CULTURE

EL COLACHO

A. El Colacho the Celebration of the Catholic Feast of Corpus Christi

El Colacho is a traditional Spanish holiday dating back to 1620 that takes place
annually to celebrate the Catholic feast of Corpus Christi in the village of Castrillo de
Murcia near Burgos. The festival, held on the first Sunday after Corpus Cristi.
The Feast of Corpus Christi (Latin for Body of Christ), also known as Corpus Domini,
is a Latin Rite liturgical solemnity celebrating the tradition and belief in the body and blood of
Jesus Christ and his Real Presence in the Eucharist. It emphasizes the joy of the institution of
the Eucharist, which was observed on Holy Thursday in the somber atmosphere of the
nearness of Good Friday. In the present Roman Missal, the feast is designated the solemnity of
The Most Holy Body and Blood of Christ. It is also celebrated in some Anglican, Lutheran,
and Old Catholic Churches that hold similar beliefs regarding the Real Presence.
The feast is liturgically celebrated on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday or, "where the
Solemnity of the Most Holy Body and Blood of Christ is not a Holy Day of Obligation, it is
assigned to the Sunday after the Most Holy Trinity as its proper day". At the end of Holy
Mass, there is often a procession of the Blessed Sacrament, generally displayed in a
monstrance. The procession is followed by Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament.
A notable Eucharistic procession is that presided over by the Pope each year in Rome,
where it begins at the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran and makes its way to the Basilica of
Saint Mary Major, where it concludes with Benediction.
Around the world, Catholics and some other Christians celebrate the Feast of Corpus
Christi two weeks after Pentecost, the Sunday following Trinity Sunday on the liturgical
calendar. This year, the feast will be celebrated in the United States on Sunday, June 10. There
are lots of traditions to celebrate this day. Every country has their culture to celebrate this day.
And one of the most famous is the celebration in Spain, called El Colacho, marked with the
baby jumping activities.

Since 1620, the town of Castrillo de Murcia (near Burgos) in Spain has celebrated
Corpus Christi with an act that is known as 'El Colacho'. During the act - known as 'El Salto
del Colacho' (the jump of the devil) or just 'El Colacho' men dressed as the Devil jump over
babies who lie on mattresses in the street. The festival is held in the presence of hundreds of
visitors who join the locals in celebration.

The Catholic feast of Corpus Christi, which is a moveable feast, is celebrated on the
Thursday after Trinity Sunday. Corpus Christi is celebrated all over Spain with processions
and many popular celebrations, but El Colacho is the most bizarre.

Whilst seemingly dangerous, the festival is seen to purge the town of evil: when the
incarnate devils jump over the babies, they take all their evil with them and the children are
cleansed. Therefore, despite the possible danger, it is seen as an honour for the participating
babies.
B. The Main Character of El Colacho Festival
1. The Brotherhood
The brotherhood of Santisimo Sacramento de Minerva organize the festival. The
members of this brotherhood will dress themselves up as either El Colacho or el Atabalero: the
devil and his companion (see below).
This shadowy brotherhood also chase and terrorise anybody and everybody in the town
with whips at regular intervals throughout the day.
2. The Devil and his companion (The Drumer)
The 'Colacho' is the character that gives his name to this event. He represents evil and
therefore the devil and he is responsible for jumping over the babies. Dressed in red and
yellow, he usually wears a ridiculous and repulsive mask that he removes when jumping over
the babies. In his hands he holds large castanets, which he plays in unison with the drum beat
of the Atabalero.

The 'Atabalero' (the drummer) presides over the Santsimo procession which runs
through the streets of the town. He accompanies the procession with the beat of a drum and
wears a long coat with a top hat.
Both the 'Colacho' and the 'Atabalero' are different people each year, due to a handover
that takes place the day after the festival. Two 'Colachos' participate in the festival each year:
the 'Colacho' from the current year, who is the jumper over the children, and the 'Colacho' who
will be the jumper the following year is responsible for co-ordinating the organization.

