Electromagnetic Fields and Waves in Fractional Dimensional Space PDF

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Muhammad Zubair Muhammad Junaid Mughal

Qaisar Abbas Naqvi
Electromagnetic Fields
and Waves in Fractional
Dimensional Space
123
Muhammad Zubair Qaisar Abbas Naqvi
Faculty of Electronic Engineering Department of Electronics
GIK Institute of Engineering Quaid-e-Azam University
Sciences and Technology Islamabad
Topi Pakistan
Pakistan e-mail: nqaisar@yahoo.com
e-mail: zubair_wah@hotmail.com
Muhammad Junaid Mughal

Faculty of Electronic Engineering
GIK Institute of Engineering
Sciences and Technology
Topi
Pakistan
e-mail: junaid.mughal@gmail.com
ISSN 2191-530X e-ISSN 2191-5318

ISBN 978-3-642-25357-7 e-ISBN 978-3-642-25358-4
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-25358-4
Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht London New York
Library of Congress Control Number: 2011942412
The Author(s) 2012

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Its ironic that fractals, many of which were
invented as examples of pathological behav-
ior, turn out to be pathological at all. In fact
they are the rule in the universe. Shapes,
which are not fractal, are the exception. I
love Euclidean geometry, but it is quite clear
that it does not give a reasonable presenta-
tion of the world. Mountains are not cones,
clouds are not spheres, trees are not cylin-
ders, neither does lightning travel in a
straight line. Almost everything around us
is non-Euclidean.
Benoit Mandelbrot, 1924

To my beloved father
Mr. Hafiz Muhammad Makhdoom
whose utmost efforts since my childhood
make me what I am today
M. Zubair
To my father
Mr. Abdul Ghafoor Mughal
for his love and kindness when he was alive
and his beautiful memories when he is no
longer with us
M. J. Mughal
To my parents
Q. A. Naqvi
Preface
The concept of fractional dimensional space is being effectively used in many

areas of physics to describe the effective parameters of physical systems. Although
the space, embedding things, in real world is three dimensional Euclidean space,
the material objects are not always moving in three dimensional space. The
dimensionality depends upon the restraint conditions. The phenomenon of elec-
tromagnetic wave propagation, radiation and scattering in fractal structures can be
described by replacing these confining fractal structures with a D-dimensional
fractional space. Thus, given this simple value of D, the real system can be
modeled in a simple analytical way.
With this view, a theoretical investigation of electromagnetic fields and waves
in fractional dimensional space is provided in this book which is useful to study
the behavior of electromagnetic fields and waves in fractal media. A novel frac-
tional space generalization of the differential electromagnetic equations is pro-
vided. A new form of vector differential operators is formulated in fractional
space. Using these modified vector differential operators, the classical Maxwells
electromagnetic equations have been worked out. The Laplaces, Poissons and
Helmholtzs equations in fractional space are derived by using modified vector
differential operators. A fractional space generalization of potentials for static and
time-varying fields is presented by solving Laplaces equation and inhomogeneous
vector wave equation, respectively, in fractional space. The phenomenon of
electromagnetic wave propagation in fractional space is studied in detail by
providing full analytical plane-, cylindrical- and spherical-wave solutions of the
vector wave equation in D-dimensional fractional space. An analytical solution
procedure for radiation problems in fractional space has also been proposed. As an
application, the fields radiated by a Hertzian dipole in fractional space have been
worked out. For all the investigated cases when integer dimensional space is
considered, the classical results are recovered. The differential electromagnetic
equations in fractional space, established in this book, provide a basis for
application of the concept of fractional space in solving electromagnetic wave
propagation, radiation and scattering problems in fractal media.
ix
x Preface
This book has been divided into six chapters. In Chap. 2, a novel generalization
of differential electromagnetic equations in fractional space is provided on the
basis of modified vector differential operators for fractional space. A new form of
vector differential operator Del, written as rD, and its related differential operators
is formulated in fractional space. Using these modified vector differential opera-
tors, the classical Maxwells electromagnetic equations have been worked out. The
Laplaces, Poissons and Helmholtzs equations in fractional space are also
derived by using modified vector differential operators. Also a new fractional
space generalization of potentials for static and time-varying fields is presented.
Most of the work in later chapters is related to the solution of the established
differential electromagnetic equations in fractional space.
In Chap. 3, a fractional space generalization of potentials for static and time-
varying fields is presented by solving Laplaces equation and inhomogeneous
vector wave equation, respectively, in fractional space.
In Chap. 4, the phenomenon of wave propagation in fractional space is
investigated by solving Helmholtzs equation in different coordinate systems.
General plane wave solutions, in source-free and lossless as well as lossy media, in
fractional space are presented by solving vector wave equation in D-dimensional
fractional space. An exact solution of cylindrical as well as spherical wave
equation, for electromagnetic field in D-dimensional fractional space, is also
presented. All these investigated solutions of vector wave equation provide a basis
for the application of the concept of fractional space to the wave propagation
phenomenon in fractal media. For all investigated cases when integer dimension is
considered, the classical results were recovered to validate obtained results.
Chapter 5 deals with the solution procedure for radiation problems in fractional
space.The proposed solution procedure can be used to study the radiation phe-
nomenon in any non-integer dimensional fractal media. As an application, the
fields radiated by a Hertzian dipole in fractional space have been worked out.
Finally, conclusions are drawn in Chap. 6.
In summary, the subject covered in this book is relatively new and emerging
area of research in the field of electromagnetics. The concept of fractional
dimensional space has potential to make a significant impact on future directions
in fractional electromagnetics research. We highly recommend this book to
graduate students, researchers, and professionals working in the areas of electro-
magnetic-wave propagation, radiation, scattering, diffraction, and other related
fields of applied mathematics. The topics in this book can also be covered in any
graduate course on Advanced Engineering Electromagnetics.
Pakistan Muhammad Zubair

September 2011 Muhammad Junaid Mughal
Qaisar Abbas Naqvi
Acknowledgments
This book is an enlarged form of Authors work on fractional dimensional space

electromagnetics published in different journals. Some figures from published
work have been reproduced with prior permission and are cited with full
acknowledgement to corresponding source.
We would like to sincerely thank the GIK Institute of Engineering Sciences and
Technology, Topi, Pakistan, for providing the necessary facilities to accomplish
this work. We would also take this opportunity to thank all our friends and col-
leagues who have helped us in our research work.
Our special thanks goes to our respected Professor Azhar Abbas Rizvi (Ph.D.),
Department of Electronics, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan. He is
the person who taught us the subject of electromagnetics and nurtured our interest
in this field. We feel extremely fortunate to have learnt this subject from him and
are sure to say that this work could not have been accomplished without his
guidance.
Finally, we are very thankful to Dr. Christoph Baumann and Mrs. CarmenWolf
at Springer-Verlag GmbH for their wonderful help in the preparation and publi-
cation of this manuscript.
Pakistan Muhammad Zubair

September 2011 Muhammad Junaid Mughal
Qaisar Abbas Naqvi
xi
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Fractional Dimensional Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Axiomatic Basis for Fractional Dimensional Space . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Differential Geometry of Fractional Dimensional Space . . . . . . . 4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2 Differential Electromagnetic Equations in Fractional Space . . . . . . 7

2.1 Fractional Space Generalization of Laplacian Operator . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Fractional Space Generalization of Del Operator
and Related Differential Operators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.1 Del Operator in Fractional Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.2 Gradient Operator in Fractional Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.3 Divergence Operator in Fractional Space . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.4 Curl Operator in Fractional Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Fractional Space Generalization of Differential
Maxwells Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Fractional Space Generalization of Potentials for Static Fields,
Poissons and Laplaces Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5 Fractional Space Generalization of Potentials
for Time-Varying Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6 Fractional Space Generalization of the Helmholtzs Equation . . . 15
2.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3 Potentials for Static and Time-Varying Fields

in Fractional Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.1 Electrostatic Potential in Fractional Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.1.1 An Exact Solution of the Laplaces Equation
in D-dimensional Fractional Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
xiii
xiv Contents
3.1.2 Electrostatic Potential Inside a Rectangular Box

in Fractional Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 19
3.1.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 21
3.2 Time-Varying Potentials in Fractional Space. . . . . . . . . ...... 21
3.2.1 Inhomogeneous Vector Potential Wave Equation
in D-dimensional Fractional Space . . . . . . . . . . ...... 21
3.2.2 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 25
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 25
4 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation in Fractional Space . . . . .... 27

4.1 General Plane Wave Solutions in Fractional Space:
Lossless Medium Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.1.1 General Plane Wave Solutions in Fractional Space . . . . . 27
4.1.2 Discussion on Fractional Space Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.1.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Lossy Medium Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 33
4.2.1 General Plane Wave Solutions in Lossy Medium
in Fractional Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 34
4.2.2 Discussion on Fractional Space Solution
in Lossy Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 37
4.2.3 Example: Current Sheet as Source of Plane Waves
4.2.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 42
4.3 Cylindrical Wave Propagation in Fractional Space . . . . . . .... 42
4.3.1 An Exact Solution of Cylindrical Wave Equation
4.3.2 Discussion on Cylindrical Wave Solution
4.3.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 51
4.4 Spherical Wave Propagation in Fractional Space . . . . . . . . .... 51
4.4.1 Spherical Wave Equation in D-dimensional
Fractional Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.4.2 Discussion on Fractional Space Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.4.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5 Electromagnetic Radiations from Sources in Fractional Space . . .. 61

5.1 Solution Procedure for Radiation Problems
in Fractional Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 61
5.1.1 The Vector Potential AD for Electric Current Source J .. 61
5.1.2 The Vector Potential FD for Magnetic
Current Source M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 62
Contents xv
5.1.3 Radiated Electric and Magnetic Fields in Far Zone

for Electric J and Magnetic Current Source M . . . . . . . . 63
5.2 Elementary Hertzian Dipole in Fractional Space . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.2.1 Fields Radiated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.2.2 Directivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
About the Authors
Mr. Muhammad Zubair did his BS in Electronic Engineering with Gold Medal
from International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan in 2009. Recently, he
has completed his MS in Electronic Engineering with Highest Distinction from
GIK Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi, Pakistan in 2011 and
joined the same institute as Research Associate. Mr. Zubairs research interests are
in the field of Analytical Electromagnetics. He has applied the concept of frac-
tional dimensional space in the study of electromagnetic wave propagation,
radiation and scattering in fractal media. He is also member of Pakistan Engi-
neering Council.
Dr. M. Junaid Mughal did his M.Sc and M.Phil in Electronics from Quaid-e-
Azam university, Islamabad in 1993 and 1995, respectively. He did his PhD from
the University of Birmingham, UK in 2001. He worked as Director of Engineering
in Nuonics Inc., Orlando, Fl, USA form 2001 to 2003. He is presently working as
Associate Professor in the Faculty of Electronic Engineering in GIK Institute.
Dr. Mughals research interests are primarily in the field of communications and
particularly in RF and Optical Communications. He has worked in antennas, EM
scattering, propagation modeling for mobile applications and fiber optics. In the
field of optical communication Dr Mughal is coinventor of high dynamic range
variable optical attenuators based on Acousto-Optic and MEMS technology, high
speed fiber-optic switches, fiber optic tunable filters and laser beam profiling
systems. Currently he is working in the area of tunable metamaterials, wave
propagation in fractal media and focusing systems embedded in Chiral medium.
Dr. Qaisar Abbas Naqvi completed his M.Sc., M.Phil., and Ph.D., all in
Electronics, from Department of Electronics, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islama-
bad, Pakistan in 1991, 1993, and 1998 respectively. He joined Department of
Electronics as Assistant Professor in 1998. Uptill now, he has successfully
supervised more than thirty M.Phil and nine PhD students. He is now Associate
Professor and Chairman of Department of Electronics. He is author of more than
xvii
xviii About the Authors
100 papers in international refereed journals. He is also serving as referee for more
than 10 international journals. His research interests include fractional paradigm in
electromagnetics, bi-isotropic and chiral mediums, high frequency techniques and
Kobayashi potential method.
Chapter 1
Introduction
This book is a theoretical investigation of electromagnetic fields and waves in the

fractional dimensional space. The motivation for this study, besides its theoretical
importance, is provided by its applicability to the problems of electromagnetic wave
modeling in complex fractal media. One of the important advantages of fractals is
their capability to model objects of complicated structures. This is because of an
important property of fractals that their structure is characterized by a small number
of parameters. One of those parameters is the fractional dimension which tells how
the fractal fills the Euclidean space in which it lies. Since, a medium composed of
such fractal objects can be considered as non-integer dimensional fractal media, the
analytical results of this work provide the necessary tools for analyzing the behavior
of electromagnetic fields and waves in it.
1.1 Fractional Dimensional Space
Every one of us has learnt that the lines and curves are one-dimensional, planes and
surfaces are two-dimensional, solids and volumes are three dimensional, and so on.
In a formal way, we say that a set is n-dimensional if we have n independent variables
to describe a neighborhood of any point. Such a notion of dimension is called the
topological dimension of a set. Also we observe that if we take the union of infinite
many sets of n dimension, the overall dimension of new set can grow to n+1 e.g., the
union of infinite number of (one-dimensional) lines give rise to a (two-dimensional)
plane.
Now, we think about the dimension in another way. We may break a line segment
into 4 self-similar intervals, each with the same length, and each of which can be
magnified by a factor of 4 to yield the original segment. We can also break a line
segment into 7 self-similar pieces, each with magnification factor 7 can yield the
original segment, or 20 self-similar pieces with magnification factor 20 to yield the
original segment. In general, we can break a line segment into N self-similar pieces,
each with magnification factor N to yield the original segment. If, we decompose a
M. Zubair et al., Electromagnetic Fields and Waves in Fractional Dimensional Space, 1

SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-25358-4_1,
The Author(s) 2012
2 1 Introduction
square into 4 self-similar sub-squares, and the magnification factor here will be 2 to
yield in the original square. Alternatively, we can break the square into 9 self-similar
pieces with magnification factor 3, or 25 self-similar pieces with magnification factor
5. Clearly, the square may be broken into N 2 self-similar copies of itself, each of
which must be magnified by a factor of N to yield the original figure. Finally, we
can decompose a cube into N 3 self-similar pieces, each of which has magnification
factor N. Following above discussion we can say that the dimension is simply the
exponent of the number of self-similar pieces with magnification factor N into which
the figure may be broken.
So what is the dimension of the Sierpinski triangle? How do we find the exponent
in this case? For this, we need logarithms.
Note that, for the square, we have N 2 self-similar pieces, each with magnification
factor N. So we can write
log(number of self similar pieces) log N 2

dimension = = =2
log(magnification factor) log N
Similarly, the dimension of a cube is:
log(number of self similar pieces) log N 3

dimension = = =3
log(magnification factor) log N
Thus, we take as the definition of the fractal dimension of a self-similar object:
log(number of self similar pieces)

dimension =
log(magnification factor)
As the Sierpinski triangle consists of 3 self-similar pieces, each with magnification

factor 2, So the fractal dimension is
log(number of self similar pieces) log 3

dimension = = 1.58
log(magnification factor) log 2
In general, the Sierpinski triangle breaks into 3N self-similar pieces with magnifica-
tion factors 2N , so we again have
log(number of self similar pieces) log 3N

fractal dimension = = 1.58
log(magnification factor) log 2N
This estimates that the Sierpinski triangle sits somewhere in between lines and planes.
Similarly, many fractal structures are known in literature that possess a fractal dimen-
sion. Roughly speaking, we state that the space embedding such fractal curves or
surfaces is known as fractional dimensional space.
There has been much interest to study different physical phenomenon in fractional
dimensional space [128] during the last few decades. The concept of fractional space
is used to replace the real anisotropic confining structure with an isotropic fractional
1.1 Fractional Dimensional Space 3
space, where the measurement of this confinement is given by fractional dimension

