parallel to the initial portion of the loading curve Loading Le Unloading { J. Dissipated | Permanent Elastie + Residual elongation of har is called permanent set.IES MASTER Strength of Materials 16 Plasticity ‘The characteristic of a material by which it undergoes inelastie strain beyond the strain at the elastic limit is known as plasticity. Reloading Blastic limit + During reloading material behaves as linearly elastic from D to C. { io * Cis the new proportional limit. Z ae + Thus, proportional limit is increased. J ppreeniioe + But ductility decreases, because yielding zone reduces from Ya BoF to / CaF Creep ‘The property by virtue of which a material undergoes additional deformation (over and above that due to applied load) with passage of time under sustained loading within elastic limit is called creep. + Rate of creep decrease with time (because as stress increases strain hardening takes place), * Creep is usually more important at high temperature and higher stresses. + Itdepends on temperature level, stress level, time, type of loading (static or dynamic). + Generally. effect of creep becomes noticeable at approx 30% of melting point (in degree kelvin) for metals, + Moderate creep in concrete is sometimes welcomed because, it relieves tensile stress that might otherwise lead to cracking, sreae OA — elastic strain —— BD ~ creep region. If member is unloaded at point E, the jessie steam strain will follow path EFG. Relaxation * The decrease in stress in steel as a result of creep within steel under prolonged strain is called relaxation, Stress Time + Ifbar is stretched to o, stress in time t, and thereafter left to bear that stress, then the stress will go on reducing and ultimately becomes constant. Fatigue Deterioration of a material wider repeated cycles of stress or strain vesulting in progressive cracking that eventually produces fracture is called FatigueIES MASTER Civil Engineering 17 Nota: In a typical fatigue failure, a microscopic crack form at a point of high stress (usually at stress concentration) and gradually enlarges as the loads are applied repeatedly. When crack becomes large, sudden failure occurs. Magnitude of load causing fatigue failure is less than the load that can be sustained statically. [Paiute can occur.at static stress less than_o,| Fatigue failure depends on magnitude of loading and number of eyeles of loading Stress, Endurance Timit \ for non-ferrou = ‘Stress * metals Tor ferrous metals No. of cyeles of loading which causes fatigue failure fatigue failure. For structural steel endurance limit 2 tat ern *---Far.non ferrnus metal stress at failure continues to decrease. Hence, we define fatigue limit as the stress corresponding to failure after a specified number of loading cycles. * Due to corrosion effect, endurance limit is reduced to upto 80% of that under normal condition Resilience It is the property of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and then, upon unloading to have this energy recovered, Hence greater the resilience more desirable the material for spring action. ‘The area under stress strain curve with in elastic limit is called modulus of resilience. © ——_Blastie limit ‘Area of shaded portion = modulus of resilience For a linearly elastic material strain energy stored per unit volume 6 1 modulus of resilience + Area under load-deformation eurve wit ithin clastic limit is called resilience