CEHv8 Module 19 Cryptography PDF

C ry p to g ra p h y
Module 19
Ethical Hacking and Countermeasures Exam 3 12 -5 0 Certified Ethical Hacker
Cryptography
C r y p to g r a p h y
M o d u le 19
Engineered by Hackers. Presented by Professionals.
CEH
E t h ic a l H a c k in g a n d C o u n t e r m e a s u r e s v 8
M o d u le 19: C r y p t o g r a p h y
E x a m 3 1 2 -5 0
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All Rights Reserved. Reproduction is Strictly Prohibited.
Cryptography
R a n so m M a lw a re H its A u s tr a lia a s
3 0 B u s in e s s e s A tta c k e d
01 October 2012
The 2012 epidemic of ransom malware appears to have turned even nastier with reports that as many
as 30 Australian businesses have now asked police for help coping with attacks in a matter of days.
According to local news, police in the state of Queensland have received reports from a dozen
businesses while many other are believed to have chosen to keep incidents to themselves.
Businesses affected included those in the medical, entertainment, retail and insurance sectors, the
news source said, with several dozen affected in total.
In one recent incident, a business in the Northern Territories reportedly paid an AUD $3,000 (about
2,000) ransom via Western Union to get back access to important financial records, including credit
card data and debtor invoices. The attackers demanded the money within seven days or the sum would
increase by AUD $1,000 per week.
Worryingly, this attack used 256-bit encryption, to all intents and purposes impossible to crack if the
key has not been exposed during the attack.
"A lot of businesses can't afford the interruptions to their trade and will pay straight away," detective
superintendent Brian Hay of Queensland's fraud and corporate crime group told press.
http://news.techworld.com
Copyright by EG-G*ancil. All Rights Reserved. Reproduction is Strictly Prohibited.
S e c u r it y N e w s
.1* R a n s o m M a lw a r e H it s A u s t r a lia a s 30 B u s in e s s e s
A tta c k e d
Source: http://news.techworld.com
The 2012 epidemic of ransom malware appears to have turned even nastier with reports that
as many as 30 Australian businesses have now asked police for help coping with attacks in a
matter of days.
According to local news, police in the state of Queensland have received reports from a dozen
businesses while many other are believed to have chosen to keep incidents to themselves.
Businesses affected included those in the medical, entertainment, retail and insurance sectors,
the news source said, with several dozen affected in total.
In one recent incident, a business in the Northern Territories reportedly paid an AUD $3,000
(about 2,000) ransom via Western Union to get back access to important financial records,
including credit card data and debtor invoices. The attackers demanded the money within
seven days or the sum would increase by AUD $1,000 per week.

Cryptography
Worryingly, this attack used, to all intents and purposes impossible to crack if the key has not
been exposed during the attack.
"A lot of businesses can't afford the interruptions to their trade and will pay straight away/'
detective superintendent Brian Hay of Queensland's fraud and corporate crime group told
press.
Ransom malware has become a serious issue during 2012, although its effect on businesses is
rarely recorded. Most of the data that has become public has been in the form of police
warnings based on attacks against consumers.
Most attacks simply attempt to engineer users into believing their files are encrypted when
they are not or make more general threats, often to report victims to national police for non-
existent crimes.
The use of industrial-strength encryption is rare although this sort of technique is actually
where the form started as long ago in 2006 with a piece of malware called 'Cryzip.
In August, the FBI said it had been "inundated" with ransom malware reports from consumers,
not long after the UK's Police Central e-Crime Unit (PCeU) publicised an identical spate of
attacks that had affected over a thousand PCs in the UK.
In the past the few security companies that have investigated the issue have pinned the blame
on a single cabal of Russian criminals that seem able to operate with impunity. Now the same
tactics appear to have spread to gangs in nearby countries such as the Ukraine and Romania.
The suspicion is that some security vendors say little about the problem because not only is
their software unable to stop infections but they can't always unlock the files after the fact
either.
All contents IDG2012

By: John EDunn
http://news.techworld.com/security/3401328/ransom-malware-hits-australia-as-30-
businesses-attacked/

Cryptography
M o d u le O b je c tiv e s CEH
1
J C ry p to g rap h y 'J D igital S ign atu re
J E ncryption A lg o rith m s J Disk Encryption
J Ciphers J Disk E ncryption Tool
J W h a t Is SSH (S ecure Shell)? J C ry p to g rap h y Attacks
J C ry p to g rap h y Tools J C od e B reaking M e th o d o lo g ie s
J Public Key In fra s tru c tu re (PKI) J C ryptanalysis Tools
J C ertificatio n A u th o ritie s J O n lin e M D 5 D ecryp tio n Tools
Copyright by EG-G*ancil. All Rights Reserved. Reproduction is Strictly Prohibited.
ft: M o d u le O b je c t iv e s
Having dealt with various security concerns and countermeasures in the preceding
modules, it is obvious that cryptography, as a security measure, is here to stay. This module will
familiarize you with:
s Cryptography Digital Signature

S Encryption Algorithms Disk Encryption
S Ciphers Disk Encryption Tool
0 What Is SSH (Secure Shell)? Cryptography Attacks
S Cryptography Tools Code Breaking Methodologies
S Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) Cryptanalysis Tools
S Certification Authorities Online MD5 Decryption Tools
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Cryptography
M o d u le F lo w C EH
V
V M o d u le F lo w
X
To understand cryptography security measures, let's begin with cryptography and its
associated concepts.
Cryptography Concepts |*jiH Encryption Algorithms
Cryptography Tools Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)
Email Encryption Disk Encryption
Cryptography Attacks 0^) Cryptanalysis Tools
This section describes cryptography and the types of cryptography.

Ethical Hacking a n d C o u n te rm e a s u re s Exam 3 1 2 -5 0 C ertified Ethical H acker
C r y p t o g r a p h y C E H
C r y p t o g r a p h y is t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f d a t a i n t o a s c r a m b l e d
c o d e t h a t is d e c r y p t e d a n d s e n t a c r o s s a p r i v a t e o r
p u b lic n e tw o rk
Cryptography is used to protect confidential data such as

email messages, chat sessions, web transactions, personal
data, corporate data, e-commerce applications, etc.
J C onfidentiality J A uthentication
Objectives
J Integrity J N o n-R epudiation
Plaintext
E n c ry p tio n
Ciphertext
>*
Ciphertext
D e c ry p tio n
..............>
Plaintext
Process
W
C o p y rig h t b y EG-G*ancil. All R ig h ts R e s e r v e d . R e p r o d u c tio n is S tric tly P ro h ib ite d .
Everyone has secrets, and when it is necessary to transfer that secret information
from one person to another, it's very important to protect that information or data during the
transfer. Cryptography takes plaintext and transforms it into an unreadable form (ciphertext)
for the purpose of maintaining security of the data being transferred. It uses a key to transform
it back into readable data when the information reaches its destination. The word crypto is
derived from the Greek word kryptos. Kryptos was used to depict anything that was concealed,
hidden, veiled, secret, or mysterious. Graph is derived from graphia, which means writing;
hence, cryptography means the art of "the secret writing."
Cryptography is the study of mathematical techniques involved in information security such as
confidentiality, data integrity, entity authentication, and data origin authentication.
Cryptography transforms plaintext messages to ciphertext (encrypted messages) by means of
encryption. Modern cryptography techniques are virtually unbreakable, though it is possible to
break encrypted messages by means of cryptanalysis, also called code breaking. There are four
main objectives of cryptography:
C o n fid e n tia lity
According to the International Standards Organization (ISO), confidentiality is "ensuring

that the information/data can be accessed only by those authorized." Confidentiality is the
M o d u le 19 P ag e 2788 Ethical H acking a n d C o u n te rm e a s u re s C opyright by EC-C0UnCil

All Rights R eserved. R ep ro d u ctio n is Strictly P ro h ib ite d .
term used to describe the prevention of revealing information to unauthorized computers or

users.
Any breach in confidentiality may lead to both financial and emotional distress. There have
been instances of organizations going bankrupt due to a system breach by rival organizations.
Moreover, personal information in the wrong hands can ruin the lives of system users.
Therefore, only authorized users should possess access to information.
In te g r ity
Integrity is ensuring that the information is accurate, complete, reliable, and is in its
original form/' Valuable information is stored on the computer. Any data
corruption/modification can reduce the value of the information. The damage that data
corruption/modification can do to an organization is unfathomable.
Integrity of the data is affected when an insider (employee) of an organization or an attacker
deletes/alters important files or when malware infects the computer.
Although it may be possible to restore the modified data to an extent, it is impossible to restore
the value and reliability of the information.
Examples of violating the data integrity include:
9 A frustrated employee deleting important files and modifying the payroll system
9 Vandalizing a website and so on
A u th e n t ic a t io n
------ Authenticity is "the identification and assurance of the origin of information." It is

important to ensure that the information on the system is authentic and has not been
tampered with. It is also important to ensure that the computer users or those who access
information are who they claim to be.
N o n r e p u d ia tio n
In digital security, nonrepudiation is the means to ensure that a message transferred

has been sent and received by the persons or parties who actually intended to. Let us assume
that party A is sending a message M with the signature S to the party B. Then party A cannot
deny the authenticity of its signature S. It can be obtained through the use of:
9 Digital signatures: A digital signature functions as unique identifier for an individual, like
a written signature. It is used to ensure that a message or document is electronically
signed by the person.
9 Confirmation services: It is possible to indicate that messages are received and/or sent
by creating digital receipts. These digital receipts are generated by the message transfer
agent.
Encryption D e c ry p tio n ^
............ >
L j
C ip h e r te x t P la in te x t
FIGURE 1 9 .1 : Illu stra tin g c r y p to g ra p h y p r o c e s s

T y p e s o f C r y p t o g r a p h y c E H
(rtifwd itkKJl
1----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
S y m m e tric E n cry p tio n Symmetric Encryption
E n c ry p tio n D e c ry p tio n
Symmetric encryption (secret-key, DearJohn, Guuihifhofn DearJohn,
shared-key, and private-key) uses the kbifkfnnfk Thisismy
A/Cnumber Nklclmlm | .......... A/Cnumber
same key for encryption as it does for 7974392830 *_)_(}& 7974392830
decryption
P la in t e x t C ip h e rte x t P la in t e x t
Asym m etric Encryption A s y m m e tric E n cryp tio n
E n c ry p tio n D e c ry p tio n
Asymmetric encryption (public-key)
DearJohn, Guuihifhofn DearJohn,
kbifkfnnfk Thisismy uses different encryption keys for
A/Cnumber Nklclmlm A/Cnumber
7974392830 A)&LL 7974392830 encryption and decryption. These keys
are known as public and private keys
P la in t e x t C ip h e rte x t P la in t e x t ^
'C m T y p e s o f C ry p to g ra p h y
'
"'The following are the two types of cryptography:
9 Symmetric encryption (secret key cryptography)
e Asymmetric encryption (public key cryptography)
' S y m m e tr ic E n c r y p t io n
The symmetric encryption method uses the same key for encryption and decryption.
As shown in the following figure, the sender uses a key to encrypt the plaintext and sends the
ciphertext to the receiver. The receiver decrypts the ciphertext with the same key that is used
for encryption and reads the message in plaintext. As a single secret key is used in this process
symmetric encryption is also known as secret key cryptography. This kind of cryptography
works well when you are communicating with only a few people.
M o d u le 19 P ag e 2 7 9 0 Ethical H acking a n d C o u n te rm e a s u re s C opyright by EC-C0UnCil

S y m m e tr ic E n c r y p tio n
D e ar John,
This is m y
Encryption
f^ ) LkifW
K D IIK nnflr
nnTK
3
G u u ih ifh o fn
D ecryption
3
D e a rJ o h n ,
............
A /C n u m b e r N k lc lm lm A /C n u m b e r
7 9 7 439283 0 797 439283 0
Plain text C iphertext Plain text
FIGURE 19.2: Symmetric Encryption method
The p r o b le m w ith th e se cre t key is tr a n s fe r r in g it o ve r th e large n e tw o r k or Internet w h ile

p re v e n tin g it fr o m falling into th e w ro n g hands. In th is process, a n y o n e w h o k n o w s th e secret
key can d e c ry p t th e message. This p r o b le m can be fixed by a s y m m e t r ic e n c r y p tio n .
A s y m m e t r ic E n c r y p tio n
' 1 A s y m m e tr ic c r y p to g r a p h y uses d iffe re n t keys fo r e n c r y p tio n and d e c ry p tio n . In this

ty p e o f c ry p to g ra p h y , an end user on a p u b lic o r priva te n e tw o r k has a pair o f keys: a pu blic key
fo r e n c r y p tio n and a p riv a te key fo r d e c ry p tio n . Here, a p r iv a te k e y c a n n o t be d e riv e d fro m th e
p u b lic key.
The a s y m m e tr ic c ry p to g ra p h y m e th o d has be e n p ro v e n t o be se cu re ag ainst attackers. In

a s y m m e tr ic c ry p to g ra p h y, th e s e n d e r e n c o d e s th e m essage w ith th e help o f a p u b lic key and
th e re c e ive r d e c o d e s th e m e ssag e using a r a n d o m key g e n e r a te d by th e s e n d e r 's p u b lic key.
A s y m m e t r ic E n c r y p tio n
D ear John,
This is m y
Encryption
\
G u u ih ifh o fn
k b ifk fn n fk
Decryption
D e arJo hn,
This is m y
\
A /C n u m b e r N klc lm lm A/C n u m b e r
7974392830 7974392830
Plain text Ciphertext Plain text
FIGURE 19.3: Asymmetric Encryption method

G o v e rn m e n t A c c e s s to K e y s (G A K ) C E H
Government Access to
Keys means that software
companies will give copies of all
keys, (or at least enough of the
key that the remainder could m
be cracked) to the government
th\s \ssue
0n'y UseS and*ill

C u r t i s s u e s a
Sa *arram
to do so
II R ig h ts R e s e r v e d . R e p r o d u c tio n is S tr ic tly P r o h ib ite d .
G o v e r n m e n t A c c e s s to K e y s (G A K )
A key e s c ro w e n c r y p tio n sy ste m p ro v id e s th e d e cry p tin g c a p a b ility to ce rtain

a u th o riz e d p e rso n n e l, u n d e r stip u la te d co n d itio n s , and can d e c ry p t th e data.
The d a ta r e c o v e r y key s fo r e n c ry p tin g and d e c ry p tin g th e data are n o t sim ilar, but th e y in fo rm
a m e th o d t o d e te r m in e th e e n c r y p tio n and d e c r y p tio n keys. T h e y in clu d e a key e s c ro w (used to
refer th e sa fe g u ard th e data keys), key archive, key backup, and data r e c o v e r y system .
Key r e c o v e ry sy ste m s have g a in e d p r o m in e n c e due to th e de sire o f g o v e r n m e n t in te llig e n c e

and law e n fo r c e m e n t ag e n cie s to g u a r a n te e th e y have access t o th e e n c r y p te d in fo rm a tio n
w it h o u t th e k n o w le d g e o r c o n s e n t o f e n c r y p tio n users.
A w e ll-d e s ig n e d c ry p to s y s t e m p ro v id e s s e c u rity by re co v e rin g th e e n c r y p te d da ta w it h o u t

p r o p e r in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e c o r r e c t key. The m a in te n a n c e o f such h ig h - s e c u r ity m e asu re s
m ay cause p r o b le m s to th e o w n e r o f th e e n c ry p te d data if th e o w n e r lo ses th e key.
The e ve n tu a l goal o f g o v e r n m e n t- d r iv e n re c o v e r y e n c ry p tio n , as state d in th e US D e p a r tm e n t

o f C o m m e r c e 's re c e n t e n c ry p tio n re gulatio n s, "E n v is io n s a w o r ld w id e key m anagement
in fra stru c tu re w ith th e use o f key e sc ro w an d key re c o v e ry e n c r y p tio n ite m s."
The C lip p e r Chip is a hardw are-based c r y p to g r a p h ic d e v ice used to se cu re private

c o m m u n ic a t io n s by s im u lta n e o u s ly a u th o riz in g g o v e r n m e n t agents to o b ta in th e keys upon
giving it, v ag ue ly t e r m e d "le g a l a u t h o r iz a t io n . "

T h e k e y s a r e s p l i t b e t w e e n t w o g o v e r n m e n t e s c r o w a g e n c ie s . T h is h e l p s t h e g o v e r n m e n t in
a c c e s s in g p r i v a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n c h a n n e l s . A d e v i c e c a l l e d C l i p p e r is u s e d t o e n c r y p t v o i c e
c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d a s i m i l a r d e v i c e c a l l e d C a p s t o n e is u s e d t o e n c r y p t t h e d a t a .
T h e N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y A g e n c y (N S A ) is a s e c r e t US m i l i t a r y i n t e l l i g e n c e a g e n c y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
c a p tu rin g fo re ig n g o ve rn m e n t c o m m u n ic a tio n s , and c ra c k in g th e codes o fp ro te c te d
t r a n s m i s s i o n s t h a t a r e d e v e l o p e d w i t h a n a l g o r i t h m k n o w n as S k i p j a c k .
T h e S k ip j a c k a l g o r i t h m uses 8 0 - b i t k e ys. C ry p t a n a ly z in g re q u ire s s e a rc h in g t h r o u g h all keys,

w h i c h m a k e s i t s i x t e e n m i l l i o n t i m e s as h a r d t o b r e a k as DES.
F r o m t h e u s e r ' s v i e w p o i n t , a n y k e y e s c r o w s y s t e m d i m i n i s h e s s e c u r i t y . It p u t s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r
access t o th e u s e r 's c o m m u n i c a t i o n s in t h e hands o f e scro w a g e n c ie s , w h o s e in te n tio n s ,
p o l ic i e s , s e c u r i t y c a p a b i l i t i e s , a n d f u t u r e c a n n o t b e k n o w n .

M o d u l e F l o w C E H
C o p y rig h t b y EG-G*ancil. All R ig h ts R e s e r v e d . R e p r o d u c tio n Is S tric tly P ro h ib ite d .
M o d u le F lo w
So fa r, w e have discussed c ry p to g ra p h y and th e co n ce p ts associated w ith it. N ow w e

w ill discuss e n c ry p tio n key c o n c e p ts o f c ry p to g ra p h y . T here are m any m echanism s, i.e,
e n c ry p tio n a lg o rith m s , th a t a llo w yo u to e n c ry p t th e p la in te x t.
C ry p to g ra p h y C on ce p ts p i E n c ry p tio n A lg o rith m s
111:1111
C ry p to g ra p h y T o ols P ublic Key In fra s tru c tu re (PKI)
Em ail E n c ry p tio n Disk E n c ry p tio n
^ C ry p to g ra p h y A tta c k s C ry p ta n a ly s is T ools
This s e ctio n describes cip he rs and v a rio u s e n c ry p tio n a lg o rith m s such as AES, DES, RC4, RC5,
RC6, DSA, RSA, M D 5 , and SSH.

C ip h e r s
C ry p to g ra p h y re fe rs to se cre t w r itin g and a cip h e r is n o th in g m o re th a n an a lg o rith m

used fo r b o th e n c ry p tio n as w e ll as d e c ry p tio n . The tra d itio n a l m e th o d o f e n codin g and
d e co d in g used to be in a d iffe r e n t fo rm a t, w h ic h p ro v id e d n u m b e rin g fo r each le tte r o f th e
a lp h a b e t and used to e nco d e th e given message. If th e a tta c k e r also kn e w th e n u m b e rin g
s yste m , he o r she cou ld d eco de it.
In c ry p to g ra p h y , th e c ip h e r a lg o rith m used fo r e n co d in g is kn o w n as e n cip h e rin g and de co d in g

is k n o w n as d e c ip h e rin g .
Example:
a b c d e f g h...z a re g iven in codes o f n u m e ric a l n u m b e rs, such as 1 2 3 4 5...26.
The m essage can be e n co d e d based on th is e xam ple and can be d ecode d as w e ll. In a c ip h e r,
th e m essage a p pe a rs as p la in te x t b u t has been enco d e d th ro u g h a key. Based on th e
re q u ire m e n ts th e key co uld be a sym b o l o r som e o th e r fo rm o f te x t. If th e m essage is h ig h ly
c o n fid e n tia l, th e n th e key is re s tric te d to th e se n d e r and re c ip ie n t, b u t in som e cases in open
d o m ain s, som e keys a re shared w ith o u t a ffe c tin g th e m ain data.
T he re are v a rio u s typ e s o f ciph ers:

C la s s ic a l C ip h e r s
vv (!
IT O W j Classical ciphers are th e m o st basic ty p e o f cip h e rs th a t o p e ra te on a lp h a b e t le tte rs ,
such as A-Z. These are usually im p le m e n te d e ith e r by hand o r w ith sim p le m e ch a n ica l
d e vice s. These are n o t v e ry re lia b le . T here are tw o typ e s o f classical ciphers:
9 S u b s titu tio n c ip h e r: The u n its o f p la in te x t are replaced w ith c ip h e rte x t. It replaces bits,
cha ra cters, o r blocks o f ch a ra c te rs w ith d iffe re n t bits, ch a ra cte rs, o r blocks.
9 T ra n s p o s itio n c ip h e r: The le tte rs o f th e p la in te x t are s h ifte d to fo rm th e c ry p to g ra m .