[6, 7]. It is also important to mention that the experimental measurement of the
dimension of real world is 3 106 , not exactly 3 [6, 9].
Among several methods, a methodology to describe the fractional dimension is
fractional calculus [29], which is also used by different authors [3037] in study-
ing various electromagnetic problems. Axiomatic basis for spaces with fractional
dimension have been provided by Stillinger [6], along with a fractional space gen-
eralization of Laplacian operator and a solution of Schrdingers wave equation in
fractional dimensional space. For 2-spatial coordinate space, the Stillingers formal-
ism shows that it is possible to distribute the D dimensions between them. Palmer
and Stavrinou [8] generalized the results of Stillinger to n orthogonal coordinates.
Equations of motion in a non-integer dimensional space have also been formulated in
[8]. The formalism investigated in [8] allows to describe an anisotropic confinement
of fractional space, i.e., if we have a system that is confined as 1.8 dimensional, then
it could be described as 1 + 0.8 dimensional in two coordinates and as 1 + 0.2 + 0.6
dimensional in three coordinates. Recently, Muslih [18] provided a dimensional reg-
ularization technique in order to convert any integral of a function from fractional
dimensional space to a regular dimensional space along with a description of differ-
ential geometry of fractional dimensional space.
The generalization of electromagnetic theory in fractional space is of much impor-
tance to study the phenomenon of wave propagation, radiation and scattering in an
anisotropic fractal media. Fractal models of media are becoming popular due to rel-
atively small number of parameters that define a medium of greater complexity and
rich structure [15]. In general, the fractal media cannot be considered as continuous
media, because some of points and domains are not filled by the medium particles.
These unfilled domains are called porous. The fractal media can be treated as contin-
uous media for the scales much larger than average pore size. In order to describe the
fractal media, the continuous medium model for fractal media reported in [16], sug-
gests to use the space with fractional dimension. An introductory work on fractional
multipoles and electromagnetic field in fractional space is reported in [1720]. It is
worthwhile to mention that clouds, turbulence in fluids, rough surfaces, snow, etc.,
can be described as fractional dimensional. The study of wave propagation, radiation
and scattering phenomenon in such media is important in practical applications, such
as communications, remote sensing, navigation and even bioengineering [20].
1.2 Axiomatic Basis for Fractional Dimensional Space
This work is based on the Stillingers [6] axiomatic basis for spaces with non-integer
dimension. Here, we briefly describe these axioms. In [6], four topological axioms
are proposed which generate a space with non-integer dimension D. Let SD denote
the fractional space which contains points x, y, . . . and has topological structure
specified by the following axioms:
Axiom 1 SD is a metric space.
4 1 Introduction
Axiom 2 SD is dense in itself.

Axiom 3 SD is metrically unbounded.
Axiom 4 For any two points y, z SD , and any >0, there exists an x SD such
that:
(a) r(x, y) + r(x, z) = r(y, z)
(b) |r(x, y) r(x, z)| < r(y, z)
The full implication of Axiom 4 is that any two points in SD are connected by a
continuous line embedded in that space so SD is connected. So any convex or star
domain in SD will be contractible. Based on these axioms Stillinger [6] as well as
recently Muslih [18], provided a dimensional regularization technique in order to
convert any integral of a function from fractional dimensional space to a regular
dimensional space. The fractional space generalization of the Laplacian operator,
provided in later chapters, is based on the same dimensional regularization technique
according to which a fractional space is related to fractional integrals and derivatives.
1.3 Differential Geometry of Fractional Dimensional Space
The question of differential geometry of fractional spaces is related to the dimen-

sional regularization technique. A sufficient description of differential geometry of
fractional space along with dimensional regularization technique is already provided
in [18] which is briefly described here:
Let us say that N coordinates x1 , x2 , . . . , xN are needed to locate a point in a space.
In the case where a space is filled with regular geometric objects, and the curves and
the surfaces are smooth, it is common to call this number N as the dimension of the
space. Thus, a straight line, a plane surface, and a cube are of dimensions 1, 2, and 3,
respectively. This is also true if these spaces have curvatures. For example, motions
along the circumference of a circle and on the surface of a sphere can be considered
as motions in one- and two-dimensional spaces even though our true motions may
be in a three-dimensional space. In such cases, infinitesimal line, area, and volume
elements in the Cartesian coordinates are defined as dx1 , dx1 dx2 , and dx1 dx2 dx3 ,
respectively, and even in the case of a space with curvature, the distance between two
points sufficiently closed to each other is given by a quadratic expression. However,
this is not the situation in the case of fractal lines, surfaces, volume and hypervolumes.
Thus, in these cases, there is a clear distinction between the number of coordinates
used to locate a point and the dimension of the space.
The dimensions of the fractional space can be defined in various ways. In [18], a
scaling method d x = f ()|x|1 dx is used to relate the differential fractional line
element d x with dx, where 0 < 1 is the fractional dimension of the line and
/2
f () = (/2) is a function of . A space filled with such lines is called fractional
space. Thus, if a point in a space is located using N points x1 , x2 , . . . , xN , then the
1.3 Differential Geometry of Fractional Dimensional Space 5
scaling between d i xi and dxi is defined as
i /2
d i xi = |x|i 1 dxi , i = 1, 2, . . . , N
(i /2)
This space is called fractional dimensional space or simply a fractional space, and
D = 1 + 2 +, . . . , +N is the dimension of the fractional space. Following
the above discussion, any volume element in D-dimensional fractional space can
be defined as:
d(V )D = d 1 x1 , d 2 x1 , . . . , d N xN
where, d N xN is the differential element corresponding to Nth coordinate.

In later chapters, we have established the differential electromagnetic equations
in fractional dimension space to provide a basis for application of the concept of
fractional dimensional space in solving electromagnetic wave propagation, radiation
and scattering problems in fractal media.
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11. C.G. Bollini, J.J. Giambiagi, Dimensional renormalization: The number of dimensions as a
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29, 177187 (1973)
13. O.P. Agrawal, Formulation of Euler-Lagrange equations for fractional variational problems. J.
Math. Anal. Appl. 271(1), 368379 (2002)
14. D. Baleanu, S. Muslih, Lagrangian formulation of classical fields within Riemann-Liouville
fractional derivatives. Phys. Scripta 72(23), 119121 (2005)
6 1 Introduction
15. V.E. Tarasov, Electromagnetic fields on fractals. Modern Phys. Lett. A 21(20), 15871600
(2006)
16. V.E. Tarasov, Continuous medium model for fractal media. Phys. Lett. A 336(23), 167174
(2005)
17. S. Muslih, D. Baleanu, Fractional multipoles in fractional space. Nonlinear Anal: Real World
App. 8, 198203 (2007)
18. S.I. Muslih, O.P. Agrawal, A scaling method and its applications to problems in fractional
dimensional space. J. Math. Phys. 50(12):123501123511 (2009)
19. D. Baleanu, A.K. Golmankhaneh, A.K. Golmankhaneh, On electromagnetic field in fractional
space. Nonlinear Anal: Real World App. 11(1):288292 (2010)
20. Z. Wang, B. Lu, The scattering of electromagnetic waves in fractal media. Waves Random
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21. C.M. Bender, K.A. Milton, Scalar casimir effect for a D-dimensional sphere. Phys. Rev. D 50,
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22. S. Muslih, D. Baleanu, Mandelbrot scaling and parametrization invariant theories. Romanian
Rep. Phys. 62(4), 689696 (2010)
23. S. Muslih, M. Saddallah, D. Baleanu, E. Rabe, Lagrangian formulation of maxwells field in
fractional D dimensional space-time. Romanian Rep. Phys. 55(78), 659663 (2010)
24. S. Muslih, O.P. Agrawal, Riesz fractional derivatives and fractional dimensional space. Int. J.
Theor. Phys. 49(2):270275 (2010)
25. S. Muslih, Solutions of a particle with fractional [delta]-potential in a fractional dimensional
space. Int. J. Theor. Phys. 49(9), 20952104 (2010)
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dimensional fractional space. Nonlinear Anal.: Real World App. 10(3):12991304 (2009)
27. M. Sadallah, S.I. Muslih, Solution of the equations of motion for einsteins field in fractional
D dimensional space-time. Int. J. Theor. Phys. 48(12):33123318 (2009)
28. S. Muslih, D. Baleanu, E.M. Rabe, Solutions of massless conformal scalar field in an
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29. K.B. Oldham, J. Spanier, The Fractional Calculus. (Academic Press, New York, 1974)
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Chapter 2
Differential Electromagnetic Equations
in Fractional Space
In this chapter a novel generalization of differential electromagnetic equations in frac-

tional space is provided. Firstly, basic vector differential operators are generalized
in fractional space and then using these fractional operators Maxwells, Laplaces,
Poissons and Helmholtzs equations have been worked out in fractional space. The
differential electromagnetic equations in fractional space, established in this chapter,
provide a basis for application of the concept of fractional space in practical electro-
magnetic wave propagation and scattering problems in fractal media.
In Sect. 2.1 a review of already existing study to construct a generalized Laplacian
operator using integration in D-dimensional fractional space is briefly described.
In Sect. 2.2, fractional space generalization of the Del operator, written as D ,
and its related differential operators ( i.e., gradient, divergence and curl) in vector
calculus is obtained. In Sect. 2.3, a novel fractional space generalization of differen-
tial Maxwells equations is presented. In Sect. 2.4, fractional space generalization of
the Laplace and Poissons equations is established in addition to fractional space gen-
eralization of potentials for static field. In Sect. 2.5, potentials for time varying fields
in fractional space are derived. In Sect. 2.6, the Helmholtzs equation in fractional
space is established. Finally, this chapter is summarized in Sect. 2.7.
2.1 Fractional Space Generalization of Laplacian Operator
In [1] a formalism is provided for integration on D-dimensional fractional space.

According to this formalism, the integration of radially symmetric function f (r ) in
a D-dimensional fractional space is given by [1]:

dx0 f (r (x0 , x1 )) = dr W (r ) f (r ) (2.1)
0
where r (x0 , x1 ) is the distance between two points x0 and x1 , and weight W (r )
given by
W (r ) = (D)r D1 (2.2)

The Author(s) 2012
8 2 Differential Electromagnetic Equations in Fractional Space
with
2 D/2
(D) = (2.3)
(D/2)
From this a single variable Laplacian operator is derived in D-dimensional fractional

space as:
2
D1
D2
f (r ) = + f (r ), 0 < D 1 (2.4)
r 2 r r
In Eq. 2.4 and throughout the discussion, the subscript D is used to emphasize the
dimension of space in which this operator is defined. An extension of formalism in
Eq. 2.1 to two variable integration yields an expression for a two-coordinate Laplacian
operator in fractional space.
2 2 D2
D
2
= + + , 0<D2 (2.5)
x 2 y 2 y y
In [2] the results from [1] are generalized to n orthogonal coordinates and Laplacian
operator in D-dimensional fractional space in three-spatial coordinates is given as:
2 1 1 2 2 1
D
2
= + + 2+
x 2 x x y y y
(2.6)
2 3 1
+ 2+
z z z
where, three parameters (0 < 1 1, 0 < 2 1 and 0 < 3 1) are used to
describe the measure distribution of space where each one is acting independently
on a single coordinate and the total dimension of the system is D = 1 + 2 + 3 .
It is obvious that for three dimensional space (D = 3), if we set 1 = 2 = 3 = 1
in (2.6), the fractional Laplacian operator D2 reduces to the classical Laplacian
operator [3] in Euclidean space.

2
2.2 Fractional Space Generalization of Del Operator

and Related Differential Operators
In this section we wish to develop a generalization of vector differential operators in

fractional space using scalar Laplacian operator described in previous section.
2.2.1 Del Operator in Fractional Space
From Eq. 2.6, we consider single variable Laplacian operator in fractional space:
2.2 Fractional Space Generalization of Del Operator and Related Differential Operators 9
2 D1
D
2
= + , 0<D1 (2.7)
x2 x x
We wish to find an expression for Del operator D in fractional space. As
D = | D | D (2.8)

In single variable case we assume D = x also | D | = D
2 , because . =
D D
2 , where 2 is given in (2.7):
D D

2 D1
| D | = + (2.9)
x 2 x x
Expansion of (2.9) using Binomial series expansion [3] for | x |>> 1, ignoring
terms involving second or higher degree of x in denominator, leads to the following
form:
1 D1
| D | = + (2.10)
x 2 x
From (2.8) and (2.10), Del operator in single variable x with fractional dimension D
is given by:

1 D1
D = + x (2.11)
x 2 x
Extending above procedure to three variable case for | x |, | y |, | z | 1 we get Del

operator D in fractional space as follows:

1 1 1 1 2 1
D = + x + + y
x 2 x y 2 y

1 3 1
+ + z (2.12)
z 2 z
where, parameters (0 < 1 1, 0 < 2 1 and 0 < 3 1) are used to

on a single coordinate and the total dimension of the system is D = 1 + 2 + 3 . It
is important to mention that Eq. 2.12 and all differential operators presented in later
sections are valid in far-field region only i.e (|x|, |y|, |z| 1) because of the first
order approximation given by (2.10). Clearly, for three dimensional space (D = 3),
if we set 1 = 2 = 3 = 1 in (2.12), the fractional Del operator D reduces to the
classical Del operator [3] in Euclidean space.
2.2.2 Gradient Operator in Fractional Space
The gradient of a scalar field in fractional space is a vector that represents both the
magnitude and the direction of maximum space rate of increase of in fractional
space. Using (2.12) the modified form of the gradient of scalar field , written as
grad D , in far-field region in the fractional space is given as:

1 (1 1) 1 (2 1)
grad D = D = + x + + y
x 2 x y 2 y

1 (3 1)
+ + z (2.13)
z 2 z
2.2.3 Divergence Operator in Fractional Space
From (2.12) a generalized form of divergence of a vector F = Fx x + Fy y + Fz z at

point P(x0 , y0 , z 0 ) in far-field region in the fractional space is written as div D F and
is given by
Fx 1 (1 1)Fx Fy 1 (2 1)Fy
div D F = D F = + + +
x 2 x y 2 y
Fz 1 (3 1)Fz
+ + (2.14)
z 2 z
2.2.4 Curl Operator in Fractional Space
The modified form of curl of a vector F = Fx x + Fy y + Fz z at point P(x0 , y0 , z 0 )

in far-field region in the fractional space is written as curl D F and using (2.12) it is
given by
curl D F = D F

Fz 1 (2 1)Fz Fy 1 (3 1)Fy
= + + x
y 2 y z 2 z

Fx 1 (3 1)Fx Fz 1 (1 1)Fz
+ + + y
z 2 z x 2 x

Fy 1 (1 1)Fy Fx 1 (2 1)Fx
+ + + z (2.15)
x 2 x y 2 y
or

x y z
1 1 1 1 2 1 1 3 1

curl D F = D F= + + + (2.16)
x 2 x y 2 y z 2 z
Fx Fy Fz
2.3 Fractional Space Generalization of Differential Maxwells Equations 11
2.3 Fractional Space Generalization of Differential

Maxwells Equations
The Maxwells equations are the fundamental equations describing the behavior of
electric and magnetic fields. In classical electromagnetic theory following quantities
are dealt with:
E = electric field intensity (V /m)
B = magnetic field intensity (A/m)
D = electric flux density (C/m 2 )
B = magnetic flux density (W/m 2 )
J = electric current density (A/m 2 )
v = electric charge density (C/m 3 )
with B = H and D = E, where and are permeability and permittivity of
the medium, respectively.
All of these quantities are functions of space variables x, y, z and tim t. The basic
classical Maxwells equations in differential form in Euclidean space are [4]:
D = v (2.17)
B=0 (2.18)
B
E= (2.19)
t
D
H=J+ (2.20)
t
Also the continuity equation
v
J= (2.21)
t
is implicit in Maxwells equations.