C. Celebrations Before The Jump

'The jump of the devil' takes place on the Sunday after Corpus Christi (Corpus Christi
is always on a Thursday - for Corpus Christi dates until 2022, see below). However, there are
many other celebrations before the jump. Everything starts on the Wednesday with evening
songs and processions and lasts until the Sunday.
1. The Entrance Into The Church
Between Thursday and Saturday the rite of 'entrance into the church' is performed.
Before entering the place or worship, the 'devil' and the two rows of the brotherhood that
follow him bow in greeting by taking off their hats and the Colacho, his mask. Then, they
enter the temple to the beat of the drum. Everyone takes their respective positions, but the
'Drummer' and the 'Devil' go to the sanctuary during the celebration of mass.
2. The Processions
On these days also are the processions which take place on the main roads of the town.
The walk begins on leaving the house of the foreman of the brotherhood and includes the
Devil followed by two rows of the brotherhood and accompanied by the beat of a drum that
sets the rhythm of the walk. During the walk, many children rebuke the Devil and he chases
the youngsters and tries to hit them softly with a horse-tail lash.
D. Sunday : The Jump of The Devil
On the Sunday of the jump, there is a parade through the town beginning and ending at
the town church. The town's residents adorn their houses with flowers and set out small
"altars" where they put two glasses: one with wine and one with water for the parade-goers.
As well as these altars, soft mattresses are placed, covered with sheets and colourful
quilts and moments before the procession passes, children born that year are laid out on them.
Members of the clergy and children from the town who have received the rite of First
Communion march in the parade. The symbolism of the parade is that evil is brought back to
the church, where it is vanquished.
As soon as the procession ends, the now unmasked Devil flees vanquished and hated.
He bursts out of the church and runs down the street, jumping over all the babies on the
mattresses. He immediately runs out of the town, representing evil being cast out of the town
and taking with him the sins of the infants. The babies then receive a blessing, as young girls
accompany the clergy and toss flower petals on the infants. The babies are considered to be as
cleansed as if they had been baptized.
Consequently, both the babies and the town of Castrillo de Murcia are purged and free
from sin again.
After the baby-jumping, the brotherhood provides the community with a symbolic
feast of wine and bread.
Furthermore, it is customary to invite the visitors to enjoy tasty 'orejuelas' which is a
delicious honey-flavored dessert made from flour, oil, butter and baking soda.

E. History of El Colacho
As with most Spanish fiestas, the event's exact origins are vague, but the celebration is
a classic example of the mix of traditional Spanish folklore and religion.
Nevertheless, it is safe to say that the festival of El Colacho has Pagan origins but
centuries ago it was linked to the Corpus Christi procession and came to always be celebrated
on the Sunday after Corpus Christi.

F. El Colacho Dates
CORPUS CHRISTI (THURSDAY) EL COLACHO (SUNDAY)
03 June 2010 06 June 2010
23 June 2011 26 June 2011
07 June 2012 10 June 2012
30 May 2013 02 June 2013
19 June 2014 22 June 2014
04 June 2015 07 June 2015
26 May 2016 29 May 2016
15 June 2017 18 June 2017
 ART
TAP DANCE

Tap dance is a form of dance characterized by using the sound of one's tap shoes
hitting the floor as a percussive instrument. As such, it is also commonly considered to be a
form of music. Two major variations on tap dance exist: rhythm (Jazz) tap and Broadway tap.
Broadway tap focuses more on the dance. It is widely performed as a part of musical theater.
Rhythm tap focuses more on musicality, and practitioners consider themselves to be a part of
the Jazz tradition.
The sound is made by shoes with a metal "tap" on the heel and toe. Tap shoes can be
bought at most dance shops. There are different brands of shoes which sometimes different in
the way they sound.
"Soft-Shoe" is a rhythm form of tap dancing that doesn't require special shoes, and
while rhythm is generated by tapping of the feet, it also uses sliding of the feet (even
sometimes using scattered sand on the stage to enhance the sound of the performer's sliding
feet) more often than modern rhythm tap. It preceded what is currently considered to be
modern tap, but has since declined in popularity.

A. The History of Tap Dance

Tap dance has roots in African American dancing such as the Juba Dance, English
Lancashire Clog dancing, and probably most notably Irish stepdancing. It is believed to have
begun in the mid-1800s during the rise of minstrel shows. White performers would imitate
Southern blacks and satirize their dance forms while incorporating step-dancing. In later
minstrel shows, black performers in blackface would play roles in which they imitated the
Irish imitation of black dance forms, further mixing the two. Famous as Master Juba, William
Henry Lane became one of the few black performers to join an otherwise white minstrel
troupe, and is widely considered to be the most famous forebear of tap dance.