The c ip h e rte x t is a p e rm u ta tio n o f th e p la in te x t.
Jjy M o d e r n C ip h e r s
M o d e rn cip h e rs are designed to w ith s ta n d a w id e range o f a tta c k s . M o d e rn ciphers

p ro v id e m essage secrecy, in te g rity , and a u th e n tic a tio n o f th e sender. The m o d e rn cip h e rs are
ca lcu la te d w ith th e help o f a o n e -w a y m a th e m a tic a l fu n c tio n th a t is capable o f fa c to rin g large
p rim e n u m b e rs . M o d e rn ciph ers are again classified in to tw o cate g o rie s based on th e ty p e o f
key and th e in p u t d ata . T hey are:
Based on th e ty p e o f k e y used
9 P riv a te -k e y c ry p to g ra p h y (s y m m e tric key a lg o rith m ): The sam e key is used fo r

e n c ry p tio n and d e c ry p tio n .
9 P u b lic -k e y c ry p to g ra p h y (a s y m m e tric key a lg o rith m ): T w o d iffe re n t keys are used fo r

e n c ry p tio n and d e c ry p tio n .
R L
Based on th e ty p e o f in p u t d a ta
C H *)-
9 B lock c ip h e rs : Refer to an a lg o rith m o p e ra tin g on block (g ro u p o f bits) o f fixe d

size w ith an u n v a ry in g tra n s fo rm a tio n sp e cifie d by a s y m m e tric key.
9 S tre a m c ip h e rs : Refer to s y m m e tric key ciphers. This is o b ta in e d by c o m b in in g th e

p la in te x t d ig its w ith a key s tre a m (p s e u d o ra n d o m cip h e r d ig it stre a m ).

D a ta E n c r y p tio n S ta n d a r d (D E S ) C E H
S
The algorithm is designed to encipher and
decipher blocks of data consisting of 64 bits
under control of a 56-bit key
H3
1 Hm U
DES is the archetypal block cipher an algorithm

that takes a fixed-length string of plaintext bits and
transforms it into a ciphertext bitstring of the
same length
Due to the inherent weakness of DES with today's

technologies, some organizations repeat the
process three times (3DES) for added strength, until
they can afford to update their equipment to AES
capabilities
D a ta E n c r y p tio n S ta n d a r d (D E S )
- rrY =r |*
--------- DES is th e nam e o f th e Federal in fo rm a tio n Processing S tandard (FIPS) 4 6 -3 th a t
describes th e data e n c ry p tio n a lg o rith m (DEA). It is a s y m m e tric c ry p to s y s te m d e sig n e d fo r
im p le m e n ta tio n in h a rd w a re and used fo r sin g le -u se r e n c ry p tio n , such as to s to re file s on a
hard disk in e n c ry p te d fo rm .
DES gives 72 q u a d rillio n o r m o re possible e n c ry p tio n keys and choses a ra n d o m key fo r each
m essage to be e n c ry p te d . T ho u g h DES is co n sid e re d to be s tro n g e n c ry p tio n , a t p re se n t, trip le
DES is used by m any o rg a n iz a tio n s . T rip le DES applies th re e keys successively.

Ethical Hacking a n d C o u n te rm e a s u re s Exam 3 1 2-50 C ertified Ethical H acker
A d v a n c e d E n c r y p tio n S ta n d a rd _
t t H
X l U l J I UrtifW4 ttfciul lUchM
AES is a symmetric-key algorithm for AES P s e u d o c o d e

securing sensitive but unclassified material
by U.S. government agencies
C ip h e r (b y te in [4 * N b ], b y te o u t[4 * N b ]
w o rd w [N b * (N r+ 1 ) ] )
b e g in
b y te s t a t e [ 4 , Nb]
AES is an iterated block cipher, which
s ta te = in
works by repeating the same operation
A d d R o u n d K e y ( s t a t e , w)
multiple times
fo r ro u n d = 1 s te p 1 to N r-1
S u b B y te s (s ta te )
S h if tR o w s ( s ta te )
It has a 128-bit block size, with key sizes of M ix C o lu m n s ( s ta t e )

128,192, and 256 bits, respectively for AES- A d d R o u n d K e y ( s ta te , w + ro u n d * N b )
128, AES-192, and AES-256 end fo r
S u b B y te s (s ta te )
S h if tR o w s ( s ta te )
A d d R o u n d K e y ( s ta te , w + N r*N b )
out = s ta te
A d v a n c e d E n c r y p tio n S ta n d a rd (A E S )
The A dvan ced E n c ry p tio n S tandard (AES) is a N a tio n a l In s titu te o f S ta n d a rd s and

T e c h n o lo g y s p e c ific a tio n fo r th e e n c ry p tio n o f e le c tro n ic data. It can be used to e n c ry p t d ig ita l
in fo rm a tio n such as te le c o m m u n ic a tio n s , fin a n c ia l, and g o v e rn m e n t data. AES consists o f a
s y m m e tric -k e y a lg o rith m , i.e., b o th e n c ry p tio n and d e c ry p tio n are p e rfo rm e d using th e sam e
key.
It is an ite ra te d block c ip h e r th a t w o rk s by re p e a tin g th e d e fin e d steps m u ltip le tim e s. This has a

1 2 8 -b it block size, w ith key sizes o f 128, 192, and 256 bits, re sp e ctive ly, fo r AES-128, AES-192,
and AES-256.
AES P seudo co de
In itia lly , th e c ip h e r in p u t is c o p ie d in to th e in te rn a l sta te and th e n an in itia l ro u n d key is added.

The s ta te is tra n s fo rm e d by ite ra tin g a ro u n d fu n c tio n in a n u m b e r o f cycles. Based on th e block
size and key le n g th , th e n u m b e r o f cycles m ay vary. O nce ro u n d in g is c o m p le te d , th e fin a l sta te
is co pie d in to th e c ip h e r o u tp u t. C ip h e r ( b y te i n [4 * N b ], b y te out [4 * N b ], w o rd
w [N b * (N r+ 1 )])
b e g in
b y t e s t a t e [4 , Nb]
s ta te = in

AddR oundKey (s ta te , w)
f o r ro u n d = 1 s t e p 1 t o N r - 1
S u b B y te s ( s t a t e )
S h if t R o w s ( s t a t e )
M ix C o lu m n s ( s t a t e )
A d dR o u n d K e y( s t a t e , w + ro u n d *N b )
e nd f o r
S u b B y te s ( s ta te )
S h if t R o w s ( s t a t e )
A d d R o un d K ey( s t a t e , w+N r*N b)
o u t = s ta te
e nd

R C 4 , R C 5 , R C 6 A lg o r it h m s C E H
A variable key size stream cipher with byte-

oriented operations, and is based on the use of
a random permutation
It is a parameterized algorithm with a variable

block size, a variable key size, and a variable
number of rounds. The key size is 128-bits
RC6 is a symmetric key block cipher derived from RC5

with two additional features:
Uses Integ er m ultip lica tio n
Uses fo u r 4 -b it w o rking registers (RC5 uses tw o 2 -b it registers)
R C 4 , R C 5 , a n d R C 6 A lg o r ith m s
The e n c ry p tio n a lg o rith m s d e v e lo p e d by RSA S e cu rity are:
RC4
RC4 is a stre a m c ip h e r fo r RSA S ecurity, w h ic h Rivest designed. It is a va ria b le key-size

stre a m c ip h e r w ith b y te -o rie n te d o p e ra tio n s and is based on th e use o f a ra n d o m
p e rm u ta tio n . A cco rd in g to som e analysis, th e p e rio d o f th e c ip h e r is like ly to be g re a te r th a n
10100. For each o u tp u t b yte , e ig h t to sixte e n system o p e ra tio n s are used, w h ic h m eans th e
c ip h e r can ru n fa s t in s o ftw a re . In d e p e n d e n t analysts have had a ca re fu l and c ritic a l look at th e
a lg o rith m , and it is co n sid e re d secure. P roducts like RSA SecurPC use th is a lg o rith m fo r file
e n c ry p tio n . Rc4 is also used fo r safe c o m m u n ic a tio n s like tr a ffic e n c ry p tio n , w h ic h secures
w e b site s and fro m secure w e b s ite s w ith SSL p ro to c o l.
RC5
RC5 is a b lo c k c ip h e r k n o w n fo r its s im p lic ity . Ronald Rivest designed it. This a lg o rith m
has a v a ria b le b lo ck size and key size and a v a ria b le n u m b e r o f ro u n d s. The choices fo r
th e block-size are 32 bits, 64 bits, and 128 bits. The ite ra tio n s range fr o m 0 to 255;
w h erea s th e key sizes have a range fro m 0 to 2040 bits. It has th re e ro u tin e s : key e xpansio n,
e n c ry p tio n , and d e c ry p tio n .
RC6
M o d u le 19 P ag e 2 8 0 0 Ethical H acking a n d C o u n te rm e a s u re s C opyright by EC-C0l1nCil

It is a block c ip h e r th a t is based on RC5. Like in RC5, th e block size, th e key size, and th e n u m b e r
o f ro u n d s are v a ria b le in th e RC6 a lg o rith m . The key-size ranges fro m 0 b its to 2040. In a d d itio n
to RC5, RC6 has tw o m o re fe a tu re s , w h ic h are th e a d d itio n o f in te g e r m u ltip lic a tio n and th e
usage o f fo u r 4 - b it w o rk in g re g iste rs as an a lte rn a tiv e to RC5 s tw o 2 -b it registers.

T h e D S A a n d R e la te d S ig n a tu r e
C E H
S c h e m e s
Digital Signature Algorithm Digital Signature

FIPS 186-2 specifies the Digital Signature The digital signature is computed using a
Algorithm (DSA) that may be used in the e _ 9 set of rules (i.e., the DSA) and a set of
generation and verification of digital parameters such that the identity of the
signatures for sensitive, unclassified signatory and integrity of the data can be
applications verified
1. Select a p rim e n u m b e r q such th a t 2159 < q < 2160

2. Choose t so th a t 0 < t 8
3. Select a p rim e n u m b e r p such th a t 2511*64' < p < 2512*64' w ith th e
Each e n tity crea te s a d d itio n a l p ro p e rty th a t q divides (p-1)
a public key and 4. Select a g e n e ra to r a o f th e u n iq u e cyclic group o f o rd e r q in Z *p
corresponding 5. To co m p u te a , select an e le m e n t g in and co m p u te m od p
private key 6. If a = 1, p e rfo rm step fiv e again w ith a d iffe re n t g

7. Select a ran d o m a such th a t 1 < a < q-1
8. C om pute y= a m od p
The p u b lic key is (p, q, a, y). The p riv a te key is a.
T h e D S A a n d R e la te d S ig n a tu r e S c h e m e s
A d ig ita l s ig n a tu re is a m a th e m a tic a l schem e used fo r th e a u th e n tic a tio n o f a d ig ita l
m essage. D ig ital S ignature A lg o rith m (DSA) is in te n d e d fo r its use in th e U.S. Federal
In fo rm a tio n Processing S tandard (FIPS 186) called th e D ig ita l S ig n a tu re S ta n d a rd (DSS). DSA
w as a c tu a lly p ro p o s e d by th e N a tio n a l In s titu te o f S tandards and T e ch n o lo g y (NIST) in A ugust
1991. NIST m ade th e U.S. P a te nt 5 ,2 31,6 68 th a t covers DSA a va ila b le w o rld w id e fre e ly . It is th e
fir s t d ig ita l s ig n a tu re schem e reco gn ized by any g o v e rn m e n t.
A d ig ita l s ig n a tu re a lg o rith m includes a sig n a tu re g e n e ra tio n process and a s ig n a tu re
v e rific a tio n process.
S ig n a tu re G e n e ra tio n Process: The p riv a te key is used to k n o w w h o has signed it.
S ig n a tu re V e rific a tio n Process: T he p u b lic key is used to v e rify w h e th e r th e g iven d ig ita l
s ig n a tu re is g e n u in e o r n o t.
As to th e p o p u la rity o f o n lin e sh o p p in g g row s, e -p a y m e n t system s and va rio u s o th e r e le c tro n ic
p a y m e n t m odes re ly on v a rio u s system s like DSA.
B e n e fits o f DSA:
Less chances o f fo rg e ry as it is in th e case o f w r itte n s ig n a tu re ,
e Q uick and easy m e th o d o f business tra n s a c tio n s ,
e Fake c u rre n c y p ro b le m can be d ra s tic a lly reduced.
DSA, w ith its uses and b e n e fits , m ay b rin g re v o lu tio n a ry changes in th e fu tu re .

R S A ( R iv e s t S h a m ir A d le m a n )
RSA is a p u b lic -k e y c ry p to s y s te m . It uses m o d u la r a rith m e tic and e le m e n ta ry n u m b e r

th e o rie s to p e rfo rm c o m p u ta tio n s using tw o large p rim e n u m b e rs. RSA e n c ry p tio n is w id e ly
used and is th e d e -fa c to e n c ry p tio n sta n d a rd .
Ron Rivest, Adi S ham ir, and Leona rd A d le m a n fo rm u la te d RSA, a p u b lic key c ry p to s y s te m fo r
e n c ry p tio n and a u th e n tic a tio n . It is usu a lly used w ith a se cre t key c ry p to s y s te m , like DES. The
RSA system is w id e ly used in a v a rie ty o f p ro d u cts, p la tfo rm s , and in d u s trie s . M a n y o p e ra tin g
system s like M ic ro s o ft, A p p le , Sun, and N ovell bu ild th e RSA a lg o rith m s in to th e existing
versions. It can also be fo u n d on h a rd w a re secured te le p h o n e s , on E th e rn e t n e tw o rk cards, and
on s m a rt cards. C o nsid er th a t A lice uses th e RSA te c h n iq u e to send Bob a message. If A lice
d e sire s to c o m m u n ic a te w ith B ob , she e n cryp ts th e m essage using a ra n d o m ly chosen DES key
and sends it to Bob. Then she w ill lo o k up Bob's p u b lic key and use it to e n c ry p t th e DES key.
The RSA d ig ita l e n ve lo p e , w h ic h is se n t to Bob by A lice, consists o f a D E S -encrypted message
and R S A -encrypted DES key. W he n Bob receives th e d ig ita l en ve lo p e , he w ill d e c ry p t th e DES
key w ith his p riv a te key, and th e n use th e DES key to d e c ry p t th e m essage itse lf. This system
c o m b in e s th e high s pe ed o f DES w ith th e ke y m a n a g e m e n t c o n v e n ie n c e o f th e RSA s y s te m .
The w o rk in g o f RSA is as fo llo w s : T w o large p rim e n u m b e rs are ta ke n (say "a " and " b " ), and
th e ir p ro d u c t is d e te rm in e d (c = ab, w h e re "c " is called th e m o d u lu s). A n u m b e r " e " is chosen
such th a t it is less th a n "c " and re la tiv e ly p rim e to ( a - l) ( b - l) , w h ic h m eans th a t " e " and ( a - l) ( b -

1) have no c o m m o n fa c to rs e xce pt 1. A p a rt fro m th is, a n o th e r n u m b e r " f " is chosen such th a t

(e f - 1) is d iv is ib le by ( a - l) ( b - l) . The values " e " and " f " a re called th e p u b lic and p riv a te
e xp o n e n ts, re s p e c tiv e ly . The p u b lic key is th e p a ir (c, e); th e p riv a te key is th e p a ir (c, f). It is
co n sid e re d to be d iffic u lt to o b ta in th e p riv a te key f" fro m th e p u b lic key (c, e). H o w e ve r, if
so m e o n e can fa c to r " c " in to "a " and " b " , th e n he o r she can d e cip h e r th e p riv a te key " f" . The
s e c u rity o f th e RSA system is based on th e a ssu m p tio n th a t such fa c to rin g is d iffic u lt to ca rry
o u t, and th e re fo re , th e c ry p to g ra p h ic te c h n iq u e is safe.

E x a m p le o f R S A A lg o r it h m C E H
P = 61 <= f i r s t p r im e num ber (d e s tro y t h is a f t e r c o m p u t in g E a n d D)

Q = 53 < = s e c o n d p r im e num ber (d e s tro y t h is a f t e r c o m p u t in g E and D)
PQ =3233 < = m o d u lu s ( g iv e t h is to o th e rs )
E = 17 <= p u b lic exponent ( g iv e t h is to o th e rs )
D =2753 <= p r iv a t e exponent (k e e p t h is s e c re t!)
Y o u r p u b lic key is (E ,P Q ).
Y o u r p r iv a t e key is D.
The e n c r y p t io n fu n c tio n is : e n c ry p t(T ) = ( T AE ) m o d PQ

= (T "1 7 ) m od 3 2 3 3
The d e c r y p t io n fu n c tio n is : d e c ry p t(C ) = (C AD ) m o d PQ

= (0 *2 7 5 3 ) m od 3 2 3 3
To e n c ry p t th e p la in te x t v a lu e 123, do t h is :
e n c r y p t (1 2 3 ) = ( 1 2 3 A1 7 ) m od 3 2 3 3
= 3 3 7 5 8 7 9 1 7 4 4 6 6 5 3 7 1 5 5 9 6 5 9 2 9 5 8 8 1 7 6 7 9 8 0 3 m od 32 3 3
= 855
To d e c ry p t th e c ip h e r te x t v a lu e 855, do t h is :
d e c r y p t (8 5 5 ) = (8 5 5 *2 7 5 3 ) m od 3 2 3 3
= 123
I
E x a m p le o f R S A A lg o r ith m
RSA re ta in s its s e c u rity th ro u g h th e a p p a re n t d iffic u lty in fa c to rin g large c o m p o s ite s .

Yet th e re is a p o s s ib ility o f d isco v e rin g th e p o ly n o m ia l tim e fa c to rin g a lg o rith m using th e
advance n u m b e r th e o ry . T h ere a re th re e fa c to rs th a t can a g g ra va te th e path to w a rd s
c o m p ro m is in g RSA se cu rity. The advances in clu d e fa c to rin g te c h n iq u e , c o m p u tin g p o w e r, and
decrease in th e e x p e n d itu re o f th e h a rd w a re . The w o rk in g o f RSA as exp la in e d b e fo re is
illu s tra te d in th e fo llo w in g exa m p le . For P = 61 and Q = 53, PQ = 3233. Taking a p u blic
e x p o n e n t, E = 17, and a p riv a te e x p o n e n t, D = 2753, it can be e n c ry p te d in to plain te x t 123 as
s h ow n as fo llo w s :
P = 61 <= fir s t p rim e n u m b e r (d e s tro y th is a fte r c o m p u tin g E and D)
Q = 53 <= second p rim e n u m b e r (d e s tro y th is a fte r c o m p u tin g E and D)
PQ = 3233 <= m o d u lu s (give th is to o th e rs)
E = 17 <= p u b lic e x p o n e n t (give th is to o th e rs )
D = 2753 <= p riv a te e x p o n e n t (keep th is s e c re t!)
Y our p u b lic key is (E,PQ).
Y our p riv a te key is D.

The e n c ry p tio n fu n c tio n is: e n cry p t(T ) = (TAE) m od PQ
= (TA17) m od 3233
The d e c ry p tio n fu n c tio n is: decrypt(C ) = (CAD) m od PQ
= (CA2753) m od 3233
To e n c ry p t th e p la in te x t va lu e 123, do th is :
e n c ry p t(1 2 3 ) = (1 2 3 A17) m od 3233
= 3 3 7 5 8 7 9 1 7 4 4 6 6 5 3 7 1 5 5 9 6 5 9 2 9 5 8 8 1 7 6 7 9 8 0 3 m od 3233
= 855
To d e c ry p t th e c ip h e r te x t valu e 855, do th is :
d e c ry p t(8 5 5 ) = (8 5 5 *2 7 5 3 ) m o d 3233
= 123

T h e R S A S ig n a t u r e S c h e m e C E H
Urtifwd tfe
M J
l N
mIm
A lg o rith m K e y g e n e ra tio n fo r th e R S A s ig n a tu re s c h e m e
S U M M A R Y : e a c h e n t it y c r e a te s a il R S A p u b lic k e y a n d a c o r r e s p o n d in g p r iv a t e k e y .
E a c h e n t it y A s h o u ld d o th e f o l lo w in g :
1 . G e n e r a te t w o la r g e d is tin c t r a n d o m p r im e s p and q. e a c h r o u g h ly th e s a m e s iz e .
2 . C o m p u te n = pq and<j> = {p l ) ( q 1 ).
3 . S e le c t a r a n d o m in t e g e r e, 1 < e < <f>. s u c h th a t g c d ( e , ^ ) = 1.
4 . U s e th e e x t e n d e d E u c lid e a n a l g o r it h m ( A l g o r it h m 2 . 10 ) t o c o m p u t e t lie u n iq u e in -
te g e r d. 1 < d < <p. s u c h t lia t ed = 1 (m o d 0 ) .
5. A 's p u b lic k e y is ( f t , c ) . A 's p r iv a t e k e y is d.
A lg o rith m R S A s ig n a tu re g e n e ra tio n a n d v e rific a tio n

S I J M M A R Y : e n tity A s ig n s a m e s s a g e m #= A n y e n t it y I i c a n v e r ity A s s ig n a t u r e a n d
recover the message m from the signature.
1. Signature generation Entity ^4should do the following
( a ) C o m p u te m H m ) . a n in t e g e r in th e r a n g e [ 0 , 11 1]
(b) Compute = hd mod n .1 1
(c) A s signal me for m is s.
2. Verification To verity A '* signature .<and recover the message m. H should:
( a ) O b t a in A \ a u t h e n t ic p u b lic k e y ( n , p ) .
( b ) C'o m p u t e m = s* m o rl n
(c) Verify that m M r : if not. reject the signature.
(d) Recover rn = R 1(in ).
|p S |\ T h e R S A S ig n a tu r e S c h e m e
------ RSA is used fo r b o th p u b lic key e n c ry p tio n and fo r a d ig ita l sig n a tu re (to sign a
m essage). The RSA s ig n a tu re schem e is th e firs t te c h n iq u e used to g e n e ra te d ig ita l s ig n a tu re s .
It is a d e te rm in is tic d ig ita l sig n a tu re schem e th a t p ro vid e s m essage re c o v e ry fro m th e s ig n a tu re
its e lf. It is th e m o s t p ra c tic a l and v e rs a tile te c h n iq u e a va ilable .
RSA in volve s b o th a p u b lic key and a p riv a te key. The p u b lic key, as th e nam e in d ica te s, m eans
any person can use it fo r e n c ry p tin g m essages. The messages th a t are e n c ry p te d w ith th e
p u b lic key can o n ly be d e c ry p te d w ith th e help o f th e p riv a te key.
C onsider th a t John e n c ry p ts his d o c u m e n t M using his p riv a te key SA, th e re b y cre a tin g a
s ig n a tu re Sj0hn(M ). John sends M along w ith th e sig n a tu re Sj0hn(M ) to A lice. A lice d e cryp ts th e
d o c u m e n t using A lic e 's p u b lic key, th e re b y v e rify in g J o h n 's s ig n a tu re .
RSA ke y g e n e ra tio n
The p ro c e d u re fo r RSA key g e n e ra tio n is c o m m o n fo r all th e RSA-based s ig n a tu re

schem es. To g e n e ra te an RSA key pair, i.e., b o th an RSA p u b lic ke y and c o rre s p o n d in g p riv a te
key, each e n tity A s h o u ld do th e fo llo w in g :
9 Select tw o large d is tin c t p rim e s p and q a rb itra rily , each o f ro u g h ly th e sam e b it le n g th
9 C o m p u te n=pq and (j> = (p -l)(q -l)