Now we wish to have a generalized form of Maxwells equations in D-dimensional
fractional space. From the results of Sect. 3, we are now able to write differential
form of Maxwells equations in far-field region in the fractional space as follows:
div D D = v (2.22)
div D B = 0 (2.23)
B
curl D E = (2.24)
t
D
curl D H = J + (2.25)
t
and the continuity equation in fractional space as:
v
div D J = (2.26)
t
where, div D and curl D are defined in Eqs. 2.142.16. Equations 2.222.25 provide
generalization of classical Maxwells equations form integer dimensional Euclidean
space to a non-integer dimensional fractional space. For D = 3, these fractional
equations can be reduced to classical Maxwells equations in Euclidean space.
In phasor form, assuming a time factor e jt , Maxwells equations in fractional
space are given by replacing t with j [4] as below:
div D Ds = vs (2.27)
div D Bs = 0 (2.28)
curl D Es = jBs (2.29)
curl D Hs = Js + jDs (2.30)
and the phasor form of continuity equation in fractional space as:
div D Js = jvs (2.31)
where, Ds , Bs , Es , Hs , Js , vs represent the phasor form of instantaneous quantities

D, B, E, H, J and v , respectively.
2.4 Fractional Space Generalization of Potentials for Static

Fields, Poissons and Laplaces Equations
From Maxwells equations in previous section, it is shown that the behavior of elec-
trostatic field in fractional space can be described by two differential equations:
v
div D E = (2.32)
0
curl D E = 0 (2.33)
where, 0 is permittivity of free space. Equation 2.33 being equivalent to the statement
that E is the gradient of a scalar function, the scalar potential for electric field .
Because
curl D (grad D ) = 0 (2.34)

2.4 Fractional Space Generalization 13
so,
E = grad D (2.35)
A detailed proof of Eq. 2.34 is provided in Appendix A. Equations 2.32 and 2.35 can
be combined into one partial differential equation for the single function (x, y, z)
as follows:
v
div D grad D = (2.36)
0
As div D grad D = D
2 , so finally we get
v
D
2
= (2.37)
0
where D2 is scalar Laplacian operator in fractional space given by (2.6). Equation
2.37 is called Poissons equation in fractional space. In regions of space that lack a
charge density, the scalar potential satisfies the Laplaces equation given by:
D
2
=0 (2.38)
Equations 2.372.38 are important in solving practical electrostatic problems in

fractional space.
From Maxwells equations in last section, it is shown that the behavior of mag-
netostatic field in fractional space can be described by two differential equations:
div D B = 0 (2.39)
curl D H = J (2.40)
From Eq. 2.40 we say that in problems concerned with finding the magnetic fields
in a current free region, the curl D of magnetic field H is zero. Any vector with zero
curl D may be represented as the grad D of a scalar (see e.g., Eq. 2.34). Thus, the
magnetic field for points in such regions can be expressed as
H = grad D m (2.41)
where, m (in amperes) is the magnetic scalar potential and the minus sign is taken
to complete the analogy with electrostatic field in (2.35).
From (2.39), the divergence of B is zero everywhere, so using (2.39) and (2.41)
div D (grad D m ) = 0 (2.42)
Thus for a homogenous medium in fractional space the magnetic scalar potential m
satisfies the Laplace equation:
D
2
m = 0 (2.43)
From (2.39) we know that for magnetostatic field div D B = 0. Also we know that
div D curl D A = 0 (2.44)
In order to satisfy (2.39) and (2.44) simultaneously, we can define vector magnetic
potential A (in webers/meter) such that
B = curl D A (2.45)
Now if we substitute (2.45) into (2.40) we get
curl D curl D A = J (2.46)
This may be considered as differential equation relating A to the current density J.

Using vector identity
curl D curl D A = grad D (div D A) D

2
A (2.47)
with
div D A = 0 (2.48)
in (2.46) we get
D
2
A = J (2.49)
This is a vector equivalent of Poissons equation in (2.37). It includes three component

scalar equations which are exactly of the poisson form.
2.5 Fractional Space Generalization of Potentials

for Time-Varying Fields
A we have seen, in Maxwells equations fields are related to each other and sources
as well. But sometimes it is helpful to introduce some intermediate functions, known
as potential functions, which are directly related to sources and from which we can
drive fields [4]. Such function are found useful for static fields as well (see e.g., Eqs.
2.35, 2.41, 2.45).
From (2.45) we have B = curl D A. This relation may now be substituted into
Maxwells equation (2.24) to get

A
curl D E + =0 (2.50)
t
2.5 Fractional Space Generalization of Potentials for Static Fields 15
Equation 2.50 states that curl D of a certain quantity is zero. But this condition allows
a vector to be derived as a grad D of a scalar .
A
E+ = grad D (2.51)
t
A
E = grad D (2.52)
t
Equation 2.45 and 2.52 are the valid relationships between fields and potential func-
tions A and . We substitute (2.52) into (2.22), to obtain
(div D A) v
D
2
= (2.53)
t
Then by substituting (2.45) and (2.52) into (2.53), we get

2A
curl D curl D A = J + grad D 2 (2.54)
t t
Using the vector identity (2.45) and choosing

div D A = (2.55)
t
Equation 2.53 and 2.54 can be reduced to
2 v
D
2
= (2.56)
t 2
2A
D
2
A = J (2.57)
t 2
Thus the potential functions A and , defined in terms of sources J and v by the
Eqs. 2.56 and 2.57 in fractional space, may be used to drive electric and magnetic
fields using (2.45) and (2.52).
2.6 Fractional Space Generalization of the Helmholtzs Equation
From Eqs. 2.24 and 2.25, using B = H and D = E, we finally obtain
H
curl D E = (2.58)
t
E
curl D H = J + (2.59)
t
Taking curl D of Eq. 2.58 on both sides and using (2.59) gives

E
curl D curl D E = J+ (2.60)
t t
This result can be simplified using (2.47) and (2.26) in (2.60) as :
1 J 2E
D
2
E= grad D v + + 2 (2.61)
t t
For source-free region (v = 0, J = 0) (2.61) becomes
2E
D
2
E =0 (2.62)
t 2
Equation 2.62 is the Helmholtzs equation, or wave equation, for E in fractional
space. An identical equation for H in fractional space can also be derived in the same
manner:
2H
D
2
H =0 (2.63)
t 2
2.7 Summary
A novel fractional space generalization of the differential electromagnetic equations,

that is helpful in studying the behavior of electric and magnetic fields in fractal media,
is provided. A new form of vector differential operator Del, written as D , and its
related differential operators is formulated in fractional space. Using these modi-
fied vector differential operators, the classical Maxwells electromagnetic equations
have been worked out. The Laplaces, Poissons and Helmholtzs equations in frac-
tional space are derived by using modified vector differential operators. Also a new
fractional space generalization of potentials for static and time-varying fields is pre-
sented. For all investigated cases, when integer dimensional space is considered, the
classical results can be recovered. The provided fractional space generalization of
differential electromagnetic equations is valid in far-field region only. The differen-
tial electromagnetic equations in fractional space, established in this work, provide
a basis for application of the concept of fractional space in practical electromagnetic
wave propagation and scattering phenomenon in far-field region in any fractal media.
References
1. F.H. Stillinger, Axiomatic basis for spaces with noninteger dimension. J. Math. Phys. 18(6),
12241234 (1977)
2. C. Palmer, P.N. Stavrinou, Equations of motion in a noninteger-dimension space. J Phys A 37,
69877003 (2004)
3. M. Abramowitz, I.A. Stegun, Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas Graphs and
Mathematical Tables. (Department of Commerce, U.S., 1972)
4. C.A. Balanis, Advanced Engineering Electromagnetics. (Wiley, New York, 1989)
Chapter 3
Potentials for Static and Time-Varying
Fields in Fractional Space
In this chapter, a fractional space generalization of potentials for static and time-
varying fields is discussed. The fractional space generalization of static and
time-varying potentials, provided in this chapter, can be used to study electrosta-
tic problems in fractal media.
In Sect. 3.1, electrostatic potential in D-dimensional fractional space is studied.
In Sect. 3.2, time-varying auxiliary potential is studied in fractional space.
3.1 Electrostatic Potential in Fractional Space
In this section, an exact solution of the Laplaces equation for electrostatic potential
in D-dimensional fractional space is presented. As an application, the electrostatic
potential inside the rectangular box with surfaces held at constant potentials is
obtained in fractional pace. It is also shown that for integer value of dimension
D, the classical results are recovered. The obtained solution can be used to study
complex electrostatic problems in fractal media.
In Sect. 3.1.1, we investigate full analytical solution to the Laplaces equation in
D-dimensional fractional space, where the parameter D is used to describe the mea-
sure distribution of space. In Sect. 3.1.2, the electrostatic potential inside the rectan-
gular box with surfaces held at constant potentials in fractional space is obtained.
Finally, in Sect. 3.1.3, results are summarized.
3.1.1 An Exact Solution of the Laplaces Equation

in D-dimensional Fractional Space
The Laplaces equation in D-dimensional fractional space can describe complex

physical phenomenon. Laplaces equation in fractional space is given by:
D
2
=0 (3.1.1)

The Author(s) 2012
18 3 Potentials for Static and Time-Varying Fields
where is the electrostatic potential and D2 is the scalar laplacian operator in
D-dimensional fractional space given as follows [1].
2 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 1
D
2
= + + + + + (3.1.2)
x2 x x y2 y y z 2 z z
where, three parameters (0 < 1 1, 0 < 2 1 and 0 < 3 1) are used to

It is obvious that for three dimensional space (D = 3), if we set 1 = 2 = 3 = 1
in (3.1.2), the fractional Laplacian operator D2 reduces to the classical Laplacian
operator 2 in Euclidean space. In this section we present an exact solution of the

Laplace equation in (3.1.2) for electrostatic potential in D-dimensional fractional
space. In expanded form, (3.1.1) can be written as:

2 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 1
+ + + + + =0 (3.1.3)
x 2 x x y 2 y y z 2 z z
Equation (3.1.6) is separable using separation of variables. We consider
(x, y, z) = f (x)g(y)h(z) (3.1.4)
the resulting ordinary differential equations are obtained as follows:

d2 1 1 d
+ + f (x) = 0
2
(3.1.5a)
dx2 x dx
2
d 2 1 d
+ + g(y) = 0
2
(3.1.5b)
dy2 y dy
2
d 3 1 d
+ 2
h(z) = 0 (3.1.5c)
d z2 z dz
where, in addition,
2 + 2 = 2 (3.1.6)
Equation (3.1.5a) through (3.1.5c) are all of the same form; solution for any one of
them can be replicated for others by inspection.We choose to work first with f (x).
We write (3.1.5a) as

d2 d
x 2 +a + 2 x f = 0 (3.1.7)
dx dx
where, a = 1 1. Equation (3.1.7) is reducible to Bessels equation under substi-

tution f = xv1 as follows:
3.1 Electrostatic Potential in Fractional Space 19

d2 d |1 a|
x2
+x + ( x v1 ) = 0, v1 =
2 2 2
(3.1.8)
dx2 dx 2
The solution of Bessels equation in (3.1.8) is given as [2]
= C1 Jv1 (x) + C2 Yv1 (x) (3.1.9)
where, Jv1 (x) is referred to as Bessel function of the first kind of order v1 , Yv1 (x)
as the Bessel function of the second kind of order v1 . Finally the solution of (3.1.5a)
becomes
1
f (x) = xv1 C1 Jv1 (x) + C2 Yv1 (x) , v1 = 1 (3.1.10)
2
Similarly, the solutions to (3.1.5b) and (3.1.5c) are obtained as
2
g(y) = yv2 C3 Jv2 (y) + C4 Yv2 (y) , v2 = 1 (3.1.11)
2

h(z) = z v3 C5 Jv3 (j z) + C6 Yv3 (j z)

3
= z v3 C5 Jv3 (j 2 + 2 z) + C6 Yv3 (j 2 + 2 z) , v3 = 1
2
(3.1.12)
From (3.1.4) and (3.1.10) through (3.1.13), the solution of (3.1.3) have the form

(x, y, z) = xv1 yv2 z v3 C1 Jv1 (x) + C2 Yv1 (x) C3 Jv2 (y) + C4 Yv2 (y)

C5 Jv3 (j 2 + 2 z) + C6 Yv3 (j 2 + 2 z)
(3.1.13)
where, C1 through C6 are constant coefficients. Also and can be determined by
imposing boundary conditions on potential. This solution can be used to study the
electrostatic field in a non-integer dimensional fractal media.
3.1.2 Electrostatic Potential Inside a Rectangular Box

in Fractional Space
In the present section we determine the potential inside a rectangular box in

D-dimensional fractional space with dimensions (a, b, c) in the (x, y, z) directions.
All surfaces of the box are kept at zero potential, except the surface z = c, which is at
potential V (x, y). Starting from the requirement that = 0 at x = 0, y = 0, z = 0,
it is easy to see that the required forms of f (x), g(y), h(z) are
f (x) = xv1 Jv1 (x) (3.1.14a)

g(y) = yv2 Jv2 (y) (3.1.14b)

h(z) = z v3 Jv3 (j 2 + 2 z) (3.1.14c)
To have = 0 at x = a and y = b, we must have

(4n + 2v1 + 3)
a = (3.1.15a)
4
(4m + 2v2 + 3)
b = (3.1.15b)
4
With the definitions,

(4n + 2v1 + 3)
n = (3.1.16a)
4a
(4m + 2v2 + 3)
m = (3.1.16b)
4b

4n + 2v1 + 3 2 4m + 2v2 + 3 2
mn = + (3.1.16c)
4 a b
The partial potential mn satisfying all boundary conditions except one, can be
written as:
mn = xv1 yv2 z v3 Jv1 (n x)Jv2 (m y)Jv3 (jmn z) (3.1.17)
And the potential can expanded in terms of these mn with initial arbitrary coefficients
(to be chosen to satisfy final boundary condition):

(x, y, z) = Amn xv1 yv2 z v3 Jv1 (n x)Jv2 (m y)Jv3 (jmn z) (3.1.18)

n,m=1
And the final boundary condition = V (x, y) at z = c:

V (x, y) = Amn xv1 yv2 cv3 Jv1 (n x)Jv2 (m y)Jv3 (jmn c) (3.1.19)
n,m=1
so, the constant coefficients Amn are given by:

a b
4
Amn = dx dyV (x, y)xv1 yv2 Jv1 (n x)Jv2 (m y) (3.1.20)
abcv3 Jv3 (jmn c) 0 0
Equation (3.1.18) provides the required solution in fractional space. Now, if we take
D = 3 i.e., 1 = 2 = 3 = 1 in (3.1.18) and use Bessel functions of fractional order
then the classical results given by Jackson [3], for the same problem in Euclidean
space, can be recovered.
3.1 Electrostatic Potential in Fractional Space 21
3.1.3 Summary
An exact solution of the Laplaces equation for electrostatic potential in D-dimens-

ional fractional space is obtained. The electrostatic potential inside the rectangular
box with surfaces held at constant potentials is obtained in fractional space. It is also
shown that for integer value of dimension D, the classical results can be recovered.
The obtained solution can be used to study complex electrostatic problems in fractal
media.
3.2 Time-Varying Potentials in Fractional Space
The procedure for analysis of radiation problems is to specify sources and get the
fields radiated by the sources. For analysis of radiation problems in fractional space
we have to introduce auxiliary potential function A (magnetic vector potential) and F
(electric vector potential). The fractional space generalization of the relation between
auxiliary potential functions and sources is given by inhomogeneous vector potential
wave equations. In this Section, a novel exact solution of the inhomogeneous vector
potential wave equations in D-dimensional fractional space is presented. It is also
shown that for integer values of dimension D, the classical results are recovered.
The solution of inhomogeneous vector potential wave equation in fractional space is
useful to study the radiation phenomenon in fractal media.
In Sect 3.2.1, we investigate full analytical solution of the inhomogeneous vector
potential wave equation in D-dimensional fractional space, where the parameter D
is used to describe the measure distribution of space, also the solution of inhomoge-
neous vector potential wave equation in integer-dimensional space is justified from
the results obtained. Finally, results are summarized drawn in Sect. 3.2.2.
3.2.1 Inhomogeneous Vector Potential Wave Equation

in D-dimensional Fractional Space
The procedure for analysis of radiation problems is to specify sources and get the
fields radiated by the sources. For analysis of radiation problems in fractional space
we have to introduce auxiliary potential function A (magnetic vector potential) and F
(electric vector potential). The fractional space generalization of the relation between
auxiliary potential functions and sources is given by inhomogeneous vector potential
wave equations as below:
D
2
A + k 2 A = J (3.2.1)
D
2
F + k 2 F = M (3.2.2)
where, k 2 = 2 and D 2 is the modified laplacian operator in D-dimensional
fractional space defined in Equation (3.1.2) and J, M are harmonic electric and
magnetic currents. In spherical coordinates fractional Laplacian operator becomes:
2
2 D1 1 D2
D
2
= 2+ + +
r r r r2 2 tan
2 (3.2.3)
1 D3
+ 2 +
r sin 2 tan
where, 2 < D 3. In this section we present a novel exact solution of the inho-
mogeneous vector potential wave equations in (3.2.1) and (3.2.2) in D-dimensional
fractional space. Once the solution to any one of equation (3.2.1) and (3.2.2) in frac-
tional space is known, the solution to the other can be written by duality principle.
To drive the solution to (3.2.1), we assume a source with current density Jz , which
in limit is an infinitesimal point source, is placed at origin of a x, y, z coordinate
system. Since the current density is directed along z-axis, only an Az component will
exist. Thus, using (3.2.1)
D
2
Az + k 2 Az = Jz (3.2.4)
At point removed from the source (Jz = 0), the wave equation reduces to
D
2
Az + k 2 Az = 0 (3.2.5)
Since in the limit the source is a point, it requires Az as function of r in spherical

coordinates (i.e., Az is not a function of and . Thus, using the definition of
Laplacian operator from (3.2.3) we get (3.2.5) in expanded form as:

2 D1
+ + k Az (r) = 0
2
(3.2.6)
r2 r r
where, 2 < D 3. The partial derivatives are replaced with ordinary derivative
because Az is a function of r only. Equation (3.2.6) is reducible to Bessels equation
under substitution Az (r) = xn as follows:

d2 d D
r2 2
+ r + (k 2 2
r n 2
) = 0, n = 1 (3.2.7)
dr dr 2
= C1 Hn(1) (kr) + C2 Hn(2) (kr) (3.2.8)
(1) (2)
where, Hn (kr) is referred to as Hankel function of the first kind of order n, Hn (kr)
as the Hankel function of the second kind of order n. Finally, the solution of (3.2.6)
becomes
3.2 Time-Varying Potentials in Fractional Space 23
D
Az = rn C1 Hn(1) (kr) + C2 Hn(2) (kr) , n = 1 (3.2.9)
2
So the two independent solutions of (3.2.6) are
Az1 = C1 rn Hn(1) (kr) (3.2.10a)
Az2 = C2 rn Hn(2) (kr) (3.2.10b)
Equations (3.2.10a, b) represent inward and outward going waves (assuming a time
dependency ejt ). For this problem source is located at origin and the waves are
going outward. So, we choose the solution of (3.2.6) as
Az = C1 rn Hn(2) (kr) (3.2.11)
In the static case ( = 0, k = 0), (3.2.11) simplifies to
Az = C1 rn Hn(2) (0) (3.2.12)
Thus, at points removed from the source, the time-varying and static solutions
of (3.2.11) and (3.2.12) differ only by the argument of Hankel function from kr
to zero; or the time-varying solution can be found by multiplying static form with
(2)
rHn (kr).
In the presence of the source (Jz = 0) an (k = 0) the wave equation (2.2.4) is
reduced to
D
2
Az = Jz (3.2.13)
This equation is known as Poissons equation in fractional space. The well known
form of Poissons equation relating the scalar field to the electric charge density
is given by

D
2
= (3.2.14)

and the solution of (3.2.14) is given by [4] as follow:

23D (3/2)
= dV (3.2.15)
(D/2) rD2
where, r is the distance from any point on charge density to observation point. As
(3.2.13) is similar to (3.2.14), so its solution is same as in (3.2.15).

23D (3/2) Jz
Az = dV (3.2.16)
4 (/2) r D2
using analogy between (3.2.11) and (3.2.12), the time-varying solution of (3.2.4) is
given by
(2)
23D (3/2) Hn (kr)
Az = Jz dV (3.2.17)
4 (D/2) rD5/2
If the current were in the x- and y-directions (Jx ,Jy ), the wave equations for each
would reduce to have same form as (3.2.4) and will possess the same solutions as in
equation (3.2.17).
Finally, we have the solution of vector wave equation in (3.2.4) as:
(2)
23D (3/2) Hn (kr)
A= J D5/2 d V (3.2.18)
4 (D/2) r
If the source is removed from origin and placed at position represented by the primed
coordinates (x , y , z ), (3.2.18) can be written as:

23D (3/2) Hn(2) (kR)
A= J(x , y , z ) D5/2 d V (3.2.19)
4 (D/2) R
where, R is the distance between any point in the source to observation point, (x)
is the gamma function and Hn(2) (kR) denotes the Hankel function of second kind of
order n representing outward waves from source point.
Now, for validation of our provided solution in (3.2.19), we get vector potential A
from our solution by substituting D = 3 in (3.2.19). For D = 3, we have n = 1/2.
Using following Hankel function of fractional order [5]

2 jx
H 1 (x) =
2
e (3.2.20)
2 x
Equation (3.2.19) gets reduced to

ejkR
A = C J(x , y , z ) dV (3.2.21)
4 R
where, C is a constant term. Equation (3.2.21) is in exact agreement with the solution
provided in [6] for Euclidean space.
In a similar fashion, we can show the solution of (3.2.2) as

23D (3/2) Hn(2) (kR)
F= M(x , y , z ) D5/2 d V (3.2.22)
4 (D/2) R
For D = 3, using Hankel function of fractional order given by (3.2.20), finally
equation (3.2.22) gets reduced to

ejkR
F=C M(x , y , z ) dV (3.2.23)
4 R
Equation (3.2.23) is in exact agreement with the solution provided in [6] for Euclid-
ean space. The fractional space solutions of inhomogeneous vector potential wave
equation, given by (3.2.19) and (3.2.22), can be used to solve complex radiation
problems in fractional space.
3.2 Time-Varying Potentials in Fractional Space 25
3.2.2 Summary
An exact solution of the inhomogeneous vector potential wave equation in

D-dimensional fractional space is presented. It is also shown that for integer values
of dimension D, the classical results are recovered. The solution of inhomogeneous
vector potential wave equation in fractional space is useful to study the radiation
phenomenon in fractal media.
References
1. C. Palmer, P.N. Stavrinou, Equations of motion in a noninteger-dimension space. J. Phys. A 37,

69877003 (2004)
2. A.D. Polyanin, V.F. Zaitsev, Handbook of Exact Solutions for Ordinary Differential Equations,
2nd edn. (CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2003)
3. J.D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, 3rd edn. (Wiley, New York, 1999)
4. S. Muslih, D. Baleanu, Fractional Multipoles in fractional space. Nonlinear Anal. Real World
Appl. 8, 198203 (2007)
Mathematical Tables (U.S. Department of Commerce, USA, 1972)
6. C.A. Balanis, Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design (Wiley, New York, 1982)
Chapter 4
Electromagnetic Wave Propagation
in Fractional Space
The wave equation has very important role in many areas of physics. It has a funda-
mental meaning in classical as well as quantum field theory. With this view, one is
strongly motivated to discuss solutions of the wave equation in all possible situations.
The wave equation in fractional space can effectively describe the wave propagation
phenomenon in fractal media. In this chapter, exact solutions of different forms of
wave equation in D-dimensional fractional space are provided, which describe the
phenomenon of electromagnetic wave propagation in fractional space.
In Sect. 4.1, the general plane wave solutions in fractional space are provided for
lossless medium case. In Sect. 4.2, the general plane wave solutions in fractional
space are provided for lossy medium case. In Sect. 4.3, the general cylindrical wave
solutions in fractional space are provided by solving cylindrical wave equation in
D-dimensional fractional space. In Sect. 4.4, the general spherical wave solutions in
fractional space are provided by solving spherical wave equation in D-dimensional
fractional space.

Lossless Medium Case
In Sect. 4.1.1, we investigate full analytical solution of wave equation in

D-dimensional fractional space, where three parameters are used to describe the
measure distribution of space. In Sect. 4.1.2, solution of wave equation in integer-
dimensional space is obtained from the results of previous section. Finally, in
Sect. 4.1.3, major results are summarized.
4.1.1 General Plane Wave Solutions in Fractional Space
For source-free and lossless media, the vector wave equations for the complex electric
and magnetic field intensities are given by the Helmholtzs equation as follows [1].

The Author(s) 2012
28 4 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation in Fractional Space
D
2
E + 2E = 0 (4.1.1a)
D
2
H + H =0
2
(4.1.1b)
where, 2 = 2 . Time dependency e jwt has been suppressed throughout the

discussion. Here D2 is the scalar Laplacian operator in D dimensional fractional
space and is defined as follows [2].
2 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 1
D
2
= + + + + + (4.1.2)
x 2 x x y 2 y y z 2 z z
Eq. (4.1.2) uses three parameters (0 < 1 1, 0 < 2 1 and 0 < 3 1) to

Once the solution to any one of Eqs. (4.1.1a and 4.1.1b) in fractional space is known,
the solution to the other can be written by an interchange of E with H or H with E
due to duality. We will examine the solution for E.
In rectangular coordinates, a general solution for E can be written as
E(x, y, z) = ax E x (x, y, z) + a y E y (x, y, z) + az E z (x, y, z) (4.1.3)
Substituting (4.1.3) into (4.1.1a) we can write that
D
2
(ax E x + a y E y + az E z ) + 2 (ax E x + a y E y + az E z ) = 0 (4.1.4)
which reduces to three scalar wave equations as follows:
D
2
E x (x, y, z) + 2 E x (x, y, z) = 0 (4.1.5a)
D
2
E y (x, y, z) + E y (x, y, z) = 0
2
(4.1.5b)
D
2
E z (x, y, z) + 2 E z (x, y, z) = 0 (4.1.5c)
Eq. (4.1.5a) through (4.1.5c) are all of the same form; solution for any one of them
in fractional space can be replicated for others by inspection.We choose to work first
with E x as given by (4.1.5a). In expanded form (4.1.5a) can be written as
2 Ex 1 1 E x 2 Ex 2 1 E x 2 Ex
+ + + +
x 2 x x y 2 y y z 2
3 1 E x
+ + 2 Ex = 0 (4.1.6)
z z
E x (x, y, z) = f (x)g(y)h(z) (4.1.7)

4.1 General Plane Wave Solutions in Fractional Space: Lossless Medium Case 29

d2 1 1 d
+ + x f = 0
2
(4.1.8a)
dx2 x dx
2
d 2 1 d
+ + y g =0
2
(4.1.8b)
dy 2 y dy
2
d 3 1 d
+ + z h =0
2
(4.1.8c)
dz 2 z dz
where, in addition,
x2 + y2 + z2 = 2 (4.1.9)
Equation (4.1.9) is referred to as constraint equation. In addition x , y , z are

known as wave constants in the x, y, z directions, respectively, which will be deter-
mined using boundary conditions.
Equation (4.1.8a) through (4.1.8c) are all of the same form; solution for any one
of them can be replicated for others by inspection.We choose to work first with f (x).
We write (4.1.8a) as

d2 d
x 2
+a + x2 x f =0 (4.1.10)
dx dx

tution f = x n as follows:

d2 d |1 a|
x2
2
+x + (x x n ) = 0, n =
2 2 2
(4.1.11)
dx dx 2
= C1 Jn (x x) + C2 Yn (x x) (4.1.12)
where, Jn (x x) is referred to as Bessel function of the first kind of order n, Yn (x x)

as the Bessel function of the second kind of order n.
Finally the solution of (4.1.8a) becomes
1
f (x) = x n 1 C1 Jn 1 (x x) + C2 Yn 1 (x x) , n 1 = 1 (4.1.13)
2
Similarly, the solutions to (4.1.8b) and (4.1.8c) are obtained as
2
g(y) = y n 2 C3 Jn 2 ( y y) + C4 Yn 2 ( y y) , n 2 = 1 (4.1.14)
2
3
h(z) = z C5 Jn 3 (z z) + C6 Yn 3 (z z) , n 3 = 1
n3
(4.1.15)
2
From (4.1.7) and (4.1.13) through (4.1.15), the solution of (4.1.5a) have the form

E x (x, y, z) = x n 1 y n 2 z n 3 C1 Jn 1 (x x) + C2 Yn 1 (x x)

C3 Jn 2 ( y y) + C4 Yn 2 ( y y)

C5 Jn 3 (z z) + C6 Yn 3 (z z) (4.1.16)
where, C1 through C6 are constant coefficients. Similarly, the solutions to (4.1.5b)

and (4.1.5c) are obtained as

E y (x, y, z) = x n 1 y n 2 z n 3 D1 Jn 1 (x x) + D2 Yn 1 (x x)

D3 Jn 2 ( y y) + D4 Yn 2 ( y y)

D5 Jn 3 (z z) + D6 Yn 3 (z z) (4.1.17)
and

E z (x, y, z) = x n 1 y n 2 z n 3 F1 Jn 1 (x x) + F2 Yn 1 (x x)

F3 Jn 2 ( y y) + F4 Yn 2 ( y y)

F5 Jn 3 (z z) + F6 Yn 3 (z z) (4.1.18)
where, D1 through D6 and F1 through F6 are constant coefficients.