As the minstrel shows began to decline in popularity, tap dance moved to the
increasingly popular Vaudeville stage. Due to the two-colored rule, which forbade blacks from
performing solo, the majority of Vaudeville tap acts were duets. This gave rise to the famous
pair "Buck and Bubbles," which consisted of John "Bubbles" Sublett tap dancing and Ford
"Buck" Washington on piano. The duo perfected the "Class Act", a routine in which the
performers wore impeccable tuxedos, which has since become a common theme in tap dance.
The move is seen by some as a rebuttal to the older minstrel show idea of the tap dancer as a
"grinning-and-dancing clown."

Another notable figure to emerge during this period is Bill "Bojangles" Robinson. Well
versed in both Buck and Wing dancing and Irish Step dancing, Bill Robinson joined the
Vaudeville circuit in 1902, in a duo with George W. Cooper. The act quickly became famous,
headlining events across the country, and touring England as well. In 1908, however, the two
had an altercation, and the partnership was ended. Gambling on his popularity, Robinson
decided to form a solo act, which was extremely rare for a black man at that time. Despite this,
he had tremendous success and soon became a world famous celebrity. He went on to have a
leading role in many films, notably in the Shirley Temple franchise.

During the 1930s tap dance mixed with Lindy Hop. "Flying swing outs" and "flying
circles" are Lindy Hop moves with tap footwork. In the 1950s, the style of entertainment
changed. Jazz music and tap dance declined, while rock and roll and pop music and the
new jazz dance emerged. What is now called jazz dance evolved out of tap dance, so both
dances have many moves in common. But jazz evolved separately from tap dance to become a
new form in its own right. Well-known dancers during the 1960s and 1970s included Arthur
Duncan and Tommy Tune.

No Maps on My Taps, the Emmy award winning PBS documentary of 1979, helped
begin the recent revival of tap dance. The outstanding success of the animated film, Happy
Feet, has further reinforced the popular appeal National Tap Dance Day in the United States,
now celebrated May 25, was signed into law by President George Bush on November 7, 1989.
(May 25 was chosen because it is the birthday of famous tapper Bill "Bojangles" Robinson.)
Prominent modern tap dancers have included Brenda Bufalino, The Clark Brothers, Savion
Glover, Gregory and Maurice Hines, LaVaughn Robinson, Jason Samuels Smith, Chloe
Arnold, and Dianne "Lady Di" Walker Indie-pop band Tilly and the Wall also features a tap
dancer, Jamie Pressnall, tapping as percussion.

B. Characteristics of tap dance

Tap dancers make frequent use of syncopation. Choreography typically starts on the
eighth or first beatcount. Another aspect of tap dancing is improvisation. This can either be
done with music and follow the beats provided or without musical accompaniment, also
known as a cappella dancing.

Hoofers are tap dancers who dance primarily "closer to the floor", using mostly their
footwork and not showing very much arm or body movement. This kind of tap dancing, also
called "rhythm tap", was part of the dancing of slaves in America. Because the slaves were
generally not allowed to practice their own culture and customs, they mixed their form of
dancing with Irish step dance to create tap dances that they managed to sneak by slave owners
and over-seers. This is the origin of tap and what later evolved into (what most people know
as tap now) "show tap" because it uses more arm movement. This form evolved because show
tap was thought to be more exciting to watch and became famous when show tap was put on
Broadway. Rhythm tap is not well known although the history of it is important to know as
rhythm tap is often considered the "father of show tap."
 Steve Condos rose out of his humble beginnings in Pittsburgh, PA to become a master
in rhythmic tap. His innovative style influenced the work of Gregory Hines, Savion Glover
and Marshall Davis, Jr. The majority of hoofers, such as Sammy Davis, Jr., Glover, Hines, and
LaVaughn Robinson are African American men, although today the art form transcends racial
and gender stereotypes. Savion Glover is the best-known living hoofer, who helped bring tap
dance into mainstream media by choreographing and dancing for the major motion picture
Happy Feet, a film about a tap dancing penguin. Another well-known tap film is 1989's Tap,
starring the late Gregory Hines and many of the old-time hoofers.

