Rdbms Mysql

Copyright © 2006
Pakistan Software Export Board (G) Limited

Ministry of Information Technology
Government of Pakistan
Printing
Artland Communications, Lahore. September 2006
Published by
Pakistan Software Export Board
The Funding Agency

This open source toolkit is funded by the Open Source Resource Center (OSRC) project of
the Pakistan Software Export Board (PSEB). PSEB is the entity within Government charged
with the task of enhancing exports of software and IT enabled services (ITES) from Pakistan.
PSEB is a guarantee limited company totally owned and funded by the Government of
Pakistan. Any questions or comments about this toolkit may be directed to PSEB Islamabad
at 92-51-111-333-666 or through e-mail at osrc@pseb.org.pk.
Disclaimer
This toolkit is published by the PSEB for members of the IT industry and the public-at-large.
The toolkit’s compilers, or the editor, are not responsible, in any way possible, for the
errors/omissions of this toolkit. The OSRC does not accept any liability for any direct and
consequential use of this toolkit or its contents. The contents of this toolkit may be distributed
only subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License v 1.0 or
later. The latest version is presently available at http://opencontent.org/openpub/
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TABLE OF CONTENT
INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................................1
RDBMS: AN INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................2
1. OVERVIEW................................................................................................................................................3
2. SQL- 92..................................................................................................................................................3
3. RELATIONAL DATABASES............................................................................................................................4
3.1. Relational vs. flat file databases....................................................................................................4
3.2. Database Normalization................................................................................................................4
MYSQL: AN INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................6
2. CONFORMANCE WITH SQL STANDARDS.........................................................................................................7
3. MYSQL CLIENT PROGRAMS.......................................................................................................................7
3.1. The mysql Client Program.............................................................................................................7
3.2. The mysqlimport Client Program .................................................................................................8
3.3. The mysqldump Client Program ...................................................................................................8
3.4. The mysqlcheck and myisamchk Client Program .........................................................................9
4. GENERAL DATABASE AND TABLE MANIPULATION ..........................................................................................9
5. STORAGE ENGINES AND TABLE TYPES........................................................................................................10
6. COLUMN TYPES.......................................................................................................................................10
6.1. Numerics......................................................................................................................................11
6.2. Strings..........................................................................................................................................12
6.3. Dates............................................................................................................................................13
6.4. Complex Types.............................................................................................................................14
7. COLUMN OPTIONS....................................................................................................................................15
8. OPERATORS.............................................................................................................................................15
8.1. Precedence Rule..........................................................................................................................15
8.2. Arithmetic Operators...................................................................................................................16
8.3. Comparison Operators................................................................................................................16
8.4. Logical Operators........................................................................................................................17
8.5. MySQL Conversions....................................................................................................................17
9. CONNECTING TO, AND DISCONNECTING FROM, THE SERVER............................................................................17
10. CREATING AND USING A DATABASE.........................................................................................................18
11. TABLE MANIPULATION............................................................................................................................19
11.1. Creating a Table........................................................................................................................19
11.2. Dropping a Table.......................................................................................................................19
11.3. Altering a Table.........................................................................................................................19
11.4. Renaming a table.......................................................................................................................20
12. INDEXES................................................................................................................................................20
12.1. Non-unique Indexes:..................................................................................................................21
12.2. Unique Indexes..........................................................................................................................21
12.3. Primary Key Indexes..................................................................................................................21
12.4. Dropping Indexes.......................................................................................................................22
13. MYSQL QUERIES.................................................................................................................................22
13.1. The SELECT Statements............................................................................................................22
13.1.1. Basic Data Retrieval....................................................................................................................22
13.1.2. Restricting a selection using WHERE Clause..............................................................................23
13.1.3. Sorting a selection using ORDER BY Clause..............................................................................23
13.1.4. Limiting a selection using LIMIT Clause.....................................................................................23
13.1.5. Grouping a selection using GROUP BY Clause..........................................................................24
13.2. The INSERT Statement..............................................................................................................25
13.2.1. Adding Multiple Records with a Single INSERT Statement........................................................26
13.3. REPLACE Statement.................................................................................................................27
13.4. UPDATE Statement...................................................................................................................27
13.5. DELETE Statement....................................................................................................................28
14. JOINS....................................................................................................................................................28
14.1. Cross-join..................................................................................................................................28
14.2. Inner Join...................................................................................................................................28
14.3. Outer Join..................................................................................................................................29
14.3.1. Left Join.......................................................................................................................................29
14.3.2. Right Join.....................................................................................................................................30
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15. REFERENCE...........................................................................................................................................30
MYSQL: ADMINISTRATION............................................................................................................31
1. DOWNLOADING AND INSTALLING MYSQL..................................................................................................32
2. THE MYSQL DATA DIRECTORY...............................................................................................................33
2.1. Location of the Data Directory....................................................................................................33
2.2. Structure of Data Directory.........................................................................................................34
2.3. How the MySQL Server provides access to Data........................................................................34
2.4. Database Table Representation...................................................................................................34
3. MYSQL SERVER START-UP AND SHUTDOWN .............................................................................................35
3.1. The MySQL Server and Server Startup Scripts...........................................................................35
3.1.1. An Overview of the Server-Side Scripts........................................................................................35
3.1.2. Methods of Starting the Server......................................................................................................35
3.1.3. Regaining the control of the Server if you cannot connect:............................................................35
4. MYSQL USER ACCOUNT MANAGEMENT....................................................................................................36
4.1. MySQL Usernames and Passwords.............................................................................................36
4.2. Adding New User Accounts to MySQL........................................................................................37
4.3. Removing User Accounts from MySQL.......................................................................................39
4.4. Limiting Account Resources........................................................................................................40
4.5. Assigning Account Passwords.....................................................................................................41
5. DISASTER PREVENTION AND RECOVERY.......................................................................................................41
5.1. Database Back-ups .....................................................................................................................41
5.2. Back-up Principles.......................................................................................................................41
5.3. Back-up Methods.........................................................................................................................41
5.3.1. Direct copy method........................................................................................................................41
5.3.2. Mysqlhotcopy................................................................................................................................41
5.3.3. mysqldump....................................................................................................................................42
6. REPLICATION IN MYSQL.........................................................................................................................43
6.1. Set-up Database Replication in MySQL .....................................................................................43
6.1.1. Configure the Master.....................................................................................................................43
6.1.2. Configure the Slave.......................................................................................................................44
7. REFERENCE.............................................................................................................................................45
COMPARISON OF ORACLE, MYSQL AND POSTGRESQL DBMS..........................................46
1. ELEMENTARY FEATURES:............................................................................................................47
1.1. Conformity with SQL standards:.................................................................................................47
1.2. Binary and Character Large Objects:.........................................................................................47
1.3. User-defined data types:..............................................................................................................47
1.4. Object-relational extensions:.......................................................................................................47
1.5. Special data types (multimedia, etc.)...........................................................................................47
1.6. Sub-queries in SQL query:...........................................................................................................48
1.7. Primary and Unique keys:...........................................................................................................48
1.8. Foreign key:.................................................................................................................................48
1.9. Check:..........................................................................................................................................48
1.10. Views:........................................................................................................................................48
1.11. Updateable views: ....................................................................................................................48
1.12. Synonyms (an alias for any table, view or other object in database):......................................48
1.13. Auto Increment (counter) Columns:..........................................................................................49
1.14. Automatic conversion of code pages (e.g. between client and server):.....................................49
2. TRANSACTIONS...............................................................................................................................49
2.1. Support for transaction processing:............................................................................................49
2.2. Partial rollback of transaction:...................................................................................................49
2.3. Locking level (table, page, and row):..........................................................................................49
2.4. Deadlock Detection and Resolving:...........................................................................................49
3. PROGRAMMING IN DB ..................................................................................................................49
3.1. Languages for writing stored procedures:..................................................................................49
3.2. Triggers:......................................................................................................................................50
4. ADMINISTRATION ..........................................................................................................................50
4.1. User authorization:......................................................................................................................50
4.2. Encrypted Client - Server connection:........................................................................................50
4.3. Object access privileges (level)...................................................................................................50
4.4. Access privileges grouping:.........................................................................................................51
4.5. Incremental and on-line backups:...............................................................................................51
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4.6. Tools for data export:..................................................................................................................51
4.7. Tools for data import:..................................................................................................................51
5. PORTABILITY AND SCALABILITY .............................................................................................51
5.1. Hardware and system platforms supported:................................................................................51
5.2. Portability of data and code (e.g. stored procedures).................................................................51
5.3. Support for SMP systems (parallel query execution, etc.):.........................................................52
6. PERFORMANCE AND VLDB .........................................................................................................52
6.1. Known VLDB implementations:..................................................................................................52
6.2. Maximum number of rows and columns in a table:....................................................................52
6.3. Maximum number of tables and indexes:....................................................................................52
6.4. "Manual" tuning of the allocation:..............................................................................................52
6.5. Automatic partitioning of large tables/indexes and using partitions in query optimization:......52
6.6. Access to multiple databases in one session:..............................................................................53
6.7. Replication:..................................................................................................................................53
6.8. Gateways to other DBMSs:.........................................................................................................53
7. APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT AND INTERFACES .................................................................53
7.1. Standard interfaces ODBC and JDBC:.......................................................................................53
7.2. Application support: ...................................................................................................................54
7.3. Dedicated Web servers:...............................................................................................................54
7.4. XML support integrated in DBMS:..............................................................................................54
7.5. Support from CASE packages:....................................................................................................54
8. RELIABILITY ....................................................................................................................................54
8.1. Automatic recovery from failures:...............................................................................................54
9. COMMERCIAL ISSUES ...................................................................................................................55
9.1. License type:................................................................................................................................55
9.2. Technical support:.......................................................................................................................55
9.3. Market share: ..............................................................................................................................55
9.4. Specific market segments occupied:............................................................................................55
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Introduction
This open source toolkit has been developed by the Open Source Resource Center (OSRC),
a project of the Ministry of Information Technology (MoIT). This toolkit contains step-by-step
manuals related to open source applications for databases, application servers, desktop
applications, office productivity suites, Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) and Customer
Relationship Management (CRM) software, and open source desktop applications for the
Microsoft Windows platform. A set of CDs, including some Linux distributions and other
applications, forms an integral part of this open source toolkit.
I would like to thank the OSRC team, including Mr. Abubakar Shoaib, Mr. Iftikhar Ahmad, Mr.
Muhammad Hammmad, Mr. Muazzam Ali, Mr. Sher Shah Farooq, and Mr. Qandeel Aslam,
who have compiled this toolkit; and Miss Seema Javed Amin, who has edited it. The OSRC
would especially wish to thank PSEB’s Director (Projects) Mr. Nasir Khan Afridi, Former
Project Manger(OSRC) Mr. Osman Haq and Ministry of Information Technology's Member
(IT) Mr. M. Tariq Badsha for their generous moral support, without which this toolkit would
never have been completed.
This is the first edition of this toolkit, and the OSRC hopes to continue to improve it with the
help of your feedback and comments.
Sufyan Kakakhel
Open Source Resource Center,
Pakistan Software Export Board,
2nd Floor, ETC, Agha Khan Road, F-5,
Islamabad, Pakistan.
Ph: +92-51-9208748
Fax: +92-51-9204075
Email: skakakhel@pseb.org.pk
http://www.osrc.org.pk
Open Source Software Training Toolkit 1

RDBMS: An Introduction
RDBMS : MySQL 2
1. Overview
SQL standard query language is referred to as a simple and basic language that allows you to
“communicate” with your database, and read, write, and extract useful information from it.
Non-procedural in nature, SQL is easier to work with than most other languages such as
PHP, PERL, and Java, etc., but can at times lead to some complicated code for people who
are new to this language.
The simplest SQL statement that allows a user to view or extract data from a table is the
SELECT statement. As the name implies, a user can select specific data from the table in
order to view it.
Assuming that your database table, known as “student”, looks like this:
You would run a query like this:

mysql> select * from student;
2. SQL- 92
SQL is standardized, and the current version is referred to as SQL-92. Any SQL-compliant
database should conform to the SQL standards of the time. If not, it should state its flavor of
SQL (SQL-89, for example) so that you can quickly figure out which features are, and which
are not, available in it. The standardization of SQL makes it an excellent tool for use in
website design. Most web application development toolkits, most notably Allaire's Cold Fusion
and Macromedia Dreamweaver Ultradev, rely on SQL or SQL-like statements to connect to,
and extract information from, databases. For more details about SQL-92, please visit:
http://developer.mimer.com/documentation/html_82/Mimer_SQL_Reference_Manual/Intro_S
QL_Stds3.html