For e jwt time variations, the instantaneous form E (x, y, z; t) of the vector com-
plex function E(x, y, z) in (4.1.8a) takes the form
E (x, y, z; t) = e[{ax E x (x, y, z) + a y E y (x, y, z) + az E z (x, y, z)}e jwt ] (4.1.19)
where E x (x, y, z), E y (x, y, z) and E z (x, y, z) are given by (4.1.16) through (4.1.18).
Equation (4.1.19) provides a general plane wave solution in fractional space. This
solution can be used to study the phenomenon of electromagnetic wave propagation
in any non-integer dimensional space.
Equation (4.1.19) is the generalization of the concept of wave propagation in integer

dimensional space to the wave propagation in non-integer dimensional space. As
a special case, for three-dimensional space, this problem reduces to classical wave
propagation concept; i.e., if we set 1 = 1 in Eq. (4.1.13) then n 1 = 21 and it gives
1

f (x) = x 2 C1 J 1 (x x) + C2 Y 1 (x x) (4.1.20)
2 2
Using Bessel functions of fractional order [4]:

2
J 1 (x) = sin (x) (4.1.21a)
2 x

2
Y 1 (x) = cos (x) (4.1.21b)
2 x
Eq. (4.1.13) can be reduced to
f (x) = C1 sin(x x) + C2 cos(x x) (4.1.22)

where, Ci = Ci 2 x , i = 1, 2
Similarly, we set 2 = 1 and 3 = 1 in (4.1.14) and (4.1.15) respectively and
using Bessel functions of fractional order in (4.1.21a) through (b), we get
g(y) = C3 sin( y y) + C4 cos( y y) (4.1.23)

h(z) = C5 sin(z z) + C6 cos(z z) (4.1.24)
From (4.1.22) through (4.1.24), we get E x (x, y, z) in three-dimensional space (D =

3) as follows

E x (x, y, z) = C1 sin(x x) + C2 cos(x x)

C3 sin( y y) + C4 cos( y y)

C5 sin(z z) + C6 cos(z z) (4.1.25)
which is comparable to the solution of wave equation in integer dimensional space

obtained by Balanis [1]. Similarly, field components E y (x, y, z) and E z (x, y, z) can
also be reduced for three-dimensional case.
As another special case, if we choose a single parameter for non-integer dimension
D where 2 < D 3, i.e., we take 1 = 2 = 1 so D = 3 + 2. In this case from
Eq. (4.1.6) we obtain
2 Ex 2 Ex 2 Ex D 3 Ex
+ + + + 2 Ex = 0 (4.1.26)
x2 y2 z 2 z z
Solving this equation by separation of variables leads to the following result
E x (x, y, z) = z n [G 1 cos(x x) + G 2 sin(x x)]

G 3 cos( y y) + G 4 sin( y y)

G 5 Jn (z z) + G 6 Yn (z z) (4.1.27)
where, n = 2 D
2. Here if we set D = 3, and using (4.1.21a) and (b), we get

2
E x (x, y, z) = [G 1 cos(x x) + G 2 sin(x x)]
z

G 3 cos( y y) + G 4 sin( y y)

G 5 sin(z z) + G 6 cos(z z) (4.1.28)
where, G 1 through G 6 are constant coefficients. The result obtained in (4.1.28) is

comparable to that obtained by Balanis [1] for 3-dimensional space.
Fig. 4.1 Usual wave propagation (D = 3). [This figure was originally published in [5] , reproduced
courtesy of The Electromagnetics Academy]
As an example, an infinite sheet of surface current can be considered as a source

of plane waves in D-dimensional fractional space. We assume that an infinite sheet
of electric surface current density Js = Js0 x exists on the z = 0 plane in free space.
Since the sources do not vary with x or y, the fields will not vary with x or y but
will propagate away from the source in z direction. The boundary conditions to
be satisfied at z = 0 are z (E2 E1 ) = 0 and z (H2 H1 ) = Js0 x, where
E1 , H1 are the fields for z < 0, and E2 , H2 are the fields for z > 0. To satisfy the
later boundary condition, H must have a y component. Then for E to be normal to
H and z, E must have an x component. Thus, the corresponding wave equation for
E and H fields in D-dimensional fractional space where 2 < D 3 can be written
by modifying (4.1.26) as
d2 Ex D 3 d Ex
+ + 2 Ex = 0 (4.1.29a)
dz 2 z dz
d 2 Hy D 3 d Hy
2
+ + 2 Hy = 0 (4.1.29b)
dz z dz
Solution of (4.1.29a) and (4.1.29b) takes the similar form as (4.1.27) and under
above mentioned boundary conditions the fields will have the following form:
Js0 Js
E1 = x z n Jn (z z), H1 = yz n 0 Jn (z z); z < 0 (4.1.30a)
2 20
n Js0 n Js0
E2 = x z Yn (z z), H2 = yz Yn (z z); z > 0 (4.1.30b)
2 20
Fig. 4.2 Wave propagation in fractional space (D = 2.5). [This figure was originally published in
[5] , reproduced courtesy of The Electromagnetics Academy]
where, 0 is wave impedance in free space. Assuming a time dependency e jwt and
Js0 = 2 A/m, the solution for the usual wave for z > 0 with D = 3 is shown in
Fig. 4.1, which is comparable to well known plane wave solutions in 3-dimensional
space [1]. Similarly, for D = 2.5 we have fractal medium wave for z > 0 as shown
in Fig. 4.2, where amplitude variations are described in terms of Bessel functions.
4.1.3 Summary
General plane wave solution in source-free and lossless media in fractional space is
presented by solving vector wave equation in D-dimensional fractional space. When
the wave propagates in fractional space, the amplitude variations are described by
Bessel functions. The obtained general plane wave solution is a generalization of
integer-dimensional solution to a non-integer dimensional space. For all investigated
cases when D is an integer-dimension, the classical results are recovered.

Lossy Medium Case
In this section, an extension of previous work to the case of plane wave propagation
in lossy medium in fractional space is presented. The generalized analytical solu-
tion investigated in this section have potential applications in electromagnetic wave
propagation problems in lossy media present in fractional space.
In Sect. 4.2.1 we investigate full analytical solution of Helmholtzs equation in

source-free, lossy media present in D-dimensional fractional space, where three
parameters are used to describe the measure distribution of space. In Sect. 4.2.2,
solution of wave equation in integer-dimensional space is obtained from the results
of previous section. In Sect. 4.2.3, an example of wave propagation in lossy medium
due to current sheet as source of plane waves in fractional space is presented. Finally,
results are summarized in Sect. 4.2.4.
4.2.1 General Plane Wave Solutions in Lossy Medium

in Fractional Space
For source-free and lossy media, the vector wave equations for the complex electric
and magnetic field intensities are given by the Helmholtzs equation as follows [1].
D
2
E 2E = 0 (4.2.1)
D H 2H = 0
2
(4.2.2)
where
2 = j( + j) (4.2.3)
= + j (4.2.4)

2

= 1+ 1 (4.2.5)
2

2

= 1+ +1 (4.2.6)
2
In equation (4.2.3) and (4.2.4)

= propagation constant
= attenuation constant (Np/m)
= phase constant (rad/m)
= permittivity of medium (H/m)
= permeability of medium (F/m)
= conductivity of medium (S/m)
Time dependency e jwt has been suppressed throughout the discussion.
In Eqs. (4.2.1) and (4.2.2), D
2 is the Laplacian operator in D-dimensional fractional
space and is defined as follows [2].
2 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 1
D
2
= + + + + + (4.2.7)
x2 x x y2 y y z 2 z z
4.2 General Plane Wave Solutions in Fractional Space: Lossy Medium Case 35
Equation (4.2.7) uses three parameters (0 < 1 1, 0 < 2 1 and 0 < 3 1)

to describe the measure distribution of space where each one is acting independently
Once the solution to any one of Eq. (4.2.1) and (4.2.2) in fractional space is known,
due to duality. We will examine the solution for E.
In rectangular coordinates, a general solution for E can be written as
E(x, y, z) = ax E x (x, y, z) + a y E y (x, y, z) + az E z (x, y, z) (4.2.8)
Substituting (4.2.8) into (4.2.1) we can write that
D
2
(ax E x + a y E y + az E z ) 2 (ax E x + a y E y + az E z ) = 0 (4.2.9)
which reduces to following three scalar wave equations
D
2
E x (x, y, z) 2 E x (x, y, z) = 0 (4.2.10)
D
2
E y (x, y, z) 2 E y (x, y, z) = 0 (4.2.11)
D
2
E z (x, y, z) 2 E z (x, y, z) = 0 (4.2.12)
Equation (4.2.10) through (4.2.12) are all of the same form; solution for any one of
them in fractional space can be replicated for others by inspection.We choose to work
first with E x as given by (4.2.10). In expanded form (4.2.10) can be written as
2 Ex 1 1 E x 2 Ex 2 1 E x
+ + +
x2 x x y2 y y
(4.2.13)
Ex
2 3 1 E x
+ + 2 Ex = 0
z 2 z z
E x (x, y, z) = f (x)g(y)h(z) (4.2.14)

d2 1 1 d
+ x
2
f =0 (4.2.15)
dx2 x dx
2
d 1 1 d
2
+ y2 g = 0 (4.2.16)
dy y dy
2
d 1 1 d
+ z h =0
2
(4.2.17)
dz 2 z dz
where, in addition,
x2 + y2 + z2 = 2 (4.2.18)
Equation (4.2.18) is referred to as constraint equation. In addition x , y , z are

known as wave constants in the x, y, z directions, respectively, that will be determined
using boundary conditions.
Equation (4.2.15) through (4.2.17) are all of the same form; solution for any one
of them can be replicated for others by inspection.We choose to work first with f (x).
We write (4.2.15) as

d2 d
x 2 +a x2 x f =0 (4.2.19)
dx dx

tution f = x n as follows:

d2 d |1 a|
x2
+x + (x x n ) = 0, n =
2 2 2
(4.2.20)
dx2 dx 2
= C1 Jn ( jx x) + C2 Yn ( jx x) (4.2.21)
where, Jn ( jx x) is referred to as Bessel function of the first kind of order n,

Yn ( jx x) as the Bessel function of the second kind of order n.
Finally, the solution of (4.2.15) becomes
1
f (x) = x n 1 C1 Jn 1 ( jx x) + C2 Yn 1 ( jx x) , n 1 = 1 (4.2.22)
2
Similarly, the solutions to (4.2.16) and (4.2.17) are obtained as
2
g(y) = y n 2 C3 Jn 2 ( j y y) + C4 Yn 2 ( j y y) , n 2 = 1 (4.2.23)
2
3
h(z) = z C5 Jn 3 ( jz z) + C6 Yn 3 ( jz z) , n 3 = 1
n3
(4.2.24)
2
From (4.2.14) and (4.2.22) through (4.2.24), the solution of (4.2.10) for E x (x, y, z)
in D-dimensional fractional space have the form

E x (x, y, z) = x n 1 y n 2 z n 3 C1 Jn 1 ( jx x) + C2 Yn 1 ( jx x)

C3 Jn 2 ( j y y) + C4 Yn 2 ( j y y)

C5 Jn 3 ( jz z) + C6 Yn 3 ( jz z) (4.2.25)
where, C1 through C6 are constant coefficients.

Similarly, the solutions to (4.2.11) and (4.2.12) are obtained as

E y (x, y, z) = x n 1 y n 2 z n 3 D1 Jn 1 ( jx x) + D2 Yn 1 ( jx x)

D3 Jn 2 ( j y y) + D4 Yn 2 ( j y y)

D5 Jn 3 ( jz z) + D6 Yn 3 ( jz z) (4.2.26)
and

E z (x, y, z) = x n 1 y n 2 z n 3 F1 Jn 1 ( jx x) + F2 Yn 1 ( jx x)

F3 Jn 2 ( j y y) + F4 Yn 2 ( j y y)

F5 Jn 3 ( jz z) + F6 Yn 3 ( jz z) (4.2.27)
where, D1 through D6 and F1 through F6 are constant coefficients.

For e jwt time variations, the instantaneous form E (x, y, z; t) of the vector com-
plex function E(x, y, z) in (4.2.8) takes the form
E (x, y, z; t) = e[{ax E x (x, y, z) + a y E y (x, y, z)

+az E z (x, y, z)}e jwt ] (4.2.28)
where, E x (x, y, z), E y (x, y, z) and E z (x, y, z) are given by (4.2.25) through (4.2.27).
Equation (4.2.28) provides a general plane wave solution for lossy media in frac-
tional space. This solution can be used to study the phenomenon of electromagnetic
wave propagation in any non-integer dimensional space.
4.2.2 Discussion on Fractional Space Solution in Lossy Medium
Equation (4.2.28) is the generalization of solution for Helmholtzs equation in integer

dimensional space to a non-integer dimensional space. As a special case, for three-
dimensional space, this problem reduces to classical wave propagation concept; i.e.,
if we set 1 = 1 in Eq. (4.2.22) then n 1 = 21 and it gives
1

f (x) = x 2 C1 J 1 ( jx x) + C2 Y 1 ( jx x) (4.2.29)
2 2

2
J 1 (x) = sin (x) (4.2.30)
2 x

2
Y 1 (x) = cos (x) (4.2.31)
2 x


2j
f (x) = C1 sinh(x x) + C2 cosh(x x) (4.2.32)
x
Similarly, we set 2 = 1 and 3 = 1 in (4.2.23) and (4.2.24) respectively and using

Bessel function of fractional order in (4.2.30) through (4.2.31), we get

2j
g(y) = C3 sinh( y y) + C4 cosh( y y) (4.2.33)
y

2j
h(z) = C5 sinh(z z) + C6 cosh(z z) (4.2.34)
z
From (4.2.32) through (4.2.34), we get E x (x, y, z) in D = 3 dimensional space as

follows

8
E x (x, y, z) = C1 sinh(x x) + C2 cosh(x x)
j 3 x y z

C3 sinh( y y) + C4 cosh( y y)

C5 sinh(z z) + C6 cosh(z z) (4.2.35)
Similarly, for D = 3 Eqs. (4.2.26) and (4.2.27) can be reduced to

8
E y (x, y, z) = D1 sinh(x x) + D2 cosh(x x)
j x y z
3

D3 sinh( y y) + D4 cosh( y y)

D5 sinh(z z) + D6 cosh(z z) (4.2.36)

8
E z (x, y, z) = F1 sinh(x x) + F2 cosh(x x)
j 3 x y z

F3 sinh( y y) + F4 cosh( y y)

F5 sinh(z z) + F6 cosh(z z) (4.2.37)
Now, solution obtained in (4.2.35) through (4.2.37) is comparable to the well known
solution of Helmholtzs equation in lossy media present in integer dimensional space
obtained by Balanis [1].
As a special case, if we choose a single parameter for non-integer dimension D
where 2 < D 3, i.e., we take 1 = 2 = 1 so D = 3 + 2. In this case from
Eq. (4.2.13) we obtain
2 Ex 2 Ex 2 Ex D 3 Ex
+ + + 2 Ex = 0 (4.2.38)
x2 y2 z 2 z z
Solving this equation by separation of variables leads to the following result

E x (x, y, z) = z n G 1 cosh(x x) + G 2 sinh(x x)

G 3 cosh( y y) + G 4 sinh( y y)

G 5 Jn ( jz z) + G 6 Yn ( jz z) (4.2.39)
or

E x (x, y, z) = z n G 1 cosh(x x) + G 2 sinh(x x)


G 5 Hn(1) ( jz z) + G 6 Hn(2) ( jz z) (4.2.40)
In (4.2.39) and (4.2.40), n = 2 D2 . Also G 1 through G 6 and G 5 through G 6 are

constant coefficients. In (4.2.39) Jn ( jz z) is referred to as Bessel function of the
first kind of order n, Yn ( jz z) as the Bessel function of the second kind of order n
(1)
and both are used to represent standing waves. In (4.2.40) Hn ( jz z) is referred to
(2)
as Hankel function of the first kind of order n, Hn ( jz z) as the Hankel function
of the second kind of order n and both are used to represent traveling waves.
Now, as a special case of fractional space solution, if we set D = 3 in (4.2.39),
and use (4.2.30) and (4.2.31), we get

2j
E x (x, y, z) = G 1 cosh(x x) + G 2 sinh(x x)
z


G 5 sinh(z z) + G 6 cosh(z z) (4.2.41)
The result obtained in (4.2.41) is comparable to well know integer dimensional

solution of wave equation obtained by Balanis [1].
Finally, if we take = 0 in (4.2.4) then using = j in (4.2.25) through
(4.2.27), we can reduce the fractional space solution for lossy medium to fractional
space solution for lossless medium as below:

E x (x, y, z) = x n 1 y n 2 z n 3 C1 Jn 1 (x x) + C2 Yn 1 (x x)

C3 Jn 2 ( y y) + C4 Yn 2 ( y y)

C5 Jn 3 (z z) + C6 Yn 3 (z z) (4.2.42)

E y (x, y, z) = x n 1 y n 2 z n 3 D1 Jn 1 (x x) + D2 Yn 1 (x x)

D3 Jn 2 ( y y) + D4 Yn 2 ( y y)

D5 Jn 3 (z z) + D6 Yn 3 (z z) (4.2.43)
Fig. 4.3 Current sheet as

source of plane waves in
fractional space

E z (x, y, z) = x n 1 y n 2 z n 3 F1 Jn 1 (x x) + F2 Yn 1 (x x)

F3 Jn 2 ( y y) + F4 Yn 2 ( y y)