9 Choose a random integer e l<e< <

>such that get(e, (J))=l
9 Use the extended Euclidean algorithm in order to compute the unique integer d, l<d< (j)
such that ed= 1 (mod <j>
)
9 The public key of A is (n, e) and private key is d
Destroy p and q at the end of the key generation
The RSA signature is generated and verified in the following way.
S ig n a tu re g e n e ra tio n
In order to sign a message m, A does the following:
9 Compute m* =R(m) an integer in [0, n-1]

9 Compute s = m d mod n
9 A's signature for m is s
S ig n a tu re v e rific a tio n
In o rd e r to v e rify A's s ig n a tu re s and re c o v e r m essage m, B sh o u ld do th e fo llo w in g :
9 O b ta in A's a u th e n tic p u b lic key (e, n)
9 C o m p u te m * = se m od n
9 V e rify th a t m * is in M r; if n o t, re je c t th e s ig n a tu re
9 R ecover m = R 1(m *)

M e s s a g e D ig e s t ( O n e - w a y H a s h ) r g u
F u n c tio n s Urtm |
w tillml N
mIm
c
1a rtf*
rV1
Hash functions calculate a

unique fixed-size bit string
representation called a message
|
digest of any arbitrary block of
L. information
a l4 0 9 2 a f9 4 8 b 9 3 8 5 6 9 5 8 4 e 5 b 8 d 8 d 3 0 7 a
M e s s a g e D ig e st F u n c tio n
Note: Message digests are also called one-way bash functions because they cannot be reversed
M e s s a g e D ig e s t ( O n e - w a y H a s h ) F u n c tio n s
I I
L M essage d ig e s t fu n c tio n s d is till th e in fo rm a tio n c o n ta in e d in a file (sm all o r large) in to
a single large n u m b e r, ty p ic a lly b e tw e e n 128- and 2 5 6 -b its in le n g th . M essage d igest fu n c tio n s
c a lcu la te a u n iq u e fix e d -s iz e b it s trin g re p re s e n ta tio n called hash v a lu e o f any a rb itra ry block o f
in fo rm a tio n . The best m essage dig est fu n c tio n s c o m b in e th e s e m a th e m a tic a l p ro p e rtie s . Every
b it o f th e message d ig e s t fu n c tio n is in flu e n c e d by e ve ry b it o f th e fu n c tio n 's in p u t. If any given
b it o f th e fu n c tio n 's in p u t is chan ge d, e v e ry o u tp u t b it has a 50 p e rc e n t chance o f changing.
G iven an in p u t file and its c o rre s p o n d in g m essage digest, it sh o u ld be in fe a sib le to fin d a n o th e r
file w ith th e sam e m essage d ig est value.
M essage digests are also called o n e -w a y bash fu n c tio n s because th e y p ro d u ce values th a t are
d iffic u lt to in v e rt, re s is ta n t to a tta c k , m o s tly u n iq u e , and w id e ly d is trib u te d .
M essage d ig e s t fu n c tio n s :
e HMAC
e MD2
e MD4
9 MD5
9 SHA

SHA-1
a l4 0 9 2 a f9 4 8 b 9 3 8 5 6 9 5 8 4 e 5 b 8 d 8 d 3 0 7 a
D ocum ent M e ssa g e D igest F un ctio n Hash V alue
FIGURE 19.5: SHA1 a Message digest function

M e s s a g e D ig e s t F u n c tio n : M D 5
H is a hash fu n c tio n th a t is a tra n s fo rm a tio n th a t accepts a v a ria b le o f any size as an

in p u t, m , and re tu rn s a s trin g o f a c e rta in size. This is called th e hash va lu e h. i.e. h=H (m ). The
fu n d a m e n ta l re q u ire m e n ts fo r th e c ry p to g ra p h ic hash fu n c tio n s are:
9 In p u t o f any le n g th
9 O u tp u t o f a fix e d le n g th
A nd H (x), can be easily c o m p u te d fo r any va lu e o f x and it m ust be o n e -w a y (i.e., it c a n n o t be

in v e rte d and it has an in fe a s ib le c o m p u ta tio n fo r th e given in p u t) and co llis io n fre e . H is
co n sid e re d to be a w e a k c o llis io n fre e hash fu n c tio n if th e given m essage x is in fe a s ib le to fin d a
m essage y, so th a t H (x) =H (y). It is a co llisio n fre e hash fu n c tio n if it is in fe a sib le to fin d any tw o
m essages x and y such th a t H (x) =H (y).
The m ain ro le o f a c ry p to g ra p h ic hash fu n c tio n is to p ro v id e d ig ita l signatures. Hash fu n c tio n s

are re la tiv e ly fa s te r th a n d ig ita l sig n a tu re a lg o rith m s ; hence, its c h a ra c te ris tic fe a tu re is to
c a lcu la te th e s ig n a tu re o f th e d o c u m e n t's hash value, w h ic h is s m a lle r th a n th e d o c u m e n t. In
a d d itio n , a dig est can be used p u b lic ly w ith o u t m e n tio n in g th e c o n te n ts o f th e d o c u m e n t and
th e source o f th e d o c u m e n t.
M D 2, M D 4, and M D 5 a lg o rith m s th a t R ive st d e ve lo p e d are m e ssa g e -d ig e st a lg o rith m s th a t are

used in d ig ita l sig n a tu re a p p lic a tio n s , w h e re th e d o c u m e n t is com pressed se cu re ly b e fo re being

signed w ith th e p riv a te key. The a lg o rith m s m e n tio n e d here can be o f v a ria b le le n g th b u t w ith
th e re s u lta n t m essage d ig est o f 1 2 8 -b it.
The s tru c tu re s o f all th re e a lg o rith m s a p p e a r to be s im ila r, th o u g h th e design o f M D 2 is

re a so n a b ly d iffe r e n t fro m M D 4 and M D 5. M D2 w as designed fo r th e 8 - b it m achines, w h e re a s
th e M D 4 and M D 5 w e re d esigne d fo r th e 3 2 -b it m achines. The message is added w ith extra bits
to m ake sure th a t th e le n g th o f th e bits is d iv is ib le by 512. A 6 4 -b it b in a ry m essage is added to
th e m essage.
D e v e lo p m e n t o f a tta cks on ve rsion s o f M D 4 has progressed ra p id ly and D o b b e rtin sh o w e d h o w

collisio n s fo r th e fu ll v e rs io n o f M D 4 c o u ld be fo u n d in u n d e r a m in u te on a ty p ic a l PC. M D 5 is
re la tiv e ly secure b u t is s lo w e r th a n M D 4. This a lg o rith m has fo u r d iffe re n t rounds, w h ic h are
designed w ith s lig h t d iffe re n c e s th a n th a t o f M D 4, b u t b o th th e m essage-digest size and
p ad d in g re q u ire m e n ts re m a in th e same.
B ru te F o rc e o f M D 5
t_ 3 )
The e ffe c tiv e n e s s o f th e hash fu n c tio n can be d e fin e d by checking th e o u tp u t
p ro d u c e d w h e n an a rb itra ry in p u t m essage is ra n d o m ize d . T here are tw o types o f b ru te -fo rc e
a tta c k s fo r o n e -w a y hash fu n c tio n : N orm al b ru te fo rc e and b irth d a y a tta ck.
Exam ples o f a fe w m essage digests are:
9 e c h o " T h e re i s CHF1500 i n th e b lu e b o " I md5sum

e 4 1 a 3 2 3 b d f2 0 e a d a fd 3 f0 e 4 f7 2 0 5 5 d 3 6
e c h o " T h e re i s CHF1500 i n th e b lu e b o x " I md5sum
7 a 0 d a 8 6 4 a 4 1 fd 0 2 0 0 a e 0 a e 9 7 a fd 3 2 7 9 d
Q e c h o 1,T h e re i s CHF1500 i n th e b lu e b o x . " I md5sum
2 d b lf f 7 a 7 024 530 9 e 9 f2 1 6 5 c 6 c 3 4 9 9 9 d
t? e c h o "T h e re is CHF1500 i n th e b lu e b o x . " I md5sum
86c524 497a99824 8 9 7 c c f2 c d 7 4 e d e 5 0 f
The sam e te x t a lw ays p ro du ce s th e sam e M D 5 code.
C a lc u la te CRC & MD5 J n j x j
File Size CRC MD5 -1

_] batch_rename.png 14 472 18528C0A EAF2C712FGE537AE1FEFD3FA1A4F4AAB
1 1change_attributes.html 8 574 58101E09 E18D9F81CCF9A300F79321E8C7G8E021
1change_attributes.png 7 957 2531FC3E 5E8A8FB259C7FDF790E5597C8154AF38
change_case.html 8 756 FC41186B DDCAD7CF08BF7897D5B8B5F9806B47FD
Q change_case.png G821 2D34D339 04FED507091F5F095D977B358EC20EED
1 1checksum verify,png 8117 3D8D9801 AC8AFE99B76BD1022AC7B2E34A7E1C49
_J convert.html 9 289 BE535A89 902BA23D7CC95EA2999CDA2EF1B27B41
1convert, png 7 080 D760CFC6 F117GC79G7E1DA2CA743D26DE9F1B0C0
LJ convert_menu.png 8 735 638F8F0F 3F1BBD5E0B0B9E86970EDBA9705F14D4
r 1file_comparator.html 8 575 44ED5DC4 959981C3E7D7559C9EE77965302A6E0A
[J file_comparator.png 17 787 D1GF0E2B C1AE151GBEABC17EDEFB58212D2C5331

clipboard,hint Save SFV... Save MD5... Close
FIGURE 1 9 .6 : C h e ck su m v e rifie r

S e c u re H a s h in g A lg o r ith m (S H A ) C E H
0 0
It is an algorithm for generating cryptographically secure one-way hash,
published by the National Institute of Standards and Technology as a
U.S. Federal Information Processing Standard
0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
SHA1 SHA2 SHA3
/ --------------------------------------- \ r \
0 It produces a 160-bit 0 It is a family of two 0 SHA-3 uses the sponge

digest from a message similar hash functions, construction in which
with a maximum with different block message blocks are
length of (2s4 - 1) bits, sizes, namely SHA-256 XORed into the initial
and resembles the that uses 32-bit words bits of the state, which
MD5 algorithm and SHA-512 th at uses is then invertibly
64-bit words perm uted
s,__________________________> v J
0 0 0 0 0
Copyright by EC-Crancil. A ll Rights Reserved. Reproduction is Strictly Prohibited.
S e c u re H a s h in g A lg o r ith m (S H A )
The Secure Hash A lg o rith m (SHA), sp e cifie d in th e Secure Hash S ta n d a rd (SHS), was
d e v e lo p e d by NIST, and p u b lishe d as a fe d e ra l in fo rm a tio n -p ro c e s s in g sta n d a rd (FIPS PUB 180).
It is an a lg o rith m fo r g e n e ra tin g a c ry p to g ra p h ic a lly secure o n e -w a y hash. SHA is p a rt o f th e
C apstone P ro je ct. C apstone is th e U.S. g o v e rn m e n t's lo n g -te rm p ro je c t to d e v e lo p a set o f
s ta nd a rd s fo r p u b lic ly a v a ila b le c ry p to g ra p h y , as a u th o riz e d by th e C o m p u te r S e cu rity A ct o f
1987. The basic o rg a n iz a tio n s th a t are re sp o n sib le fo r C apstone are NIST and th e NSA. SHA is
s im ila r to th e M D 4 m essage-dig est a lg o rith m fa m ily o f hash fu n c tio n s , w h ic h w as de ve lo p e d by
Rivest.
The a lg o rith m accepts a message o f 264 b its in le n g th and a 1 6 0 -b it m essage o u tp u t d igest is

p ro d u c e d , th a t is designed to c o m p lic a te th e searching o f th e te x t, w h ic h is s im ila r to th e given
hash. The a lg o rith m is s lig h tly s lo w e r th a n M D 5, b u t th e la rg e r m essage digest makes it m o re
secure against b ru te -fo rc e c o llis io n and in ve rsio n attacks.
The fo llo w in g are th e c ry p to g ra p h ic hash fu n c tio n s designed by th e N a tio n a l S e c u rity A gency

(NSA):

SHA1
S H A l p rod uces a 1 6 0 -b it digest fro m a message w ith a m a x im u m le n g th o f (264 - 1)

bits, and resem b les th e M D 5 a lg o rith m .
n n P s h a 2
SHA2 is a fa m ily o f tw o s im ila r hash fu n c tio n s , w ith d iffe re n t b lo ck sizes, n a m e ly SHA-

256 th a t uses 3 2 -b it w o rd s and SHA-512 th a t uses 6 4 -b it w o rd s.
SHA3
SHA3 is a fu tu r e hash fu n c tio n sta n d a rd s till in d e v e lo p m e n t, chosen in a p u b lic re v ie w

process fro m n o n -g o v e rn m e n t designers.
C o m pa rison o f SHA fu n c tio n s (SHAO, S H A l & SHA2)
Algorithm and O utput Interna Size o f M axim um Size of Roun Operations Collision
variant size (bits) 1 hash block size of w ord ds found
sum (bits) message (bits)
(bits) (bits)
SHA-0 160 160 512 264- i 32 80 + ,a n d , or Yes
,x o r, r o t
SHA-1 160 160 512 264- l 32 80 +,and, or, Theoretica

xor, rot 1 attacks
(251)
SHA-2 SHA- 256/224 256 512 2s4- 1 32 64 +, and, or, N one
256/224 xor, s h r,ro t
SHA- 512/384 512 1024 2128-1 128 80 +,and, or, None

512/384 xor, shr, rot
TABLE 19.1: Comparison between SHA-0, SHA-1 & SHA-2 functions

W h a t I s S S H ( S e c u r e S h e ll) ? C E H
Remote S ecure S trong

Communication Channel A u th e n tic a tio n
SSH is a secure It provides an encrypted Provides strong host-to-

replacem ent for telnet channel for rem ote host and user
and the Berkeley logging, command authentication, and
remote-utilities (rlogin, execution and file secure communication
rsh, rep, and rdist) transfers over an insecure Internet
MS or UNIX client SSH Tunnel MS or UNIX server
Note: SSH2 is a m ore secure, e ffic ie n t, and p o rta b le v e rsion o f SSH th a t includes SFTP, an SSH2 tu n n e le d FTP
C o p y rig h t b y EG-Gtnncil. All R ig h ts R e s e r v e d . R e p r o d u c tio n is S tric tly P r o h ib ite d .
W h a t Is S S H (S e c u re S h e ll) ?
Secure Shell is a p ro g ra m th a t is used to log o n to a n o th e r c o m p u te r over th e n e tw o rk ,

to tra n s fe r file s fro m on e c o m p u te r to a n o th e r. It o ffe rs good a u th e n tic a tio n and a secure
c o m m u n ic a tio n channe l o v e r inse cu re m edia. It m ig h t be used as a re p la c e m e n t f o r te ln e t,
log in, rsh, and rep. In SSH2, s ftp is a re p la c e m e n t fo r ftp . In a d d itio n , SSH o ffe rs secure
c o n n e c tio n s and secure tra n s fe rrin g o f TCP co n n e ctio n s. SSH1 and SSH2 are c o m p le te ly
d iffe re n t p ro to c o ls . SSH1 e n c ry p ts th e user's server and hosts keys to a u th e n tic a te w h e re SSH2
o n ly uses h o s t keys, w h ic h are d iffe re n t packets o f keys. SSH2 is m o re secure th a n SSH1. It
s h o uld be n o te d th a t th e SSH1 and SSH2 p ro to c o ls are in fa c t d iffe re n t and n o t c o m p a tib le w ith
each o th e r. SSH2 is m o re secure and has an im p ro v e d p e rfo rm a n c e th a n SSH1 and is also m ore
p o rta b le th a n SSH1.
The SSH1 p ro to c o l is n o t being d e v e lo p e d a n ym o re , as SSH2 is th e sta n d a rd . Som e o f th e m ain

fe a tu re s o f SSH1 are as fo llo w s :
9 SSH1 is m o re v u ln e ra b le to atta cks due to th e presence o f s tru c tu ra l w eaknesses
9 It is an issue o f th e m a n -in -th e -m id d le a tta ck
9 It is s u p p o rte d by m any p la tfo rm s
9 It s u p p o rts hosts a u th e n tic a tio n
M o d u le 19 P ag e 2 8 1 5 Ethical H acking a n d C o u n te rm e a s u re s C opyright by EC-C0UllCil

9 It s u p p o rts va rie d a u th e n tic a tio n
9 P e rfo rm a n c e o f SSH2 is b e tte r th a n SSH1
SSH c o m m u n ic a tio n s s e c u rity m a in ta in s SSH1 and SSH2 p ro to c o ls .
It a u th e n tic a te s w ith th e help o f o ne o r m o re o f th e fo llo w in g :
9 Password (th e /e tc /p a s s w d o r /e tc /s h a d o w in UNIX)
9 User p u b lic -k e y (RSA o r DSA, d e p e n d in g on th e release)
Q K erberos (fo r SSH1)
9 H ost-based (.rho sts o r /e tc /h o s ts , e q u iv in SSH1 o r p u b lic key in SSH2)
S ecure S hell p ro te c ts a g a in st:
9 A re m o te host sending o u t packets th a t p re te n d to com e fro m a n o th e r tru s te d host (IP

s p o o fin g ). SSH p ro te c ts against a s p o o fe r on th e local n e tw o rk , w h o can p re te n d to be
th e user's r o u te r to th e o u ts id e .
9 A host p re te n d in g th a t an IP packet com es fro m a n o th e r tru s te d h o s t (IP source

ro u tin g ).
9 An a tta c k e r fo rg in g d o m a in nam e server re co rd s (DNS sp o o fin g ).
9 C a p tu rin g o f passw ords and o th e r data by th e in te rm e d ia te hosts.
9 E x p lo ita tio n o f da ta by th e pe o p le w h o c o n tro l th e in te rm e d ia te hosts.
9 A tta c k in g by lis te n in g to X a u th e n tic a tio n d a ta and s p o o fin g c o n n e c tio n s to th e X l l

server.
M S o r U N IX c lie n t SSH T u n n e l U N IX s e r v e r
FIGURE 19.7: Secure shell tunneling

M o d u le F lo w
So fa r, w e have discussed c ry p to g ra p h y co n ce p ts and va rio u s e n c ry p tio n a lg o rith m s .

N ow it is tim e to discuss h o w c ry p to g ra p h y is usu a lly p e rfo rm e d . T here are m any c ry p to g ra p h ic
to o ls re a d ily ava ila b le in th e m a rk e t th a t can help yo u to secure y o u r d a ta ..
C ry p to g ra p h y C on cep ts tiTTri' E n c ry p tio n A lg o rith m s

!;:! 1
r n ;< C ry p to g ra p h y T oo ls P ublic Key In fra s tru c tu re (PKI)
[/< ? ? C ry p to g ra p h y A tta c k s C ry p ta n a ly s is T ools

m
This se ctio n lists and describes v a rio u s c ry p to g ra p h ic to o ls .