3. Relational Databases
3.1. Relational vs. flat file databases

A flat file database is a database designed around a single table. The flat file design puts all
data into one table, or list, with fields that represent all parameters. A flat file may contain
many fields, often with duplicate data that is prone to data corruption. If you decide to merge
data between two flat files, copy and paste relevant information from one file to the other.
There is no automation between flat files. If you have two or more flat files that contain client
addresses, for example, and a client has moved, you will have to manually modify the
address parameters in each file that contains that client’s information. Changing information in
one file has no bearing on other files. Flat files offer the functionality to store information,
manipulate fields, print or display formatted information, and exchange information with others
through e-mail and over the Internet. Some flat files may be attached to external files, such as
text editors, in order to extend functionality and manage related information.
A relational database, on the other hand, incorporates multiple tables with methods for the
tables to work together. The relationships between table data can be collated, merged and
displayed in database forms. Most relational databases offer functionality to share data:
 Across networks
 Over the Internet
 With laptops and other electronic devices, such as palm pilots
 With other software systems
Designing flat file databases is simple, and requires little knowledge of design. Flat files can
be developed using just about any database engine. Flat files can be created in relational
database engines by not taking advantage of relational design concepts. Designing a
relational database takes more planning than flat file databases. With flat files, add
information as deemed necessary. With relational databases, store data in tables in such a
way that the relationships make sense. Building a relational database is dependant upon your
ability to establish a relational model. The model must fully describe how the data is
organized in terms of data structure, integrity, querying, manipulation and storage.
Relational databases allow users to define certain record fields as keys or indexes, to perform
search queries, join table records and establish integrity constraints. Search queries are
faster and more accurate when based on indexed values. Table records can be easily joined
by the indexed values. Integrity constraints can be established to ensure that table
relationships are valid. If you are able to establish a one-to-many relationship in your data
tables, you should use a relational database because a flat file is insufficient to handle all your
data processing needs.
Relational databases offer more robust reporting with report generators that filter and display
selected fields. Relational databases offer the capability of building your own reporting
modules. Most relational databases also offer the capability of importing and exporting data
from other software.
There are three primary relational database systems: proprietary, open source and
embedded. Proprietary relational databases often require the use of proprietary development
languages in order to complement SQL. Microsoft Access, for example, combines Visual
Basic with SQL. Open source databases, such as MySQL, are distributed freely in order to
encourage user development. Embedded and relational databases are packaged as parts of
other software packages, such as tax-preparation software packages. The vendor supplies
the database, and all its related manipulation tools, to control the database structure. These
databases are often accompanied by tools which provide audit trails of transactions.
3.2. Database Normalization

If you have been working with databases for a while, then you must be familiar with the term,
“normalization”. Perhaps someone has asked you, "Is that database normalized?" or, "Is that
in BCNF?" All too often, the reply is, "Yes". Knowing the principles of normalization, however,
RDBMS : MySQL 4
and applying them to your daily database design tasks really isn't all that complicated, and it
can drastically improve the performance of your DBMS.
Normalization is the process of efficiently organizing data in a database. There are two goals
of the normalization process:
• To eliminate redundant data (storing the same data in more than one table)
• To ensure that data dependencies make sense (only storing related data in a table)
Both these goals reduce the amount of space a database consumes, and ensure that data is
logically stored.
The database community has developed a series of guidelines to ensure that databases are
normalized. These are referred to as Normal Forms (NF) and are numbered from one (the
lowest form of normalization, referred to as First Normal Form or 1NF) through five (Fifth
Normal Form or 5NF). In practical applications, you will often see 1NF, 2NF, and 3NF along
with the occasional 4NF. The fifth normal form is very rarely seen. The First Normal Form
(1NF) sets the very basic rules for an organized database:
• Eliminate duplicative columns from the same table

• Create separate tables for each group of related data and identify each row with a
unique column or set of columns (the primary key)
The second normal form (2NF) further addresses the concept of removing duplicative data:
• Meet all the requirements of the first normal form

• Remove sub-sets of data that apply to multiple rows of a table and place them in
separate tables
• Create relationships between these new tables and their predecessors through the
use of foreign keys
The third normal form (3NF) goes one large step further:
• Meet all the requirements of the second normal form

• Remove columns that are not dependent upon the primary key
Finally, the fourth normal form (4NF) has one additional requirement:
• Meet all the requirements of the third normal form

• A relation is in 4NF if it has no multi-valued dependencies
Remember, these normalization guidelines are cumulative. For a database to be in 2NF, it

must first fulfill all the criteria of a 1NF database.

MySQL: An Introduction
RDBMS : MySQL 6
1. Overview
MySQL, the most popular Open Source SQL database management system, is developed,
distributed, and supported by MySQL AB. MySQL AB is a commercial company, founded by
the MySQL developers. It is a second generation Open Source company that unites Open
Source values and methodology with a successful business model.
Following are the major features of MySQL:

• MySQL is a relational database management system.
• MySQL software is Open Source.
• The MySQL Database Server is very fast, reliable, and easy to use.
• MySQL Server works in client/server or embedded systems.
2. Conformance with SQL standards

MySQL supports entry-level SQL-92. Entry-level contains the set of features that define basic
SQL-92 compliance. Oracle conforms to SQL-89, which is a sub-set of SQL-92 types plus
specific types. Some SQL-92 types are mapped into Oracle types. PostgreSQL uses an
extended sub-set of the SQL92-99 and SQL 3 languages. SQL-92 data types’ syntax is
mapped directly into native PostgreSQL types.
3. MySQL Client Programs

MySQL client programs can be invoked from the command-line; from a Windows console
prompt, or from a UNIX shell prompt, for example. When you invoke a client program, you
can specify options to control its behavior. Some options tell the client how to connect to the
MySQL server. Other options tell the program which actions to perform.
3.1. The mysql Client Program

The mysql client program enables you to send queries to the MySQL server, and to receive
their results. To determine the options supported by any mysql program, invoke the program
with the --help option. For example, to find out how to use mysql, type this command:
shell> mysql –help;
To determine the version of a program, use the --version option:
shell> mysql –version;
To connect to a server using a client program, the client must know which host the server is
running on. A connection may be locally established to a server running on the same host as
the client program, or remotely to a server running on a different host. In order to connect, you
must also identify yourself to the server with a username and password.
Two options indicate to the client where the server is running, as well as which type of
connection to establish.
--host=host_name or -h host_name
This option specifies the machine where the MySQL server is running. The value can be a
hostname or an IP number. The default host value is localhost.

--port=port_number or -P port_number
This option indicates the port number to which to connect on the server host; it applies only to
TCP/IP connections. The default MySQL port number is 3306.
Two options provide identification information. These are the username and the password of
the account that you want to use in order to access the server:
--user=user_name or -u user_name
This option specifies the username for your MySQL account.
--password=pass_value or -ppass_value
This option specifies the password for your MySQL account. The following examples show
how to specify connection parameters:
• Connect to the server using the default hostname and username values with no
password:
shell> mysql
• Connect to the server on the local host with a username of myname, asking mysql to
prompt you for a password:
shell> mysql --host=localhost --password --user=myname
• Connect with the same options as the previous example, but using the corresponding
short option forms:
shell> mysql -h localhost -p -u myname
• Connect to the server at a specific IP address, with a username of myname and
password of mypass:
shell> mysql --host=192.168.1.33 --user=myname --password=mypass
• Connect to the server on the local host, using the default username and password
and compressing client/server traffic:
shell> mysql --host=localhost --compress
3.2. The mysqlimport Client Program

The mysqlimport client program loads datafiles into tables. It provides a command-line
interface to the LOAD DATA INFILE statement. This means that mysqlimport examines the
options given on the command line and builds a LOAD DATA INFILE statement that
corresponds to the actions specified by those options. It then connects to the server and, for
each input file, issues the LOAD DATA INFILE statement that correctly loads the file into the
appropriate table. Invoke mysqlimport from the command line as follows:
shell> mysqlimport options db_name input_file
db_name names the database containing the table to be loaded, and input_file names the file
that contains the data to be loaded.
Each table to be loaded by mysqlimport must already exist, and each input file should contain
only data values. mysqlimport is not intended for processing files that consist of SQL
statements (such files can be created with the mysqldump program).
3.3. The mysqldump Client Program

The mysqldump client program dumps table contents onto files. The program is useful for
making database backups, or for transferring database contents to another server.
mysqldump can produce SQL-format dump files that contain CREATE TABLE and INSERT
statements for recreating the dumped files, or it can produce tab-delimited datafiles.
mysqldump Operation
By default, mysqldump interprets its first non-option argument as a database name, and
dumps all the tables into that database.
RDBMS : MySQL 8
• The following command dumps the contents of all the tables in the school database
into a file named school.sql:
shell> mysqldump school > school.sql
• The following command names just the student and teacher tables after the database
name, so mysqldump dumps just those tables to a file called student_teacher.sql:
shell> mysqldump school student teacher > student_teacher.sql
Reloading mysqldump Output

To reload an SQL-format dump file produced by mysqldump, process it with mysql. In order to
make a copy of the student table from the school database in the college database, for
example, you can issue the following commands:
shell> mysqldump --opt school student > student.sql

shell> mysql college < student.sql
mysql can read from a pipe, so you can combine the use of mysqldump and mysql into a
single command. The preceding example can be written as one command:
shell> mysqldump --opt school student | mysql college
3.4. The mysqlcheck and myisamchk Client Program

The mysqlcheck and myisamchk programs are used to check and repair tables (primarily
MyISAM tables). They can help to keep your tables free from problems, or repair them if
problems do occur - if, for example, a MyISAM table suffers damaged as a result of a server
crash.
mysqlcheck and myisamchk are similar in purpose, but they do have some differences. The
following is a comparison between the two programs:
Both programs can check, repair, and analyze MyISAM tables. mysqlcheck can also optimize
MyISAM tables, as well as check InnoDB tables and analyze BDB tables. There are certain
operations which myisamchk can perform that mysqlcheck cannot, such as disabling or
enabling indexes. These operations are beyond the scope of this tutorial.
4. General Database and Table Manipulation

Every MySQL server has a data directory under which it manages the contents of databases
and tables. The server represents this as follows:
• MySQL associates each database with a directory under the data directory. (This
means that the data directory is the parent of all database directories.) A database
directory has the same name as the database that it represents. For example, a
database named school corresponds to a directory named school under the data
directory. MySQL uses the database directory to manage the components of the
database - that is, its tables and indexes. A database may be empty, or have one or
more tables. Databases cannot be nested or have sub-databases; one database
cannot contain another.
• Each table in a database consists of rows and columns. A table can be empty (it can
have zero rows of data), but it must have at least one column. A table may also be
indexed in order to improve query performance. Every table is associated with a
format file in the database directory that contains the definition, or structure, of the
table. The format filename is the same as the table name, plus a .frm suffix. For
example, the format file for a table named student in the school database is named
student.frm and is located in the school directory under the server's data directory.
Depending on the table type, the storage engine for a table might create additional
files for the table. If student is a MyISAM table, the MyISAM storage engine creates
data and index files named student.MYD and student.MYI to store data rows and
indexes (respectively) for the table. If student is an InnoDB table, MySQL still creates
a student.frm format file in the database directory, but the InnoDB storage engine
stores the table data and index information elsewhere, in the InnoDB tablespace.