F5 Jn 3 (z z) + F6 Yn 3 (z z) (4.2.44)
Fractional space solution for lossless medium obtained in (4.2.42) through (4.2.44)
is in exact agreement with that obtained in previous section.
4.2.3 Example: Current Sheet as Source of Plane Waves

in Fractional Space
As an example, an infinite sheet of surface current can be considered as a source of

plane waves in lossy medium present in D-dimensional fractional space. We assume
that an infinite sheet of electric surface current density Js = Js0 x exists on the
z = 0 plane in lossy medium characterized by 1 , 1 , 1 in half-space z < 0 and by
2 , 2 , 2 in half-space z > 0 (see Fig. 4.3). Since the sources do not vary with x or
y, the fields will not vary with x or y but will propagate away from the source in z
direction. The boundary conditions to be satisfied at z = 0 are z (E2 E1 ) = 0
and z (H2 H1 ) = Js0 x, where E1 , H1 are the fields for z < 0, and E2 , H2
are the fields for z > 0. To satisfy the later boundary condition, H must have a y
component. Then for E to be normal to H and z, E must have an x component. Thus,
the corresponding wave equation for E and H fields in D-dimensional fractional
space where 2 < D 3 can be written by modifying (4.2.38) as
Fig. 4.4 Usual wave propagation (D = 3) in lossy medium
d2 Ex D 3 d Ex
2
+ 2 Ex = 0 (4.2.45)
dz z dz
d 2 Hy D 3 d Hy
2
+ 2 Hy = 0 (4.2.46)
dz z dz
Solution of (4.2.45) and (4.2.46) takes the similar form as (4.2.40) and under
above mentioned boundary conditions the fields will have the following form:
Js0 n (1)
E1 = x z Hn ( j1 z); z<0 (4.2.47)
2
Js
H1 = y 0 z n Hn(1) ( j1 z); z<0 (4.2.48)
21
Js
E2 = x 0 z n Hn(2) ( j2 z); z>0 (4.2.49)
2
Js0 n (2)
H2 = y z Hn ( j2 z); z>0 (4.2.50)
22
where, 12 = j1 (1 + j1 ), 22 = j2 (2 + j2 ), 1 = j j2
1 , 2 = 2 .
1
Assuming a time dependency e jwt and Js0 = 2 A/m, the solution for the usual
wave for z > 0 with D = 3 is shown in Fig. 4.4, which is comparable to well known
plane wave solutions for 3-dimensional space in [1]. Similarly, for D = 2.5 we have
fractal wave propagating in fractional space for z > 0 as shown in Fig. 4.5, where
amplitude variations are described in terms of Hankel functions.
Fig. 4.5 Wave propagation in lossy medium present in fractional space (D = 2.5)
4.2.4 Summary
The phenomenon of wave propagation in source-free and lossy media in fractional

space is studied by solving Helmholtzs equation in D-dimensional fractional space.
When the wave propagates in lossy media in the fractional space, the amplitude
variations are described by Bessel functions. For all investigated cases when D is
an integer-dimension, the classical results are recovered. The plane wave solutions
investigated in this paper have potential applications in wave propagation problems
in fractional space.
4.3 Cylindrical Wave Propagation in Fractional Space
In this section, we present an exact solution of cylindrical wave equation in fractional

space that can be used to describe the phenomenon of wave propagation in any fractal
media.
In Sect. 4.3.1, we investigate full analytical cylindrical wave solution to the wave
equation in D-dimensional fractional space, where the parameter D is used to
describe the measure distribution of space. In Sect. 4.3.2, the solution of wave equa-
tion in integer-dimensional space is justified from the results of previous section.
Finally, in Sect. 4.3.3, major results are summarized.
4.3 Cylindrical Wave Propagation in Fractional Space 43
4.3.1 An Exact Solution of Cylindrical Wave Equation

in Fractional Space
The problems that exhibit cylindrical geometries are needed to be solved using cylin-
drical coordinate system. As for the case of rectangular geometries, the electric and
magnetic fields of cylindrical geometry boundary-value problem must satisfy cor-
responding cylindrical wave equation [1]. Let us assume that the space in which
fields must be solved is fractional dimensional and source-free. For source-free and
lossless media, the vector wave equations for the complex electric and magnetic field
intensities are given by the Helmholtzs equation as follows [1].
D
2
E + 2E = 0 (4.3.1)
D
2
H + 2H = 0 (4.3.2)

discussion. Here, D2 is the Laplacian operator in D-dimensional fractional space
and is defined in rectangular coordinate system as follows [2].
2 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 1
D
2
= + + + + + (4.3.3)
x 2 x x y 2 y y z 2 z z
where x, y and z are rectangular coordinates. Equation (4.3.3) uses three parameters
(0 < 1 1, 0 < 2 1 and 0 < 3 1) to describe the measure distribution
of space where each one is acting independently on a single coordinate and the total
dimension of the system is D = 1 + 2 + 3 . To find cylindrical wave solutions
of wave equation in D-dimensional fractional space, it is likely that a cylindrical
coordinate system (, , z) will be used. In cylindrical coordinate system (4.3.3)
becomes
2 1
D
2
= + (1 + 2 1)
2
2
1
+ 2 {(1 1) tan (2 1) cot }
2
2 3 1
+ + (4.3.4)
z 2 z z
Once the solution to any one of Eqs. (4.3.1) and (4.3.2) in fractional space is known,
due to duality [1]. We will examine the solution for E.
In cylindrical coordinates, a general solution for E can be written as
E(, , z) = a E (, , z) + a E (, , z) + az E z (, , z) (4.3.5)

D
2
(a E + a E + az E z ) + 2 (a E + a E + az E z ) = 0 (4.3.6)
Since,
D
2
(a E ) = a D
2
E (4.3.7)
D
2
(a E ) = a D
2
E (4.3.8)
D
2
(az E z ) = az D
2
Ez (4.3.9)
So, Eq. (4.3.6) cannot be reduced to simple scalar wave equations, but it can be
reduced to coupled scalar partial differential equations. However for simplicity, the
wave mode solution can be formed in cylindrical coordinates that must satisfy the
following scalar wave equation:
D
2
(, , z) + 2 (, , z) = 0 (4.3.10)
where, (, , z) is a scalar function that can represent a field or vector potential

component. In expanded form (4.3.10) can be written as
2 1
+ (1 + 2 1)
2
2
1
+ 2 {(1 1) tan ( 2 1) cot }
2
2 3 1
+ + + 2 = 0 (4.3.11)
z 2 z z
Equation (4.3.11) is separable using method of separation of variables. We con-
sider
(, , z) = f ()g()h(z) (4.3.12)

d2 d 2
2 2 + (1 + 2 1) + m 2 f () = 0 (4.3.13)
d d
2
d d
+ {(1 1) tan + (2 1) cot } m g() = 0
2 (4.3.14)
d 2 d
2
d 3 1 d
+ + z h(z) = 0
2 (4.3.15)
dz 2 z dz
where, m is a constant (integer usually). In addition,

2 + z2 = 2 (4.3.16)
Equation (4.3.16) is referred to as constraint equation. In addition , z are known

as wave constants in the , z directions, respectively, which will be determined using
boundary conditions.
Now, Eq. (4.3.13) through (4.3.15) are needed to be solved for f (), g() and
h(z), respectively. We choose to work first with f (). Equation (4.3.13) can be
written as:
2
2 d d
+ a + b + c f () = 0 (4.3.17)
d 2 d
where, a = 1 + 2 1, b = 2 , c = m 2 , = 2. Equation (4.3.15) is closely

related to Bessels equation and its solutions is given as [3]:

1a 2 2
f () = 2 C1 Jv ( b ) + C2 Yv (
2 b )
2 (4.3.18)

where, v = 1 (1 a)2 4c Using (4.3.18), the final solution of (4.3.13) is given
by
1 +2
f 1 () = 1 2 C1 Jv ( ) + C2 Yv ( ) (4.3.19)
or
1 +2
f 2 () = 1 2 D1 Hv(1) ( ) + D2 Hv(2) ( ) (4.3.20)

where, v = 21 (2 1 2 )2 + 4m 2 . In (4.3.19) Jv ( ) is referred to as Bessel
function of the first kind of order v and Yv (r ) as the Bessel function of the second
kind of order v. They are used to represent standing waves. In (4.3.20) Hv(1) (r )
(2)
is referred to as Hankel function of the first kind of order v and Hv ( ) as the
Hankel function of the second kind of order v, and are used to represent traveling
waves.
Now, we find the solution of equation (4.3.14) for g(). Equation (4.3.14) can be
reduced to following Gaussian hypergeometric equation after proper mathematical
steps under substitution = sin2 () [3]:
d 2 g() dg()
(1 ) 2
+ {(A + B + 1) C} + ABg() = 0 (4.3.21)
d d
where,
1
A+ B+1= (2 2 + 1 ) (4.3.22)
2
m2
AB = (4.3.23)
4
1
C= (2 2 ) (4.3.24)
2
solution to equation (4.3.21) is given as [3]:
g() = C3 F(A, B, C; ) + C4 1C F(A C + 1, B C + 1, 2 C; ) (4.3.25)
where,

(A)k (B)k k
F(A, B, C; ) = 1 + (4.3.26)
(C)k k!
k=1
with,
(A)k = A(A + 1) . . . (A + k + 1) (4.3.27)
F(A, B, C; ) is known as Gaussian hypergeometric function, and A, B, C are

known from (4.3.22) through (4.3.24).
Now, we find the solution of equation (4.3.15) for h(z). Equation (4.3.15) can be
written as:
2
d d
z 2 +e + z z h(z) = 0
2
(4.3.28)
dz dz
where, e = 3 1. Equation (4.3.28) is reducible to Bessels equation under substi-

tution h = z n as follows:

d2 d |1 e|
z2 2 + z + (z2 z 2 n 2 ) (z) = 0, n = (4.3.29)
dz dz 2
(z) = C5 Jn (z z) + C6 Yn (z z) (4.3.30)
where, Jn (z z) is referred to as Bessel function of the first kind of order n, Yn (z z)

as the Bessel function of the second kind of order n.
Finally the solution of (4.3.15) becomes
3
h(z) = z n C5 Jn (z z) + C6 Yn (z z) , n = 1 (4.3.31)
2
The appropriate solution forms of f (), g() and h(z) depend upon the problem.
From (4.3.12), (4.3.19), (4.3.25) and (4.3.31), a typical solution for (r, , ) to
represent the fields within a cylindrical geometry may take the form
1 +2
(, , z) = [ 1 2 {C1 Jv ( ) + C2 Yv ( )}] [{C3 F(A, B, C; )
+ C4 F(A C + 1, B C + 1, 2 C; )}]
1C
[z {C5 Jn (z z) + C6 Yn (z z)}]
n
(4.3.32)
where, = sin2 () and C1 through C6 are constant coefficients. Equation (4.3.32)

provides a general solution to cylindrical wave equation in fractional space. This
solution can be used to study the phenomenon of electromagnetic wave propagation
in any non-integer dimensional space.
4.3.2 Discussion on Cylindrical Wave Solution

in Fractional Space
Equation (4.3.32) is the generalization of the concept of wave propagation from

integer dimensional space to the non-integer dimensional space. As a special case,
for three-dimensional space, this problem reduces to classical wave propagation
concept; i.e., as a special case, if we set 1 = 2 = 3 = 1 in Eqs. (4.3.19), (4.3.25)
and (4.3.31), we get cylindrical wave solution in integer dimensional space. For
1 = 2 = 1 Eqs. (4.3.19) and (4.3.20) provide
f 1 () = C1 Jm ( ) + C2 Ym ( ) (4.3.33)
and
f 2 () = D1 Hm(1) ( ) + D2 Hm(2) ( ) (4.3.34)
Similarly, if we set 1 = 2 = 1 in Eqs. (4.3.22) and (4.3.24), we get A = B =

m
2, C = 21 . Now, considering following special forms of Gaussian hypergeometric
function [4]:
1
F(, , ; sin2 v) = cos(2v) (4.3.35)
2
3 sin[(2 1)v]
F(, 1 , ; sin2 v) = (4.3.36)
2 (2 1) sin(v)
g() = C3 cos(m) + C4 sin(m) (4.3.37)
In a similar way, if we set 3 = 1 in (4.3.32) then n = 21 and it gives

1

h(z) = z 2 C5 J 1 (z z) + C6 Y 1 (z z) (4.3.38)
2 2

2
J 1 (z) = sin (z) (4.3.39)
2 z

2
Y 1 (z) = cos (z) (4.3.40)
2 z
Fig. 4.6 Cylindrical

waveguide of circular cross
section.[This figure was
originally published in [6] ,
reproduced courtesy of The
Electromagnetics Academy]
equation (4.3.13) can be reduced to
h(z) = C5 sin(z z) + C6 cos(z z) (4.3.41)

where, Ci = Ci 2 z , i = 5, 6
From (4.3.12), (4.3.33), (4.3.37) and (4.3.41), a typical solution in three dimen-
sional space ( a special case of fractional space) for (, , z) to represent the fields
within a cylindrical geometry will take the form

(, , z) = C1 Jm ( ) + C2 Ym ( ) [C3 cos(m) + C4 sin(m)]
[C5 sin(z z) + C6 cos(z z)] (4.3.42)
which is comparable to the cylindrical wave solutions of the wave equation in integer
dimensional space obtained by Balanis [1].
As an example, the fields inside a circular waveguide filled with fractal media
of dimension D can be obtained by assuming a D-dimensional fractional space
inside the circular waveguide. Within such circular waveguide of radius a (see
Fig. 4.6), standing waves are created in the radial() direction, periodic waves in
the -direction, and traveling waves in the z-direction.
For the fields to be finite at = 0 where Y v( ) possesses a singularity, (4.3.32)
reduces to
1 +2
1 (, , z) =[ 1 2 {C1 Jv ( )}] [{C3 F(A, B, C; )
+ C4 1C
F(A C + 1, B C + 1, 2 C; )}]
[z n {C5 Hn(2) (z z) + C6 Hn(1) (z z)}] (4.3.43)
Fig. 4.7 Cylindrical wave propagation in Euclidean space (D = 3). [This figure was originally pub-
lished in [6] , reproduced courtesy of The Electromagnetics Academy]
Fig. 4.8 Cylindrical wave propagation in fractional space (D = 2.5). [ This figure was originally
published in [6] , reproduced courtesy of The Electromagnetics Academy]
To represent the fields in the region outside the cylinder, where three dimensional
space is assumed because there is no fractal media outside the cylinder, a typical
solution for (, , z) would take the form
Fig. 4.9 Cylindrical wave propagation in fractional space (D = 2.1). [ This figure was originally
published in [6] , reproduced courtesy of The Electromagnetics Academy]

2 (, , z) = C2 Hm(2) ( ) [C3 cos(m) + C4 sin(m)]
[C5 sin(z z) + C6 cos(z z)] (4.3.44)
In the region outside the cylinder, outward traveling waves are formed, in contract to
standing waves inside the cylinder. In this way, the general cylindrical wave solution
in fractional space can be used to study the wave propagation in the cylindrical
geometries containing fractal media.
Now, as another example we assume that a cylindrical wave exists in a fractional
space due to some infinite line source. Since the source do not vary with z, the fields
will not vary with z but will propagate away from the source in -direction. Also for
simplicity, we choose to visualize only the radial amplitude variations of scalar field
in fractional space which is given by (4.3.32) as:
1 +2
() = A 1 2 Hv(2) ( ) (4.3.45)
Also, if we choose a single parameter for non-integer dimension D where 2 < D 3,

i.e, we take 2 = 3 = 1 so D = 1 + 2. In this case (4.3.45) becomes
3D
() = A 2 Hv(2) ( ) (4.3.46)
In (4.3.46), using asymptotic expansions of Hankel functions [4] for , we

see that the amplitude variations of field are related with radial distance as
D
() 1 2 (4.3.47)
From (4.3.47),
for D = 3,() 1

for D = 2.5, () 1
0.25
for D = 2.1, () 1
0.05
Assuming a time dependency e jwt , the radial amplitude variations of scalar field
are shown for different values of dimension D in Figs 4.7, 4.8, 4.9. It is seen that
the amplitude of cylindrical wave propagating in higher dimensional space decays
rapidly.
4.3.3 Summary
An exact solution of cylindrical wave equation for electromagnetic field in