M D 5 H a s h C a lc u la t o r s : H a s h C a lc ,
C E H
M D 5 C a lc u la to r a n d H a s h M y F ile s
HashCalc l- l" l M D 5 C a lc u la to r 1- 1
Data Focmat: Data:____________________________________________
| F ie ~^\ |C .\Pf 0flfam Files (x86)\Ha$hCalc\HashCalc.chm
Key Format Key;

r HMAC | T ext string | *
MP5Pgeat Compare To
R M D5 |2ae58ce465094805e474d7f29afcc5a2 |4S8764dd3Sdf7cba3acb3b9&8Gb371c4
I
r M D4 Upper Zcse
P SHA1
17 SHA256 Ia00bc7f604c8810068ece4fa743ld8ab747246da?f2e7fc1
r SHA384 |
r SHA512 | h t t p : / / w w w .b u llz ip .c o m
9 R IP E M 0 16 0 |cc36f3c53ec530l6cde4aded58f9ldd4288aadb
H ashM yliies *
r PANAMA | L=J
ffc Ed* V.M. Opium* Hrfp
T TIGER |
3 -1 * 1 0 U j] etf * ) J|
P M D2 1313434191573c907bedfec6clefldG8d F4rn*m* MOS SHA1 CRC32 SHA-2S6 SHA-512
6dl45e2c3lbc23128. U ib M W X & x .. I3WC9I9 61677dWfcb3C34f J - cMSWZc:
r AOLER32
3 r : 1 t c MS-wi Ie7c2*faf0l0237... 68* 9071047812... blc6a3S3 5fc23c:35!e49355e..
W CRC32
&9i?cUcN21Srac v9.. 4b1*c27S4868.. bf(76bcO 901b80c4ft449&db3&1 .
' WnOurrp^xe 7b50683722d9dd3<k... dMb<5472l95L. 2M6M21 2525041dci2ba372^0 . c9H3T2fa9
eOonkey/ 0iMc70dc7b30ac6... 26WBeef8b1a4 .. 4bfdc0e1 bc3H4a?93*f6dl6c6 . OS6lOJcbd
eMule
S J a v g S o ft | Close | Help | 1 >

a Ur[() 1Selected Hirson f reeware. n r.o :'v .w
h ttp ://w w w .s la v a s o ft.c o m h ttp : //w w w .n ir s o ft.n e t
C o p y rig h t b y EC-G(U(ICil. All R ig h ts R e s e r v e d . R e p r o d u c tio n is S tric tly P ro h ib ite d .
M D 5 H a s h C a lc u la t o r s : H a s h C a lc , M D 5 C a lc u la to r ,
" 1 h J a n d H a s h M y F ile s
H ashing is one fo rm o f c ry p to g ra p h y in w h ic h a m essage d igest fu n c tio n is used to c o n v e rt

p la in tte x t in to its e q u iv a le n t hash value. This m essage digest fu n c tio n uses d iffe re n t hash
a lg o rith m s to c o n v e rt p la in te x t in to hash values. M a n y M D 5 hash ca lcu la to rs are re a d ily
a va ila b le in th e m a rk e t. Exam ples o f M D 5 hash c a lc u la to rs in clu d e :
H a s h C a lc
Source: h ttp ://w w w .s la v a s o ft.c o m
The HashCalc u tility a llo w s y o u to c o m p u te message digests, checksum s, and HMACs fo r file s,
as w e ll as fo r te x t and hex strings. It a llo w s yo u to ca lc u la te hash values using d iffe re n t typ e s o f
hashing a lg o rith m s such as M D 2 , M D 4 , M D 5 , SHA-1, SHA-2 (256, 384, 512), RIPEM D -160,
P A N A M A , TIGER, ADLER32, and CRC32. You ju s t need to se lect th e file and hash a lg o rith m fo r
c a lc u la tin g th e hash v a lu e o f a p a rtic u la r file .

HashCalc
Data Format: Data
File 311 C:\ProgramFiles (x86)\HashCalc\HashCalc.chm
Key Format: Key:
r HMAC Text string3 J I
W MD5 2ae58ce4G5094805e474d7f29alcc5a2
r MD4
W SHA1 2207aa578b207b5d80574ad8b3a5d59a3d885be2
W SHA256 a00bc7f604c8810068ece4fa743fd6ab74724Gda7f2e7fc1
r SHA384
r 9HA512
W RIPEMD160 cc3Gf3c53ec530f6cde4acfed56f9fdd4288aadb
r PANAMA
r TIGER
17 MD2 313434(91573c907bedfec6cfeffd88d
r ADLER32
W CRC32 9d988947
! eDonkey/
eMule
SlavaSo fl Calculate ~| Close Help

A
FIGURE 19.8: HashCalc screenshot
M D 5 C a lc u la to r
Source: h ttp ://w w w .b u llz ip .c o m
M D 5 C a lc u la to r a llo w s you to c a lc u la te th e M D5 hash va lu e o f th e selected file . The M D 5 D igest

fie ld o f th e u tility c o n ta in s th e ca lcu la te d hash value. You ju s t need to se le ct a file o f w h ic h th e
hash v a lu e needs to be c a lc u la te d . You can also c o m p a re tw o hash values w ith th is to o l.


H a s h M y F ile s
a Source: h ttp ://w w w .n ir s o ft.n e t
The H ashM yFiles u tility a llo w s you to ca lcu la te th e M D 5 and SHA1 hashes o f one o r m o re files.
You can co p y th e M D 5 /S H A 1 hashes lis t in to th e c lip b o a rd , o r save it in to a te x t/h tm l/x m l file . It
can also be la u nch e d fro m th e c o n te x t m enu o f W in d o w s E xplorer, and d isp la y th e M D 5/S H A 1
hashes o f th e se le cted file o r fo ld e r.
J HashMyFiles
File Edit View O ptions Help
_S _ l AJ 0 n J b es5 j -n
Filename > MD5 SHA1 CRC32 SHA-256 SHA-512

readme.txt 6d 1e45e2c 31 bc23128... f4ab6245f49f39a... 135fe919 616e77d86fcb3036f5... c0936bf0<3
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C r y p to g r a p h y T o o l: A d v a n c e d
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http://www.aeppro.com
C o p y rig h t b y EG-GlOOCil. All R ig h ts R e s e r v e d . R e p r o d u c tio n Is S tric tly P ro h ib ite d .
C r y p t o g r a p h y T o o l: A d v a n c e d E n c r y p tio n P a c k a g e
Source: h ttp ://w w w .a e p p ro .c o m
A dva nce d E n cryp tio n Package is file e n c ry p tio n s o ftw a re th a t helps yo u m a in ta in th e priva cy o f
y o u r in fo rm a tio n by a llo w in g yo u to p a s s w o rd -p ro te c t files. It is able to p e rfo rm e n c ry p tio n ,
d e c ry p tio n , and s e lf-d e c ry p tin g file c re a tio n , file D e le te /W ip e , Zip m a n a g e m e n t, e n c ry p tio n key
m a n a g e m e n t, and file e m a ilin g .
Its fe a tu re in c lu d e s :
9 S tro n g an d p ro v e n a lg o rith m s are used to p ro te c t y o u r se n sitive d o c u m e n ts
9 It can e n c ry p t file s as w e ll as te x t
s P e rform s secure file d e le tio n
9 A b ility to c re a te e n c ry p te d s e lf-e x tra c tin g file to send it as e m a il a tta c h m e n t
M o d u le 19 P ag e 2822 Ethical H acking a n d C o u n te rm e a s u re s C opyright by EC-C0l1nCil

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0 Oone > k k m < 1 Succeeded: 1. Pa*ed: 0
2) Pr0CMM4 a B Aveage g<3 18 KB/(
FIGURE 19.11: Advanced Encryption Package protecting files using passwords

All R ights R eserved. R ep ro d u ctio n is Strictly P ro h ib ite d .
C r y p to g r a p h y T o o l: r c u
B C T e x tE n c o d e r --------------
BCTextEncoder encrypts
confidential text in your
message
P ta n * x t : 2 B
It uses strong and ----------------------------------------------- Cneafeby: casswd 1 ------------- :
approved symmetric and = = y g i

public key algorithms for
data encryption
It uses public key
encryption methods as
well as password-based E n c o d e d t*xfc 796 B s :
encryption ____ B E G IN B < O O S > *SSACE -
V e o n : 9 C T . * t c o d l * * t v v . l.0 0 .
is s tz s s g r -
C o p y rig h t b y EG-G*ancil. All R ig h ts R e s e r v e d . R e p r o d u c tio n is S tric tly P r o h ib ite d
C r y p t o g r a p h y T o o l: B C T e x tE n c o d e r
\M >/* v
Source: h ttp ://w w w .je tic o .c o m
BC TextEncoder a llo w s you to e n c ry p t and d e c ry p t th e c o n fid e n tia l m essages fo r secure e m ail

o r ch a t c o m m u n ic a tio n s . It uses p u b lic key e n c ry p tio n m e th o d s as w e ll as p assw ord-ba sed
e n c ry p tio n and s tro n g and a p p ro v e d s y m m e tric and p u b lic key a lg o rith m s fo r d a ta e n c ry p tio n .
You s im p ly need to choose th e te x t yo u w a n t to e n c ry p t and sp e cify th e passw ord and th e n
click th e b u tto n to e nco de it.

BCTextEncoder Utility v. 1.00.6 L J n x

File Edit Key Options Help
Decoded plan text: 2 8 B Encode by: password vj [ Encode
Cryptography is the converson o f data n to a scrairWed code that 5 decrypted and sent across a private or pubfc n et* a
Encoded text: 796 B Decode
BEGIN ENCODED MESSAGE

verson: BCTextEncodef U ttty v. 1.00.6
6 8 7 3
vy<CQMCFp +xNnjMtgK QXeyfay bXGj F>WMsVWr*)nv<yvnltf>+voOMEi 1
QpS&eGOxlohC 3IZdwcT6H lTXggla83r fVh9n XrbVc *qVft^LTTU IraUyOeXO
0r1dtZlvlX5zgyg8Np9H0u90tYH lFC]M0evWe02UI-FgTTBAy/sXl2Hnh3Se lu 1
6 .53 2 8
u Aa 5qA vx/2T NpVtM Q + a H +.100 x
TORI 50 /fri IScsCL Sit /[*,ytxJJw23v>
AowEv8RI6dnr>8EFOS2Rt 1WU-
B ENC00ED MESSAGE
FIGURE 19.12: BCTextEncoder encrypting and decrypting confidential messages

C r y p t o g r a p h y T o o ls C E H
CommuniCrypt File
NCrypt XL
Encryption Tools http://w w w .littlelite.net
http://www.communicrypt.com
^ Steganos LockNote
https://www.steganos.com
r ccrypt
http://ccrypt.sou reef orge. net
AxCrypt WinAES
h ttp://w w w .axantum.com http://fatlyz.com
AutoKrypt EncryptOnClick
h ttp://w w w .hiteksoftware.com
& http://www.2brightsparks.com
bF3 CryptoForge
h ttp://w w w .cryptoforge.com
GNU Privacy Guard
http://w w w .gnupg. org
C r y p t o g r a p h y T o o ls
T h ere are v a rio u s c ry p to g ra p h ic to o ls th a t yo u can use fo r e n c ry p tin g and d e c ry p tin g

y o u r in fo rm a tio n , file s , etc. These to o ls im p le m e n t d iffe re n t typ e s o f ava ila b le e n c ry p tio n
a lg o rith m s :
9 C o m m u n iC ry p t File E n c ry p tio n T o o ls ava ila b le a t h ttp ://w w w .c o m m u n ic r y p t.c o m
9 Steganos L ockN o te a v a ila b le a t h ttp s ://w w w .s te g a n o s .c o m
9 A xC rypt a v a ila b le at h ttp ://w w w .a x a n tu m .c o m
9 A u to K ry p t a va ila b le a t h ttp ://w w w .h ite k s o ftw a r e .c o m
9 C ryptoF orge a v a ila b le at h ttp ://w w w .c ry p to fo rg e .c o m
9 N C rypt XL a v a ila b le a t h tt p : //w w w .little lite .n e t
9 C crypt ava ila b le a t h ttp ://c c ry p t.s o u rc e fo rg e .n e t
9 WinAES a v a ila b le at h ttp ://fa tly z .c o m
9 E ncryptO nC lick a v a ila b le a t h ttp ://w w w .2 b rig h ts p a rk s .c o m
9 GNU Privacy G uard a v a ila b le a t h ttp ://w w w .g n u p g .o rg

M o d u l e F l o w C E H
tr M o d u le F lo w
7 So fa r, w e have discussed c ry p to g ra p h y , va rio u s e n c ry p tio n a lg o rith m s , an d th e use o f

e n c ry p tio n a lg o rith m s in c ry p to g ra p h y . In a d d itio n to th e c ry p to g ra p h ic s e c u rity m echanism s
discussed so fa r, th e re is o ne m o re in fra s tru c tu re in te n d e d to exchang e d a ta and m o n e y over
th e In te rn e t securely: PKI (P ublic Key In fra s tru c tu re ).
C ry p to g ra p h y C on cep ts mwm E n c ry p tio n A lg o rith m s

11:1111
l/ < ? 7 C ry p to g ra p h y A tta c k s C ry p ta n a ly s is T ools

m
This s e ctio n pro vid e s in fo rm a tio n a b o u t Public Key In fra s tru c tu re (PKI) and th e ro le o f each
c o m p o n e n ts o f PKI in th e s e c u rity p u b lic key e n c ry p tio n . Let's s ta rt w ith w h a t is Public Key
In fra s tru c tu re (PKI)?

P u b lic K e y In fr a s tr u c tu r e ( P K I) C E H
J Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) is a set of hardware, software, people, policies, and
procedures required to create, manage, distribute, use, store, and revoke digital certificates
Certificate Management Certificate Authority (CA)

System Issues a n d v e rifie s d ig ita l
G e n e ra te s , d is tr ib u te s , s to re s , c e rtific a te s
a n d v e r ifie s c e r tific a te s
D ig ita l C e rtific a te s Registration Authority (RA)

E sta b lis h e s c re d e n tia ls o f a A c ts as t h e v e r if ie r f o r th e
p e rs o n w h e n d o in g o n lin e c e r tific a te a u t h o r it y
tra n s a c tio n s
End User
R e quests, m a n a g e s , a n d uses c e r tific a te s
P u b lic K e y In fra s tru c tu re (P K I)
Public Key In fra s tru c tu re (PKI) is a s e c u rity a rc h ite c tu re d e ve lo p e d to increase th e

c o n fid e n tia lity o f in fo rm a tio n being exchanged o ve r th e in secure In te rn e t. It includes h a rd w a re ,
s o ftw a re , p e o ple , policie s, and p ro ce d u re s re q u ire d to cre a te , m anage, d is trib u te , use, s to re ,
and revo ke d ig ita l c e rtific a te s . In c ry p to g ra p h y , th e PKI helps to bind p u b lic keys w ith
c o rre s p o n d in g user id e n titie s by m eans o f a c e rtific a te a u th o r ity (CA). The fo llo w in g are th e
c o m p o n e n ts o f PKI:
9 A c e rtific a te a u th o r ity (CA) th a t issues and v e rifie s d ig ita l c e rtific a te s
9 A c e rtific a te m a n a g e m e n t system fo r g e n e ra tio n , d is trib u tio n , storage, and v e rific a tio n

o f c e rtific a te s
9 One o r m o re d ire c to rie s w h e re th e c e rtific a te s (w ith th e ir p u b lic keys) are h e ld
9 A re g is tra tio n a u th o rity (RA) th a t acts as th e v e rifie r fo r th e c e rtific a te a u th o r ity
C ry p to g ra p h ic keys can be d e liv e re d se cu re ly b e tw e e n users by PKI.

P u b lic K e y In fr a s tr u c tu r e ( P K I)
C E H
(Contd)
C e rtific a tio n pq
A u th o rity (CA)
R egistration
A u th o rity (RA)
> V a lid a tio n o f e le c tr o n ic s ig n a t u r e

P u b lic K ey
> E n q u ir e s a b o u t p u b lic k e y c e r tif ic a te
P r i v a t e K ey <Z== 01 v a lid ity t o v a lid a tio n a u t h o r i t y
P u b lic K e y In fra s tru c tu re (P K I) (C o n td )

a
The p u b lic key c ry p to s y s te m uses a p a ir o f a p u b lic key and a p riv a te key to assure
secure c o m m u n ic a tio n o v e r th e In te rn e t. In p u b lic key c ry p to s y s te m a u th e n tic a tio n , it is
im p o rta n t to c o n n e c t th e c o rre c t person and th e p u b lic key. This is acco m p lish e d w ith th e help
o f P ublic Key In fra s tru c tu re (PKI). A s y m m e tric (p u b lic key) c ry p to g ra p h y is th e fo u n d a tio n
te c h n o lo g y o f PKI, w h e n s e n d e r and re ce ive r agreed upon a se cre t c o m m u n ic a tio n using p u blic
key e n c ry p tio n w ith a d ig ita l s ig n atu re .
The fig u re th a t fo llo w s show s h o w a message gets d ig ita lly signed by th e o rg a n iz a tio n in v o lv e d
in a u th e n tic a tio n and c e rtific a tio n by m eans of PKI. In p u b lic key cryp to syste m s, th e
co rre s p o n d e n c e b e tw e e n a p u b lic key and th e p riv a te key is ta k e n care by th e c e rtific a tio n
a u th o r ity (CA), i.e., based on th e p u b lic key th e CA d e te rm in e s th e o w n e r o f th e re s p e c tiv e
p riv a te key. In itia lly , th e user requests th e c e rtific a tio n a u th o rity fo r b in d in g his o r her p u blic
key; a c e rtific a tio n a u th o r ity d ig ita lly signs it and issues a p u b lic key c e rtific a te to th e user. It
binds th e user's id e n tity w ith th e user's p u b lic key. In b e tw e e n th e user and th e CA, th e re exists
an o rg a n iz a tio n , th e R e g istra tio n A u th o rity (RA). The jo b o f th e RA is to v e rify th e id e n tity o f th e
user re q u e s tin g th e c e rtific a te fa c e -to -fa c e . T here exists a n o th e r a u th o rity in PKI, i.e., th e
v a lid a tio n a u th o rity (VA). The jo b o f th e VA is to check w h e th e r th e c e rtific a te w as issued by
t r u s tw o r th y a CA o r n o t, i.e., is it v a lid o r n o t. The sen d e r and re c e iv e r can th e n e xchang e a
secret m essage using p u b lic key c ry p to g ra p h y .

V a lid a tio n
Updates Inform ation A u th o r ity (VA)
R e q u e s t f o r is s u in g - ;
~ c e rtific a te .* ^
w
< P u b lic K ey
P u b lic K ey
D e te r m i n e d
H C e r tif ic a te
C e r tif ic a te
R e s u lt
U se r a p p lie s fo r
is s u in g c e r t i f i c a t e
u H "
M e s s a g e in p u b lic k e y c e r t i f i c a t e
User
s ig n e d w i t h d ig ita l s ig n a t u r e
r
/ ---------------------------
> V a lid a tio n o f e le c tro n ic s ig n a tu r e
P u b lic K e y 1
> E n q u ire s a b o u t p u b lic k e y c e r tific a te
P r iv a te K ey ^ J 1 v a lid ity t o v a l i d a t i o n a u t h o r i t y
FIGURE 19.13: Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)

C e r t if ic a t io n A u t h o r it ie s C E H
Crt1fW4 itfciul Nm Im
Q th a M te
se curity trusted by
is around the w orld
The First To Bring You a Full
Line of 2048-bit Certificates
ThUidSMSui m
BUYCERTFICATES
th e m o s t v is ib le w e b s ite s e c u r ity
http://www.comodo.com http://www.thawte.com
SSymantec
Game check. New name.

Still the gold standard.
N o rto n
http://www.verisign.com http://www.entrust.net
C e r tific a tio n A u th o r itie s
C e rtific a tio n a u th o ritie s are th e e n titie s th a t issue d ig ita l ce rtific a te s . The fo llo w in g
are som e o f th e c e rtific a te a u th o ritie s :
C om odo
Source: h ttp ://w w w .c o m o d o .c o m
C o m o do o ffe rs a c o m p le te range o f PKI d ig ita l c e rtific a te s w ith stro n g SSL e n c ry p tio n a va ilable .
It ensures s ta n d a rd s o f c o n fid e n tia lity , system re lia b ility , and p e rtin e n t business practices as
ju d g e d th ro u g h q u a lifie d in d e p e n d e n t a u d its. The PKI (P ublic Key In fra s tru c tu re ) m a n a g e m e n t
s o lu tio n s o ffe re d by C o m o d o in c lu d e C o m o d o C e rtific a te M a n a g e r and C o m o d o EPKI M a n a g e r.
A v a ila b le D ig ita l C e rtific a te s :
Q E xtended v a lid a tio n (EV)-SSL
9 M u lti-d o m a in EV SSL
9 W ild c a rd SSL
U n ifie d c o m m u n ic a tio n s (UC)
9 In tel Pro Series

9 G eneral p u rp o se SSL
9 Secure Email - S /M IM E
9 C lie nt a u th e n tic a tio n
9 C o d e s ig n in g
COMODO
Creating Trust Online* I Resources I newsroom I Careers I ContactUs I Support I Loflm I
Product* Home&HomeOffice E-Commerce SmalloUM
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aim
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Mkess LargeEaterpiise PartaeisSocialMeOa
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T h e F irs t T o B ring Y ou a Full

Line o f 2 0 4 8 -b it C e rtific a te s
E x p lo r e O u r S S L C e r tif ic a te s
Swura SwM o w m Secure W it tl*
Convereon MS UcfMOfi 2007^
Secure a Webserver
rR TinciW ^^
> fftttPftOOUCTS > HOMICOMPUIMG > BUSMtSSSOiUTlOMS a fCOMMfRCi SOiUTlOMS
FIGURE 19.14: Comodo screenshot
th w a te
Source: h ttp ://w w w .th a w te .c o m
th a w te is a C e rtific a tio n A u th o rity , th w a te o ffe rs SSL and code signing d ig ita l c e rtific a te s to
secure servers, p ro vid e s data e n c ry p tio n , a u th e n tic a te s users, p ro te c ts privacy, and assures
o n lin e id e n tifie s th ro u g h s trin g e n t a u th e n tic a tio n and v e rific a tio n processes. The SSL
c e rtific a te s o ffe re d by th w a te in clu d e W ild c a rd SSL C e rtifica te s, SAN /U C C e rtifica te s, SGC
SuperC erts, and E xtended V a lid a tio n SSL C e rtifica te s.
( t) th a w te
urity trusted by
ound the world
G e t s ta rte d In s p ire S im p lify SSL
w ith S S L T r u s t O n lin e S e c u rity
Oncoswrwhat SSI * ShooUmcsDmDim JustoneSANcertAcate
andwhyyouneedt TrustedS*eSeal and cansecuremultiple
BUY CERTIFICATES
SSICertificates
th e m o s t v is ib le w e b s ite s e c u r ity j
CodeSigningCertificates **wtjhmmgraewWLxam AMsmaaeetyTnenrte Cj X J
FIGURE 19.15: thawte screenshot
V e r is ig n

Source: h ttp ://w w w .v e ris ig n .c o m
V eriSign A u th e n tic a tio n Services, n o w p a rt o f S ym antec Corp. (NASDAQ: SYMC), p rovides

s o lu tio n s th a t a llo w co m p a n ie s and co n su m e rs to engage in c o m m u n ic a tio n s and c o m m e rc e
o n lin e w ith co n fid e n c e .
SSL C e rtific a te s :
0 Secure Site Pro w ith EV
0 Secure Site w ith EV
0 Secure Site Pro
0 Secure Site
0 M a naged PKI fo r SSL
0 SSL fo r th e E n te rp rise
0 SSL P a rtn e r P rogram s
0 S ym antec C e rtific a te In te llig e n c e C e n te r
" *, VeriSign Morton

>ym a n te c Authentication Services
Product a Srvtc
S a m e ch e ck . New nam e.
S t ill th e g o ld s t a n d a r d .
v/^ N o rto n Th same security, services and support youve come to trust
V J SECURED
from VeriSign are now brought to you by Symantec.
pow ered by VeriSign
wnat it mean* for you >
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E n tru s t
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E n tru st pro vid e s id e n tity -b a s e d s e c u rity so lu tio n s th a t e m p o w e r e n te rp rise s, co n su m ers,

citizens, and th e w e b . E n tru s t's s o lu tio n s in clu d e stro n g a u th e n tic a tio n , fra u d d e te c tio n , d ig ita l
c e rtific a te s , SSL, and PKI. E n tru st can d e p lo y a p p ro p ria te s e c u rity s o lu tio n s to help p ro te c t
d ig ita l id e n titie s and in fo rm a tio n at m u ltip le p o in ts to address e v e r-e v o lv in g th re a ts .