Early tappers like Fred Astaire provided a more ballroom look to tap dancing, while
Gene Kelly used his extensive ballet training to make tap dancing incorporate all the parts of
the ballet. This style of tap led to what is today known as "Broadway style," which is more
mainstream in American culture. It often involves high heeled tap shoes and show music, and
is usually the type of tap first taught to beginners. The best examples of this style are found in
Broadway musicals such as Anything Goes and 42nd Street.

Common tap steps include the shuffle, shuffle ball change, flap, flap heel, cramproll,
buffalo, Maxi Ford, single and double pullbacks, wings, Cincinnati, the shim sham shimmy
(also called the Lindy), Irish, Waltz Clog, the paddle roll, the paradiddle, stomp, brushes,
scuffs, riffs, and single and double toe punches, hot steps, heel clicks, single, double, triple,
and double-triple time steps, over-the-tops, military time step, New Yorkers, and chugs. In
advanced tap dancing, basic steps are often combined together to create new steps. Timesteps
are widely used in tap and can vary in different areas. These consist of a rhythm that is
changed to make new timesteps by adding or removing steps.

Tap dancing can also be done using an a cappella method. Similar to singing without
instrumental accompaniment, tap dancers are not dancing to any music but creating a rhythm
by using different steps at the same time. In a tap a cappella, the steps are normally kept
simple (such as the most common steps listed above) and easy to control. The group of
dancers must work together to create the sound keeping their steps at the correct speed to
match each other.
 TOURISM
KUTA BEACH

Kuta Beach is a beach located in Kuta. The beach has been notable since early 1970s.
Kuta beach is also known as Sunset Beach, as opposed to the Sunrise Beach, another name for
Sanur Beach. Luxury resorts, restaurants, and clubs are located along the beach.
In 2011, a two-meter white sandstone fence, built in a Balinese architecture style, was
built along the road to block the sand from blowing to the cafes and restaurants. The project
costed Rp.4 billion ($0.47 million). Some tourists dislike it as it is considered blocking the
beach view, while some others believe the wall help dampens the sounds from the congested
traffic street.To make the beach cleaner, as of late August 2011, the vendors are prohibited to
sell food at the Kuta Beach, but they are still allowed to sell beverages and souvenirs.

A. The Location of Kuta Beach

Kuta is administratively a district and subdistrict/village in southern Bali, Indonesia. A
former fishing village, it was one of the first towns on Bali to see substantial tourist
development, and as a beach resort remains one of Indonesia's major tourist destinations. It is
known internationally for its long sandy beach, varied accommodation, many restaurants and
bars, and many renowned surfers who visit from Australia. It is located near Bali's Ngurah Rai
Airport.
Kuta was the site of the October 12, 2002 1st Bali bombing (202 killed) and the
October 1, 2005 2nd Bali bombing (26 killed).
The Balinese Provincial Government have taken the view that the preservation of the
Balinese culture, natural resources and wildlife are of primary importance in the development
of the island. To this end they have limited tourist development to the peninsula on the
extreme southern aspect of the island; Kuta beach is on the western side of this peninsula and
Sanur is on the east. To the north of the peninsula no new tourist development is supposedly
permitted.
To the south, Kuta Beach extends beyond the airport into Jimbaran. Other nearby
towns and villages include Seseh (6.4 nm), Denpasar (4.5 nm), Ujung (1.8 nm), Pesanggaran
(2.0 nm), Kedonganan (2.9 nm) and Tuban (1.0 nm).