D-dimensional fractional space is presented. The obtained exact solution of cylin-
drical wave equation is a generalization of classical integer-dimensional solution to
a non-integer dimensional space. For all investigated cases when D is an integer
dimension, the classical results are recovered. The investigated solution provides a
basis for the application of the concept of fractional space to the wave propagation
phenomenon in fractal media.
4.4 Spherical Wave Propagation in Fractional Space
In this section we provide an exact solution of the spherical wave equation in

D-dimensional fractional space which describes the phenomenon of electromag-
netic wave propagation in fractional space. In Sect. 4.4.1, we investigate full analyt-
ical solution of spherical wave equation in D-dimensional fractional space, where
a parameter D is used to describe the measure distribution of space. In Sect. 4.4.2,
solution of wave equation in integer-dimensional space is justified from the results
of previous section. Finally, in Sect. 4.4.3, results are summarized.
4.4.1 Spherical Wave Equation in D-dimensional

Fractional Space
The problems that exhibit spherical geometries are needed to be solved using spher-
ical coordinates. As for the case of rectangular geometries, the electric and magnetic
fields of spherical geometry boundary-value problem must satisfy corresponding
spherical wave equation [1]. Let us assume that the space in which fields must be
solved is fractional dimensional, source-free and lossless. For source-free and loss-
less media, the vector wave equations for the complex electric and magnetic field
intensities are given by the Helmholtzs equation as follows:
D
2
E + 2E = 0 (4.4.1)
D
2
H + 2H = 0 (4.4.2)

discussion. Here D 2 is the Laplacian operator in D-dimensional fractional space
and is defined in spherical coordinates as follows [2]:

2
2 D1 1 D2
D2
= 2+ + 2 +
r r r r 2 tan
2
1 D3
+ 2 +
r sin 2 tan (4.4.3)
where, 2 < D 3. Once the solution to any one of Eq. (4.4.1) and (4.4.2) in fractional
space is known, the solution to the other can be written by an interchange of E with
H or H with E due to duality. We will examine the solution for E.
In spherical coordinates, a general solution for E can be written as
E(r, , ) = ar Er (r, , ) + a E (r, , ) + a E (r, , ) (4.4.4)
D
2
(ar Er + a E + a E ) + 2 (ar Er + a E + a E ) = 0 (4.4.5)
Since,
D
2
(ar Er ) = ar D
2
Er (4.4.6)
D
2
(a E ) = a D
2
E (4.4.7)
D
2
(a E ) = a D
2
E (4.4.8)
So, Eq. (4.4.5) cannot be reduced to three simple scalar wave equations, but it can be
reduced to three coupled scalar partial differential equations. However for simplicity,
the wave mode solution can be formed in spherical coordinates that must satisfy the
following scalar wave equation:
D
2
(r, , ) + 2 (r, , ) = 0 (4.4.9)
where, (r, , ) is a scalar function that can represent a field or vector potential
component. In expanded form (4.4.9) can be written as

2 D 1 1 2 D 2
+ + +
r 2 r r r 2 2 tan
2
1 D 3
+ 2 + + 2 = 0
r sin 2 tan (4.4.10)
4.4 Spherical Wave Propagation in Fractional Space 53
Equation (4.4.10) is separable using method of separation of variables. We consider
(r, , ) = f (r )g( )h() (4.4.11)

2
2 d d
r + (D 1)r + (r ) n(n + 1) f = 0
2 (4.4.12)
dr 2 dr
m 2
d2 D2 d
+ + n(n + 1) g=0 (4.4.13)
d 2 tan d sin
2
d D3 d
+ + m 2
h=0 (4.4.14)
d 2 tan d
where, m and n are constants (integers usually).

Now, Eq. (4.4.12) through (4.4.14) are needed to be solved for f (r ), g( ) and
h(), respectively. For simplicity we write f (r ), g( ), h() as f, g, h, respectively,
inside all equations. We choose to work first with f (r ). Equation (4.4.12) can be
written as:

2 d
2 d s
r + ar + br + c f = 0 (4.4.15)
dr 2 dr
where, a = D 1, b = 2 , c = n(n + 1), s = 2. Equation (4.4.15) is closely

related to Bessels equation and its solutions is given as [3]:

1a 2 s 2 s
f = r 2 C1 Jv ( br 2 ) + C2 Yv ( br 2 ) (4.4.16)
s s

where, v = 1s (1 a)2 4c
Using (4.4.16), the final solution of (4.4.12) is given by
D
f 1 = r 1 2 [C1 Jv (r ) + C2 Yv (r )] (4.4.17)
or
D

f 2 = r 1 2 D1 Hv(1) (r ) + D2 Hv(2) (r ) (4.4.18)

where, v = 21 (2 D)2 + 4n(n + 1). In (4.4.17) Jv (r ) is referred to as Bessel
function of the first kind of order v and Yv (r ) as the Bessel function of the second
(1)
kind of order v. They are used to represent radial standing waves. In (4.4.18) Hv (r )
(2)
is referred to as Hankel function of the first kind of order v and Hv (r ) as the Hankel
function of the second kind of order v, and are used to represent radial traveling waves.
Now, we find the solution of Eq. (4.4.13) for g( ). Equation (4.4.13) can be
reduced to following Gaussian hypergeometric equation after proper mathematical
steps under substitution g = w sinm and z 1 = 1+cos
2 :
d 2w dw
z 1 (1 z 1 ) 2
+ {(1 + 1 + 1)z 1 1 } + 1 1 w = 0 (4.4.19)
dz 1 dz 1
where,
1 + 1 + 1 = 2(D 2)(n + 1) (4.4.20)
1 1 = (n m)(m + n 1) (4.4.21)
1 = (D 2)(n + 1) (4.4.22)
solution to Eq. (4.4.19) is given as [3]:
w = C3 F(1 , 1 , 1 ; z 1 )
11 (4.4.23)
+ C4 z 1 F(1 1 + 1, 1 1 + 1, 2 1 ; z 1 )
where,

(1 )k (1 )k z 1k
F(1 , 1 , 1 ; z 1 ) = 1 + (4.4.24)
(1 )k k!
k=1
with,
(1 )k = 1 (1 + 1)...(1 + k + 1) (4.4.25)
F(, , ; z) is known as Gaussian hypergeometric function, and 1 , 1 , 1 are

known from (4.4.20) through (4.4.22). From (4.4.19) through (4.4.23), the final
solution of (4.4.13) is given by
g = [C3 F(1 , 1 , 1 ; z 1 )
11
+ C4 z 1 F(1 1 + 1, 1 1 + 1, 2 1 ; z 1 )]sin m (4.4.26)
Now, we find the solution of equation (4.4.14) for h(). Equation (4.4.14) can be
written as:
2
d d
+ pcot +q h =0 (4.4.27)
d 2 d
where, p = D 3, and q = m 2 . Equation (4.4.27) can be reduced to following

Gaussian hypergeometric equation after proper mathematical steps under substitution
z 2 = 1+cos
2 :
d2h dh
z 2 (1 z 2 ) 2
+ {(2 + 2 + 1)z 2 2 } + 2 2 h = 0 (4.4.28)
dz 2 dz 2
where,
2 + 2 = D 5 (4.4.29)
2 2 = m 2 (4.4.30)
1
2 = (4 D) (4.4.31)
2
From (4.4.28) through (4.4.31), the final solution of (4.1.4) is given as
h = C5 F(2 , 2 , 2 ; z 2 )
12
+ C6 z 2 F(2 2 + 1, 2 2 + 1, 2 2 ; z 2 ) (4.4.32)
where, F is Gaussian hypergeometric function described in (4.2.4) through (4.2.5),

and 2 , 2 , 2 are known from (4.2.9) through (4.3.1).
The appropriate solution forms of f, g and h depend upon the problem geometry.
From (4.4.11), (4.1.7), (4.4.26) and (4.4.32), a typical solution for (r, , ) to
represent the fields within a spherical geometry may take the form
D
(r, , ) = [r 1 2 {C1 Jv (r ) + C2 Yv (r )}]
[{C3 F(1 , 1 , 1 ; z 1 )
11
+ C4 z 1 F(1 1 + 1, 1 1 + 1, 2 1 ; z 1 )}sin m ]
[C5 F(2 , 2 , 2 ; z 2 )
12
+ C6 z 2 F(2 2 + 1, 2 2 + 1, 2 2 ; z 2 )]
(4.4.33)
1+cos
where, z 1 = 1+cos
2 , z 2 = 2 and C 1 through C 6 are constant coefficients.
Equation (4.4.33) provides a general solution to spherical wave equation in fractional
space. This solution can be used to study the phenomenon of electromagnetic wave
propagation in a non-integer dimensional space.
Equation (4.4.33) is the generalization of the concept of wave propagation in integer

dimensional space to the wave propagation in non-integer dimensional space. As
a special case, for three-dimensional space, this problem reduces to classical wave
propagation concept; i.e., as a special case, if we set D = 3 in Eq. (4.4.17) then
v = n + 21 and it gives
1
f 1 = C1 Jn+ 1 (r ) + C2 Yn+ 1 (r ) (4.4.34)
r 2 2
here, regular Bessel functions in (4.4.34) are related to spherical Bessel function
by [4]

jn (r ) = J 1 (r ) (4.4.35)
2r n+ 2

yn (r ) = Y 1 (r ) (4.4.36)
2r n+ 2
from (4.4.35) and (4.4.36) we can reduce (4.3.4) to

2
f1 = [C1 jn (r ) + C2 yn (r )] (4.4.37)

similarly, for three dimensional space we reduce (4.1.8) to

1 (1) (2)
f 2 = C1 H 1 (r ) + C2 H 1 (r ) (4.4.38)
r n+ 2 n+ 2
here, regular Hankel functions in (4.4.38) are related to spherical Hankel function
by [4]

(1) (1)
h n (r ) = H (r ) (4.4.39)
2r n+ 21

h (2)
n (r ) = H (2) (r ) (4.4.40)
2r n+ 21
from (4.4.39) and (4.4.40), we can reduce (4.3.8) to

2
f2 = D1 h (1) (2)
n (r ) + D2 h n (r ) (4.4.41)

Similarly, we set D = 3 in (4.2.26) and solving (4.1.19) for this special case, we get

d m Pn ( ) d m Q n ( )
g = C3 + C4 sin m (4.4.42)
d m d m
where, = cos , Pn ( ) and Q n ( ) are referred to as Legendre functions of first

and second kind and are related to associated Legendre functions Pnm ( ) and Q m
n ( )
as [4]
m d m Pn ( )
Pnm ( ) = (1 2 ) 2 (4.4.43)
d m
m d m Q n ( )
n ( ) = (1 )
Qm 2 2
(4.4.44)
d m
From (4.4.42) through (4.4.44), we get g in three-dimensional space as :
g = C3 Pnm (cos ) + C4 Q m
n (cos ) (4.4.45)
In a similar way, we set D = 3 in (4.3.2) and using special forms of Gaussian

hypergeometric functions [4], we get h in three dimensional space as:
h = C5 cos(m) + C6 sin(m) (4.4.46)
From (4.4.11), (4.4.37), (4.4.45) and (4.4.46), a typical solution in three dimen-
sional space ( a special case of fractional space) for (r, , ) to represent the fields
within a spherical geometry will take the form

2
(r, , ) = [C1 jn (r ) + C2 yn (r )]

[C3 Pnm (cos ) + C4 Q m
n (cos )]
[C5 cos(m) + C6 sin(m)] (4.4.47)
which is comparable to the solution of spherical wave equation in integer dimensional

space obtained by Balanis [1].
Now, as an example we assume that a spherical wave exists in a fractional space
due to some point source. For simplicity, we choose to visualize only the radial
amplitude variations of scalar field in fractional space which is given by (4.1.8)
as:
D
(r ) = Ar 1 2 Hv(2) (r ) (4.4.48)
where, 2 < D 3. In (4.4.48), using asymptotic expansions of Hankel functions [1]

for r , we see that the amplitude variations of field are related with radial
distance r as
1D
(r ) r 2 (4.4.49)
From (4.4.49),
for D = 3,(r ) r1
for D = 2.5, (r ) r 0.75
1
for D = 2.1,(r ) r 0.55

1
Fig. 4.10 Spherical wave propagation in Euclidean space (D = 3). [ This figure was originally pub-
lished in [7] , reproduced courtesy of The BRILL]
Fig. 4.11 Spherical wave propagation in fractional space (D = 2.5). [ This figure was originally
published in [7] , reproduced courtesy of The BRILL]
Assuming a time dependency e jwt , the radial amplitude variations of scalar field
are shown for different values of dimension D in Figs. 4.10, 4.11, 4.12. In Fig. 4.10
a spherical wave propagating in Euclidean space of dimension D = 3 is shown,
where the amplitude decays by r1 . In Figs. 4.3, 4.4, 4.5 a spherical wave propagating
Fig. 4.12 Spherical wave propagation in fractional space (D = 2.1). [ This figure was originally
published in [7] , reproduced courtesy of The BRILL]
in fractional space of dimension D = 2.5 is shown, where the amplitude decays

1
by r 0.75 . In Fig. 4.12 a spherical wave propagating in fractional space of dimension
D = 2.1 is shown, where the amplitude decays by r 0.551
. It is seen that the amplitude of
spherical wave propagating in higher dimensional space decays rapidly as compared
to another spherical wave propagating in relatively lower dimensional space.
4.4.3 Summary
An exact solution of the spherical wave equation is obtained in D-dimensional frac-

tional space. The obtained fractional space solution provides a generalization of elec-
tromagnetic wave propagation phenomenon from integer space to fractional space.
For integer values of dimension D, the classical results are recovered from fractional
solution. The presented fractional space solution of the wave equation can be used
to describe the phenomenon of wave propagation in any fractal media.
References
1. C.A. Balanis, Advanced Engineering Electromagnetics (Wiley, New York, 1989)

2. C. Palmer, P.N. Stavrinou, Equations of motion in a noninteger-dimension space. J. Phys. A 37,
69877003 (2004)
3. A.D. Polyanin, V.F. Zaitsev, Handbook of Exact Solutions for Ordinary Differential Equations,
2nd edn. (CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2003)
4. M. Abramowitz, I.A. Stegun, Handbook of mathematical functions with formulas, Graphs, and
Mathematical Tables.U.S. Department of Commerce (1972)
5. M. Zubair, M.J. Mughal, Q.A. Naqvi, The wave equation and general plane wave solutions in
fractional space. Prog Electromn Res Lett 19, 137146 (2010)
6. M. Zubair, M.J. Mughal, Q.A. Naqvi, An exact solution of cylindrical wave equation for electro-
magnetic field in fractional dimensional space. Prog Electromn Res Lett 114, 443455 (2011)
7. M. Zubair, M.J. Mughal, Q.A. Naqvi, An exact solution of spherical wave in D-dimensional
fractional space. J Electromn Waves Appl 25, 14811491 (2011)
Chapter 5
Electromagnetic Radiations from Sources
in Fractional Space
In this chapter we present a procedure for solution of antenna radiation problems

in fractional space along with an application of this novel procedure to the case
of Hertzian dipole in fractional space. In Sect. 5.1, a novel solution procedure for
antenna radiation problems in fractional space is proposed. In Sect. 5.2, the reported
solution procedure is applied to the case of Hertzian dipole in fractional space. And
finally major results are summarized in Sect. 5.3
5.1 Solution Procedure for Radiation Problems

in Fractional Space
In analysis of radiation problems, the procedure is to specify sources and get the
fields radiated by the sources. A common practice in analysis of radiation problems
in fractional space is to introduce auxiliary potential function AD (magnetic vector
potential) and FD (electric vector potential) [1]. An overview of steps involved in
solving typical radiation problems in fractional space are shown in Fig. 5.1 .
5.1.1 The Vector Potential AD for Electric Current Source J
The vector potential AD in D-dimensional fractional space is useful in solving for

the electromagnetic field generated by a given harmonic electric current J [1]. The
fractional space generalization of the relation between AD and J is given by vector
potential wave equation as below:
D
2
AD + k 2 AD = J (5.1.1)
where, D2 is the laplacian operator in D-dimensional fractional space given by
Eq. 3.2.3, and k 2 = 2 .