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FIGURE 19.17: Entrust screenshot

M o d u l e F l o w
C o p y rig h t b y EG-GMMCil. All R ig h ts R e s e r v e d . R e p r o d u c tio n Is S tric tly P ro h ib ite d .
M o d u le F lo w
A t p re se n t, m o s t businesses use em ail as th e m a jo r source o f c o m m u n ic a tio n as it is

sim p le and easy to c o m m u n ic a te o r share in fo rm a tio n . These em ails m ay c o n ta in s e n s itiv e
in fo r m a tio n a b o u t th e ir p ro je cts, update s, etc. If th is in fo rm a tio n fa lls in to th e w ro n g hands,
th e n th e o rg a n iz a tio n s m ay fa ce huge losses. This risk can be a vo id e d by e n c ry p tin g th e e m ail
messages. Email e n c ry p tio n is th e m eans to tra n s fe r th e p la in te x t m essage in to an u n re a d a b le
fo rm .

C ry p to g ra p h y C on cep ts bpt E n c ry p tio n A lg o rith m s

Ilhli 11
C ry p to g ra p h y A tta c k s C ry p ta n a ly s is T ools
This s e ctio n focuses on v a rio u s e m a il s e c u rity m echanism s such as d ig ita l s ig n a tu re s , SSL, and
TLS.

D i g i t a l S i g n a t u r e C E H
Digital signature used asymmetric cryptography to simulate the security properties of a signature in digital,
rather than written form
A digital signature may be further protected, by encrypting the signed email for confidentiality
Ml
Decrypt message using
OPEN one-tim e symmetric key
V
j r . /...................

Recipient decrypt one-tim e

symmetric key using his PRIVATE key
....................................... .......................... ...................................
VERIFY m Rehash the

*, j fit? message and
compare it
with the hash
-------
Unlock the hash value using
'l i f value attached
with the mail
sender's PUBLIC key
D i g i t a l S ig n a tu r e
A d ig ita l sig n a tu re is a c ry p to g ra p h ic m eans of a u th e n tic a tio n . Public key

c ry p to g ra p h y , w h ic h uses an a s y m m e tric ke y a lg o rith m , is used fo r cre a tin g th e d ig ita l
s ig n a tu re . The tw o typ e s o f keys in p u b lic key c ry p to g ra p h y are th e p riv a te key (w h ic h is k n o w n
o n ly to th e signer and used to c re a te th e d ig ita l sig n a tu re ) and th e p u b lic key (w h ich is m ore
w id e ly k n o w n and is used by a re ly in g p a rty to v e rify th e d ig ita l signature). A hash fu n c tio n is a
process, o r an a lg o rith m , th a t is used in cre a tin g and v e rify in g a d ig ita l s ig n a tu re . This a lg o rith m
creates a d ig ita l re p re s e n ta tio n o f a m essage, w h ic h is also k n o w n as a " fin g e r p r in t." This
fin g e rp rin t is o f a "hash v a lu e " o f a s ta n d a rd le n g th , w h ic h is m uch s m a lle r th a n th e message,
b u t is u n iq u e to it. If any change is m ade to th e m essage, it w ill a u to m a tic a lly p ro d u c e a
d iffe re n t hash re s u lt; it is n o t possible to d e rive th e o rig in a l m essage fro m th e hash va lu e in
case o f a secure hash fu n c tio n , w h ic h is also kn o w n as a o n e -w a y hash fu n c tio n .
The hash re s u lt o f th e o rig in a l m essage and th e hash fu n c tio n th a t is used to c re a te th e d ig ita l

s ig n a tu re are re q u ire d to v e rify th e d ig ita l s ig n a tu re . W ith th e help o f th e p u b lic key and th e
n e w re s u lt, th e v e rifie r checks:
9 If th e d ig ita l s ig n a tu re is cre a te d w ith th e re la te d p riv a te key. If th e new hash re s u lt is

th e sam e as th e o rig in a l hash re s u lt, w h ic h w as c o n v e rte d in to a d ig ita l s ig n a tu re d u rin g
th e s ig n in g process.

To c o rre la te th e key p a ir w ith th e re sp e ctive signer, th e c e rtific a tio n a u th o rity presents a

c e rtific a te th a t is an e le c tro n ic re cord o f th e p u b lic as th e su b je ct o f th e c e rtific a te , and
c o n firm s th e id e n tity o f th e sign er as th e re la te d p riv a te key o w n e r. The fu tu re signer is called
th e su b sc rib e r. T he m ain fu n c tio n o f a c e rtific a te is to bind a p a ir o f p u b lic and p riv a te keys to a
p a rtic u la r subscribe r. The re c ip ie n t o f th e c e rtific a te relies on a d ig ita l sig n a tu re cre a te d by th e
su b sc rib e r na m ed in th e c e rtific a te . The p u b lic key listed can be used to v e rify th a t th e p riv a te
key is used to c re a te th e re la te d d ig ita l s ig n a tu re .
The c e rtific a tio n a u th o rity d ig ita lly signs th e c e rtific a te to assure th e a u th e n tic ity o f b o th th e
p u b lic key and th e s u b scrib e r's id e n tity . The a u th o rity 's d ig ita l sig n a tu re on th e c e rtific a te can
be v e rifie d w ith th e help o f th e p u b lic key o f th e c e rtific a tio n a u th o rity re co rd e d in a n o th e r
c e rtific a te , w h ic h belongs to a n o th e r c e r tific a tio n 's a u th o rity . This c e rtific a te can be
a u th e n tic a te d w ith th e he lp o f a n o th e r p u b lic key re c o rd e d in a n o th e r c e rtific a te and so on.
The re p o s ito ry can be m ade to pu b lish th e c e rtific a te ; th e p u b lic key and its id e n tity are
a va ila b le fo r v e rific a tio n o f th e c e rtific a te . The re trie v a l and v e rific a tio n o f th e d ig ita l sig n a tu re
is m ade w ith th e h e lp o f an o n lin e database called re p o s ito rie s , w h ic h h olds th e c e rtific a te s and
o th e r in fo rm a tio n . The c e rtific a tio n a u th o rity m ay suspend o r re vo ke th e c e rtific a te .
A p p e n d t h e s igned hash AC CEPT

S IG N
co d e t o m essage
C o n fid e n tia l
P11 noL 01,
0 1001110
1100 001
1 111 oo
1U
- unn
f
00 k
S e n d e r signs hash code

-i
In fo rm a tio n using his PRIV ATE k e y
SEAL O P EN
D e c ry p t m essage using
o n e -tim e s y m m e tric k ey
V
Encrypt m assage using

o n e *tim e s y m m e tric k e y
J& i
En cryp t th e s y m m e tric key
using r e c ip ie n t's PUBLIC k ey
* U ,
...............
R e c ip ie n t d e c ry p t o n e -tim e
s y m m e tric k e y using his PRIV ATE key
DELIVER VERIFY

11 n o 01 :
P H
11 -V..
v a lu e a t t a c h e d
M a il ele c tro n ic e n v e lo p e s U n lo ck th e hash v a lu e using w ith t h e m ail
to t h e re cip ie n t se n d er's PUBLIC k e y
FIGURE 19.18: Digital signatures

S S L ( S e c u r e S o c k e ts L a y e r ) C E H
B SSL is an application layer protocol developed by Netscape for managing the security of a
message transmission on the Internet
B It uses RSA asymmetric (public key) encryption to encrypt data transferred over SSL connections
C lie n t H ello m e s s a g e ( in c lu d e s SSL v e rs io n , r a n d o m ly g e n e r a t e d d a ta , e n c ry p tio n a lg o rith m s , s e s s io n

ID, k ey e x c h a n g e a lg o rith m s , c o m p r e s s io n a lg o rith m s , a n d MAC a lg o rith m s )
D e te r m in e s t h e SSL v e r s io n a n d e n c r y p tio n a lg o r ith m s t o b e u s e d f o r t h e c o m m u n ic a tio n ;

s e n d s S e rv e r H ello m e s s a g e (S e ssio n ID) a n d C e rtif ic a te m e s s a g e (local c e r tific a te )
S e n d s a S e rv e r H ello D o n e m e s s a g e
V e rifie s t h e D igital c e r tif ic a te ; g e n e r a t e s a r a n d o m p r e m a s te r s e c r e t (E n c ry p te d w ith

s e r v e r 's p u b lic key) a n d s e n d s C lie n t K ey E x c h a n g e m e s s a g e w ith t h e p r e m a s te r s e c r e t
S e n d s a C h a n g e C ip h e r S p e c m e s s a g e a n d a ls o s e n d s F in is h e d m e s s a g e ( h a s h o f h a n d s h a k e m e s s a g e )
H ash v a lu e is c a lc u la te d f o r t h e e x c h a n g e d h a n d s h a k e m e s s a g e s a n d t h e n c o m p a r e d t o t h e h a s h v a lu e
r e c e iv e d f r o m t h e c lie n t; If t h e t w o m a tc h , t h e k e y a n d c ip h e r s u ite n e g o tia tio n s u c c e e d s . S e n d s a C h a n g e
C ip h e r S p e c m e s s a g e a n d a ls o s e n d s F in ish e d m e s s a g e ( h a s h o f h a n d s h a k e m e s s a g e )
S S L (S e c u re S o c k e ts L a y e r )
SSL is a c ro n y m fo r Secured Sockets Layer, d e ve lo p e d by N etscape. It is a p ro to c o l fo r

sending p riv a te d o c u m e n ts o ve r th e In te rn e t. It w o rk s w ith th e he lp o f th e p riv a te key to
e n c ry p t data th a t is tra n s fe rre d ove r an SSL c o n n e c tio n . The m ain m o tiv e beh in d designing th e
SSL p ro to c o l is to p ro v id e p riva cy b e tw e e n tw o c o m m u n ic a tin g a p p lic a tio n s , such as a c lie n t
and a server. M o re o v e r, th e p ro to c o l is designed to a u th e n tic a te th e se rve r and th e c lie n t; SSL
re q u ire s a re lia b le tr a n s p o r t p ro to c o l such as TCP fo r d a ta tra n s m is s io n and re c e p tio n .
A ny a p p lic a tio n -la y e r p ro to c o l th a t is h ig h e r th a n SSL, such as HTTP, FTP, and TELNET, can be
layered on to p o f SSL tra n s p a re n tly . The SSL acts as an a rb itr a to r b e tw e e n th e e n c ry p tio n
a lg o rith m and session key, and also v e rifie s th e d e s tin a tio n se rve r b e fo re th e tra n s m is s io n and
re c e p tio n o f data. The c o m p le te data o f th e a p p lic a tio n p ro to c o l is e n c ry p te d , to ensure
s e cu rity. It also o ffe rs cha nn e l s e c u rity w h ic h has th re e basic p ro p e rtie s :
9 It has a p riv a te ch a n n e l, w h e re th e messages are e n c ry p te d a fte r th e sim p le handshake

th a t de fin e s th e se cre t key.
9 The ch an n e l is a u th e n tic a te d . The se rve r e n d p o in ts are alw ays a u th e n tic a te d b u t th e

c lie n t e n d p o in ts are o p tio n a lly a u th e n tic a te d .
9 The ch an n e l is re lia b le . The tra n s m is s io n has an in te g rity check.

An SSL session is re s p o n s ib le fo r th e SSL h a n d sh a ke p ro to c o l to o rganize th e states o f th e

server and clie n ts, th u s e n su rin g th e co n siste n cy o f th e p ro to c o l sta te m achines (th e states are
n o t e x a c tly p a ra lle l).
T he re are tw o d iffe re n t ty p e s o f states: o p e ra tin g and pe n d in g . In a d d itio n to th e tw o states,

tw o a d d itio n a l state s are also m a in ta in e d ; th e read and w r ite states. W h e n th e se rve r o r c lie n t
o b ta in s th e c ip h e r spec message, th e m essage is co p ie d in to a c u rre n t read s ta te fro m th e
p en d in g read s ta te . In a s im ila r w ay, w h e n th e data is tra n s m itte d fro m th e se rve r o r c lie n t, it
tra n s m its a changed c ip h e r spec message, and copies th e m essage in to th e w r ite c u rre n t sta te
fro m th e p e n d in g w r ite sta te . A fte r th e c o m p le tio n o f th e h a n d sh a ke a rb itr a tio n , th e server
and c lie n t exchange th e changed spec m essage and th e c o m m u n ic a tio n is based on th e n e w ly
agreed u p o n c ip h e r spec. An SSL m ay in c lu d e m any secure c o n n e c tio n s , and it m ig h t have
m u ltip le c o n c u rre n t sessions. The e le m e n ts in c lu d e d in session sta te are as fo llo w s :
S e s s io n I d e n t i f i e r
Session id e n tifie r is a ra n d o m sequence o f bytes tra n s m itte d by th e se rve r to id e n tify

an a c tiv e o r p re s u m a b le session sta te :
9 Peer C e rtific a te - X 509.v3[X 509] is th e c e rtific a te o f th e peer and m ay be nu ll.
9 C om pression M e th o d - Is th e a lg o rith m used to com press data p rio r to e n c ry p tio n .
9 C ipher Spec - E n u m erate s th e b u lk d a ta e n c ry p tio n and M AC a lg o rith m s . It also defines

c ry p to g ra p h ic a ttrib u te s like th e size o f th e hash.
9 M a s te r S ecret - Is th e 4 8 -b y te se cre t shared b e tw e e n th e c lie n t and server.
9 Is R esum able - A fla g specifies w h e th e r a n e w session can be s ta rte d .
The e le m e n ts o f th e c o n n e c tio n s ta te a re as fo llo w s :
9 Server and c lie n t ra n d o m - Is th e sequences o f bytes, w h ic h are selected by th e server

and th e c lie n t fo r e ve ry c o n n e c tio n .
9 Server w r ite MAC secre t - Is th e secret used in MAC o p e ra tio n s on data w ritte n by th e
server.
9 C lie nt w r ite MAC se cre t - Is th e secret used in MAC o p e ra tio n s on data w ritte n by th e
c lie n t.
9 Server w r ite key - Is th e huge c ip h e r key fo r data e n c ry p te d by th e se rve r and d e c ry p te d

by th e c lie n t.
9 C lie nt w r ite key - Is th e c ip h e r key fo r data e n c ry p te d by th e c lie n t and d e c ry p te d by th e

server.
9 In itia liz a tio n v e c to rs - In CBC (C ipher Block Chain) m o d e w h e n th e block cip h e r is used,
an in itia liz a tio n v e c to r is m anaged fo r e ve ry key. It is s ta rte d by th e SSL handshake
p ro to c o l and is used to m ake th e fir s t c ip h e r te x t. The last c ip h e r te x t b lo c k o f e ve ry
te x t is used w ith th e s u b s e q u e n t re c o rd .

9 Sequence numbers - Every party maintains a different and unique sequence of numbers
for the transmission and reception of messages for every connection. The appropriate
sequence is set to zero depending on the party that sends and receives cipher spec.
S S L H a n d s h a k e P r o to c o l F lo w
The SSL handshake protocol works on top of the SSL record layer. These processes
that are executed in the three handshake protocol are summarized as follows:
9 The client sends a hello message to the server and the server must respond to the hello
message with a hello message, or else the connection will fail due to the occurrence of a
fatal error. The attributes that are established due to the server and client hello are:
protocol version, session ID, cipher suite, and compression method.
9 After the connection is established, the server sends a certificate to the client for
authentication. In addition, a server-key exchange message might be sent. Ifthe server
is authenticated, the client may be requested for the certificate, if that is appropriate to
the cipher suite selected.
9 The server sends a hello done message, to inform that the handshake phase is complete
and waits for the client's response.
9 If the client receives a certificate request message, the client must respond to the
message by sending a certificate message or "no certificate" alert.The client-key
exchange message is sent and the content of the message depends on the public-key
algorithm between the server hello and client hello. If the certificate sent by the client
has signing ability, a digitally signed certificate verifies the message, and is transmitted.
9 The client transmits the changed cipher spec message and copies the pending cipher
spec into the current cipher spec. The client sends a message to initiate the completion
of the message under the new algorithm, keys, and secrets. In response the server
replies by sending its own changed cipher spec message, transfers the pending cipher
spec to the current cipher spec, and initiates the completion of the message under the
new cipher spec. This is the point of completion of the handshake and the server starts
to exchange the application layer data.
The message of the previous session or the replica of an existing session is as follows:
The client initiates the communication by sending a hello message with the session I of the
session that is to be resumed. The server checks its cache to look for the match of the session
ID; if it finds a match it re-establishes the session under the specified session state with same
session ID. This is the point where both the server and the client exchange the changed spec
messages and proceed directly to the finished messages. After re-establishment, the server and
the client exchange the data at the application layer. If the session I is not found, the server
creates a new session ID, and the SSL client and server carry out a complete handshake.

Client Hello message (includes SSI version, encryption algorithms, key exchange algorithms, and MAC algorithms)
Determines the SSLversion and cipher suite to be used for the communication;
sends Server Hello message (Session ID) and Certificate message (local certificate)
9 i.... Sends aServer Hello Done message
........ Verifies the Digital certificate; generates a random premaster secret (Encrypted with
tv A i
server's public key) and sends Client Key Exchange message with the premaster secret
Sends aChange Cipher Spec message and also sends Finished message (hash of handshake message)
Computes the hash value of the exchanged handshake messages and compares the hash value with that
received from the client; If the two match, the key and cipher suite negotiation succeeds. Sends aChange
Cipher Spec message and also sends Finished message (hash of handshake message)
FIGURE 19.19: Depicting SSL Handshake Protocol Flow

T r a n s p o r t L a y e r S e c u r ity (T L S ) C E H
TLS is a protocol to establish a secure connection between a client and a server

and ensure privacy and integrity of information during transmission
It uses the RSAalgorithm with 1024 and 2048 bit strengths
nwn
TLS Handshake Protocol TLS Record Protocol

It a l l o w s t h e c l i e n t a n d It p r o v i d e s s e c u r e d
Hello Server
se rv e r to a u th e n tic a te Server C ertificate c o n n e ctio n s w ith an
Server key Exchange
e a c h o th e r, se le c t Client C ertificate C ertificate Request en cry p tio n m e th o d
C lient key exchange Server H ello Done
e n c ry p tio n a lg o rith m , a n d C ertification verify su c h a s D ata E n c ry p tio n
[Change C ipher Spec]
e x c h an g e sy m m e tric key S t a n d a r d (D ES)
C lient Finished [Change C ipher Spec]
Message Server Finished
p rio r to d a ta e x c h a n g e
Message
H a n d s h a k e P ro to c o l
R e c o rd P ro to c o l
A p p lic a tio n D a ta < > A p p lic a tio n D a ta
T r a n s p o r t L a y e r S e c u r ity (T L S )
TLS is a p ro to c o l to e sta b lish a secure c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n a c lie n t and a server and

e nsure priva cy and in te g rity o f in fo rm a tio n d u rin g tra n sm issio n . It is a c ry p to g ra p h ic p ro to c o l
in te n d e d to p ro v id e in fo rm a tio n s e c u rity o v e r th e In te rn e t. The TLS e n c ry p ts th e n e tw o rk
c o n n e c tio n seg m e nts a t th e a p p lic a tio n la ye r fo r th e tra n s p o rt layer. It uses a s y m m e tric
c ry p to g ra p h y fo r key exchange, s y m m e tric e n c ry p tio n fo r c o n fid e n tia lity , and message
a u th e n tic a tio n codes fo r m essage in te g rity . W ith th e help o f TLS, y o u can reduce som e o f th e
risks such as ta m p e rin g , m essage fo rg e ry m ail c o m m u n ic a tio n s , and e a v e sd ro p p in g d u rin g
tra n s m is s io n o f e le c tro n ic m ails o r in fo rm a tio n .
TLS p ro to c o l consists o f tw o layers:
Q TLS re c o rd p ro to c o l
9 TLS handshake p ro to c o l
T L S R e c o rd P ro to c o l
The TLS re c o rd p ro to c o l p ro vid e s secure c o m m u n ic a tio n s . It is in te n d e d fo r

e n c ry p tio n , a u th e n tic a tio n , and co m p re ssio n (o p tio n a l) o f packets. O nce th e h a n d sh a ke

process is d on e, th e n re c o rd layer fu n c tio n s can be called a t any tim e w h e n e v e r th e re is a need

to send o r re ceive d a ta . It is re sp o n sib le fo r securing a p p lic a tio n data and also v e rify in g its
in te g rity and o rig in o f th e data. TLS R ecord P ro to c o l m anages th e fo llo w in g :
9 D ivid in g and re a sse m b lin g messages
9 C om pressing and d e co m p re ssin g blocks (o p tio n a l)
9 A p p ly in g MAC (M essage A u th e n tic a tio n Code) and v e rify in g in c o m in g messages based

on MAC
9 E ncryp ting and d e c ry p tin g m essages
The o u tg o in g e n c ry p te d d a ta fro m th e re co rd p ro to c o l is s e n t to TCP la ye r fo r tra n s p o rt.
Hit -251
T L S H a n d s h a k e P ro to c o l
The TLS handshake p ro to c o l is re sp o n sib le fo r peers to agree upon s e c u rity

p a ra m e te rs fo r th e re c o rd la yer, a u th e n tic a tio n . This also n e g o tia te s a session co n sistin g o f
session id e n tifie r, pe er c e rtific a te , c o m p re ssio n m e th o d , c ip h e r spec, m a ste r secret, and
in fo rm a tio n a b o u t re s u m in g a c o n n e c tio n . The fig u re th a t fo llo w s show s th e process o f c lie n t-
a u th e n tic a te d TLS handshake:
Hello Server
Server Certificate
Server key Exchange
Client Certificate Certificate Request
Client key exchange Server Hello Done
Certification verify
[Change Cipher Spec]
Client Finished [Change Cipher Spec]
Message Server Finished
Message
H an d sh ak e P ro to c o l
R e c o rd P ro to c o l
A p p lic a tio n D ata A p p lic a tio n D ata
FIGURE 19.20: Showing the client-authenticated TLS handshake process
A handsh ake p ro to c o l exchanges a series o f m essage in b e tw e e n a c lie n t and a se rve r fo r a

secure c o n n e c tio n . In itia lly , th e c lie n t sends a " h e llo " to th e server. The server, in response to
th e c lie n t, sends "h e llo ." D uring th is p e rio d , th e s e c u rity c a p a b ilitie s in c lu d in g p ro to c o l ve rsio n ,
co m p re s s io n m e th o d , c ip h e r s u ite , session ID, and in itia l ra n d o m num ber have been
e sta b lish e d . Then th e s e rv e r m ay send a c e rtific a te and key exchange and re quests a c e rtific a te .
N ow , th e se rve r signals th e end o f th e h e llo m essage. In response to th e c e rtific a te re q u e s t by
th e se rve r, th e c lie n t sends th e c e rtific a te and key exchange. The c lie n t th e n sends c e rtific a te
v e rific a tio n . B oth th e c lie n t and se rve r exchange th e ir c ip h e r s u ite and fin is h th e handshake
p ro to c o l.