B. What can we do in Kuta Beach?

Kuta beach is a favorite tourist destination in Bali, Indonesia. Kuta area is very famous
in the world, where there are beautiful Kuta Beach. On this beach we will find a wide range of
visitors from foreign tourists from European Caucasians, Asia and America, to the 'local
foreigners' from the island of Java, Jakarta, and others. Therefore, a central Bali tourism and
Kuta beach is the right choice that you must visit with the family.
Things to do in Kuta Beach including :
1. Sunbathing
For those of you who enjoy sunbathing on the beach, Kuta is the most convenient
place for it. Although the visitors quite crowded, but winds from the Pacific Ocean
brehembus directly combined with the warmth of the sun in between the sound of the
waves, giving the feel of the tropical atmosphere is very enjoyable. You can also sunbathe
with a massage by the masseuse who offers his services there are many.
2. Surfing
Kuta beach is one of the famous surfing destination in the world. This is because the
Kuta beach has waves were pretty big and wonderful that it becomes an attraction for
tourists, both domestic and foreign tourists.
Do not worry if we do not have a surfboard or still do not know how to surf. In Kuta
Beach, there are offered a variety of surfboard rental services, as well as services to train us
how to surf.
3. Swim at the beach
Swimming in Kuta beach is also one interesting thing. Kuta beach daily visited by
many tourists who want to swim. But if we do not want to swim, we could just play water
on the edge of the sea. This activity will be much more exciting if we do it before sunset.
4. Water Sport
We could do some water sports like parasailing and paragliding. it can test our
adrenaline.
5. Shopping
Kuta is the center artshop. Along the way you will find various art shop that offers a
variety of souvenirs, clothing and other goods. Kuta is also famous for shopping or a
place where shopping is fun and frenetic nightlife.
6. Clubbing and Nightlife
If you like nightlife, Kuta Bali is its center. You can try a few places that have been
known as Double Six, Kamasutra, Coup, Living Room, Hard Rock and dozens of other
places.
7. Culinary Tour
For those of you who want to dine afternoon or evening with the sunset, is a cheap
alternative at Kuta Beach Food Court. There are a variety of cuisines archipelago and some
foreign cuisine. Various types of restaurants at affordable prices to five-star prices can be
found here.
8. Visiting Bali Bombing Memorial
After the first Bali Bombing in 2002 at Kuta, a permanent memorial was built on the
site of the destroyed Paddy's Pub on Legian Street. The memorial is made of intricately carved
stone, set with a large marble plaque, which bears the names and nationalities of each of those
killed. It is flanked by the national flags of the victims. The monument is well-maintained and
illuminated at night. The memorial was dedicated on 12 October 2004, the second anniversary
of the attack. The dedication included a Balinese Hindu ceremony and the opportunity for
mourners to lay flowers and other offerings. The Australian ambassador and Indonesian
officials attended the ceremony as most of the victims were Australians.

The most crowded time at Kuta beach area is in the evening or during sunset (sunset).
All of whether foreign or local tourists come together here. Moreover, there are special
moments in the country such as school holidays

C. How to Reach This Place ?

Kuta Beach is very convenient because it has a strategic position. We can get there by
car, motorcycle, bicycle, or on foot. Kuta Beach is located not far from the capital of Bali,
Denpasar. However, the road to reach the beach of Kuta is very narrow. So be patient if you
are stuck in traffic on the way to the beach of Kuta. Should you come to the beach kuta start
the morning. Because in the afternoon until the evening will be very difficult for you to find a
place to park your vehicle.
The beauty of Kuta will be increasingly felt when we walk. Along the way we will find
shops that sell a variety of handicrafts bali, restaurants, and others. In addition, there is a mall,
Discovery Mall, facing directly towards the beach.
Do not be afraid to cost, to enter Kuta beach, we do not need to spend money. You can
get it for free. It's just that if you want to use existing facilities, we need to pay the rent.
 GEOGRAPHY
Bermuda Triangle

The Bermuda Triangle, sometimes called the Devil's Triangle, is reputedly an area in
the western part of the North Atlantic Ocean. The triangle doesn't exist according to the US
Navy and is not recognized by the US Board on Geographic Names.
However, a number of aircraft and surface vessels are said to have disappeared in the triangle
under unknown circumstances. Popular culture has attributed various disappearances to the
paranormal or activity by extraterrestrial beings. Documented evidence indicates that a
significant percentage of the incidents were spurious, inaccurately reported, or embellished by
later authors. Contrary to popular belief, insurance companies do not charge higher premiums
for shipping in this area.
Writers give different boundaries to the triangle, with the total area varying from
500,000 to 1.5 million square miles. This means that different accidents happen inside the
triangle depending on which writer reports them. The first written boundaries date from a
1964 issue of pulp magazine Argosy, where the triangle's three vertices are in Miami, Florida
peninsula; in San Juan, Puerto Rico; and in the mid-Atlantic island of Bermuda. The United
States Board on Geographic Names does not recognize this name, and it's not delimited in any
map drawn by US government agencies. The area is one of the most heavily traveled shipping
lanes in the world, with ships crossing through it daily for ports in the Americas, Europe, and
the Caribbean Islands. Cruise ships are also plentiful, and pleasure craft regularly go back and
forth between Florida and the islands. It is also a heavily flown route for commercial and
private aircraft heading towards Florida, the Caribbean, and South America from points north.