5. Storage Engines and Table Types
MySQL supports several storage engines that act as handlers for different table types.
MySQL storage engines include both those that handle transaction-safe tables and those that
handle non-transaction-safe tables:
• The original storage engine was ISAM, which managed non-transactional tables. This
engine has been replaced by MyISAM and should no longer be used. It is deprecated
in MySQL 4.1, and will be removed in MySQL 5.0.
• The MyISAM storage engine was introduced in MySQL 3.23.0. MyISAM is an
improved replacement for ISAM. MyISAM manages non-transactional tables. It
provides high-speed storage and retrieval, as well as full-text searching capabilities.
MyISAM is supported in all MySQL configurations, and is its default storage engine,
unless you have configured MySQL to use a different one by default.
• The MEMORY storage engine provides in-memory tables. The MERGE storage
engine was added in MySQL 3.23.25. It allows a collection of identical MyISAM tables
to be handled as a single table. Like MyISAM, the MEMORY and MERGE storage
engines handle non-transactional tables, and both are also included in MySQL by
default.
Note: The MEMORY storage engine was formerly known as the HEAP engine.
• The InnoDB and BDB storage engines that handle transaction-safe tables were
introduced in later versions of MySQL 3.23. BDB is included in MySQL-Max binary
distributions on those operating systems that support it. InnoDB also is included in
MySQL-Max binary distributions for MySQL 3.23. Beginning with MySQL 4.0, InnoDB
is included by default in all MySQL binary distributions. In source distributions, you
can enable or disable either engine by configuring MySQL according to your own
preference.
• NDB Cluster is the storage engine used by MySQL Cluster to implement tables that
are partitioned over many computers. It is available in source code distributions as of
MySQL 4.1.2 and in binary distributions as of MySQL-Max 4.1.3. This storage engine
is currently supported on Linux, Solaris, and Mac OS X only. MySQL intends to add
support for this engine on other platforms, including Windows, and in future MySQL
releases.
• The EXAMPLE storage engine is a “stub” engine that does nothing. You can create
tables with this engine, but no data can be stored in them, or retrieved from them.
The purpose of this engine is to serve as an example in the MySQL source code
which illustrates how to begin writing new storage engines. As such, it is primarily of
interest to developers only.
• The ARCHIVE storage engine is used for storing large amounts of data without
indexes with a very small footprint.
• The CSV storage engine stores data in text files using a comma-separated-values
format.
• The BLACKHOLE storage engine accepts, but does not store, data, and retrievals
always return an empty set.
• The FEDERATED storage engine stores data in a remote database. In MySQL 5.1, it
works with MySQL only, using the MySQL C Client API. In future releases, the
intention is to enable it to connect to other data sources using other drivers or client
connection methods.
6. Column Types
For each data type, the syntax shown uses square brackets ([ ]) to indicate optional parts of
the syntax. The following example shows how BIGINT is explained in this chapter:
BIGINT[(display_size)]
In addition to the BIGINT type, many other MySQL data types support the specification of a
display size. Unless otherwise specified, this value must be an integer between 1 and 255.
In the following cases, MySQL silently changes the column type you specify in your table’s
creation to something else:
VARCHAR -> CHAR
RDBMS : MySQL 10
When the specified VARCHAR column size is less than four characters, it is converted to
CHAR:
CHAR -> VARCHAR
When a table has at least one column of a variable length, all CHAR columns greater than
three characters in length are converted to VARCHAR.
Display sizes for TIMESTAMP fields must be an even value between 2 and 14. A display size
of 0 or greater than 14 will convert the field to a display size of 14. An odd-valued display size
will be converted to the next-highest even value.
6.1. Numerics
MySQL supports all ANSI SQL 92 numeric data types. MySQL numeric types break down into
two groups: integers and floating points. Within each group, the types differ by the amount of
storage required for them.
When you insert a value into a column that requires more storage than the data type allows, it
will be clipped to the minimum (negative values) or maximum (positive values) value for that
data type. MySQL issues a warning when such clipping occurs during ALTER TABLE, LOAD
DATA INFILE, UPDATE, and multi-row INSERT statements.
The AUTO_INCREMENT attribute may be supplied for at most one column of an integer type
in a table. The UNSIGNED attribute may be used with any numeric type. An unsigned column
may contain only positive integers or floating-point values. The ZEROFILL attribute indicates
that the column should be left padded with zeros when displayed by MySQL. The number of
zeros padded is determined by the column's display width.
BIGINT
BIGINT[(display_size)] [AUTO_INCREMENT] [UNSIGNED] [ZEROFILL]
Storage: 8 bytes
Description:
Largest integer type, supporting range of whole numbers from
-9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to 9,223,372,036,854,775,807 (0 to
18,446,744,073,709,551,615 unsigned).
DECIMAL
DECIMAL[(precision, [scale])] [ZEROFILL]
Storage: precision + 2 bytes
Description:
Stores floating-point numbers where precision is critical, such as for monetary values.
DECIMAL types require you to specify the precision and scale. The precision is the
number of significant digits in the value. The scale is the number of those digits that
come after the decimal point. For example, a BALANCE column declared as
DECIMAL(9, 2) would store numbers with nine significant digits, two of which are to
the right of the decimal point. The range for this declaration would be -9,999,999.99
to 9,999,999.99. If you specify a number with more decimal points, it is rounded to fit
the proper scale. Values beyond the range of the DECIMAL are clipped to fit within
the range.
DOUBLE
DOUBLE[(display_size, digits)] [ZEROFILL]
Storage: 8 bytes
Description:
A double-precision floating-point number. This type stores large floating-point values.
DOUBLE columns store negative values from -1.7976931348623157E+308 to
-2.2250738585072014E-308, 0, and positive numbers from 2.2250738585072014E-
308 to 1.7976931348623157E+308.
FLOAT
FLOAT[(display_size, digits)] [ZEROFILL]

Storage: 4 bytes
Description:
A single-precision floating-point number, this type is used to store small floating-point
numbers. FLOAT columns can store negative values between -3.402823466E+38
and -1.175494351E-38, 0, and positive values between 1.175494351E-38 and
3.402823466E+38.
INT / INTEGER
INT[(display_size)] [AUTO_INCREMENT] [UNSIGNED] [ZEROFILL]
Storage: 4 bytes
Description:
A basic whole number with a range of -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647 (0 to
4,294,967,295 unsigned).
MEDIUMINT
MEDIUMINT[(display_size)] [AUTO_INCREMENT] [UNSIGNED] [ZEROFILL]
Storage: 3 bytes
Description:
A basic whole number with a range of -8,388,608 to 8,388,607 (0 to 16,777,215
unsigned).
SMALLINT
SMALLINT[(display_size)] [AUTO_INCREMENT] [UNSIGNED] [ZEROFILL]
Storage: 2 bytes
Description:
A basic whole number with a range of -32,768 to 32,767 (0 to 65,535 unsigned).
TINYINT
TINYINT[(display_size)] [AUTO_INCREMENT] [UNSIGNED] [ZEROFILL]
Storage: 1 byte
Description:
A basic whole number with a range of -128 to 127 (0 to 255 unsigned).
6.2. Strings
String data types store various kinds of text data. There are several types to accommodate
data of different sizes. For each size, there is a type that sorts and compares entries in a
case-insensitive fashion, in accordance with the sorting rules for the default character set. A
corresponding binary type performs simple byte-by-byte sorts and comparisons. In other
words, binary values are case-sensitive. For CHAR and VARCHAR, the binary types are
declared using the BINARY attribute. The TEXT types, however, have corresponding BLOB
types as their binary counterparts.
BLOB
Binary form of TEXT.
CHAR
CHAR(size) [BINARY]
Size: Specified by the size value in a range of to 255 (1 to 255 prior to MySQL 3.23)
Storage: size bytes
Description:
A fixed-length text field. String values with fewer characters than the column's size
will be right padded with spaces. The right padding is removed on retrieval of the
value from the database.
LONGBLOB
Binary form of LONGTEXT.
LONGTEXT
LONGTEXT
Size: 0 to 4,294,967,295
Storage: Length of value + 4 bytes
Description:
RDBMS : MySQL 12
Storage for large text values. While the theoretical limit on the size of the text that can
be stored in a LONGTEXT column exceeds 4 GB, the practical limit is much less.
This is due to limitations of the MySQL communication protocol, and the amount of
memory available to both the client and the server ends of the communication.
MEDIUMBLOB
Binary form of MEDIUMTEXT.
MEDIUMTEXT
MEDIUMTEXT
Size: 0 to 16,777,215
Description:
Storage for medium-sized text values.
TEXT
TEXT
Size: 0 to 65,535
Description:
Storage for most text values.
TINYBLOB
Binary form of TINYTEXT.
TINYTEXT
TINYTEXT
Size: 0 to 255
Storage: Length of value + 1 byte
Description:
Storage for short text values.
VARCHAR
VARCHAR(size) [BINARY]
Size: Specified by the size value in a range of to 255 (1 to 255 prior to MySQL 3.23)
Storage: Length of value + 1 byte
Description:
Storage for variable-length text. Trailing spaces are removed from VARCHAR values.
6.3. Dates
MySQL date types are extremely flexible tools for storing date information. It is up to the
application, not to the database, to validate date values. MySQL only checks months that
range from 0-12, and dates that range from 0-31. February 31, 2006 is a legal MySQL date.
More useful, however, is the fact that February 0, 2006 is a legal date. In other words, you
can use 0 to signify dates in which you do not know a particular piece of the date.
MySQL automatically converts date and time values to integer values when used in an integer
context.
DATE
DATE
Format: YYYY-MM-DD (2006-01-01)
Storage: 3 bytes
Description:
Stores a date in the range of January 1, 1000 ('1000-01-01') to December 31, 9999
('9999-12-31') in the Gregorian calendar.
DATETIME
DATETIME
Format: YYYY-MM-DD hh:mm:ss (2006-01-01 01:00:00)
Storage: 8 bytes
Description:

Stores a specific time in the range of 12:00:00 AM, January 1, 1000 (‘1000-01-01
00:00:00’) to 11:59:59 P.M., December 31, 9999 (‘9999-12-31 23:59:59’) in the
Gregorian calendar.
TIME
TIME
Format: hh:mm:ss (06:00:00)
Storage: 3 bytes
Description:
Stores a time value in the range of midnight ('00:00:00') to one second before
midnight ('23:59:59').
TIMESTAMP
TIMESTAMP[(display_size)]
Format: YYYYMMDDhhmmss (20010101060000)
Storage: 4 bytes
Description:
A simple representation of a point-in-time down to the second in the range of midnight
on January 1, 1970, to one minute before midnight on December 31, 2037. Its
primary utility is keeping track of table modifications. When you insert a NULL value
into a TIMESTAMP column, the current date and time are inserted instead. When you
modify any value in a row with a TIMESTAMP column, the first TIMESTAMP column
will be automatically updated with the current date and time.
YEAR
YEAR[(size)]
Format:YYYY (2006)
Storage: 1 byte
Description:
Stores a year of the Gregorian calendar. The size parameter enables you to store
dates using two-digit years or four-digit years. The range for a YEAR(4) is 1900 to
2155; the range for a YEAR(2) is 1970-2069.The default size is YEAR(4).
6.4. Complex Types

MySQL's complex data types ENUM and SET are special string types. They are listed
separately because they are conceptually more complex, and represent a lead into the SQL 3
data types that MySQL may support in the future.
ENUM
ENUM(value1, value2, ...)
Storage: 1-255 members: 1 byte / 256-65,535 members: 2 bytes
Description:
Stores one value of a pre-defined list of possible strings. When you create an ENUM
column, you provide a list of all possible values. Inserts and updates are allowed to
set the column to values only from that list. Any attempt to insert a value that is not
part of the enumeration will cause an empty string to be stored instead.
SET
SET(value1, value2, ...)
Storage:
1-8 members: 1 byte
9-16 members: 2 bytes
Description:
A list of values taken from a pre-defined set of values. A field can contain any number
- including none - of the strings specified in the SET statement. A SET is basically an
ENUM that allows each field to contain more than one of the specified values. A SET,
however, is not stored according to index, but as a complex bitmap. Given a SET with
the members Orange, Apple, Pear, and Banana, each element is represented by an
"on" bit in a byte, as shown below:
RDBMS : MySQL 14
MySQL's Representation of SET Elements
Member Decimal Value Bit-wise Representation
Orange 1 0001
Apple 2 0010
Pear 4 0100
Banana 8 1000
In this example, the values Orange and Pear are stored in the database as 5 (0101).
You can store a maximum of 64 values in a SET column. Although you can assign
the same value multiple times in an SQL statement updating a SET column, only a
single value will actually be stored.
7. Column Options
In MySQL, at the time of table creation, or at a later stage, one can add, modify or change the
following column options. These column options restrict the data to be inserted according to
the option specified:
• UNSIGNED makes the column not have negative values.

• ZEROFILL pads zeros to the display width.
• AUTO_INCREMENT applies to integer columns. Used to generate sequences of
unique values. Only one such column per table.
• BINARY applies to CHAR and VARCHAR.
• NULL and NOT NULL apply to all.
• DEFAULT value provides a value in case no value was given.
• PRIMARY KEY and UNIQUE.
8. Operators
MySQL offers three kinds of operators: arithmetic, comparison, and logical.
8.1. Precedence Rule

When SQL contains complex expressions, the sub-expressions are evaluated based on
MySQL's rules of precedence. You can always override MySQL's rules of precedence by
enclosing an expression in parentheses:
Precedence priority Operators

1 BINARY
2 NOT
3 ^
4 - (unary minus)
5 */%
6 +-
7 << >>
8 &
9 |
10 <= > >= = <=> <> IN IS LIKE REGEXP
11 BETWEEN CASE
12 AND
13 OR XOR
8.2. Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators perform basic arithmetic on two values:
Operators Description

+ Adds two numerical values
- Subtracts two numerical values
* Multiplies two numerical values
/ Divides two numerical values
% Gives the modulus of two numerical values
| Performs a bit-wise OR on two integer values
^ Performs a bit-wise exclusive OR on two integer values
& Performs a bit-wise AND on two integer values
<< Performs a bit-wise left shift on an integer value
>> Performs a bit-wise right shift on an integer value
8.3. Comparison Operators

Comparison operators compare values and return 1 if the comparison is true, and 0 if
otherwise. Except for the <=> operator, NULL values cause a comparison operator to
evaluate to NULL:
<> or != Match rows if the two values are not equal
<= Match rows if the left value is less than or equal to the right
value
< Match rows if the left value is less than the right value
>= Match rows if the left value is greater than or equal to the right
value
> Match rows if the left value is greater than the right value
value BETWEEN value1 Match rows if value is between value1 and value2, or equal to
AND value2 one of them
value IN ( value1,value2,...) Match rows if value is among the values listed

value NOT IN ( value1, Match rows if value is not among the values listed
value2,...)
value1 LIKE value2 Compares value1 to value2 and matches the rows if they
match. The right hand value can contain the wildcard '%',
which matches any number of characters (including 0), and '_',
which matches exactly one character. Its most common use is
comparing a field value with a literal containing a wildcard (e.g.,
SELECT name FROM people WHERE name LIKE 'B%').
value1 NOT LIKE value2 Compares value1 to value2 and matches the rows if they differ.
This is identical to NOT (value1 LIKE value2).
value1 REGEXP/RLIKE Compares value1 to value2 using the extended regular
value2 expression syntax and matches the rows if the two values
match. The right hand value can contain full UNIX regular
expression wildcards and constructs (e.g., SELECT name
FROM people WHERE name RLIKE '^B.*').
value1 NOT REGEXP Compares value1 to value2 using the extended regular
value2 expression syntax and matches the rows if they differ. This is
identical to NOT (value1 REXEXP value2).
8.4. Logical Operators