The Author(s) 2012
62 5 Electromagnetic Radiations from Sources in Fractional Space
Fig. 5.1 Block diagram for computing radiated fields in fractional space
Using the solution of Poissons equation in fractional space [2] and considering
analogy of (5.1.1) with vector wave equation in fractional space solved in Sect. 4.1,
we solve (5.1.1) for AD and get
(2)
23D (3/2) Hn (k R)
AD = J(x , y , z ) dV (5.1.2)
4 (D/2) R D5/2
where, the primed coordinates (x , y , z ) represent the location of source, n = 1 D2 ,

R is the distance between any point in the source to observation point, (x) is the
(2)
gamma function and Hn (k R) denotes the Hankel function of second kind of order
n representing outward going waves from source point.
Now, to validate our provided solution in (5.1.2), we get vector potential A from
our solution by substituting D = 3 in (5.1.2). For D = 3, we have n = 1/2. Using
following Hankel function of fractional order [3]

2 jx
H 12 (x) = e (5.1.3)
2 x
Equation 5.1.2 gets reduced to

e jk R
AD = C J(x , y , z ) dV (5.1.4)
4 R
where, C is a constant term. Equation 5.1.4 is in exact agreement with the solution
provided in [1] for Euclidean space.
5.1.2 The Vector Potential FD for Magnetic Current Source M
Although magnetic currents appear to be physically unrealizable, equivalent mag-

netic currents are considered when we use surface or volume equivalence theorems
[4]. Similar to previous case, the vector potential FD in D-dimensional fractional
space is useful in solving for the electromagnetic field generated by a given harmonic
electric current H [1]. The fractional space generalization of the relation between FD
and M is given by vector potential wave equation as follows:
D
2
FD + k 2 FD = M (5.1.5)
5.1 Solution Procedure for Radiation Problems in Fractional Space 63
where, D 2 is the laplacian operator in D-dimensional fractional space given by
(3.2.3), and k 2 = 2 .
Using the analogy to the solution provided for AD in (5.1.2), we get

23D (3/2) Hn(2) (k R)
FD = M(x , y , z ) dV (5.1.6)
4 (D/2) R D5/2
where, the primed coordinates (x , y , z ) represent the location of source, n = 1 D2 ,

R is the distance between any point in the source to observation point, (x) is the
(2)
gamma function and Hn (k R) denotes the Hankel function of second kind or order
n representing outward going waves from source point.
Now, to validate our provided solution in (5.1.6), we get vector potential F from
our solution by substituting D = 3 in (5.1.6). For D = 3, we have n = 1/2. Using
Hankel function of fractional order in (5.1.3), finally Eq. 5.1.6 gets reduced to

e jk R
FD = C M(x , y , z ) dV (5.1.7)
4 R
Equation 5.1.7 is in exact agreement with the solution provided in [1] for Euclidean
space.
5.1.3 Radiated Electric and Magnetic Fields in Far Zone

for Electric J and Magnetic Current Source M
In the previous Sections, we have developed equations that can be used for electric
and magnetic fields generated by and electric current source J and a magnetic current
source M in fractional space. The procedure for radiation analysis in fractional space
requires that the potential functions AD and FD are generated, respectively, by J and
M. In turn the corresponding electric and magnetic fields are then determined in far
zone. The fields radiated in far zone (k R >> 1) due to AD are EAD and HAD and
are given by [1]
EAD = jAD (5.1.8)
j
HAD = ar AD (5.1.9)

where is wave impedance. The fields radiated due to FD are EFD and HFD and are
given in the same form as (5.1.8) and (5.1.9):
HFD = jFD (5.1.10)
j
EFD = ar FD (5.1.11)

And finally, the total fields are given by superposition of the individual fields due to
AD and FD as:
ED = EAD + EFD (5.1.12)
HD = HAD + HFD (5.1.13)
5.2 Elementary Hertzian Dipole in Fractional Space
Consider a Hertzian dipole ( an infinitesimal linear wire with l << ) is placed

symmetrically at the origin of coordinate system in fractional space, and is oriented
at z-axis, as shown in Fig. 5.2. The current distribution on wire is assumed to be
constant and is given by
I(z ) = az I0 (5.2.1)
where I0 is constant.
5.2.1 Fields Radiated
Using the procedure defined in Sect. 5.1, first we find AD and FD . As no magnetic
source is assumed so M = 0 and hence, FD = 0. We find AD using (5.1.2) as:
(2)
23D (3/2) Hn (k R)
AD = az I(x , y , z ) dl (5.2.2)
4 (D/2) L R D5/2
We consider x = y = z = 0 for infinitesimal dipole placed at origin, so R =

x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = r = constant and dl = dz . So we write (5.2.2) as:

I0 23D (3/2) Hn(2) (kr ) l/2
AD = az dz
4 (D/2) r D5/2 l/2
(2)
I0 l 23D (3/2) Hn (kr )
= az (5.2.3)
4 (D/2) r D5/2
The next step of procedure will be to find EAD and EFD . To do this, it will be more
convenient to transform (5.2.3) in spherical coordinates. Here, A x D = A y D = 0 so
in spherical coordinates (5.2.3) becomes
(2)
I0 l 23D (3/2) Hn (kr )
Ar D = A z D cos( ) = cos (5.2.4)
4 (D/2) r D5/2
5.2 Elementary Hertzian Dipole in Fractional Space 65
Fig. 5.2 Geometrical

arrangement of (a) Hertzian
dipole and (b) its electric
field components on
spherical surface in
fractional space
(2)
I0 l 23D (3/2) Hn (kr )
A D = A z D sin( ) = sin (5.2.5)
4 (D/2) r D5/2
A D = 0 (5.2.6)
Now using (5.1.8) and (5.1.9), we get field in far-field regions as

(2)
jkI0 l 23D (3/2) Hn (kr )
E D = sin (5.2.7)
4 (D/2) r D5/2
Er D = E D = Hr D = H D = 0 (5.2.8)
(2)
jk I0 l 23D (3/2) Hn (kr )
H D = sin (5.2.9)
4 (D/2) r D5/2
The ratio of E D to H D is
E D
Zw = = (5.2.10)
H D
where, Z w is wave impedance and is intrinsic impedance (120 ohms) of free

space. For D = 3, using (5.1.3), the field expressions (5.2.75.2.9) get reduced to
jkI0 l e jkr
E = sin (5.2.11)
4 r
Er D = E D = Hr D = H D = 0 (5.2.12)
jk I0 l e jkr
H = sin (5.2.13)
4 r
The field expressions (5.2.115.2.13) are in exact agreement with those obtained
in [1] for far-field region. This validates our fractional solutions in (5.2.75.2.9) in
far-field region. In (5.2.75.2.9), E D and H D are perpendicular to each other and
transverse to the direction of propagation and r is separable for and . The shape
of pattern is not function of r and fields form a Transverse Electromagnetic (TEM)
wave with wave impedance equal to the intrinsic impedance. This relation is applica-
ble in the far-zone of all antennas of finite dimensions in fractional space. Comparing
our fractional space results in (5.2.75.2.9) with the results for Euclidean space in
(5.2.115.2.13), we state that in radiated fields of fractional space, amplitude varia-
tions are described by Hankel functions of order as a function of space dimension.
5.2.2 Directivity
The average power density in fractional space is given by [1]:
1
WD = Re(E D H D ) = ar | E |2 (5.2.14)
2 2
For Hertzian dipole this gives

k I0 l 23D (3/2) 2 sin2
W D = ar (5.2.15)
2 4 (D/2) r 2D4
Now, associated radiation intensity U D is given by

k I0 l 23D (3/2) 2 2
U D = r 2D4 W D =
2 4 (D/2) sin (5.2.16)
5.2 Elementary Hertzian Dipole in Fractional Space 67
and Maximum value of radiation intensity U0D occurs at = /2

k I0 l 23D (3/2) 2
U0D = (5.2.17)
2 4 (D/2)
As power radiated P D is given by [1]:

2 8
PD = U D d d = U0D (5.2.18)
0 0 3
and finally, the maximum directivity D0D of Hertzian dipole in fractional space is
given by
U0D U0D 3
D0D = 4 = 4 = (5.2.19)
PD U0D 8
3
2
which is same as the directivity of Hertzian dipole in Euclidean space. Hence, we

state that the normalized directive gain of antenna in fractional space remains same
but instantaneous amplitude variations of fields are scaled by a function of dimension
D as shown in (5.2.75.2.9).
5.3 Summary
We have discussed a novel solution procedure for radiation problems in fractional

dimensional space. The proposed solution procedure can be used to study the radi-
ation phenomenon in any non-integer dimensional fractal media. As an application,
the fields radiated by a Hertzian dipole in fractional space are worked out. It is inves-
tigated that the amplitude variations of the radiated fields in fractional space are
described by Hankel functions. For all investigated results when integer dimension
is considered, the classical results are recovered.
References
1. C.A. Balanis, Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design (Wiley, New York, 1982)
2. S. Muslih, D. Baleanu, Fractional multipoles in fractional space. Nonlinear Anal.: Real World
Appl. 8, 198203 (2007)
Mathematical Tables (U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S., 1972)
4. C.A. Balanis, Advanced Engineering Electromagnetics (Wiley, New York, 1989)
Chapter 6
Conclusions
This book describes a theoretical investigation of electromagnetic fields and waves

in fractional dimensional space which is useful to study the behavior of electro-
magnetic fields and waves in fractal media. A novel fractional space generalization
of the differential electromagnetic equations was provided. A new form of vector
differential operator Del, written as D , and its related differential operators was
formulated in fractional space. Using these modified vector differential operators,
the classical Maxwells electromagnetic equations were worked out. The Laplaces,
Poissons and Helmholtzs equations in fractional space were derived by using mod-
ified vector differential operators. The provided fractional space generalization of
differential electromagnetic equations is valid in far-field region only. The differen-
tial electromagnetic equations in fractional space, established in this book, provide
a basis for application of the concept of fractional space in practical electromag-
netic wave propagation and scattering phenomenon in far-field region in any fractal
media. Most of the further work was related to solution of the established differential
electromagnetic equations in fractional space.
An exact solution of the Laplaces equation for electrostatic potential in
D-dimensional fractional space was obtained. The electrostatic potential inside the
rectangular box with surfaces held at constant potentials was obtained in fractional
space. The obtained fractional solution of the Laplaces equation can be used to
study complex electrostatic problems in fractal media. An exact solution of the inho-
mogeneous vector potential wave equation in D-dimensional fractional space was
also presented. The solution of inhomogeneous vector potential wave equation in
fractional space is useful to study the radiation phenomenon in fractal media.
General plane wave solutions, in source-free and lossless as well as lossy
media, in fractional space were also presented by solving vector wave equation in
D-dimensional fractional space. It was shown that, when a plane wave propagates
in fractional space, the amplitude variations are described by Bessel functions. The
obtained general plane wave solution is a generalization of integer-dimensional solu-
tion of vector wave equation to a non-integer dimensional space. An exact solu-
tion of cylindrical as well as spherical wave equation, for electromagnetic field in

The Author(s) 2012
70 6 Conclusions
D-dimensional fractional space, was also presented. The obtained exact solution
of cylindrical and spherical wave equation is a generalization of classical integer-
dimensional solutions to a non-integer dimensional space. All these investigated
solutions of vector wave equation provide a basis for the application of the concept
of fractional space to the wave propagation phenomenon in fractal media.
We have also discussed a novel solution procedure for radiation problems in frac-
tional dimensional space. The proposed solution procedure can be used to study the
radiation phenomenon in any non-integer dimensional fractal media. As an applica-
tion, the fields radiated by a Hertzian dipole in fractional space were worked out.
It was investigated that the amplitude variations of the radiated fields in fractional
space are described by Hankel functions. For all investigated cases when integer
dimension was considered, the classical results were recovered.

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SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences

For further volumes:

Qaisar Abbas Naqvi

Muhammad Junaid Mughal

ISSN 2191-530X e-ISSN 2191-5318

Library of Congress Control Number: 2011942412

The Author(s) 2012

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Benoit Mandelbrot, 1924

The concept of fractional dimensional space is being effectively used in many

Pakistan Muhammad Zubair

This book is an enlarged form of Authors work on fractional dimensional space

Pakistan Muhammad Zubair

2 Differential Electromagnetic Equations in Fractional Space . . . . . . 7

3 Potentials for Static and Time-Varying Fields

3.1.2 Electrostatic Potential Inside a Rectangular Box

4 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation in Fractional Space . . . . .... 27

5 Electromagnetic Radiations from Sources in Fractional Space . . .. 61

5.1.3 Radiated Electric and Magnetic Fields in Far Zone

This book is a theoretical investigation of electromagnetic fields and waves in the

1.1 Fractional Dimensional Space

M. Zubair et al., Electromagnetic Fields and Waves in Fractional Dimensional Space, 1

log(number of self similar pieces) log N 2

Similarly, the dimension of a cube is:

log(number of self similar pieces) log N 3

Thus, we take as the definition of the fractal dimension of a self-similar object:

log(number of self similar pieces)

As the Sierpinski triangle consists of 3 self-similar pieces, each with magnification

log(number of self similar pieces) log 3

log(number of self similar pieces) log 3N

space, where the measurement of this confinement is given by fractional dimension

1.2 Axiomatic Basis for Fractional Dimensional Space

Axiom 2 SD is dense in itself.

1.3 Differential Geometry of Fractional Dimensional Space

The question of differential geometry of fractional spaces is related to the dimen-

scaling between d i xi and dxi is defined as

where, d N xN is the differential element corresponding to Nth coordinate.

In this chapter a novel generalization of differential electromagnetic equations in frac-

2.1 Fractional Space Generalization of Laplacian Operator

In [1] a formalism is provided for integration on D-dimensional fractional space.

M. Zubair et al., Electromagnetic Fields and Waves in Fractional Dimensional Space, 7

From this a single variable Laplacian operator is derived in D-dimensional fractional

operator [3] in Euclidean space.

2.2 Fractional Space Generalization of Del Operator

In this section we wish to develop a generalization of vector differential operators in

2.2.1 Del Operator in Fractional Space

Extending above procedure to three variable case for | x |, | y |, | z | 1 we get Del

where, parameters (0 < 1 1, 0 < 2 1 and 0 < 3 1) are used to

2.2.2 Gradient Operator in Fractional Space

2.2.3 Divergence Operator in Fractional Space

From (2.12) a generalized form of divergence of a vector F = Fx x + Fy y + Fz z at

2.2.4 Curl Operator in Fractional Space

The modified form of curl of a vector F = Fx x + Fy y + Fz z at point P(x0 , y0 , z 0 )

2.3 Fractional Space Generalization of Differential

Also the continuity equation

is implicit in Maxwells equations.

and the continuity equation in fractional space as:

curl D Es = jBs (2.29)

curl D Hs = Js + jDs (2.30)

and the phasor form of continuity equation in fractional space as:

div D Js = jvs (2.31)

where, Ds , Bs , Es , Hs , Js , vs represent the phasor form of instantaneous quantities

Extending above procedure to three variable case for | x |, | y |, | z | 1 we get Del