A. History
The earliest allegation of unusual disappearances in the Bermuda area appeared in a
September 16, 1950 Associated Press article by Edward Van Winkle Jones. Two years later,
Fate magazine published "Sea Mystery at Our Back Door", a short article by George X. Sand
covering the loss of several planes and ships, including the loss of Flight 19, a group of five
U.S. Navy TBM Avenger bombers on a training mission. Sand's article was the first to lay out
the now-familiar triangular area where the losses took place. Flight 19 alone would be covered
in the April 1962 issue of American Legion Magazine. It was claimed that the flight leader had
been heard saying "We are entering white water, nothing seems right. We don't know where
we are, the water is green, no white." It was also claimed that officials at the Navy board of
inquiry stated that the planes "flew off to Mars." Sand's article was the first to suggest a
supernatural element to the Flight 19 incident. In the February 1964 issue of Argosy, Vincent
Gaddis's article "The Deadly Bermuda Triangle" argued that Flight 19 and other
disappearances were part of a pattern of strange events in the region. The next year, Gaddis
expanded this article into a book, Invisible Horizons.
 Others would follow with their own works, elaborating on Gaddis's ideas: John
Wallace Spencer (Limbo of the Lost, 1969, repr. 1973); Charles Berlitz (The Bermuda
Triangle, 1974); Richard Winer (The Devil's Triangle, 1974), and many others, all keeping to
some of the same supernatural elements outlined by Eckert.
Lawrence David Kusche, a research librarian from Arizona State University and author
of The Bermuda Triangle Mystery concluded that :

The number of ships and aircraft reported missing in the area was not significantly
greater, proportionally speaking, than in any other part of the ocean.
In an area frequented by tropical storms, the number of disappearances that did occur
were, for the most part, neither disproportionate, unlikely, nor mysterious;

Furthermore, Berlitz and other writers would often fail to mention such storms or even
represent the disappearance as having happened in calm conditions when meteorological
records clearly contradict this.

The numbers themselves had been exaggerated by sloppy research. A boat's

disappearance, for example, would be reported, but its eventual (if belated) return to port
may not have been.

Some disappearances had, in fact, never happened. One plane crash was said to have
taken place in 1937 off Daytona Beach, Florida, in front of hundreds of witnesses; a
check of the local papers revealed nothing.

The legend of the Bermuda Triangle is a manufactured mystery, perpetuated by writers

who either purposely or unknowingly made use of misconceptions, faulty reasoning, and
sensationalism.