M o d u le F lo w
So fa r, w e have discussed c ry p to g ra p h y , th e need fo r c ry p to g ra p h y , c ry p to g ra p h ic

e n c ry p tio n a lg o rith m s , c ry p to g ra p h y to o ls , PKI, and em a il e n c ry p tio n . In a d d itio n to all th e se
e n c ry p tio n m e th o d s , th e re is o n e m o re e n c ry p tio n m e th o d : disk e n c ry p tio n .
C ry p to g ra p h y C on cep ts tiTTri' E n c ry p tio n A lg o rith m s

Blhlill
C ry p to g ra p h y T o ols ^ ^ 5 P ublic Key In fra s tru c tu re (PKI)
[/< ? ? C ry p to g ra p h y A tta c k s C ry p ta n a ly s is T ools

m
This s e c tio n describes disk e n c ry p tio n and disk e n c ry p tio n to o ls .

D i s k E n c r y p t i o n C E H
Confidentiality Encryption
a rotection
* *
Disk encryption protects With the use of an encryption

Disk encryption works in a similar
confidentiality of the data stored program for your disk, you can
way as text message encryption
on disk by converting it into an safeguard any information to burn
and protects data even when the
unreadable code using disk onto the disk, and keep it from
OS not active
encryption software or hardware falling into the wrong hands
____________________ J
1 1
------------------------j.---------------------- ............................ 1 .........................
1 |
4 1 # ^ 4 4 * + m
Priv acy Passphrase Hidden Volumes Volume Encryption Blue Ray DVD Backup
Copyright by EC-G(U(ICil. All Rights Reserved. Reproduction is Strictly Prohibited.
(it 111
D is k E n c r y p tio n
- 3
Disk e n c ry p tio n is th e process o f securing data by tra n s fe rrin g it in to un re a d a b le code
th a t c a n n o t be d e c ip h e re d by u n a u th o riz e d persons. You can use d is k e n c ry p tio n s o ftw a re or
h a rd w a re to e n c ry p t e ve ry b it o f in fo rm a tio n th a t is w r itte n on th e disk.
Disk e n c ry p tio n w o rks s im ila r to te x t message e n c ry p tio n . W ith th e use o f an e n c ry p tio n

p ro g ra m fo r th e user's disk, th e user can safeguard any, and all, in fo rm a tio n b u rn e d o n to th e
disk and save it fro m fa llin g in to w ro n g hands.
A c o m p u te r disk is a ro u n d plate o n to w h ic h data is re c o rd e d a n d /o r b u rn e d . I f t h e user needs

to sto re in fo rm a tio n on a disk, and keep it safe, it is re c o m m e n d e d th a t an e n c ry p tio n p ro g ra m
be used. E n cryp tio n s o ftw a re , fo r disks, scram bles th e in fo rm a tio n b u rn e d on th e disk in to an
ille g ib le code. It is o n ly a fte r th e disk in fo rm a tio n is d e c ry p te d , th a t it can be read a n d /o r used.
E ncryption fo r disks is useful w h e n th e user needs to send sensitive in fo rm a tio n th ro u g h th e

m ail. For instance, th e user needs to m ail his o r her frie n d a disk, b u t ca n n o t ta ke th e risk o f it
being s to le n and th e in fo rm a tio n is being c o m p ro m is e d . In th is case, th e user could sim p ly
e n c ry p t th e in fo rm a tio n on th e disk and th e n re st assured, even if th e disk is lost o r stolen, th e
in fo rm a tio n on it w o u ld n o t be c o m p ro m is e d .
In a d d itio n , disk e n c ry p tio n can also be useful in p ro te c tin g th e re a l-tim e exchange o f

in fo rm a tio n fro m being c o m p ro m is e d . W h e n th e exchange o f in fo rm a tio n is m ade in an

e n c ry p te d fo rm , th e chances o f th e in fo rm a tio n being c o m p ro m is e d are m in im ize d . The o n ly

w a y th e a tta c k e r can access th e in fo rm a tio n is by d e c ry p tin g th e m essage, w h ic h can o n ly be
d on e via th e a u th e n tic a tio n process.
F u rth e rm o re , th e e n c ry p tio n s o ftw a re in sta lle d on one's system ensures th e s e c u rity o f th e

system . Thus, it is re c o m m e n d e d to in s ta ll e n c ry p tio n s o ftw a re on system s th a t ho ld va lu a b le
in fo rm a tio n a n d /o r are exposed to u n lim ite d data tra n s fe r in o rd e r to p ro te c t th e data and
in fo rm a tio n fro m c o m p ro m is e .

D is k E n c r y p tio n T o o l: T r u e C r y p t C E H
Urti*W itkHil lUckw
D is k E n c r y p tio n T o o l: T r u e C r y p t
S o u rc e: h ttp ://w w w .tr u e c r y p t.o r g
T ru e C ry p t is s o ftw a re th a t a llo w s y o u to e stablish and m a in ta in an e n c ry p te d v o lu m e (data

sto ra g e device). No data s to re d on an e n c ry p te d v o lu m e can be read (d e c ry p te d ) w ith o u t using
th e c o rre c t p a s s w o rd /k e y file (s ) o r c o rre c t e n c ry p tio n keys. The e n tire file syste m is e n c ry p te d
(e.g., file nam es, fo ld e r nam es, c o n te n ts o f e ve ry file , fre e space, m eta data, etc).
M a in F e atures:
9 Creates a virtual encrypted disk within a file and mounts it as a real disk
9 Encrypts an entire partition or storage device such as USB flash drive or hard drive
9 Encrypts a partition or drive where Windows is installed (pre-boot authentication)
9 E n cryp tio n can be h a rd w a re -a c c e le ra te d on m o d e rn processors
9 Provides p la u sib le d e n ia b ility , in case an a d ve rsa ry fo rce s yo u to reveal th e passw ord
9 H idden v o lu m e (s te g a n o g ra p h y ) and h id d e n o p e ra tin g system

TrueCrypt V o lu m e C rea tio n W izard
TrueCrypt Volume Creation Wizard

1<Createawencryptedhiecowtater | C rypt V o lu m e C rea tio n W izard L=l!
Creates a vetu* encrypted 3s* *rth r a V . Recommended *or
nexpenenced user*
Mytnfrrttttn Volume Type
(*Encrypt a non system partiUoa/dnve \r StandardtrueCrypt volume|
fnerypt thesystempartitionorentiresystemdrive
Encrypts the paratwnAfr** inhere Windows s n s 'jtfd Anyone f' Midden TrueCrypt volume
who wants to oan access and use the system, read and write It may happen mat you are forced by somebody to reveal the
Wes, etc., w# need to erter lie correct password each awe password to an encrypted volume. There are many situations
before Wndows boots. Optunrfy, creates 0 hdden system. /here you cannot refuse to reseal the p a ssw d (for example,
rte t1tfK g a s s a g a gg*B993 due to extortion). Llano a 90<aled hidden volume alows you to
sotve such otuasons wthout reveairg the pacsworc to y&s
m Jh m .
m fonater! about hwkten Ytiuncs
FIGURE 19.21: TrueCrypt Screenshot

Ethical Hacking and Countermeasures Exam 312-50 Certified Ethical Hacker
Cryptography
D i s k E n c r y p t io n T o o l: G iliS o f t
F u l l D i s k E n c r y p t io n
G*S0ft !'AH* * '

^ full Disk E n c ry p tio n Q Full Disk E n c r y p tio n
u c40 * * ---------------------
dako
* *la scu isrf t e m it K f Y r t r t M lK n m ls A
C o p y r ig h t b y E G -G * a n cil. A ll R ig h ts R e se rv e d . R e p ro d u c tio n Is S tr ic tly P ro h ib ite d .
Jifeii. /1
**WWWI D is k E n c r y p tio n T o o l: G iliS o ft F u ll D is k E n c r y p tio n
=//==
S ource: h tt p :/ /w w w .g ilis o ft .c o m
G iliS o ft Full Disk E n c r y p tio n a llo w s y o u t o e n c r y p t all d isk p a r t i t i o n s , in c lu d in g t h e s y s te m

p a r t i t i o n . T h r o u g h p a s s w o r d p r o t e c t i n g a disk, d isk p a r t i t i o n , o r o p e r a t i n g s y s te m la u n c h , t h e
p r o g r a m d is a b le s a n y u n a u t h o r i z e d r e a d i n g / w r i t i n g a c t i v i t y o n y o u r d isk o r PC a n d r e s tr ic ts
access a n d la u n c h o f s p e c ific disks a nd files. It p r o v id e s a u t o m a t i c s e c u r it y f o r all i n f o r m a t i o n o n
e n d p o i n t h a r d d riv e s , in c lu d in g u ser d a ta , o p e r a t i n g s y s te m file s, a n d t e m p o r a r y a nd e ra s e d
files. For m a x i m u m d a ta p r o t e c t i o n , m u l t i - f a c t o r p r e - b o o t a u t h e n t i c a t i o n e n s u re s u s e r i d e n t it y ,
w h i l e e n c r y p t i o n p r e v e n t s d a ta loss f r o m t h e f t .

Cryptography
GASoft f ufl DKk ( m ryplion @ GASoft Ful Or*k I rwryptlon
, OtiSod Gason
Full Disk Encryption 4 *< ^ Full Disk Encryption u
U c i CWo [ Rx>vable01* UalDîi I
Enayptngthecomputer'sw* <Mcanensurethat thedata notteakafter thedsfco>
computera Jdtct thelocaldakyouwanttoenayptfromthefolowngtot.
I Encryptionportion 1 Drives 1Encryptionportion 1
f: 0C:\ [System] 4,83800%
0 C:C5rttor) _JL*700s_ F:\ 1 0%
0: t*\ 1 0% 1
Hot Encrypted NqI [n c rv p tc d P a rtia l tn crY O tcd F u lln c n r 0 tc d
If youwanttochangethepasswordp*easecomptetetheencryption. If vouwanttochangethepasswod.p1easecorrpletetheencryption.
FIGURE 19.22: GiliSoft Full Disk Encryption screenshot

Cryptography
D i s k E n c r y p t i o n T o o l s C E H
(rtifWd ItkNjI Nm Im
DriveCrypt SafeBit Disk Encryption

h ttp ://w w w .s e c u rs ta r.c o m h t tp : //w w w . s a fe b it. n e t
ShareCrypt
h ttp ://w w w .s e c u rs ta r.c o m
H DiskCryptor
h t t p : / / d is k c r y p t o r .n e t
PocketCrypt
h t t p : / / w w w . s e c u rs t a r . c o m
D alertsec
h t tp : //w w w . a le r ts e c .c o m
b Rohos Disk Encryption Symantec Drive Encryption

I s i1 h t t p : / / w w w .ro h o s . c o m
E h ttp ://w w w .s y m a n te c .c o m
1-----------
R-Crypto : Im l DriveCrypt Plus Pack

h ttp ://w w w .r-tt.c o m S Ih b i h ttp ://w w w .s e c u rs ta r.c o m
C o p y r ig h t b y E G -G * a n cil. A ll R ig h ts R e se rv e d . R e p ro d u c tio n is S tr ic tly P ro h ib ite d .
-ta
f D is k E n c r y p tio n T o o ls
m In a d d i t i o n t o T r u e C r y p t a n d G i l i S o f t F u ll D is k E n c r y p t i o n , t h e r e a r e m a n y o t h e r d is k
e n c r y p t i o n t o o l s t h a t a l l o w y o u t o f u l l y e n c r y p t a ll d a t a . A l is t o f d i s k e n c r y p t i o n to o ls is
m e n tio n e d b e lo w as f o l l o w s . A ll t h e s e t o o l s have a c o m m o n g o a l , i.e., e n c r y p t i n g a d is k
p a r t i t i o n . B u t e n v i r o n m e n t o r p u r p o s e m a y c h a n g e . If o n e t o o l is i n t e n d e d t o c r e a t e a v i r t u a l
e n c r y p t e d d is k o f t h e t a r g e t d is k p a r t i t i o n , th e n th e o t h e r m a y be i n t e n d e d t o e n c r y p t d a ta on
P o c k e t PCs r u n n i n g W i n d o w s M o b i l e a n d s o o n :
9 D r iv e C r y p t a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / w w w . s e c u r s t a r . c o m
9 S h a r e C r y p t a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / w w w . s e c u r s t a r . c o m
9 P o c k e t C r y p t a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / w w w . s e c u r s t a r . c o m
9 R ohos Disk E n c r y p tio n a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / w w w . r o h o s . c o m
9 R -C ry p to a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / w w w . r - t t . c o m
9 S a f e B it D isk E n c r y p t i o n a v a i l a b l e a t h t t p : / / w w w . s a f e b i t . n e t
9 D is k C r y p t o r a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / d i s k c r y p t o r . n e t
9 a le rts e c a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / w w w . a l e r t s e c . c o m
9 S y m a n te c D riv e E n c r y p tio n a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / w w w . s v m a n t e c . c o m

Cryptography
9 D r iv e C r y p t Plus Pack a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / w w w . s e c u r s t a r . c o m

Cryptography
M o d u le F lo w
So fa r, w e h a v e discu ssed c r y p t o g r a p h y c o n c e p ts , v a r io u s c r y p t o g r a p h y m e c h a n is m s ,
a n d e n c r y p t i o n a lg o r i t h m s . N o w it's t i m e t o discuss h o w c r y p t o g r a p h y s y s te m s c a n be e x p l o i t e d
by a n e x te r n a l user.
C ry p to g ra p h y C on cep ts tPffrj E n c ry p tio n A lg o rith m s

111:1111
C ry p to g ra p h y A tta c k s C ry p ta n a ly s is T ools
T his s e c tio n fo c u s e s o n v a r io u s t y p e s o f c r y p t o g r a p h y a tta c k s , c o d e b r e a k in g m e t h o d o lo g i e s ,

a n d o t h e r kin d s o f a tta c k s t h a t e x p l o i t c r y p t o g r a p h y s y s te m s .

Cryptography
CryptographyAttacks CEH
J Cryptography attacks are based on the assumption that the cryptanalyst has access to
the encrypted info rm ation
r
C h o s e n -k e y a tta c k
9 #- C h o s e n - c ip h e r te x t
a tta c k
C r y p to g r a p h y A tta c k s

)J)
C r y p t o g r a p h i c a tta c k s a re t h e m e a n s by w h i c h t h e a t t a c k e r d e c r y p t s t h e c i p h e r t e t
(b re a k s t h e c i p h e r t e x t ) w i t h o u t t h e k n o w le d g e o f th e key. In th e s e a tta c k s , t h e a t t a c k e r
s u b v e r ts t h e c y r p t o g r a p h ic s y s te m 's s e c u r it y by e x p l o i t i n g th e lo o p h o le s in co d e , c ip h e r ,
c r y p t o g r a p h ic p r o t o c o l o r k e y m a n a g e m e n t s c h e m e . C r y p t o g r a p h y a t t a c k s a re b ase d o n t h e
a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e c r y p t a n a l y s t has k n o w l e d g e o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n e n c r y p t e d . A t t a c k e r s h a v e
f o u n d v a r io u s a tta c k s f o r d e f e a t in g t h e c r y p t o s y s t e m a n d t h e y a r e c a te g o r iz e d i n t o e ig h t ty p e s :
9 C i p h e r t e x t o n l y a t ta c k
9 K n o w n -p la in te x t a tta ck
9 C h o s e n -p la in te x t
9 C h o s e n - c ip h e r t e x t a t t a c k
9 C h o sen key a t ta c k
9 A d a p t i v e c h o s e n - p l a in t e x t a tta c k
9 T i m in g a t ta c k
9 R u b b e r h ose a tta c k

Cryptography
CryptographyAttacks ( C o n t d )
CEH
Ciphertext-only Attack Adaptive Chosen-plaintext Attack
Attacker has access to the cipher text; Attacker makes a series of interactive
goal of this attack to recover encryption queries, choosing subsequent plaintexts
key from the ciphertext based on the information from the
previous encryptions
M
Chosen-plaintext Attack L* Known-plaintext Attack
Attacker defines his own plaintext, Attacker has knowledge of some part of
feeds it into the cipher, and analyzes the the plain text; using this information the
resulting ciphertext key used to generate ciphertext is deduced
so as to decipher other messages
GO C r y p to g r a p h y A tta c k s ( C o n td )
A tta c k e rs gain access to th e c o n t e n t o f th e e n c r y p te d m e ssag e th ro u g h c r y p ta n a ly s is

by d e f e a tin g th e c r y p t o g r a p h ic s e c u r ity a lg o r it h m s , even w it h o u t th e k n o w le d g e o f e n c ry p tio n
details. T h o u g h th e a lg o rith m s are stro n g and are re sistant to all attacks, the d e m a n d s o f
practical c ry p to s y s te m easily in tr o d u c e v u ln e ra b ilitie s. These v u ln e r a b ilitie s are th e so u rc e s o f
v a rio u s c ry p to g ra p h y attacks. As discussed pre v io usly , th e r e are e ight type s o f c ry p to g ra p h y
attacks. All th e s e attacks try e ith e r to re trie ve th e key or e xp o se th e plain text. T h e se attacks are
d istin g u ish e d based on th e in fo rm a tio n a v a ilab le t o th e c ry p ta n a ly s t t o m o u n t an atta ck . The
m ain goal o f atta c k e rs in all the cases is to d e c ry p t th e n e w pieces o f e n c r y p t e d message
w it h o u t ad d itio n a l in fo rm a tio n .
y C ip h e rte x t o n ly a tta c k
A c ip h e rte x t o nly attack is o n e o f th e basic types o f active attacks b e c a u se it is very

easy fo r th e a tta c k e r to get c ip h e rte x t by s n iffin g th e tra ffic o f an y in d iv id u al. In th is ty p e o f
attack, t h e a tta ck e r w ill have access o nly to c ip h e rte x ts o f several messages, all o f w h ic h w e r e
e n c r y p te d using th e s a m e e n c r y p tio n a lg o rith m . Finding th e key used fo r e n c r y p tio n is th e m ain
o b je ctiv e o f the a tta c k e r as it a llo w s th e a tta ck e r to d e c o d e all the m e ssag es e n cry p te d w ith th e
re sp e c tive key.

Cryptography
A d a p tiv e c h o s e n - p la in te x t a tta c k
A n a d a p t i v e c h o s e n - c i p h e r t e x t is t h e c o l l a b o r a t i v e v e r s i o n o f t h e c h o s e n - p l a i n t e x t
a tta c k . In t h i s t y p e o f a tta c k , t h e a t t a c k e r ch o se s f u r t h e r c i p h e r t e x t s b ase d o n p r i o r
re s u lts . H e r e t h e c r y p t a n a l y s t n o t o n l y c h o o s e s t h e p la i n t e x t t h a t is e n c r y p t e d b u t can also
m o d i f y his o r h e r c h o ic e b ase d o n t h e r e s u lts o f t h e p r e v io u s e n c r y p t i o n .
C h o s e n - c ip h e r te x t a tta c k
In a c h o s e n - c i p h e r t e x t a tta c k , t h e a t t a c k e r c h o o s e s s o m e p a r t o f c i p h e r t e x t t o be
d e c r y p t e d a n d tr i e s t o f i n d o u t t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g d e c r y p t e d p la i n t e x t . T his is u s u a lly d o n e w i t h
t h e h e lp o f a d e c r y p t i o n o r a c le (a m a c h in e t h a t d e c o d e d t h e t e x t w i t h o u t d is c lo s in g t h e key).
Basically, th is t y p e o f a t ta c k is a p p lic a b le t o p u b l i c - k e y c r y p t o s y s t e m s . T his a t ta c k is h a r d e r t o
p e r f o r m w h e n c o m p a r e d t o o t h e r a tta c k s , a n d t h e a t t a c k e r n e e d s t o h a v e c o m p l e t e c o n t r o l o f
s y s te m c o n t a i n i n g c r y p t o s y s t e m in o r d e r t o c a r r y o u t t h i s a tta c k .
R u b b e r h o se a tta c k
In a r u b b e r h o se a tta c k , t h e a t t a c k e r e x tr a c ts t h e s e c r e t key f r o m th e u ser by

t h r e a t e n i n g , b l a c k m a i l i n g , o r t o r t u r i n g h im o r h e r u n til t h e key is h a n d e d o v e r .