Logical operators check the truth value of one or more expressions. In SQL terms, a logical
operator checks whether its operands are 0, nonzero, or NULL. A 0 value means false, non-
zero means true and NULL means no value:
NOT or ! Performs a logical not (returns "1" if the value is 0, NULL if it is
NULL, otherwise "0").
RDBMS : MySQL 16
OR or || Performs a logical or (returns "1" if any of the arguments are
non-zero and non-NULL, NULL if any are NULL; otherwise,
returns "0").
XOR Performs a logical exclusive or (returns "1" if one and only one
argument is non-zero and non-NULL, NULL if any are NULL;
otherwise. returns "0").
AND or && Performs a logical and (returns "0" if any of the arguments are
0, NULL if any are NULL; otherwise, returns "1").
8.5. MySQL Conversions

MySQL is very forgiving if the given value doesn’t match the data type of a column. You
MUST validate the data on the client side before putting it in. Sometimes the effects of
automatic conversion can be very surprising. Never rely on automatic conversion unless you
are sure of what you are doing.
The following conversions are performed by MySQL:
• Out-of-range to In-range Values: MySQL clips or truncates the value to the highest or
lowest numbers possible.
• If you insert a negative into an unsigned column, it is converted to zero.
• When you reach the upper limit of AUTO_INCREMENT, any subsequent insert will
fail with a duplicate key error.
• If you try to store totally different data types for which no conversion is possible, the
DEFAULT is stored.
• String truncation: If you try to store a string value that is larger than the current
maximum allowed size, it is truncated.
• Date and Time: Calendar checks are not performed. If, for example, you try to enter
'2006-04-31' into a DATE field, it will accept it.
• Any attempt to enter invalid values, such as '24:00:00' in a TIME column will enter a
zero: '00:00:00'
• ENUM and SET: A wrong ENUM entry will enter a null string ' '. A wrong SET entry is
simply dropped, only legal ones taken.
• Assignment of NULL to NOT-NULL: For a single row insert the statement will fail. For
multiple row inserts the column is assigned the default value, generating a
WARNING.
• Conversion of fixed-point values: If you insert '0003' in a numeric column, it is
inserted as a 3. If you do the same with a DECIMAL column, it is stored as is,
truncating as many values as required. For example, storing '0003' into
DECIMAL(2,0) results in '03'.
9. Connecting to, and Disconnecting from, the Server

To connect to the server, you will usually need to provide a MySQL user name when you
invoke the mysql client program and, most likely, a password. If the server runs on a machine
other than the one where you log in, you will also need to specify a host name. Contact your
administrator to find out which connection parameters you should use to connect (that is,
what host, user name, and password to use). For details regarding the MySQL client
program, view a previous section.
Once you know the proper parameters, you should be able to connect like this:
shell> mysql -h host -u user –p

The mysql> prompt tells you that mysql is ready for you to enter commands. Some MySQL
installations allow you to connect as an anonymous (unnamed) user to the server running on
the local host. If this is the case on your machine, you should be able to connect to that server
by invoking mysql without any options:
shell> mysql
After you have connected successfully, you can disconnect any time by typing QUIT (or \q) at
the:
mysql> QUIT
The following table displays each of the prompts you can see, and summarizes what they
mean about the state that mysql is in:
Prompt Meaning
mysql> Ready for new command.
-> Waiting for next line of multiple-line
command.
'> Waiting for next line, collecting a string that
begins with a single quote
(‘'’).
"> Waiting for next line, collecting a string that
begins with a double-quote (‘"’).
`> Waiting for next line, collecting an identifier
that begins with a back-tick
(‘`’).
Multiple-line statements commonly occur by accident, when you intend to issue a command
on a single line, but forget the terminating semicolon.
10. Creating and Using a Database

If an administrator creates your database for you when setting up your permissions, you can
begin using it. Otherwise, you need to create it yourself:
mysql> CREATE DATABASE school;
Under UNIX, database names are case-sensitive (unlike SQL keywords), so you must always
refer to your database as school, not as School, SCHOOL, or some other variant. This is also
true for table names. This restriction does not apply under MS Windows.
Creating a database does not select it for use; you must do that explicitly. To make school the
current database, use this command:
mysql> USE school

Database changed
Your database needs to be created only once, but you must select it for use each time you
begin a mysql session. You can do this by issuing a USE statement, as demonstrated in the
example. Alternatively, you can select the database on the command-line when you invoke
mysql. Specify its name after any connection parameters that you might need to provide. For
example:
shell> mysql -h host -u user -p school

Enter password: ********
RDBMS : MySQL 18
Note that school in the command just shown is not your password. If you want to supply your
password on the command-line after the -p option, you must do so with no intervening space
(for example, as -pmypassword, not as -p mypassword).
11. Table Manipulation

Tables can be created and modified as and when required. With a default database chosen, a
table can be created as follows:
11.1. Creating a Table

mysql>CREATE TABLE tblname (col def 1,col def 2....) type=tabletype
Once you have created a table, SHOW TABLES should produce some output:
To verify that your table was created according to your given specifications, use DESCRIBE
any time, for example, if you forget the names of the columns in your table, or what types they
have. Use a DESCRIBE statement:
11.2. Dropping a Table

Alter and drop tables after creating them:
shell> drop table teacher;

shell> drop table if exists teacher;
11.3. Altering a Table

ALTER TABLE allows you to change the structure of an existing table. You can alter a table
to:
• Add or drop columns
• Change the name or definition of a column
• Add or drop indexes
• Apply a different sorting to the rows
• Rename the table
ALTER TABLE works by making a temporary copy of the original table. The alteration is
performed on the copy, then the original table is deleted, and the new one is renamed. While
ALTER TABLE is executing, the original table is readable by other clients. Updates and writes

to the table are stalled until the new table is ready, and then are automatically redirected to
the new table without any failed updates.
Use the same teacher table for alteration as:
Use modify or change instead of add, which also depends on what you are altering, whether it
is a column option or a column type. Using modify in an alter table statement allows the user
to modify the column type, and change is similar to modify, except that a column name
change is also allowed.
11.4. Renaming a table

Rename changes the name of the table, and also works in an alter table statement:
mysql> alter table teacher rename to lecturers;

mysql> rename table teacher to lecturers;
Change multiple table names in one go by separating them with a comma (,):
mysql> rename table teacher to lecturers, students to candidates;
Supply multiple alterations to a table in a single command by separating them with a comma
(,):
mysql> alter table candidates rename to student,
modify student_id int primary key auto_increment;
12. Indexes
As data in a table grows large, look-ups can become slow. Indexes allow column values to be
found more quickly, and retrievals based on indexes are relatively faster. In order to keep
your queries performing efficiently, it is essential to index your tables. Indexes can enforce
uniqueness to prevent duplicates.
MySQL supports four types of indexes:
• Non-unique simple indexes

• UNIQUE index, every key value is different from others
• PRIMARY KEY is a UNIQUE key that disallows NULL values
• FULLTEXT is optimized for text searching
Indexes can be defined when a table is being created. This includes the index definitions in
the CREATE TABLE statement, along with the column definitions. An index definition consists
of an appropriate keyword or keywords to indicate the index type, followed by a list in
parentheses that names the column or columns that comprise the index. Suppose that the
definition of a table teacher without any indexes looks like this:
RDBMS : MySQL 20
12.1. Non-unique Indexes:
To create the table with the same columns, but with a non-unique index on the column
teacher_joining, include an INDEX clause in the CREATE TABLE statement as:
mysql> create table teacher (

teacher_id int(4) NOT NULL auto_increment,
teacher_fname char(25),
teacher_lname char(25),
teacher_address char(250),
teacher_phone char(25),
teacher_joining date NOT NULL,
Index (teacher_joining)
) TYPE=MyISAM;
The keyword KEY may be used instead of INDEX. To include multiple columns in an index
(that is, to create a composite index), list all the column names within the parentheses,
separated by commas. A composite index, for example, that includes both the teacher_fname
and teacher_lname columns can be defined by replacing teacher_fname and teacher_lname
separated by comma instead of teacher_joining.
12.2. Unique Indexes

Unique enforces the uniqueness of the column and prohibits duplicates. It is especially useful
when assigning lookup values, for example. ID's

Unique (teacher_id)
) TYPE=MyISAM;
12.3. Primary Key Indexes

There is only one primary key per table. Primary key is a UNIQUE index which does not
permit a NULL value.

Primary Key (teacher_id)
) TYPE=MyISAM;
Indexes can be added to a table, provided they do not cause a conflict. Addition is done by
using ALTER TABLE or CREATE INDEX statements:
mysql> ALTER TABLE teacher ADD PRIMARY KEY (teacher_id);
12.4. Dropping Indexes

An index may be dropped with Drop Index or Alter Table statements, such as:
mysql> DROP INDEX teacher_joining on teacher;

mysql > ALTER TABLE teacher DROP INDEX teacher_joining;
mysql > ALTER TABLE teacher DROP PRIMARY KEY;

13. MySQL Queries
MySQL fully supports ANSI SQL-92, entry-level. A SQL reference for MySQL is largely a
general SQL reference. SQL is a kind of controlled English language consisting of verb
phrases. Each of these verb phrases begins with an SQL command followed by other SQL
keywords, literals, identifiers, or punctuation.
This section describes the basic principles of entering commands, working with several
queries, from the basic to the most complex ones. The query illustrates several things about
mysql:
• When you issue a command, mysql sends it to the server for execution and
displays the results, then prints another mysql> prompt to indicate that it is ready
for another command.
• mysql displays query output in tabular form (rows and columns). The first row
contains labels for the columns. The following rows are the query results.
• Mysql shows how many rows were returned and how long the query took to
execute, which gives you a rough idea about server performance.
13.1. The SELECT Statements

It is no use putting records in a database unless you eventually intend to retrieve them and do
something with them; that is the main purpose of a SELECT statement. The basic syntax of
the SELECT statement looks like this:
SELECT selection-list FROM table-list

WHERE primary-constrain
GROUP BY group-cols
ORDER BY sorting-col
HAVING secondary-constraint
LIMIT count
selection-list what to select

table-list where to select rows from
primary-constrain what conditions rows must satisfy
group-cols how to group results
sorting-col how to sort results
secondary-constraint secondary conditions rows must satisfy
count limit on results
13.1.1. Basic Data Retrieval
The simple SELECT statement for basic data retrieval would look like this:
For selected records it would look like this:
RDBMS : MySQL 22
13.1.2. Restricting a selection using WHERE Clause
You can select only particular rows from your table:
13.1.3. Sorting a selection using ORDER BY Clause
In the preceding examples, the result rows are displayed in no particular order. It is often
easier to examine query output when the rows are sorted in some meaningful way.
To sort a result, use an ORDER BY clause:
The default sort order is ascending, with the smallest values first. To sort in reverse
(descending) order, add the DESC keyword to the name of the column you are sorting by.
13.1.4. Limiting a selection using LIMIT Clause
Limit clause allows you to limit the output of a query. The limit clause is useful, especially in
conjunction with ORDER BY. This is useful for retrieving records based on their position
within the set of selected rows.
LIMIT may be given with either one or two arguments, which must be integer constants:
LIMIT row_count
LIMIT skip_count, row_count
When followed by a single integer, row_count, LIMIT returns the first row_count rows from the
beginning of the result set. To select just the first two rows of student table, use the following
query:

When followed by two integers, skip_count and row_count, LIMIT skips the first skip_count
rows from the beginning of the result set, and then returns the next row_count rows. To skip
the first two rows and then return the next two rows, type:
13.1.5. Grouping a selection using GROUP BY Clause
The GROUP BY clause allows a WITH ROLLUP modifier that causes extra rows to be added
to the summary output. These rows represent higher-level (or super-aggregate) summary
operations. The GROUP BY clause may be added to generate a more fine-grained summary
that produces values for sub-groups within a set of selected rows.
Suppose we have three tables of a school database i.e. student, course and enrolment
tables. The scenario is that the students are enrolled in courses, the details of which are in
the enrolment table. So we would first describe all the three tables as:
In order to check which student is enrolled in how many courses, submit this query, and the
result will be grouped by GROUP BY clause as:
RDBMS : MySQL 24
This query will result as:
13.2. The INSERT Statement

The INSERT statement adds new records to a table. It has two basic formats, one of which
allows for the insertion of multiple rows using a single statement:
INSERT INTO table_name (column_list) VALUES (value_list);

INSERT INTO table_name SET column_name1 = value1;
The first syntax for INSERT uses separate column and value lists, following the name of the
table into which you want to add the record. The number of columns and values must be the
same. The statement shown here uses this syntax to create a new record in the people. If the
column list is not mentioned in the statement, then provide the value list which should include
all values to be added in to the column, as described below:
The second INSERT syntax follows the table name by a SET clause that lists individual
column assignments separated by commas, and with this syntax we can add the values to the
desired columns only:

13.2.1. Adding Multiple Records with a Single INSERT Statement
A single INSERT … VALUES statement can add multiple records to a table if you provide
multiple VALUES lists with parenthesis separating the lists by commas:
13.3. REPLACE Statement

REPLACE statement syntax is similar to that of INSERT. Each of the following are valid forms
of REPLACE:
REPLACE INTO table_name (column_list) VALUES (value_list);