B. Supernatural Explanations
Triangle writers have used a number of supernatural concepts to explain the
events. One explanation pins the blame on leftover technology from the mythical lost
continent of Atlantis. Sometimes connected to the Atlantis story is the submerged rock
formation known as the Bimini Road off the island of Bimini in the Bahamas, which is in
the Triangle by some definitions. Followers of the purported psychic Edgar Cayce take
his prediction that evidence of Atlantis would be found in 1968 as referring to the
discovery of the Bimini Road. Believers describe the formation as a road, wall, or other
structure, though geologists consider it to be of natural origin.
Other writers attribute the events to UFOs. This idea was used by Steven
Spielberg for his science fiction film Close Encounters of the Third Kind, which features
the lost Flight 19 aircrews as alien abductees. Charles Berlitz, author of various books on
anomalous phenomena, lists several theories attributing the losses in the Triangle to
anomalous or unexplained forces.
C. Natural Explanations
1. Compass variations
Compass problems are one of the cited phrases in many Triangle incidents.
While some have theorized that unusual local magnetic anomalies may exist in the
area, such anomalies have not been found. Compasses have natural magnetic
variations in relation to the magnetic poles, a fact which navigators have known for
centuries. Magnetic (compass) north and geographic (true) north are only exactly the
same for a small number of places for example, as of 2000 in the United States only
those places on a line running from Wisconsin to the Gulf of Mexico.But the public
may not be as informed, and think there is something mysterious about a compass
"changing" across an area as large as the Triangle, which it naturally will.
2. Gulf Stream
The Gulf Stream is a deep ocean current that originates in the Gulf of Mexico
and then flows through the Straits of Florida into the North Atlantic. In essence, it is a
river within an ocean, and, like a river, it can and does carry floating objects. It has a
surface velocity of up to about 2.5 metres per second (5.6 mi/h). A small plane making
a water landing or a boat having engine trouble can be carried away from its reported
position by the current.
3. Human Error
One of the most cited explanations in official inquiries as to the loss of any
aircraft or vessel is human error. Human stubbornness may have caused businessman
Harvey Conover to lose his sailing yacht, the Revonoc, as he sailed into the teeth of a
storm south of Florida on January 1, 1958.
4. Violent Weather
Hurricanes are powerful storms, which form in tropical waters and have
historically cost thousands of lives lost and caused billions of dollars in damage. The
sinking of Francisco de Bobadilla's Spanish fleet in 1502 was the first recorded
instance of a destructive hurricane. These storms have in the past caused a number of
incidents related to the Triangle.
A powerful downdraft of cold air was suspected to be a cause in the sinking of
the Pride of Baltimore on May 14, 1986. The crew of the sunken vessel noted the
wind suddenly shifted and increased velocity from 20 mph to 6090 mph. A National
Hurricane Center satellite specialist, James Lushine, stated "during very unstable
weather conditions the downburst of cold air from aloft can hit the surface like a
bomb, exploding outward like a giant squall line of wind and water." A similar event
occurred to the Concordia in 2010 off the coast of Brazil.
5. Methane Hydrates
An explanation for some of the disappearances has focused on the presence of
large fields of methane hydrates (a form of natural gas) on the continental shelves.
Laboratory experiments carried out in Australia have proven that bubbles can, indeed,
 sink a scale model ship by decreasing the density of the water; any wreckage
consequently rising to the surface would be rapidly dispersed by the Gulf Stream. It
has been hypothesized that periodic methane eruptions (sometimes called "mud
volcanoes") may produce regions of frothy water that are no longer capable of
providing adequate buoyancy for ships. If this were the case, such an area forming
around a ship could cause it to sink very rapidly and without warning.
Publications by the USGS describe large stores of undersea hydrates
worldwide, including the Blake Ridge area, off the southeastern United States coast.
However, according to another of their papers, no large releases of gas hydrates are
believed to have occurred in the Bermuda Triangle for the past 15,000 years.
6. Rogue Waves
In various oceans around the world, rogue waves have caused ships to sink and
oil platforms to topple. These waves, until 1995, were considered to be a mystery
and/or a myth.

D. Bermuda Triangle Incidents

1. Ellen Austin

The Ellen Austin supposedly came across a derelict ship, placed on board
a prize crew, and attempted to sail with it to New York in 1881. According to the
stories, the derelict disappeared; others elaborating further that the derelict reappeared
minus the prize crew, then disappeared again with a second prize crew on board. A
check from Lloyd's of London records proved the existence of the Meta, built in 1854
and that in 1880 the Meta was renamed Ellen Austin. There are no casualty listings for
this vessel, or any vessel at that time, that would suggest a large number of missing
men were placed on board a derelict that later disappeared

2. Carroll A. Deering

A five-masted schooner built in 1919, the Carroll A. Deering was found hard
aground and abandoned at Diamond Shoals, near Cape Hatteras, North Carolina on
January 31, 1921. Rumors and more at the time indicated the Deering was a victim of
piracy, possibly connected with the illegal rum-running trade during Prohibition, and
possibly involving another ship, SS Hewitt, which disappeared at roughly the same
time. Just hours later, an unknown steamer sailed near the lightship along the track of
the Deering, and ignored all signals from the lightship. It is speculated that Hewitt
may have been this mystery ship, and possibly involved in the Deering crew's
disappearance.