Cryptography
CryptographyAttacks ( C o n t d ) I
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Atta cker o b ta in s th e p la in texts

co rre sp o n d in g to an a rb itra ry set
o f cip h e rte x ts o f his o w n c h o o sin g
E xtractio n o f cry p to g ra p h ic secrets

(e.g. th e p a ssw o rd to a n e n cry p ted
file) fro m a p e rso n by c o e rc io n o r
to rtu re
A g e n e r a liz a tio n o f t h e c h o s e n - te x t
a tta c k
It is b a se d o n re p e a te d ly m e a s u rin g
th e exact e x e cu tio n tim e s o f m o d u la r
e x p o n e n tia tio n o p e ra tio n s
C r y p to g r a p h y A tta c k s ( C o n td )
C h o s e n - p la in te x t
(L cJ
^ _ This is m o r e p o w e r f u l t h a n a p la i n t e x t a t ta c k . In t h i s t y p e o f a tta c k e r , t h e a t t a c k e r n o t
o n ly has access t o t h e c i p h e r t e x t a n d a s s o c ia te d p l a i n t e x t f o r s e v e ra l m essages, b u t
also c h o o s e s t h e p la i n t e x t t h a t is e n c r y p t e d , a n d o b t a in s t h e r e s u lt in g c i p h e r t e x t .
K n o w n -p la in te x t a tta c k
--------- In a k n o w n - p l a i n t e x t a tta c k , t h e a t t a c k e r has access t o t h e c i p h e r t e x t o f o n e o r m o r e

m essa ge s as w e l l as access t o t h e r e s p e c tiv e p la i n t e x t . W i t h t h e h e lp o f b o t h th e s e i te m s , t h e
c r y p t o g r a p h i c key can e a sily e x tr a c te d . T h e a t t a c k e r can r e c o v e r t h e r e m a i n in g e n c r y p t e d ,
z ip p e d file s w i t h t h e h e lp o f t h e e x t r a c t e d key.
In g e n e r a l, m o s t p e o p le s t a r t t h e i r m e ssa g e s w i t h t h e s a m e t y p e o f b e g in n in g n o te s such as
g re e tin g s a nd clo se w i t h th e same ty p e o f e n d in g su ch as s p e c ific s a lu ta tio n s , c o n ta c t
i n f o r m a t i o n , n a m e , etc. A t t a c k e r s can use t h is as an a d v a n t a g e t o la u n c h k n o w n - p l a i n t e x t
a tta c k s . H e re t h e a t t a c k e r has s o m e p la i n t e x t (i.e., t h e d a ta t h a t a re t h e s a m e o n e a ch m ess a ge )
a n d can c a p t u r e an e n c r y p t e d m essa ge , a n d t h e r e f o r e c a p t u r e t h e c i p h e r t e x t . O n c e t h e f e w
p a r ts o f t h e m essa ge re d is c o v e r e d , t h e r e m a i n in g ca n e a s ily be a c c o m p lis h e d w i t h t h e h e lp o f
re v e rs e e n g in e e r in g , f r e q u e n c y a na lysis , o r b r u t e f o r c e a t t e m p t s .

Cryptography
C h o s e n k e y a tta c k
cLi
L A c h o s e n key a t t a c k is a g e n e r a liz a t io n o f t h e c h o s e n - t e x t a t t a c k . In th is a tta c k , t h e
a t t a c k e r has s o m e k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h e r e l a t io n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e d i f f e r e n t keys, b u t
c a n n o t c h o o s e t h e key.
T im in g A tta c k
A t i m i n g a t t a c k also is k n o w n as a side c h a n n e l a tta c k . In t h is ty p e o f a tta c k , t h e

a tta c k e r tr ie s to c o m p ro m is e a c ry p to s y s te m by a n a ly z in g th e tim e ta ke n to e x e c u te
c r y p to g r a p h ic a lg o r ith m s .

Cryptography
C o d e B r e a k i n g M e t h o d o l o g i e s C E H
Trickery and Deceit Brute-Force
I t in v o lv e s t h e u s e o f s o c ia l C r y p t o g r a p h y k e y s a r e d is c o v e r e d b y
e n g in e e r in g t e c h n iq u e s t o e x tr a c t t r y in g e v e r y p o s s ib le c o m b in a t io n
c ry p to g ra p h y ke ys
O n e-T im e Pad
& eSl Frequency Analysis
I t is t h e s t u d y o f t h e f r e q u e n c y o f le t t e r s
A o n e - t im e p a d c o n ta in s m a n y n o n - o r g r o u p s o f le t t e r s in a c ip h e r t e x t
r e p e a tin g g r o u p s o f le tte r s o r n u m b e r
I t w o r k s o n t h e f a c t t h a t , in a n y g iv e n
k e y s , w h ic h a r e c h o s e n r a n d o m ly
s t r e t c h o f w r i t t e n la n g u a g e , c e r t a i n
l e t t e r s a n d c o m b i n a t i o n s o f le t t e r s o c c u r
w i t h v a r y in g f r e q u e n c ie s
C o d e B r e a k in g M e th o d o lo g ie s
T he s t r e n g t h o f an e n c r y p t i o n a l g o r i t h m is m e a s u r e d , in la rg e p a r t by c r y p ta n a ly s ts , by
u sin g v a r io u s code b r e a k in g te c h n i q u e s . T h e v a r io u s c o d e -b re a k in g te c h n iq u e s th a t a re
a v a ila b le are:
0 B r u te - F o r c e
0 F re q u e n c y A n aly sis
0 T r ic k e r y a n d D e c e it
0 O n e - T im e Pad
B ru te -F o rc e
C o d e - b re a k e rs , o r c r y p ta n a ly s ts , w a n t t o r e c o v e r t h e p la i n t e x t o f a m e s s a g e w i t h o u t
k n o w i n g t h e r e q u i r e d k e y in a d v a n c e . T h e y m a y f i r s t t r y t o r e c o v e r t h e key, o r g o a f t e r t h e
m e s s a g e its e lf. O n e o f t h e f a m i l i a r w a y s o f t h e c r y p t a n a l y t i c t e c h n i q u e is b r u t e - f o r c e a t ta c k o r
an e x h a u s tiv e s e a rch , ( w h e r e t h e keys a re g u e s s e d by t r y i n g e v e r y p o s s ib le c o m b in a t i o n ) .
T h e e f fic ie n c y o f t h e b r u t e - f o r c e d e p e n d s o n t h e h a r d w a r e c o n f i g u r a t io n . U sag e o f f a s te r
p ro c e s s o rs m e a n s t e s t i n g m o r e keys p e r s e c o n d . M ic h a e l W e i n e r , p u t f o r t h a b r u t e - f o r c e a tta c k

Cryptography
o n t h e DES w i t h t h e h e lp o f s p e c ia lly d e s ig n e d c o m p u t e r s w i t h c r y p t o g r a p h e r s s o u n d in g t h e o ld
s t a n d a r d 's d e a t h kn e ll.
M o r e o v e r , t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f a d v a n c e d f a c t o r i n g a nd t h e f a s t e r c o m p u t e r s used in t h e r e c e n t
a tta c k s o n R SA -129, m a k e s a lg o r i t h m s a p p e a r w e a k . T h e NSA t h a t has t o p c o m p u t i n g p o w e r is
t h e c e n t e r o f t h e b r u t e - f o r c e a tta c k .
F re q u e n c y A n a ly s is
F re q u e n c y a na lys is o f t h e l e t te r s m a k e s t h e b r u t e - f o r c e m e t h o d n o t a s u it a b le m e t h o d
f o r a t t a c k in g t h e c ip h e r . For e x a m p le t h e l e t t e r " e " is t h e c o m m o n w o r d in th e English la n g u a g e
a n d t h e l e t t e r " k " a p p e a rs c o m m o n l y in t h e c ip h e r t e x t , it can b e c o n c l u d e d r e a s o n a b ly t h a t k=e,
a n d so o n.
E n c r y p te d s o u r c e c o d e s a r e m o r e e x p o s e d t o t h e a tta c k s b e c a u s e f e w w o r d s lik e " # d e f i n e , "

" s t r u c t , " " e ls e ," a n d " r e t u r n " a re r e p e a t e d f r e q u e n t l y . F re q u e n c y a n a ly s is w a s f i r s t used by
p ap a l c o u r t s in t h e M i d d l e Age, w h i c h b u i l t f r e q u e n c y ta b le s f o r L a tin a n d Ita lia n w o r d s .
S o p h is tic a t e d c r y p t o s y s t e m s a r e r e q u i r e d t o m a i n t a i n t h e s e c u r it y o f t h e m essages.
fe jj T r ic k e r y a n d D e c e it
T h e r e has a lw a y s b e e n a n e e d f o r a h ig h level o f m a t h e m a t i c a l a nd c r y p t o g r a p h ic
skills, b u t t r i c k e r y a n d d e c e it h a v e a lo n g h is t o r y in c o d e - b r e a k i n g as w e l l t h e v a lu e o f t h e
e n c r y p t e d d a ta m u s t be b e l o w t h e c o s t e n t i t l e d t o b re a k t h e a l g o r i t h m . In t h e m o d e r n w o r l d ,
c o m p u t e r s a re f a s t e r a n d c h e a p e r , t h e r e f o r e it w o u l d be b e t t e r t o c h e c k t h e lim i t s o f t h e s e t w o
p aram eters.
_ O n e -tim e P a d
It is c o n s id e r e d t h a t a n y c i p h e r can be c r a c k e d if s u f f i c i e n t t i m e a n d r e s o u rc e s a re
p r o v id e d . But th e re is an e x c e p tio n c a lle d a o n e -tim e pad, w h ic h is c o n s id e r e d to be
u n b r e a k a b l e e v e n a f t e r i n f i n i t e re s o u r c e s a re p r o v id e d .
A o n e - t i m e pad c o n ta in s m a n y n o n - r e p e a t i n g g r o u p s o f l e t t e r s o r n u m b e r keys, w h i c h are

c h o s e n r a n d o m l y . T he se a re t h e n p a s te d t o g e t h e r o n a pad.
Bob e n c r y p ts o n l y o n e p la i n t e x t c h a r a c t e r w i t h th e pad a n d A lice d e c r y p t s e a ch a nd e v e r y

c h a r a c t e r o f t h e c i p h e r t e x t w i t h t h e h e lp o f t h e s a m e key c h a r a c te r s f r o m an i d e n t ic a l pad.
A f t e r t h e use, t h e c h a r a c te r s a re s e c u r e ly r e m o v e d f r o m t h e pad. T h e m a j o r d r a w b a c k o f t h e
o n e - t i m e p a d d i n g is th e le n g t h o f t h e pads. T h e le n g t h o f key is s a m e as t h e l e n g t h o f t h e
m essa ge , w h i c h m a k e s it i m p o s s i b l e t o e n c r y p t a n d s e n d la rg e messages.
T h e S o v ie t spies c o m m o n l y used o n e - t i m e pads d u r in g t h e C old W a r . T h e a g e n t c a r r ie d th e

e n c r y p t e d m e s s a g e t o t h e fie ld , le a v in g t h e id e n t ic a l pad a t t h e h e a d q u a r t e r s . T h e w e l l - k n o w n ,
o n e - t i m e p a d d in g w a s used o n t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n lin e s b e t w e e n M o s c o w a n d W a s h i n g t o n .

Cryptography
Brute-ForceAttack C E H
A t ta c k Scheme Brute-Force A tta c k
D e f e a t in g a c r y p t o g r a p h ic B r u t e - f o r c e a t t a c k is a h ig h S u c c e s s o f b r u te fo r c e a tta c k
s c h e m e b y t r y i n g a la r g e r e s o u r c e a n d t i m e in t e n s i v e d e p e n d s o n le n g t h o f t h e
n u m b e r o f p o s s ib le k e y s p ro c e s s , h o w e v e r, m o re k e y , t im e c o n s t r a in t , a n d
u n t il t h e c o r r e c t e n c r y p t io n c e r t a i n t o a c h ie v e r e s u lt s s y s t e m s e c u r i t y m e c h a n is m s
k e y is d is c o v e r e d
P o w e r/C o s t 4 0 b it s (5 c h a r ) 5 6 b i t (7 c h a r ) 6 4 b i t (8 c h a r ) 1 2 8 b i t (1 6 c h a r )
$ 2K (1 PC. Can be achieved by an

1.4 min 73 days 50 years 10"20 years
individual)
$ 100K (this can be achieved by a

2 sec 35 hours 1 year 10" 19 years
company)
$ IM (Achieved by a huge
0.2 sec 3.5 hours 37 days 10* 18 years
organization or a state)
E s t im a t e T im e f o r S u c c e s s f u l B r u t e f o r c e A t t a c k
C o p y r ig h t b y i C - G 0 H C i l. A ll R ig h ts R e se rv e d . R e p ro d u c tio n is S tr ic tly P ro h ib ite d .
B ru te -fo rc e A tta c k
It is v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o c ra c k c r y p t o g r a p h ic s y s te m s as t h e y h a v e n o p ra c tic a l w e a k n e s s e s
t o e x p lo it . Bu t, it is n o t im p o s s ib le . C r y p t o g r a p h i c s y s te m s use c r y p t o g r a p h i c a l g o r i t h m s t o
e n c r y p t a m essa ge . T h e s e c r y p t o g r a p h ic a l g o r i t h m s use a key t o e n c r y p t o r d e c r y p t m essages.
In c y r p t o g r a p h y , t h is ke y is t h e i m p o r t a n t p a r a m e t e r t h a t s p e c ifie s t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f
p la in te x t o c i p h e r t e x t a n d v ic e v e rsa . If y o u a re a b le t o guess o r f i n d t h e k e y used f o r d e c r y p t i o n
t h e n y o u ca n d e c r y p t t h e m essa ge s a n d re a d it in c le a r t e x t ; 1 2 8 - b i t k e y s a re c o m m o n l y used
and c o n s id e r e d s tr o n g . F ro m s e c u r it y p e r s p e c tiv e s t o a v o id th e key b e in g g ue ssed , t h e
c r y p t o g r a p h ic s y s te m s use r a n d o m l y g e n e r a t e d keys. T h is m a ke s y o u p u t a l o t o f e f f o r t in
g u e ssin g t h e key. B u t y o u s till h ave a c h o ic e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e key used f o r e n c r y p t i o n o r
d e c r y p t i o n . A t t e m p t t o d e c r y p t t h e m e s s a g e w i t h all p o s s ib le keys u n til y o u d is c o v e r t h e key
used f o r e n c r y p t i o n . This m e t h o d o f d is c o v e r in g a key is u s u a lly ca lle d a b r u t e - f o r c e a tta c k . In a
b r u t e - f o r c e a tta c k , t h e a t t a c k e r tr i e s e v e r y p o s s ib le k e y u n til t h e m e s s a g e can b e d e c r y p t e d .
B u t t h is n e e d s a h u g e a m o u n t o f p ro c e s s in g p o w e r f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e key used t o s e c u re
c r y p t o g r a p h ic c o m m u n i c a t i o n s . For a n y n o n - f l a w e d p r o t o c o l , t h e a v e r a g e t i m e n e e d e d t o f i n d
t h e key in a b r u t e - f o r c e a t t a c k d e p e n d s o n t h e le n g t h o f t h e key. If t h e ke y le n g t h is s m a ll, t h e n
it w ill t a k e less t i m e t o fin d t h e key. If k e y le n g t h is la rg e r, th e n it w ill t a k e m o r e t i m e t o
d is c o v e r t h e key. A b r u t e - f o r c e a t t a c k w i ll be su ccessfu l if a n d o n l y i f e n o u g h t i m e is g iv e n f o r
d is c o v e r in g t h e ke y. H o w e v e r , t h e t i m e is r e l a t iv e t o t h e le n g t h o f t h e key.
T h e d i f f i c u l t y o f a b r u t e - f o r c e a t ta c k d e p e n d s o n v a r io u s issues, such as:

Cryptography
9 L e n g th o f t h e k e y
9 T he n u m b e r s o f p o s s ib le v a lu e s e a ch c o m p o n e n t o f t h e k e y ca n h ave
9 T he t i m e it ta k e s t o a t t e m p t each key
9 If t h e r e is a n y m e c h a n i s m , w h i c h locks t h e a t t a c k e r o u t a f t e r a c e r t a i n n u m b e r o f fa ile d
a tte m p ts
For e x a m p le , i f a s y s te m c o u ld b r u t e f o r c e a DES 5 6 - b i t k e y in o n e s e c o n d , t h e n f o r an AES 1 2 8 -

b it k e y it ta k e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 4 9 t r i l l i o n y e a rs t o b r u t e fo r c e . T o p e r f o r m a b r u t e - f o r c e a tta c k ,
t h e t i m e is d o u b l e d f o r e v e r y a d d it io n a l b it o f ke y le n g th ; t h e r e a s o n b e h in d it is t h a t th e
n u m b e r o f p o t e n t ia l keys is d o u b le d .
A b r u t e - f o r c e a t t a c k is, h o w e v e r , m o r e c e r t a i n t o a c h ie v e re s u lts .
E s tim a te T i m e f o r Successful B r u te - Force A t t a c k
4 0 b it s (5 5 6 b i t (7 6 4 b i t (8 1 2 8 b it (1 6
P o w e r/C o s t
ch a r) ch a r) ch a r) ch a r)
$ 2 K ( 1 PC. C a n b e
a c h ie v e d b y a n 1.4 m in 73 Days 5 0 Years 1 0 A2 0 Years
in d iv id u a l)
$ 1 0 0 K (th is can
b e a c h ie v e d b y a 2 Sec 35 H o u rs 1 Year 1 0 A19 Years
com pany)
$ 1 M (A c h ie v e d b y
a huge
0.2 Sec 3.5 H o u rs 3 7 Days 1 0 A18 Years
o rg a n iz a tio n o r a
s ta te )
TABLE 19.2: Time estimation for successful Brute-Force Attaack

Cryptography
M e e t - in - t h e - M id d le A t t a c k o n r
c E H
D i g i t a l S ig n a t u r e S c h e m e s (trW M IU kjI H.k
J The attack works by encrypting from one end and decrypting from
the other end, thus meeting in the middle
J It can be used for forging signatures even on digital signatures that
use multiple-encryption scheme
E n c ry p te d w it h I n t e r m e d ia t e D e c ry p te d w it h

John" " A v B r ;
1* keyl
P C ip h e r te x t 1 1 ke y 2
I n t e r m e d ia t e D e c ry p te d w it h
"A v B r"
P C ip h e r te x t 2 2 nd k e y 2
I n t e r m e d ia t e D e c ry p te d w it h
2s6,h k e y 2 "A v B r"
C ip h e r te x t 2
P la in t e x t C ip h e r te x t
M e e t i n t h e M i d d l e A tta c k o n D ig it a l S ig n a tu re
S c h e m e s
A m e e t - i n - t h e - m i d d l e a t t a c k is t h e b e s t a t t a c k m e t h o d f o r c r y p t o g r a p h ic a lg o r i t h m s using
m u l t i p l e keys f o r e n c r y p t i o n . T his a t t a c k re d u c e s t h e n u m b e r o f b r u t e fo r c e p e r m u t a t i o n s
n e e d e d t o d e c o d e t e x t t h a t has b e e n e n c r y p t e d by m o r e t h a n o n e key a n d is c o n d u c t e d m a i n l y
f o r f o r g i n g s ig n a t u r e s o n m ix e d t y p e d ig ita l s ig n a tu r e s . A m e e t - i n - t h e - m i d d l e a t t a c k uses sp ace -
t i m e t r a d e - o f f ; it is also k n o w n as b i r t h d a y a t t a c k b e c a u s e it e x p lo its t h e m a t h e m a t i c s b e h in d
t h e b i r t h d a y p a r a d o x . It ta k e s less t i m e t h a n an e x h a u s tiv e a tta c k . It is ca lle d a m e e t - i n - t h e -
M i d d l e a t ta c k b e c a u s e th is a t t a c k w o r k s by e n c r y p t i n g f r o m o n e e n d a n d d e c r y p t i n g f r o m t h e
o t h e r e n d , t h u s m e e t i n g in t h e m id d le .
In t h e m e e t - i n - t h e - m i d d l e a tta c k , t h e a t t a c k e r uses a k n o w n p la i n t e x t m es sa g e . T h e a t t a c k e r
has access t o b o t h t h e p la i n t e x t as w e l l as t h e r e s p e c tiv e e n c r y p t e d te x t .
C o n s id e r an e x a m p le w h e r e t h e p la in t e x t is " J o h n " a n d t h e r e s u lt in g d o u b l e DES e n c r y p t e d

m e s s a g e is " A v B r . "
In o r d e r t o r e c o v e r b o t h t h e keys, i.e. k e y l a n d ke y 2 , t h a t a re used f o r e n c r y p t i o n , t h e a t t a c k e r

p e r f o r m s a b r u t e - f o r c e a t ta c k o n k e y l u sin g all 2 5" d i f f e r e n t Single DES p o s s ib le keys t o e n c r y p t
t h e p la i n t e x t o f " J o h n " a n d saves e a ch key a n d t h e r e s u lt in g i n t e r m e d i a t e c i p h e r t e x t in a ta b le .
T h e a t t a c k e r c o n d u c t s b r u t e f o r c e o n ke y 2 , d e c r y p t i n g " A v B r " u p t o 2 % t i m e s . T h e a t t a c k is
su cc e ssfu l, when th e second b ru te -fo rc e a tta c k g ive s th e same r e s u lt as t h a t of th e

Cryptography
i n t e r m e d i a t e c i p h e r t e x t p r e s e n t in t h e c i p h e r t e x t t a b l e a f t e r f i r s t b r u t e - f o r c e a t t a c k . O n c e t h e
m a tc h is f o u n d , b o t h keys can b e d e t e r m i n e d a n d t h e a t t a c k is c o m p le t e . T his a t t a c k a t m o s t
ta k e s 2 J" p lu s o r m a x i m u m 2 57 t o t a l o p e r a t i o n s . T h is e n a b le s t h e a t t a c k e r t o g a in access t o t h e
d a ta e a s ily w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e D o u b le DES.
John
E n c r y p t e d w it h
I s' k e y l
"AvBr"
]
John
E n c r y p t e d w it h
2 nd k e y l
D e c r y p t e d w it h
2 " key2 "AvBr"
}
E n c r y p t e d w it h D e c r y p t e d w it h
John" 2 5 d k e y l 2 s6 1 < k e y 2 "AvBr"
Plaintext Ciphertext
TABLE 19.23: Example illustrating Meet-in-the-middle attack

Cryptography
Public Key
Email
Infrastructure
Encryption
(PKI)
y .\ t
Cryptography
Attacks
|<ar Cryptanalysis
Tools %
M o d u le F lo w
------- So fa r, w e h a v e d iscu sse d all c r y p t o g r a p h y c o n c e p ts , v a r io u s c r y p t o g r a p h ic e n c r y p t i o n

a lg o r i t h m s , t o o l s t h a t h e lp in c r y p t o g r a p h y , e m a il a n d d isk e n c r y p t i o n , a n d h o w c r y p t o g r a p h ic
m e c h a n is m s ca n be c o m p r o m i s e d . N o w it's t i m e t o discuss c r y p ta n a ly s is t o o l s t h a t h e lp y o u in
b re a k in g o ld c ip h e rs .
C ry p to g ra p h y C on cep ts gTffni E n c ry p tio n A lg o rith m s

11:1111
^ C ry p to g ra p h y A tta c k s C ry p ta n a lysis T ools
T his s e c tio n d e s c rib e s a n d lists c r y p ta n a ly s is to o ls .