REPLACE INTO table_name SET column_name1 = value1;
REPLACE returns an information string indicating how many rows it has affected. If the count
is one, the row was inserted without replacing an existing row. If, for example, the count is
two, a row was deleted before the new row was inserted.
RDBMS : MySQL 26
An advantage of using REPLACE instead of an equivalent DELETE (if needed) and INSERT
is that REPLACE is performed as a single atomic operation. There is no need to do any
explicit table locking as there might be if you were to issue separate DELETE and INSERT
statements.
13.4. UPDATE Statement

The UPDATE statement modifies the contents of existing records. To use it, name the table
you want to update, provide a SET clause that lists one or more column value assignments,
and optionally specify a WHERE clause that identifies which records to update:
UPDATE table_name SET column_name1 = value1, column_name2 = value2,…

WHERE ... ;
In the student table, for example, there is a NULL value, and we want to make a correction in
that row:
After finding this NULL entry in the student table, correct the entry by querying the database
with the following query:
13.5. DELETE Statement

To remove records from tables, use a DELETE statement. The DELETE statement allows a
WHERE clause that identifies which records to remove; it can, therefore, be more precise in
its effect. To empty a table entirely by deleting all its records, type the following statement:
DELETE FROM table_name;
To remove only specific records in a table, issue a DELETE statement that includes a
WHERE clause that identifies which records to remove:
DELETE FROM table_name WHERE ...;
If a table contains an AUTO_INCREMENT column, emptying it completely with a DELETE

statement that includes no WHERE clause might have the side-effect of resetting the
sequence. In this case, the next record inserted into the table is assigned an
AUTO_INCREMENT value of 1. If this side-effect is unwelcome, empty the table using a
WHERE clause that always evaluates to true:
DELETE FROM table_name WHERE 1;
In this statement, because the WHERE clause is present, MySQL evaluates it for each row.
WHERE 1 is always true, so the effect of the statement is to produce a row-by-row table-

emptying operation. Although this form of DELETE avoids the side-effect of resetting the
AUTO_INCREMENT sequence when performing a complete-table deletion, the cost is that
the statement will execute much more slowly than a DELETE with no WHERE.
14. Joins
Basically, it is the combining of two rows based on the comparative values in selected
columns. This 'super-row' exists only for the duration of the query that creates it. Use joins to
temporarily create 'complete' records from a database which may split related data across
several tables (perhaps as a result of normalization).
14.1. Cross-join
A cross-join between two tables takes the data from each row in table 1 and joins it to the
data from each row in table 2. This can be done in two different syntaxes. One syntax lists the
tables to be joined separated by a comma, and the other uses the CROSS JOIN keywords.
Both display the same result:
mysql> select course_name, student_fname from course, student;

mysql> select course_name, student_fname from course CROSS JOIN student;
14.2. Inner Join

In an inner join, the comparison being made between two columns is that they match the
same value. Use this method to select certain fields from both tables, and only the correct
rows will be joined together. Inner joins may be written using two different syntaxes. One
syntax lists the tables to be joined separated by a comma, and the other uses the INNER
JOIN keywords. Both display the same result:
mysql> select student_fname, course_name from course, student, enrolment

where student.student_id = enrolment.student_id
and enrolment.course_id = course.course_id;
mysql> select student_fname, course_name from enrolment

INNER JOIN student, course
on student.student_id = enrolment.student_id and
enrolment.course_id = course.course_id;
14.3. Outer Join

Use an outer join to write a join that provides information about mismatches or missing
records. An outer join can find matches (just like an inner join), but can also identify
mismatches. Furthermore, with an appropriate WHERE clause, an outer join can filter out
matches to display only the mismatches.
RDBMS : MySQL 28
Two common forms of outer joins are left joins and right joins. These are written using the
LEFT JOIN or RIGHT JOIN keywords rather than the comma operator or the INNER JOIN
keywords. Left and right joins can answer the same kinds of questions, and differ only slightly
in their syntax. A left join can always be rewritten into an equivalent right join.
14.3.1. Left Join
LEFT JOIN shows the missing and/or not matching values in the second table:
mysql> select student_fname, enrolment_id from student LEFT JOIN enrolment

on student.student_id = enrolment.student_id;
Left join is especially useful when we want to find only those rows in the left side table that do
not appear in the right side table. Add a WHERE clause that looks for rows in the right table
that have NULL values:
mysql> select student_fname, enrolment_id from student left join enrolment

on student.student_id=enrolment.student_id
where enrolment.student_id is NULL;
14.3.2. Right Join
RIGHT JOIN shows the missing and/or not matching values in the first table:
mysql> select student_fname, enrolment_id

from student RIGHT JOIN enrolment
on student.student_id = enrolment.student_id;
15. Reference
• MySQl Manual at http://mysql.com

MySQL: Administration
RDBMS : MySQL 30
1. Downloading and Installing MySQL
Step 1: Before installing you need to download the latest version of MySQL. In this example it
would be version 4.0.10, available from the MySQL site.
Note: Although it is possible to install MySQL from RPMs, the best method is to compile from
the source, as this gives greater flexibility, customization options, and speed.
Step 2: You will need to decide where you are going to store your downloads. This
installation guide assumes a location of /software/. If this directory is not already created,
create it and then change to it by using the following commands:
mkdir /software
cd /software
Now we will create the folder for the MySQL downloads. Type the following commands:
mkdir mysql
cd mysql
Note: This guide will install MySQL with support for Perl and OpenSSL.
Step 3: If you have an existing RPM installation, you should uninstall it before proceeding.
The first thing to do is to establish what MySQL RPMs are already installed, by running the
following command:
rpm -qa | grep -i mysql
If nothing is listed, then you do not have MySQL RPMs installed, and can safely proceed to
step 4. Otherwise, look carefully at the list, which will look something like this:
[root@server1 mysql]# rpm -qa | grep -i mysql
MySQL-client-3.23.55-1
MySQL-Max-3.23.55-1
MySQL-shared-3.23.55-1
MySQL-3.23.55-1
MySQL-devel-3.23.55-1
[root@server1 mysql]#
For each entry, use the command rpm -e packagename - where packagename is the name
part - i.e. the text right up until the version number - of the entry shown. Repeat this for each
of the entries in the list; so for the example output given, you would run the following
commands:
rpm -e MySQL-client
rpm -e MySQL-Max
rpm -e MySQL-shared
rpm -e MySQL
rpm -e MySQL-devel
Note: The RPM name will not always be obvious, or appear logical. However the general rule
of thumb is that the first hyphen (dash) after the text name but before the number is where the
name ends.
If in doubt, you can always simply use the whole entry (including the version number)
however you will obviously have to know the full entry first, which is best found out as
described above. Enter each command one by one to remove all the MySQL RPMs.
Important Note: The order you should follow is to remove MySQL last of all, with MySQL-
client immediately before that. Any other packages should be OK being removed first.
Using the example above, the packages should be removed in the following order:
rpm -e MySQL-Max
rpm -e MySQL-shared
rpm -e MySQL-devel
rpm -e MySQL-client
rpm -e MySQL
If you do run into errors, they are most likely to be in the form of broken dependencies, such
as shown here:

[root@server1 mysql]# rpm -e MySQL
error: removing these packages would break dependencies:
MySQL = 3.23.55 is needed by MySQL-Max-3.23.55-1
[root@server1 mysql]#
If that happens, look at the package that depends on the packages you are trying to remove,
and uninstall it first. If all else fails and you still get dependancy errors, remove the package
using the command rpm -e --nodeps packagename.
We should also stop MySQL if it is running. Type the following commands:
service mysql stop
pkill mysql
Step 4: The next step is to unpack, compile and install MySQL from the source file we just
downloaded. Type the following commands:
• tar zxvf *.tar.gz
• cd mysql-4.0.10-gamma
• ./configure --prefix=/usr --sysconfdir=/etc --localstatedir=/var/lib/mysql
--mandir=/usr/share/man --infodir=/usr/share/info --with-mysqld-
user=mysql --with-openssl --with-tcp-port=3306 --with-unix-socket-
path=/var/lib/mysql/mysql.sock
• make
• make install
• cp support-files/mysql.server /etc/rc.d/init.d/mysqld
• chmod 755 /etc/rc.d/init.d/mysqld
• chkconfig --add mysqld
• cd ..
• rm -rf mysql-4.0.10-gamma
• cd ..
Step 5: Once the installation is complete, we need to set up MySQL by typing the following
commands:
• groupadd mysql
• useradd mysql -c "MySQL Server" -d /var/lib/mysql -g mysql
• scripts/mysql_install_db
• chown -R mysql:mysql /var/lib/mysql
• service mysqld start
• /usr/bin/mysqladmin -u root password 'new-password'
Step 6: If the mysql server responds failure to start then copy .cnf file into /etc/my.cnf
MySQL should start on it's own when the system boots.
2. The MySQL Data Directory

The data directory is where the server stores its databases and status files, and provides
information about the server's operation. It is important to understand the structure and the
contents of the data directory, so that you know how the server uses the file system to
represent databases and tables, and where the logs are located. By default, all the data
managed by the MySQL server mysqld is stored under the MySQL data directory.
2.1. Location of the Data Directory

A default data directory is compiled into the server:
/var/lib/mysql or /usr/local/mysql
The default data directory location can be explicitly specified during server start-up by using
the –datadir = / path option
2.2. Structure of Data Directory

The MySQL data directory contains all the databases and tables managed by the server.
These are organized into a tree structure, that is implemented by taking advantage of the
hierarchical structure of the UNIX or MS Windows file systems:
RDBMS : MySQL 32
• Each database corresponds to a directory under the data directory
• Tables within a database correspond to files in the database directory
2.3. How the MySQL Server provides access to Data
Client 1 Client 2 Client 3
UNIX – socket TCP/IP – port NT – pipe
MySQL server (mysqld)
Data directory
/var/lib/mysql
Db 1 Db 2 Dbn
/var/lib/mysql/db1 /var/lib/mysql/db2 /var/lib/mysql/dbn
Tab 1 Tab 2 Tab 3 Tab 1 Tab 2 Tab 3 Tab 1 Tab 2 Tab 3
Where Tab 1 or any other table in the previous figure is:
Tab 1
Tab 1
/var/lib/mysql/db1/table1.FRM
/var/lib/mysql/db2/table1.MYD
/var/lib/mysql/db3/table1.MYI
2.4. Database Table Representation

Each table within a database exists in the form of three files in the database directory: a form
(description) file, a data file and an index file. The base name is the table name, and the file
extensions indicate the file type.

3. MySQL Server Start-up and Shutdown
A MySQL administrator’s goal is to ensure that the server is running, and that the clients can
access it.
It is sometimes advisable to shutdown the server (if you are relocating a database, for
example, you do not want a server updating tables in that database). In order to deal with
such scenarios, you will be performing server start-up/shutdown so that you have the ability to
perform either function as and when deemed necessary.
3.1. The MySQL Server and Server Startup Scripts

The MySQL server, mysqld, is the main program that does most of the work in a MySQL
installation. The server is accompanied by several related scripts that perform setup
operations when you install MySQL, or are helper programs which assist you in starting and
stopping the server.
3.1.1. An Overview of the Server-Side Scripts
All MySQL programs have many different options. Every MySQL program, however, provides
a --help option, which you can use in order to get a description of the program's options:
shell> mysqld --help.
Override the default options for all standard programs by specifying options on the command-
line, or in an option file. The following table briefly describes the MySQL server, and its
server-related programs:
Server-side Script Description

mysqld The SQL daemon, that is, the MySQL server. This program must
be running because clients gain access to databases by
connecting to this server in order to use client programs.
mysqld-max A version of the server that includes additional features.
mysqld_safe A server start-up script. mysqld_safe attempts to start mysqld-
max if it exists, and mysqld otherwise.
mysql.server A server start-up script. This script is used on systems that use
run directories containing scripts that start system services for
particular run levels. It invokes mysqld_safe to start the MySQL
server.
mysqld_multi A server start-up script that can start or stop multiple servers
installed on the system.
This script creates the MySQL grant tables with default
mysql_install_db privileges. It is usually executed only once, when initially
installing MySQL on a system.
mysql_fix_privilege_tables This script is used after an upgrade installation operation in order
to update the grant tables with any changes that have been
made in newer versions of MySQL.
3.1.2. Methods of Starting the Server
INVOKE mysqld directly. This is probably the least common method.

INVOKE the safe_mysqld or mysqld_safe script. safe_mysqld attempts to determine the
location of the server program and the data directory and then invokes the server with options
reflecting those values.
3.1.3. Regaining the control of the Server if you cannot connect:
Restart the server manually by connecting to it and instructing it to terminate under the
following circumstances:
RDBMS : MySQL 34
• The root password can be forgotten
• Connections to the localhost are usually made through a UNIX domain socket file,
which is typically /tmp/mysql.sock
Root password forgotten
The root password might have been forgotten to a value you do not know. This can
happen when you change the password; if, for example, you accidentally type an invisible
code character when you enter the new password value. You might also have simply
forgotten the password.
In this case, when you cannot connect, you need to regain control of the server so that
you can reset the password again:
• Bring down the server

o If you can log in as root on the server host, you can terminate the server
using the kill command.
o Note: You can find out the server’s process ID via the ps command.
• RESTART the server with the –skip-grant-tables option
o This tells the server not to use the grant tables to verify the connections. That
allows you to connect as root with no password. After you are connected,
change the root password as required.
• After changing the password, use the command flush privileges.
• Restart the server.
When the Socket File is Removed
If you cannot connect because you have lost the socket file, you can get it back by
restarting the server, because the server recreates it at start-up time. The trick here is that
you cannot use the socket to establish a connection because it is gone. You must
establish a TCP/IP connection instead:
mysqladmin -uroot -p'pass' -h'ip-addr/hostname' shutdown
Restart the server again after this.
4. MySQL User Account Management

This section describes how to set up accounts for your MySQL server’s clients. It discusses
the following topics:
• The meaning of account names and passwords as used in MySQL, and how that
compares with names and passwords used by your operating system
• How to set up new accounts and remove existing accounts
• How to change passwords
• Guidelines for using passwords securely
• How to use secure connections with SSL
4.1. MySQL Usernames and Passwords

A MySQL account is defined in terms of a username, and the client host or hosts from which
the user can connect to the server. The account also has a password. There are several
distinctions between the way usernames and passwords are used by MySQL, and the way
they are used by your operating system:
• Usernames, as used by MySQL for authentication purposes, have nothing to do with

usernames (login names) as used by MS Windows or UNIX. On UNIX, most MySQL
clients try by default to log in using the current UNIX username as the MySQL
username, but that is for the sake of convenience only. The default can be overridden
easily, because client programs allow any username to be specified with a -u or
--user option. Since this means that anyone can attempt to connect to the server
using any username, you cannot make a database secure in any way unless all
MySQL accounts have passwords. Anyone who specifies a username for an account
that has no password will be able to connect successfully to the server.
• MySQL usernames can be up to sixteen characters long. Operating system
usernames might have a different maximum length. Usernames in UNIX, for example,
are typically limited to eight characters.

• MySQL passwords have nothing to do with passwords for logging into your operating
system. There is no connection between the password you use to log in to a MS
Windows or UNIX machine, and the password you use to access the MySQL server
on that machine.
• MySQL encrypts passwords using its own algorithms. This encryption is different from
that which is used during the UNIX login process. MySQL password encryption is the
same as that implemented by the PASSWORD() SQL function. UNIX password
encryption is the same as that implemented by the ENCRYPT() SQL function. From
version 4.1 onwards, MySQL employs a stronger authentication method which
features better password protection during the connection process than in earlier
versions. It is secure even if TCP/IP packets are sniffed, or the database mysql is
captured. (In earlier versions, even though passwords were stored in an encrypted
form in the user table, knowledge of the encrypted password value could be used to
connect to the MySQL server).
When you connect to a MySQL server with a command-line client, specify the username and
password for the account that you want to use:
shell> mysql --user=monty --password=guess db_name
If you prefer short options, the command looks like this:
shell> mysql -u monty -pguess db_name
There must be no space between the -p option and the following password value. The
preceding commands include the password value on the command-line, which can be a
security risk. To avoid this, specify the --password or -p option without any following password
value:
shell> mysql --user=monty --password db_name
shell> mysql -u monty -p db_name
The client program will then print a prompt, and wait for you to enter the password. (In these
examples, db_name is not interpreted as a password because it is separated from the
preceding password option by a space).
On some systems, the library call that MySQL uses to prompt for a password automatically
limits the password to eight characters. That is a problem with the system library, not with
MySQL. Internally, MySQL does not set any limit for the length of the password. In order to
work around the problem, change your MySQL password to a value that is eight or fewer
characters long, or place your password in an option file.
4.2. Adding New User Accounts to MySQL

Create MySQL accounts in two ways:
• By using GRANT statements

• By manipulating the MySQL grant tables directly
The preferred method is to use GRANT statements, because they are more concise, and less
error-prone. GRANT is available as of MySQL 3.22.11; its syntax is described in the MySQL
Language Reference.
Another option is to use one of several available third-party programs that offer capabilities for
MySQL account administration. phpMyAdmin is one such program.
The following examples show how to use the MySQL client program to set up new users. In
order to make changes, connect to the MySQL server as the MySQL root user. The root
account must have the INSERT privilege for the MySQL database, and the RELOAD
administrative privilege.
Use the MySQL program to connect to the server as the MySQL root user:
shell> mysql --user=root mysql
If you have assigned a password to the root account, you will also need to supply a
--password or -p option for this MySQL command, and also for those mentioned further on in
this section. After connecting to the server as root, you can add new accounts. The following
statements use GRANT to set up four new accounts:
RDBMS : MySQL 36
mysql> GRANT ALL PRIVILEGES ON *.* TO 'monty'@'localhost'
-> IDENTIFIED BY 'some_pass' WITH GRANT OPTION;
mysql> GRANT ALL PRIVILEGES ON *.* TO 'monty'@'%'

-> IDENTIFIED BY 'some_pass' WITH GRANT OPTION;
mysql> GRANT RELOAD,PROCESS ON *.* TO 'admin'@'localhost';
mysql> GRANT USAGE ON *.* TO 'dummy'@'localhost';
The accounts created by these GRANT statements contain the following properties:
• Two of the accounts have a username of monty and a password of some_pass. Both
accounts are super-user accounts, with full privileges to do anything. One account
('monty'@'localhost') can be used only when connecting from the local host. The
other ('monty'@'%') can be used to connect from any other host. It is necessary to
have both accounts for monty in order to be able to connect from anywhere as monty.
Without the localhost account, the anonymous-user account for localhost that is
created by mysql_install_db will take precedence when monty connects from the local
host. As a result, monty will be treated as an anonymous user. The reason for this is
that the anonymous-user account has a more specific host column value than the
'monty'@'%' account, and therefore comes earlier in the user table sort order.
• One account has a username of admin and no password. This account can be used
only by connecting from the local host. It is granted the RELOAD and PROCESS
administrative privileges. These privileges allow the admin user to execute the
mysqladmin reload, mysqladmin refresh, and mysqladmin flush-xxx commands, as
well as the mysqladmin processlist. No privileges are granted for accessing any
databases. You can add such privileges later by issuing additional GRANT
statements.
• One account has a username of dummy and no password. This account can be used
only by connecting from the local host. No privileges have been granted. The USAGE
privilege in the GRANT statement allows you to create an account without giving it
any privileges. It has the effect of setting all the global privileges to 'N'. It is assumed
that you will grant specific privileges to the account later.
As an alternative to GRANT, create the same accounts directly by issuing INSERT

statements, and then telling the server to reload the GRANT tables:
mysql> INSERT INTO user

-> VALUES('localhost','monty',PASSWORD('some_pass'),
-> 'Y','Y','Y','Y','Y','Y','Y','Y','Y','Y','Y','Y','Y','Y');
mysql> INSERT INTO user

-> VALUES('%','monty',PASSWORD('some_pass'),
-> 'Y','Y','Y','Y','Y','Y','Y','Y','Y','Y','Y','Y','Y','Y');
mysql> INSERT INTO user SET Host='localhost',User='admin',

-> Reload_priv='Y', Process_priv='Y';
mysql> INSERT INTO user (Host,User,Password)

-> VALUES('localhost','dummy','');
mysql> FLUSH PRIVILEGES;
The reason for using FLUSH PRIVILEGES when you create accounts with INSERT is to tell
the server to re-read the GRANT tables, otherwise the changes will go unnoticed until you
restart the server. With GRANT, FLUSH PRIVILEGES is unnecessary.

The reason for using the PASSWORD() function with INSERT is to encrypt the password.
The GRANT statement encrypts the password for you, so PASSWORD() is unnecessary.
The 'Y' values enable privileges for the accounts. Depending on your MySQL version, you
might have to use a different number of 'Y' values in the first two INSERT statements.
(Versions prior to 3.22.11 have fewer privilege columns, and versions from 4.0.2 on have
more). For the administrative account, the more readable extended INSERT syntax using
SET that is available starting with MySQL 3.22.11 is used.
In the INSERT statement for the dummy account, only the host, user, and password columns
in the user table record are assigned values. None of the privilege columns are explicitly set,
so MySQL assigns them all the default value of 'N'. This is equivalent to what GRANT
USAGE does.
In order to set-up a super-user account, it is only necessary to create a user table entry with
the privilege columns set to 'Y'. User table privileges are global, so no entries in any of the
other GRANT tables are needed.
The next examples create three accounts, and give them access to specific databases. Each
of them has a username, “custom”, and a password, “obscure”.
In order to create the accounts with GRANT, type the following statements:
mysql> GRANT SELECT,INSERT,UPDATE,DELETE,CREATE,DROP

-> ON bankaccount.*
-> TO 'custom'@'localhost'
-> IDENTIFIED BY 'obscure';

-> ON expenses.*
-> TO 'custom'@'whitehouse.gov'

-> ON customer.*
-> TO 'custom'@'server.domain'
The three accounts can be used as follows:
• The first account can access the bank account database, but only from the local host
• The second account can access the expenses database, but only from the host
whitehouse.gov
• The third account can access the customer database, but only from the host
server.domain
4.3. Removing User Accounts from MySQL

To remove an account, use the DROP USER statement, which has been added in MySQL
4.1.1. For older MySQL versions, use DELETE instead. To remove a MySQL user account
before 4.1.1, follow the procedure outlined below:
• Use SHOW GRANTS to determine what privileges the account has.

• Use REVOKE to revoke the privileges displayed by SHOW GRANTS. This removes
records for the account from all the GRANT tables except the user table, and revokes
any global privileges listed in the user table.
• Delete the account by using DROP USER to remove the user table record.
Delete the user table record and flush the GRANT tables:
RDBMS : MySQL 38
mysql> DELETE FROM mysql.user
-> WHERE User='user_name' and Host='host_name';
mysql> FLUSH PRIVILEGES;
4.4. Limiting Account Resources

Before MySQL 4.0.2, the only available method for limiting the use of MySQL server
resources was to set the max_user_connections system variable to a non-zero value. That
method, however, is strictly global. It does not allow for the management of individual
accounts. It also limits only the number of simultaneous connections made using a single
account, not what a client can do once connected. Both types of control are of interest to
many MySQL administrators, particularly those of interest to Internet Service Providers
(ISPs).
Starting from MySQL 4.0.2, however, you can limit the following server resources for
individual accounts:
• The number of queries that an account can issue per hour

• The number of updates that an account can issue per hour
• The number of times an account can connect to the server per hour
Any statement that a client can issue counts against the query limit. Only statements that
modify databases or tables count against the update limit.
An account in this context is a single record in the user table. Each account is uniquely
identified by its user and host column values.
As a pre-requisite for using this feature, the user table in the MySQL database must contain
the resource-related columns. Resource limits are stored in the max_questions,
max_updates, and max_connections columns. If your user table does not have these
columns, it needs to be upgraded.
To set resource limits with a GRANT statement, use a WITH clause that names each
resource to be limited, and a per-hour count indicating the limit value. In order to create a new
account that can access the customer database, for example, but only in a limited fashion,
issue this statement:
mysql> GRANT ALL ON customer.* TO 'francis'@'localhost'

-> IDENTIFIED BY 'frank'
-> WITH MAX_QUERIES_PER_HOUR 20
-> MAX_UPDATES_PER_HOUR 10
-> MAX_CONNECTIONS_PER_HOUR 5;
The limit types need not all be named in the WITH clause, but those named can be presented
in any order. The value for each limit should be an integer representing a count per hour. If
the GRANT statement has no WITH clause, each of the limits is set to the default value of
zero, that is, no limit.
To set or change limits for an existing account, use a GRANT USAGE statement at the global
level (ON *.*). The following statement changes the query limit for Francis to 100:
mysql> GRANT USAGE ON *.* TO 'francis'@'localhost'

-> WITH MAX_QUERIES_PER_HOUR 100;
This statement leaves the account's existing privileges unchanged, and modifies only the limit
values specified.
To remove an existing limit, set its value to zero. To remove the limit on how many times per
hour Francis can connect, for example, use this statement:
mysql> GRANT USAGE ON *.* TO 'francis'@'localhost'

-> WITH MAX_CONNECTIONS_PER_HOUR 0;
4.5. Assigning Account Passwords

Passwords may be assigned from the command-line by using the mysqladmin command.
5. Disaster Prevention and Recovery

This section discusses how to make database back-ups and how to perform table
maintenance.
5.1. Database Back-ups

• If a system crash occurs, you want to be able to restore your tables to the state they
were in at the time of the crash, with as little data loss as possible.
• A user might accidentally issue a DROP or DELETE statement, and then want you to
restore the data.
• An administrator might try to edit table files with normal editors, thereby usually
corrupting the table.
• A sudden hard-disk failure is common, and having a recent back-up of the databases
can ease the recovery process.
5.2. Back-up Principles

• Perform regular back-ups. Set up a schedule and follow it strictly.
• Instruct the server to perform update logging. Update logs represent incremental
dumps, and are needed to restore the databases to their state at the time of crash.
• Use FLUSH LOGS to ensure that new updated logs are synchronized with back-up
files.
• Use a consistent and an understandable back-up file-naming scheme by including the
date in the filename, for example:
SAMP_DB.20000901
• Put your back-up files on a different file system than the one on which your databases
are.
• Back-up your back-up files using file system back-ups.
5.3. Back-up Methods