Cryptography
C r y p t a n a l y s i s T o o l: C r y p T o o l E H
c tt*H4i IlMbM
ItiVM
!CrypTool 1 .4 .3 1 B e ta 5 [V S 2 0 1 0 ] - U n n a m e d l 3 C r y p T o o l is a !f r e e e -_le ax r n in g
File E dit View D ig ital S ig n atu fe s/P K I In d iv. P r o c e d u re s A nalysts O p tio n s W in d o w H elp p r o g r a m in t h e a r e a o f
S y m m e tric (classic)
c ry p to g ra p h y a n d
S y m m e tric ( m o d e rn ) IDEA...
c r y p t o a n a ly s i s
A sy m m e tric
Hybrid RC4... S u b p r o j e c t s o f C r y p T o o l:
T h e C ry p T o o l p o r ta l is a c e n t r a l i z e d p l a c e for DES (ECB).
e C ry p T o o l 1 (C T 1 )
DES (C B Q ...
T rip le DES (ECB} . S C ry p T o o l 2 (C T 2 )

T rip le DES (C B Q ...
e J C ry p T o o l (JCT)
R ijn d ae l (AES)... S hift S trg * R
F u rth e r A lg o rith m s C r y p T o o l- O n lin e (C TO )

AES (setf e x tra c t n g )...
B! RC2 e n c ry p tio n o f < U n n a m e d l >. ke y < 0 0 > H |d k
00000000 E- 55 4F 23 16 IB A4 72 E4 67 D4 IB U O X .. r g A
0300030c 43 73 6E 09 A2 3A 9D FI 24 El CE A7 Q sn . : . $. .
030C 0318 AD 49 3D B7 23 B5 36 28 43 6D 2F BC I - $ 6 (C /
ODOCOD24 93 C8 CS 4B 57 87 E2 96 71 48 46 E3 KW cH F
03000330 6B 4F 41 1? AE 2k 2B 42 57 CC 09 43 VO A 4-BV C
0 3 0C 0 33 C DD 62 FB 9C E4A4 C2 6C 98 6B 0B 71 b . . 1 k.q 5
E n cry p tio n / d e c ry p tio n w ith RC2 1:1 C:227 ?227 03000348 96 $8 78 57 4BA6 E6 B7 99 94 38 7A . . xVK. .82
03000354 BE A9 7A CE 2B81 58 50 A0 94 8C F4 . . r + .X P . . .
03 0C 0 36 C DA E6 8B DA 57SA IB B2 88 EC 78 A1 . . . VZ. x
http://www.cryptool.org 0300036C 2k 97 BA Da D6 B2 62 24 4F 40 49 FC b*09I
00000076 F3 30 02 6F SB 03 3D 77 B9 76 41 4E 0 . _ [ . . vAH
00000384 96 OA 72 31 U C7 30 6A BB F8 E-J 08 . . r . : .0 j...
00000390 C8 00 FO 8B EA B9 84 C8 BE 2A FB 9D ..................... *.
0 3 0C 0 39 C 63 IE' 3C 91 B9 bE DD SD ID F8 C3 DF k -< n . ]...
n n n n n ru p F3 P4 1 7 9 IF 1? nn pn 9 r ^ J
- C r y p ta n a ly s is T o o l: C ry p T o o l
1 il
S o u rce : h t t p : / / w w w . c r y p t o o l . o r R
The CrypTool project develops e-learning programs in the area of cryptography and
cryptanalysis. It consists of four different subprojects: They are (CT1, CT2, JCT. CTO) related to
the CrypTool software in various facets for different purposes.
9 CrypTool 1 (CT1) was the first version of CrypTool. It was released in 1998 and allows to
experiment with different cryptographic algorithms. CT 1 has two successors.
9 CrypTool 2 (CT2) supports visual programming and execution of cascades of
cryptographic procedures.
9 JC ry p T o o l (JCT) w h i c h is p l a t f o r m - i n d e p e n d e n t .
9 CrypTool-Online (CTO) was released in spring 2009. This tool allows trying out different
algorithms in a browser/smartphone.
9 Another subproject is the international crypto cipher challenge "IV1TC3," offering
cryptographic riddles of different levels.

Cryptography
C r y p T o o l 1.4.31 B e ta 5 [V S 2 0 1 0 ] - U n n a m e d !
File Edit V ie w JÊncr^pt^Dec^ptJ D igital Si g n jt u t e v P ^ Indiv. P ro ce d ure s A n ,ly s is O p tio n s W in d o w H elp
D [B # |rf' U t S y m m e tn c (classic)
TABLE 19.24: CrypTool Screenshot
RC2 encryption of <Unnamed1 >, key <00> 0 0

00000000 EC 55 4F 23 16 IB A4 72 E4 67 D4 IB .UO#. . . r .g ..
0000000c 40 73 6E 09 A2 3A 9D FI 24 El CE A7 fe n
00000018 AD 49 3D B7 23 B5 36 28 43 6D 2F BC I- * 6 ( C *
00000024 9B C8 C9 4B 57 87 E2 96 71 48 46 E3 .. K V .. qHF
00000030 6B 4F 41 12 AE 2A 2B 42 57 CC 09 43 kO A . *+ B U C
0000003C DD 62 FB 9C E4 A4 C2 6C 98 6B 0B 71 .b l . k . q
00000048 96 98 78 57 4B A6 E6 B7 99 94 38 7A . .xV K 82
00000054 BE A9 7A CE 2B 81 58 50 A0 94 8C F4 . . z .+ XP
00000060 DA E6 8B DA 57 5A IB B2 88 EC 78 Al VZ x
0000006C 2A 97 BA DA D6 B2 62 24 4F 40 49 FC * b$0<?I.
00000078 F3 30 02 5F 5B 03 8B 77 B9 76 41 4E . 0 . _ [ . . w . vAN
00000084 96 0A 72 81 3A C7 30 6A BB F8 E4 08 . . r . : . Oj . . . .
00000090 C8 00 F0 8B EA B9 84 C8 BD 2A FB 9D *
0000009C 6B 2D 3C 91 B9 6E DD 5D ID F8 C3 DF k ; ; < n ; i ; .
nnnnnrufi F9 R4 R9 17 39 5n 1R 3R 7? ?9 nr> fin 91 r
TABLE 19.24: RC2 encrytion Screenshot

Cryptography
CryptoBench (f) AlphaPeeler

o h t t p : / / w w w . a d d a r io . o r g h t t p : / / a lp h a p e e l e r . s o u r c e fo r g e , n e t
JCrypTool Draft Crypto Analyzer

h t t p : / / w w w . c r y p to o l. o r g h t t p : / / w w w . li t e r a t e c o d e . c o m
Linear Hull Cryptanalysis of

Ganzua
h t tp ://g a n z u a .s o u rc e fo rg e .n e t
PRESENT
h ttp ://w w w .e c r y p t.e u .o r g
mediggo
h t t p : / / c o d e , g o o g le , c o m
EverCrack SubCyphe
h ttp ://e v e r c ra c k .s o u r c e fo r g e .n e t . . - - J h t t po ::////ww w w
w . .eesscc le p iu s llc . c o m
C r y p ta n a ly s is T o o ls
In a d d i t i o n t o C ry p T o o l, m a n y t o o l s t h a t a l l o w y o u t o p e r f o r m c r y p ta n a ly s is a re
a v a ila b le :
9 C r y p to B e n c h a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / w w w . a d d a r i o . o r g
9 JC ry p T o o l a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / w w w . c r y p t o o l . o r g
9 Ganzua a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / g a n z u a . s o u r c e f o r g e . n e t
9 C ra n k a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / c r a n k . s o u r c e f o r g e . n e t
9 Ev e rC rack a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / e v e r c r a c k . s o u r c e f o r g e . n e t
9 A lp h a P e e le r a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / a l p h a p e e l e r . s o u r c e f o r g e . n e t
9 D r a ft C r y p t o A n a ly z e r a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / w w w . l i t e r a t e c o d e . c o m
9 L in e a r H ull C ry p ta n a ly s is o f PRESENT a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / w w w . e c r y p t . e u . o r g
9 M e d ig g o a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / c o d e . g o o g l e . c o m
9 S u b C y p h e r a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / w w w . e s c l e p i u s l l c . c o m

Cryptography
O n l i n e M D 5 D e c r y p t i o n T o o ls C E H
MD5 Decrypt OnlieHashCrack.com

h t t p : / / w w w . m d 5 d e c r y p t. o r g h t t p : / / w w w . o n li n e h a s h c r a c k . c o m
MD5Cracker
h ttp ://m d 5 c ra c k .com
MD5Decrypter.co.uk
h ttp ://w w w .m d 5 d e c ry p te r.c o .u k
f if t h MD5 Hash Cracker * i Md5.My-Addr.com

h t t p : / / w w w . tm to .o r g h ttp ://m d 5 .m y -a d d r.c o m
Hash Cracker I } cmd5.org

h t t p : / / w w w . h a s h - c r a c k e r. c o m h ttp ://w w w .c m d 5 .o rg
MD5Decrypter
h ttp ://w w w .m d 5 d e c ry p te r.c o m
!I Crypt and Decrypt Online
Tool Conversion
h ttp ://m y e a s y w w w .a p p s p o t.c o m
C o p y r ig h t b y i C - C 0 H C i l. A ll R ig h ts R e se rv e d . R e p ro d u c tio n is S tr ic tly P ro h ib ite d .
N|p|
rW Jn
O n lin e M D 5 D e c r y p tio n T o o ls
O n lin e M D 5 d e c r y p t i o n t o o l s a l l o w y o u t o re a d t h e e n c r y p t e d m essages in c le a r t e x t .
All y o u n e e d t o d o is s u m b i t th e M D 5 hash o f t h e m e s s a g e t h a t y o u w a n t t o rea d t o an o n l i n e
M D 5 d e c r y p t o r . It d e c r y p ts t h e M D 5 hash v a lu e a n d s im p ly g ive s y o u t h e o r ig in a l m essa ge t h a t
has b e e n e n c r y p t e d . T h e s e t o o l s e l i m in a t e t h e n e e d f o r in s t a llin g M D 5 d e c r y p t o r s . M a n y o n l i n e
M D 5 d e c r y p t i o n t o o l s a re r e a d ily a v a ila b le :
9 M D 5 D e c r y p t a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / w w w . m d 5 d e c r y p t . o r g
9 M D 5 C r a c k e r a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / m d 5 c r a c k . c o m
9 M D 5 Hash C ra c k e r a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / w w w . t m t o . o r g
9 Hash C ra c k e r a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / w w w . h a s h - c r a c k e r . c o m
Q IV ID 5 D e c rv p te r a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / w w w . m d 5 d e c r y p t e r . c o m
9 O n lie H a s h C r a c k .c o m a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / w w w . o n l i n e h a s h c r a c k . c o m
Q M D 5 D e c r y p t e r . c o . u k a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / w w w . m d 5 d e c r y p t e r . c o . u k
e M d 5 . M y - A d d r . c o m a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / m d 5 . m y - a d d r . c o m
c m d 5 . o r g a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / w w w . c m d 5 . o r g
C r y p t a n d D e c r y p t O n lin e T o o l C o n v e r s io n a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / / m y e a s y w w w . a p p s p o t . c o m
Module 19 Page 2870 Ethical Hacking and Countermeasures Copyright by EC-C0linCil

Cryptography
Module Summary CEH

fertMM IthKJi lUckM
Cryptography is the conversion of data into a scrambled code that is

sent across a private or public network and decrypted by its recipients
Using Public Key Infrastructure (PKI), anyone can send a confidential message using
public information, which can only be decrypted with a private-key in the sole
possession of the intended recipient
AES is a symmetric-key algorithm for securing sensitive but unclassified material by
U.S. government agencies
Cryptography attacks are based on the assumption that the cryptanalyst has access to
the encrypted information
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) is a set of hardware, software, people, policies, and
procedures required to create, manage, distribute, use, store, and revoke digital
certificates
r rrr
M o d u le S u m m a ry
9 C r y p t o g r a p h y is t h e c o n v e r s io n o f d a ta i n t o a s c r a m b le d c o d e t h a t is d e c r y p t e d a nd s e n t
across a p r i v a t e o r p u b lic n e t w o r k .
9 U sing P u b lic Key I n f r a s t r u c t u r e (PKI), a n y o n e can se nd a c o n f i d e n t i a l m e s s a g e using

p u b lic in fo rm a tio n , w h ic h can o n ly be d e c ry p te d w ith a p riv a te key in th e so le
p o sse ssio n o f t h e i n t e n d e d r e c ip ie n t .
9 RSA e n c r y p t i o n is w i d e l y used a n d is a d e - f a c t o e n c r y p t i o n s ta n d a r d .
9 T he M D 5 a l g o r i t h m is i n t e n d e d f o r d ig ita l s ig n a t u r e a p p lic a tio n s , w h e r e a la r g e file m u s t

be c o m p r e s s e d s e c u r e ly b e f o r e b e in g e n c r y p t e d .
9 T he SH A a l g o r i t h m ta k e s a m e ssa g e o f a r b i t r a r y le n g t h as i n p u t a n d o u t p u t s a 1 6 0 - b i t
m e s s a g e d ig e s t o f t h e in p u t .
9 S e c u re S o ckets L a y e r (SSL) is a p r o t o c o l f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g p r i v a t e d o c u m e n t s via t h e

In te rn e t.
9 RC5 is a fa s t b lo c k c i p h e r d e s ig n e d by RSA S e c u rity .
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C ry p to g ra p h y

Engineered by Hackers. Presented by Professionals.

Module 19 Page 2783 Ethical Hacking and Countermeasures Copyright by EC-C0UnCil

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All contents IDG2012

Module 19 Page 2785 Ethical Hacking and Countermeasures Copyright by EC-C0UnCil

J C ry p to g rap h y 'J D igital S ign atu re

J E ncryption A lg o rith m s J Disk Encryption

J Ciphers J Disk E ncryption Tool

J W h a t Is SSH (S ecure Shell)? J C ry p to g rap h y Attacks

J C ry p to g rap h y Tools J C od e B reaking M e th o d o lo g ie s

J Public Key In fra s tru c tu re (PKI) J C ryptanalysis Tools

J C ertificatio n A u th o ritie s J O n lin e M D 5 D ecryp tio n Tools

Copyright by EG-G*ancil. All Rights Reserved. Reproduction is Strictly Prohibited.

s Cryptography Digital Signature

Module 19 Page 2786 Ethical Hacking and Countermeasures Copyright by EC-C0l1nCil

Cryptography Concepts |*jiH Encryption Algorithms

Cryptography Tools Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)

Email Encryption Disk Encryption

Cryptography Attacks 0^) Cryptanalysis Tools

This section describes cryptography and the types of cryptography.

Module 19 Page 2787 Ethical Hacking and Countermeasures Copyright by EC-C0UnCil

Cryptography is used to protect confidential data such as

C o n fid e n tia lity

According to the International Standards Organization (ISO), confidentiality is "ensuring

M o d u le 19 P ag e 2788 Ethical H acking a n d C o u n te rm e a s u re s C opyright by EC-C0UnCil

term used to describe the prevention of revealing information to unauthorized computers or

------ Authenticity is "the identification and assurance of the origin of information." It is

In digital security, nonrepudiation is the means to ensure that a message transferred

FIGURE 1 9 .1 : Illu stra tin g c r y p to g ra p h y p r o c e s s

M o d u le 19 P ag e 2789 Ethical H acking a n d C o u n te rm e a s u re s C opyright by EC-C0UnCil

S y m m e tric E n cry p tio n Symmetric Encryption

Asym m etric Encryption A s y m m e tric E n cryp tio n

C o p y rig h t b y EG-G*ancil. All R ig h ts R e s e r v e d . R e p r o d u c tio n is S tric tly P ro h ib ite d .

M o d u le 19 P ag e 2 7 9 0 Ethical H acking a n d C o u n te rm e a s u re s C opyright by EC-C0UnCil

Plain text C iphertext Plain text

FIGURE 19.2: Symmetric Encryption method

The p r o b le m w ith th e se cre t key is tr a n s fe r r in g it o ve r th e large n e tw o r k or Internet w h ile

' 1 A s y m m e tr ic c r y p to g r a p h y uses d iffe re n t keys fo r e n c r y p tio n and d e c ry p tio n . In this

The a s y m m e tr ic c ry p to g ra p h y m e th o d has be e n p ro v e n t o be se cu re ag ainst attackers. In

Plain text Ciphertext Plain text

FIGURE 19.3: Asymmetric Encryption method

M o d u le 19 P ag e 2791 Ethical H acking a n d C o u n te rm e a s u re s C opyright by EC-C0UnCil

0n'y UseS and*ill

II R ig h ts R e s e r v e d . R e p r o d u c tio n is S tr ic tly P r o h ib ite d .

A key e s c ro w e n c r y p tio n sy ste m p ro v id e s th e d e cry p tin g c a p a b ility to ce rtain

Key r e c o v e ry sy ste m s have g a in e d p r o m in e n c e due to th e de sire o f g o v e r n m e n t in te llig e n c e

A w e ll-d e s ig n e d c ry p to s y s t e m p ro v id e s s e c u rity by re co v e rin g th e e n c r y p te d da ta w it h o u t

The e ve n tu a l goal o f g o v e r n m e n t- d r iv e n re c o v e r y e n c ry p tio n , as state d in th e US D e p a r tm e n t

The C lip p e r Chip is a hardw are-based c r y p to g r a p h ic d e v ice used to se cu re private

M o d u le 19 P ag e 2792 Ethical H acking a n d C o u n te rm e a s u re s C opyright by EC-C0UnCil

T h e S k ip j a c k a l g o r i t h m uses 8 0 - b i t k e ys. C ry p t a n a ly z in g re q u ire s s e a rc h in g t h r o u g h all keys,

M o d u le 19 P ag e 2793 Ethical H acking a n d C o u n te rm e a s u re s C opyright by EC-C0UnCil

C o p y rig h t b y EG-G*ancil. All R ig h ts R e s e r v e d . R e p r o d u c tio n Is S tric tly P ro h ib ite d .

So fa r, w e have discussed c ry p to g ra p h y and th e co n ce p ts associated w ith it. N ow w e

C ry p to g ra p h y T o ols P ublic Key In fra s tru c tu re (PKI)

Em ail E n c ry p tio n Disk E n c ry p tio n

M o d u le 19 P ag e 2794 Ethical H acking a n d C o u n te rm e a s u re s C opyright by EC-C0UnCil

C ry p to g ra p h y re fe rs to se cre t w r itin g and a cip h e r is n o th in g m o re th a n an a lg o rith m

In c ry p to g ra p h y , th e c ip h e r a lg o rith m used fo r e n co d in g is kn o w n as e n cip h e rin g and de co d in g

a b c d e f g h...z a re g iven in codes o f n u m e ric a l n u m b e rs, such as 1 2 3 4 5...26.

T he re are v a rio u s typ e s o f ciph ers:

M o d u le 19 P ag e 2795 Ethical H acking a n d C o u n te rm e a s u re s C opyright by EC-C0UnCil