There are three ways to perform the back-up:
• Direct copy method
• Mysqldump
• Mysqlhotcopy
5.3.1. Direct copy method
• MySQL stores database information under its sub-directory (in the data directory)
• Involves copying the data directory of the server
• Extremely fast (bit-wise copy of files)
• Must Lock tables for write access, or shutdown the server before copying the files
• Not very portable
5.3.2. Mysqlhotcopy
• Mysqlhotcopy is a PERL script that was originally written and contributed by Tim
Bunce. It uses LOCK TABLES, FLUSH TABLES, and CP or SCP to quickly make a
back-up of a database
• It is the fastest way to make a back-up of the database or single tables, but it can only
be run on the same machine on which the database directories are located
• Only works on MyISAM table types
Consider the following example:
RDBMS : MySQL 40
shell> mysqlhotcopy db_name [/path/to/new_directory]
shell> mysqlhotcopy db_name_1 ... db_name_n /path/to/new_directory
You can also copy all the table files (*.frm, *.MYD, and *.MYI files) as long as the server is
not updating anything. The mysqlhotcopy script uses this method.
This does not work if your database contains InnoDB tables. InnoDB does not store table
contents in database directories, and mysqlhotcopy works only on MyISAM and ISAM
tables.
5.3.3. mysqldump
• Regenerates the table data and/or schema using SQL statements

• Extremely portable between different versions of MySQL
• Allows portability to other databases as well
• Very slow in comparison to hot copy
• Back-up files are very large (SQL text) but can be compressed with bzip/gzip
• Client utility
Syntax:
mysqldump [options] db_name [tables]> backup-file-name
mysqldump [options] –databases > backup-file-name
mysqldump [options] –all-databases > backup-file-name
Assuming the database being used for the table previously is ‘backup’, we issue:
shell> mysqldump backup > backup.sql
Mysqldump options
Option Description
For compressed SQL output mysqldump backup | gzip > /tmp/backup.sql.gz
-no-create-db This option suppresses the CREATE DATABASE /*!32312 IF
NOT EXISTS*/ db_name statements that are otherwise
included in the output if the –databases or –all-databases
option is given.
Syntax:
mysqldump –no-create-db db-name > backup-file-name
--no-create-info Do not write CREATE TABLE statements that recreate each
dumped table.
Syntax:
mysqldump --no-create-info backup >backup.sql
--no-data Do not write any row information for the table. This is very
useful if you want to get a dump of structure for a table.
Syntax:
mysqldump –no-data db-name < backup-file-name
EXAMPLE
mysqldump -no-data backup < backup.sql
Dumping multiple databases

Syntax:
mysqldump –databases db1 db2 > backup-file-name
Dumping all databases

Syntax:
mysqldump –all-databases > backup-file-name
Database Restoration
• Create an empty database either from the command-line, or directly from the prompt:
Shell> mysqladmin create backup
• Go to the path where your back-up file resides, and issue the following command:
Shell> mysql backup < backup.sql

6. Replication in MySQL
Replication capabilities, allowing the databases on one MySQL server to be duplicated on
another, were introduced in MySQL 3.23.15. This section describes the various replication
features provided by MySQL. It introduces replication concepts, shows how to set up
replication servers, and serves as a reference guide to the replication options currently
available.
6.1. Set-up Database Replication in MySQL

MySQL replication requires the user to have an exact copy of a database from a master
server on another server (slave), and all updates to the database on the master server are
immediately replicated to the database on the slave server, so that both databases remain
synchronized. This is not a back-up policy, because an accidentally issued DELETE
command will also be carried out on the slave; but replication can help protect against
hardware failure. In this tutorial, you will learn how to replicate the database exampledb from
the master with the IP address 192.168.0.100 to a slave. Both systems (master and slave)
are running Fedora Core 3; the configuration, however, should apply to almost all
distributions, and among all major platforms, with little, or no, modification.
Both systems have MySQL installed, and the database exampledb with tables and data
already exists on the master, but not on the slave
6.1.1. Configure the Master
Edit /etc/mysql/my.cnf. Enable networking for MySQL, and MySQL should listen on all IP
addresses. Comment out these lines, if they exist:
#skip-networking
#bind-address = 127.0.0.1
Tell MySQL which database it should write logs for (these logs are used by the slave to see
what has changed on the master); which log file it should use; and specify that this MySQL
server is the master. If you want to replicate the database exampledb, place the following
lines into /etc/mysql/my.cnf:
log-bin = /var/log/mysql/mysql-bin.log
binlog-do-db=exampledb
server-id=1
Restart MySQL:
/etc/init.d/mysql restart
Log into the MySQL database as root, and create a user with replication privileges:
mysql -u root –p
Enter password:
You are now on the MySQL shell:
GRANT REPLICATION SLAVE ON *.* TO 'slave_user'@'%' IDENTIFIED BY

'<some_password>'; (Replace <some_password> with a real password!)
FLUSH PRIVILEGES;
Still on the MySQL shell, type:
USE exampledb;
FLUSH TABLES WITH READ LOCK;
SHOW MASTER STATUS;
The last command will display something like this:

+---------------+----------+--------------+------------------+
| File | Position | Binlog_do_db | Binlog_ignore_db |
+---------------+----------+--------------+------------------+
| mysql-bin.006 | 183 | exampledb | |
RDBMS : MySQL 42
+---------------+----------+--------------+------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
Write down this information, you will need it later on the slave.
Leave the MySQL shell:
quit;
There are two possibilities of getting the existing tables and data from exampledb from the
master onto the slave. The first is to make a database dump; the second is to use the LOAD
DATA FROM MASTER; command on the slave. The latter carries the disadvantage that the
database on the master will be locked during this operation. If you have a large database on a
high-traffic production system, this is not what you want; follow the first method in this case.
The second method, however, is faster. Both will be described here.
If you want to follow the first method, type:
mysqldump -u root -p<password> --opt exampledb > exampledb.sql (Replace

<password> with the real password for the MySQL user root.
Important: There is no space between -p and <password>.
This will create an SQL dump of exampledb in the file exampledb.sql. Transfer this file to your
slave server.
If you want to use the LOAD DATA FROM MASTER; method, do nothing for the moment.
Unlock the tables in exampledb:
mysql -u root -p
Enter password:
UNLOCK TABLES;
quit;
The configuration on the master is now finished.
6.1.2. Configure the Slave
Create the database exampledb on the slave:
mysql -u root -p
Enter password:
CREATE DATABASE exampledb;
quit;
If you have made an SQL dump of exampledb on the master, and have transferred it to the
slave, import the SQL dump into the newly-created exampledb on the slave:
mysql -u root -p<password> exampledb < /path/to/exampledb.sql (Replace <password> with

the real password for the MySQL user root.
Important: There is no space between -p and <password>
If you want to go the LOAD DATA FROM MASTER; method, do nothing for the moment.
Tell MySQL on the slave that it is the slave, that the master is 192.168.0.100, and that the
master database to watch is exampledb. Add the following lines to /etc/mysql/my.cnf:
server-id=2
master-host=192.168.0.100
master-user=slave_user

master-password=secret
master-connect-retry=60
replicate-do-db=exampledb
Restart MySQL:
/etc/init.d/mysql restart
If you have not imported the master exampledb with the help of an SQL dump, but want to
follow the LOAD DATA FROM MASTER; method, get the data from the master exampledb:
mysql -u root -p
Enter password:
LOAD DATA FROM MASTER;
quit;
If you have phpMyAdmin installed on the slave, check if all the tables and the data from the
master exampledb are also available on the slave exampledb.
Type:
mysql -u root -p
Enter password:
SLAVE STOP;
Still on the MySQL shell, replace the values appropriately:
CHANGE MASTER TO MASTER_HOST='192.168.0.100',

MASTER_USER='slave_user', MASTER_PASSWORD='<some_password>',
MASTER_LOG_FILE='mysql-bin.006', MASTER_LOG_POS=183;
MASTER_HOST is the IP address or hostname of the master (in this example it is

192.168.0.100).
MASTER_USER is the user we granted replication privileges on the master.
MASTER_PASSWORD is the password of MASTER_USER on the master.
MASTER_LOG_FILE is the file MySQL gave back when you ran SHOW MASTER STATUS;
on the master.
MASTER_LOG_POS is the position MySQL gave back when you ran SHOW MASTER
STATUS; on the master.
Now all that is left to do is start the slave. Still on the MySQL shell we run
START SLAVE;
quit;
The replication process is now complete. Whenever exampledb is updated on the master, all
the changes will be replicated to exampledb on the slave as well.
7. Reference
• For a description of the syntax of administration-related SQL statements, see the MySQL
Language Reference.
• We suggest that you visit MySQL Web site at http://www.mysql.com often and read updates
RDBMS : MySQL 44
Comparison of Oracle, MySQL and
PostgreSQL DBMS

1. ELEMENTARY FEATURES:
1.1. Conformity with SQL standards:

DBMS Description
MySQL Entry-level SQL’92
Oracle Conformity with SQL'89, subset of SQL'92 types plus specific types. Some
SQL'92 types are mapped into Oracle types. No Boolean type or equivalent
PostgreSQL Extended subset of the SQL’92/’99 and SQL3 languages.
SQL'92 data types syntax are mapped directly into native PostgreSQL types
1.2. Binary and Character Large Objects:

DBMS Description
Binary Character
MySQL TINYBLOB, BLOB, MEDIUMBLOB, The four TEXT types TINYTEXT,
and LONGBLOB, differ only in the TEXT, MEDIUMTEXT, and
maximum length of the values; they LONGTEXT correspond to the four
can hold up to 2^32(4GB) bytes BLOB types and have the same
maximum length and storage
requirements
Oracle LONG RAW (2 GB), BLOB (4 GB) LONG (2 GB) and CLOB (4 GB) data
and BFILE (external storage, up to 4 types
GB) data types
PostgreSQL Must be defined by the user in TEXT type (size limited by a
CREATE TYPE; size is limited by a maximum row size)
maximum row size. BLOBs are
saved in files outside tables; only the
OID of the BLOB is stored in the
PostgreSQL table
1.3. User-defined data types:

DBMS Description
MySQL None
Oracle The user can define new complex data types
PostgreSQL The user may add new types to PostgreSQL using the CREATE TYPE
command
1.4. Object-relational extensions:

DBMS Description
MySQL None
Oracle Yes
PostgreSQL The table structure can be inherited
1.5. Special data types (multimedia, etc.)

DBMS Description
MySQL None
Oracle Yes
PostgreSQL Geometric types that represent two-dimensional spatial objects
RDBMS : MySQL 46
1.6. Sub-queries in SQL query:
DBMS Description
MySQL Yes, starting from Version 4.1
Oracle Uncorrelated and correlated sub-queries allowed up to 255 levels
PostgreSQL SQL compliance with Oracle
1.7. Primary and Unique keys:

DBMS Description
MySQL Yes
Oracle Yes
PostgreSQL Yes
1.8. Foreign key:

DBMS Description
MySQL Yes, for InnoDB table types where a relational or multi-table delete can be
performed
For MyISAM table type FOREIGN KEY clause is allowed for compatibility
only, and it has no effect on the database’s operation
Oracle Yes, ON DELETE CASCADE supported
PostgreSQL Yes, ON DELETE CASCADE and ON UPDATE CASCADE supported
1.9. Check:
DBMS Description
MySQL Yes, for MyISAM tables and views. No for InnoDB tables, where the CHECK
clause is allowed for compatibility only, and it has no effect on the
database’s operation
Oracle Yes
PostgreSQL Yes
1.10. Views:
DBMS Description
MySQL Yes, in Version 5 and higher
Oracle Yes
PostgreSQL Yes
1.11. Updateable views:

DBMS Description
MySQL Updateable VIEWs based on a single table or other updateable VIEWs
available from MySQL 5.0.1 release
Oracle Yes
PostgreSQL Yes - rights to the view are pushed through to the underlying base tables
1.12. Synonyms (an alias for any table, view or other object in database):
DBMS Description
MySQL No
Oracle Yes
PostgreSQL No

1.13. Auto Increment (counter) Columns:
DBMS Description
MySQL Yes. There can be only one auto increment column in a table, which must be
indexed
Oracle No
PostgreSQL Yes. SERIAL data type
1.14. Automatic conversion of code pages (e.g. between client and server):
Automatic conversion of code pages means that if the code pages on the server and on the
client differ, conversion should be carried out.
DBMS Description
MySQL No
Oracle Yes
PostgreSQL No
2. TRANSACTIONS
2.1. Support for transaction processing:

DBMS Description
MySQL Yes, for InnoDB table types
Oracle Yes
PostgreSQL Yes, it offers the read committed and serializable isolation levels
2.2. Partial rollback of transaction:

DBMS Description
MySQL Starting from 4.0.14, InnoDB supports SAVEPOINT and ROLLBACK TO
SAVEPOINT
Oracle Rollback to save-point. There is also a possibility of starting a new,
independent transaction from the current transaction
PostgreSQL Starting from 8.0.1 supports ROLLBACK, ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT
2.3. Locking level (table, page, and row):

DBMS Description
MySQL Table locking for ISAM/MyISAM and HEAP tables, page level locking for
BDB tables
InnoDB tables provide locking individual rows
Oracle Row level and table level
PostgreSQL Row level and table level
2.4. Deadlock Detection and Resolving:

DBMS Description
MySQL Yes
Oracle Yes
PostgreSQL Yes
3. PROGRAMMING IN DB
3.1. Languages for writing stored procedures:

DBMS Description
MySQL Yes, as of version 5. Previously a UDF (written in C or C++) was used to
RDBMS : MySQL 48
extend MySQL with a new function that works like native MySQL functions
Oracle PL/SQL and Java
PostgreSQL PL/PGSQL, PL/TCL, PL/Perl, SQL, C, possibility of creating a new language
- CREATE LANGUAGE
3.2. Triggers:
DBMS Description
MySQL Rudimentary support for triggers is included as of Version 5.0.2
Oracle In PL/SQL. Possibility of writing triggers reacting on the events:
BEFORE/AFTER DELETE/UPDATE/INSERT. INSTEAD OF triggers
can be used to update data through views
PostgreSQL Declarative rules – an extension to SQL. The user can specify SELECT,
INSERT, DELETE or UPDATE as a rule event. INSTEAD OF rules can be
used to update data through views
Procedural triggers in PL/PGSQL, PL/TCL, PL/Perl, and C. CREATE
CONSTRAINT TRIGGER creates a trigger to support a constraint. The user
can specify BEFORE or AFTER on INSERT, DELETE or UPDATE as a
trigger event
4. ADMINISTRATION
4.1. User authorization:

DBMS Description
MySQL The user is identified on the base of the login, password, and hostname
(from which the user can connect)
Authorization is made on the server’s side, but there is the possibility of
using secure connections between the client and the server using SSL
Oracle The user is identified on the base of the login and password; there is also the
possibility of using the operating system level authorization
PostgreSQL The following per-database authentication options are available in
PostgreSQL:
• Trust authentication
• Password authentication
• Kerberos authentication
• Ident-based authentication
• PAM - Pluggable Authentication Modules based authentication
method
4.2. Encrypted Client - Server connection:

DBMS Description
MySQL SSL 4.0
Oracle Unknown
PostgreSQL SSL or SSH. Kerberos authentication
4.3. Object access privileges (level)

DBMS Description
MySQL Table level. UPDATE and INSERT rights can also be limited for selected
columns
Oracle Access rights on the table level. UPDATE, INSERT and REFERENCES
rights on selected columns
PostgreSQL Table level
4.4. Access privileges grouping:

DBMS Description

MySQL No
Oracle Privileges can be grouped into roles. The roles can be granted to users or to
other roles
PostgreSQL Groups of users can be created and privileges can be granted to these
groups
4.5. Incremental and on-line backups:

DBMS Description
MySQL InnoDB on-line backup, also supports incremental backups
Oracle Yes
PostgreSQL May be added soon; is expected after the release of 7.5
4.6. Tools for data export:

DBMS Description
MySQL Set of special utilities - mysqldump, mysqlhotcopy, mysqlsnapshot,
innodb2myisam
Selected tables or the whole database dumped to SQL statements ready to
insert to another database
BLOB values are saved inside normal tables, so there is no problem
regarding dumping such values
Oracle Only spooling of SQL query results
PostgreSQL pg_dump data dumping into a script file containing DML commands
pg_dumpall is a utility for dumping out all PostgreSQL databases into one
file
COPY moves data between PostgreSQL tables and standard file-system
files
4.7. Tools for data import:

DBMS Description
MySQL Import from text files, HTML, DBF
Oracle High-speed and very flexible data loader
PostgreSQL COPY moves data between PostgreSQL tables and standard file-system
files
COPY instructs the PostgreSQL backend to directly read from, or write to, a
file
5. PORTABILITY AND SCALABILITY
5.1. Hardware and system platforms supported:

DBMS Description
MySQL Many UNIX, Windows and OS/2 platforms. Packaged and available with
most Linux distributions
Oracle Over 200 platforms, including UNIX, Windows, mid-range and mainframe
platforms
PostgreSQL Many UNIX and Windows platforms, QNX - real time system for x86
5.2. Portability of data and code (e.g. stored procedures)

DBMS Description
MySQL Copy MySQL files (.FRM, .MYI, .MYD) between platforms with different
architecture, but using the same floating-point format. Data and index files in
ISAM databases are independent of hardware architecture and in some
cases of systems, such as the "mysqldump" program
Oracle Data and code can be ported between platforms without any changes using
RDBMS : MySQL 50
export/import utilities
PostgreSQL Yes
5.3. Support for SMP systems (parallel query execution, etc.):

Parallel processing in single memory systems - also known as Symmetric Multi Processing
(SMP) hardware, in which multiple processors use one memory resource.
DBMS Description
MySQL A multi-threaded server that can use many processors. A separate thread is
created for each connection
Oracle Oracle can use multiprocessor SMP systems, e.g. for query paralleling
(Parallel Query Option)
PostgreSQL PostgreSQL is not threaded, but every connection gets its own process
6. PERFORMANCE AND VLDB
6.1. Known VLDB implementations:

Very Large Databases (VLDB) mean multiple gigabytes or single terabytes.
DBMS Description
MySQL Handles large databases
Oracle Terabyte databases exist
PostgreSQL 60GB databases exist
6.2. Maximum number of rows and columns in a table:

DBMS Description
MySQL Maximum number of columns in one table - 3398; size of a table row - 65534
(BLOB and TEXT not included)
Oracle Maximum number of columns in one table - 1000. Up to 32 columns in index
key
PostgreSQL Unlimited, columns - 1600; size of a table row - 1.6TB
6.3. Maximum number of tables and indexes:

DBMS Description
MySQL Number of tables - unlimited, up to 32 indexes per table with 256 bytes
maximum key length
Oracle Unlimited
PostgreSQL Unlimited
6.4. "Manual" tuning of the allocation:

DBMS Description
MySQL Some parameters exist for InnoDB tables as table space, data files location,
auto-extending, etc.
Oracle Yes, many parameters of the allocation can be tuned on a system, table
space or object level
PostgreSQL Data file location and a table space implementation as of Version 8
6.5. Automatic partitioning of large tables/indexes and using partitions in query

optimization:
Partitioning addresses the problem of supporting very large tables and indexes by allowing
users to decompose them into smaller and more manageable pieces called “partitions”.

DBMS Description
MySQL Yes for InnoDB tables
Oracle Yes
PostgreSQL Tables and indexes are automatically partitioned, but there are no specific
enhancements for query optimization
6.6. Access to multiple databases in one session:

DBMS Description
MySQL Only switching between databases is possible. In SELECT, data from
different databases can be taken
Oracle Each session can use data from many instances, using transparent
distributed SQL access
PostgreSQL Only switching between databases is possible. No support exists for
selecting data from different databases
6.7. Replication:
Replication is the process of copying and maintaining database objects in multiple databases
that make up a distributed database system. Replication can improve performance, and
protect the availability of applications because alternate data access options exist.
DBMS Description
MySQL Replication works well in the last stable Version (3.23.32). It is a master-
slave replication, using the binary log of operations on the server’s side. It is
possible to build star or chain type structures
Oracle Generally 3 Oracle tools/products cover the replication area. All of them are
part of the Oracle Server Enterprise Edition (not extra-cost options).
Oracle replication methods:

Advanced Replication – traditional, trigger/snapshot-log based change data
capture can be synchronous or asynchronous.
Oracle Streams – Oracle Streams provide asynchronous, redo log based
data replication. Oracle Streams capture process mines active redo logs.
Oracle Data Guard – redo log based change data capture. Oracle Data
Guard uses archived redo logs to capture the data changes. Oracle Data
Guard standby databases can be either Physical standby or Logical standby.
Physical replica/standby cannot be opened during replication. Logical replica
can be opened during replication (useful for near real time reporting,
replicated objects are in read-only mode)
PostgreSQL Several replication systems are available (both commercial and non-
commercial) for master-slave, 2 way asynchrons, and cascading slave
solutions
6.8. Gateways to other DBMSs:

DBMS Description
MySQL None
Oracle Yes, gateways to other DBMSs are available
PostgreSQL None
7. APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT AND INTERFACES
7.1. Standard interfaces ODBC and JDBC:

DBMS Description
MySQL ODBC (myODBC code) and 2 types of JDBC drivers are supported
Oracle JDBC Thin Driver - for client-side applications (applets) in a three-layer
RDBMS : MySQL 52
architecture:
• JDBC OCI Client-side Driver - for client-server applications
• JDBC Server Driver - to create applications working on the server’s
side (servlets)
PostgreSQL PostgreSQL provides a type 4 JDBC Driver. Type 4 indicates that the driver
is written in Pure Java, and communicates in the database's own network
protocol. Because of this, the driver is platform-independent. Once compiled,
the driver can be used on any platform
7.2. Application support:

DBMS Description
MySQL C/C++, Java, Perl, Python, PHP, Ruby
Oracle Oracle OCI - low level access to DBMS; Perl, Python
PostgreSQL C/C++, JAVA/JDBC, PHP, Perl, Ruby, TCK/TK, Python, Object Pascal and
internal procedural languages like PL/pgSQL comparable to Oracle PL/SQL
7.3. Dedicated Web servers:

DBMS Description
MySQL None
Oracle Several specialized Oracle Web products exist, e.g.:
• Oracle WebDB - for simple Web applications
• Oracle Application Server (OAS) - for professional, scalable Web
applications
• Oracle Internet Server (IAS) – a specialized version of the Apache
HTTP server
PostgreSQL None
7.4. XML support integrated in DBMS:

DBMS Description
MySQL None
Oracle Many XML tools do integrate with DBMS (parsers, processors, XSLT, etc.)
PostgreSQL Provides an optional XML handling package distributed with the core server
7.5. Support from CASE packages:

DBMS Description
MySQL PLONE, Ruby on Rails
Oracle Oracle Designer, JDeveloper
PostgreSQL Unknown
8. RELIABILITY
8.1. Automatic recovery from failures:

DBMS Description
MySQL Only InnoDB tables have automatic crash recovery. Hot backup tool is
available for InnoDB to make backups of a running database in the
background, without setting any locks or disturbing database operation
Oracle Recovery from soft failures is automatic and transparent. Recovery from
media failures requires a backup copy. With redo logs, it is possible to
recover all committed transactions, or to recover upto a specific point in time
PostgreSQL Write Ahead Logging (WAL)

9. COMMERCIAL ISSUES
9.1. License type:

DBMS Description
MySQL GPL (GNU General Public License) or Commercial
Oracle Negotiated with Oracle on a site-by-site basis
PostgreSQL BSD (Berkeley Software Distribution) open source
9.2. Technical support:

DBMS Description
MySQL Mailing lists and website. Paid technical support services are also available
via telephone
Oracle High quality technical support services are available on several levels
PostgreSQL Mailing lists and website. Commercial support is now becoming available
from several smaller dedicated PostgreSQL companies (Command Prompt,
PGSQL Inc.). It is also available in some geographical areas from major
companies like Fujitsu, SRA, and Pervasive
9.3. Market share:

According to SD Times magazine, dated July 1, 2004, the Top Deployed Databases poll
shows the following databases to be in popular use:
• SQL Server: 78%

• Oracle: 55%
• MySQL: 33%
• PostgreSQL - 8%
9.4. Specific market segments occupied:

DBMS Description
MySQL Web servers. Common on Linux-based systems
Oracle Not applicable
PostgreSQL Education, Telephony, DNS Services, Web services
RDBMS : MySQL 54

Rdbms Mysql

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Open Source Software Training Toolkit 1

You would run a query like this:

Open Source Software Training Toolkit 3

3.1. Relational vs. flat file databases

3.2. Database Normalization

• Eliminate duplicative columns from the same table

• Meet all the requirements of the first normal form

• Meet all the requirements of the second normal form

• Meet all the requirements of the third normal form

Remember, these normalization guidelines are cumulative. For a database to be in 2NF, it

Open Source Software Training Toolkit 5

Following are the major features of MySQL:

2. Conformance with SQL standards

3. MySQL Client Programs

3.1. The mysql Client Program

shell> mysql –help;

To determine the version of a program, use the --version option:

shell> mysql –version;

Open Source Software Training Toolkit 7

This option specifies the username for your MySQL account.

3.2. The mysqlimport Client Program

shell> mysqlimport options db_name input_file

3.3. The mysqldump Client Program

Reloading mysqldump Output

shell> mysqldump --opt school student > student.sql

shell> mysqldump --opt school student | mysql college

3.4. The mysqlcheck and myisamchk Client Program

4. General Database and Table Manipulation

Open Source Software Training Toolkit 9

VARCHAR -> CHAR

CHAR -> VARCHAR

Open Source Software Training Toolkit 11

Open Source Software Training Toolkit 13

6.4. Complex Types

• UNSIGNED makes the column not have negative values.

8.1. Precedence Rule

Precedence priority Operators

8.2. Arithmetic Operators

Open Source Software Training Toolkit 15

8.3. Comparison Operators

value IN ( value1,value2,...) Match rows if value is among the values listed

8.4. Logical Operators

8.5. MySQL Conversions

The following conversions are performed by MySQL:

9. Connecting to, and Disconnecting from, the Server

shell> mysql -h host -u user –p

Open Source Software Training Toolkit 17

10. Creating and Using a Database

mysql> CREATE DATABASE school;

mysql> USE school

shell> mysql -h host -u user -p school

11. Table Manipulation

11.1. Creating a Table

11.2. Dropping a Table

shell> drop table teacher;

11.3. Altering a Table

Open Source Software Training Toolkit 19

Use the same teacher table for alteration as:

11.4. Renaming a table

mysql> alter table teacher rename to lecturers;