3. Flight 19

Flight 19 was a training flight of five TBM Avenger torpedo bombers that
disappeared on December 5, 1945, while over the Atlantic. The squadron's flight plan
was scheduled to take them due east from Fort Lauderdale for 141 miles, north for 73
miles, and then back over a final 140-mile leg to complete the exercise. The flight
 never returned to base. The disappearance is attributed by Navy investigators to
navigational error leading to the aircraft running out of fuel.

One of the search and rescue aircraft deployed to look for them, a PBM
Mariner with a 13-man crew, also disappeared. A tanker off the coast of Florida
reported seeing an explosion and observing a widespread oil slick when fruitlessly
searching for survivors. The weather was becoming stormy by the end of the incident.
According to contemporaneous sources the Mariner had a history of explosions due to
vapour leaks when heavily loaded with fuel, as for a potentially long search and
rescue operation

4. Star Tiger and Star Ariel

G-AHNP Star Tiger disappeared on January 30, 1948 on a flight from the
Azores to Bermuda; G-AGRE Star Ariel disappeared on January 17, 1949, on a flight
from Bermuda to Kingston, Jamaica. Both were Avro Tudor IV passenger aircraft
operated by British South American Airways. Both planes were operating at the very
limits of their range and the slightest error or fault in the equipment could keep them
from reaching the small island. One plane was not heard from long before it would
have entered the Triangle.

E. Influence on Culture
The Sea World amusement park on the Gold Coast (Australia) operated a ride called
Bermuda Triangle.
Composer Isao Tomita released an album, Bermuda Triangle, inspired by the region.
Singer Songwriter Barry Manilow released a single "Bermuda Triangle" in 1981, taken
from his 1980 album Barry.
The first film based on the Triangle was The Bermuda Triangle in 1978. Later films
include The Triangle in 2001 and The Triangle (a TV miniseries) in 2005.
In a Season 4 episode of the TV show Quantum Leap, the show's main character
encounters The Bermuda Triangle whiling flying passangers in a small plane.
 SPORT
BADMINTON

Badminton is a racquet sport played by either two opposing players (singles) or two
opposing pairs (doubles), who take positions on opposite halves of a rectangular court that is
divided by a net. Players score points by striking a shuttlecock with their racquet so that it
passes over the net and lands in their opponents' half of the court. Each side may only strike
the shuttlecock once before it passes over the net. A rally ends once the shuttlecock has struck
the floor, or if a fault has been called by either the umpire or service judge or, in their absence,
the offending player, at anytime during the rally.
The shuttlecock (or shuttle) is a feathered projectile whose unique aerodynamic
properties cause it to fly differently than the balls used in most racquet sports; in particular, the
feathers create much higher drag, causing the shuttlecock to decelerate more rapidly than a
ball. Shuttlecocks have a much higher top speed, when compared to other racquet sports.
Because shuttlecock flight is affected by wind, competitive badminton is played indoors.
Badminton is also played outdoors as a casual recreational activity, often as a garden or beach
game.
Since 1992, badminton has been an Olympic sport with five events: men's and
women's singles, men's and women's doubles, and mixed doubles, in which each pair consists
of a man and a woman. At high levels of play, especially in singles, the sport demands
excellent fitness: players require aerobic stamina, agility, explosive strength, speed and
precision. It is also a technical sport, requiring good motor coordination and the development
of sophisticated racquet movements.

A. History and Development

The beginnings of badminton can be traced to mid-18th century British India, where it
was created by British military officers stationed there. Early photographs show Englishmen
adding a net to the traditional English game of battledore and shuttlecock. The sport is related
to ball badminton, which originated in Tamil Nadu, and is similar to Hanetsuki which
originated in Japan. Being particularly popular in the British garrison town Poona (now Pune),
the game also came to be known as Poona. Initially, balls of wool referred as ball badminton
were preferred by the upper classes in windy or wet conditions, but ultimately the shuttlecock
stuck. This game was taken by retired officers back to England where it developed and rules
were set out.
Although it appears clear that Badminton House, Gloucestershire, owned by the Duke
of Beaufort, has given its name to the sports, it is unclear when and why the name was
adopted. As early as 1860, Isaac Spratt, a London toy dealer, published a booklet, Badminton
Battledore a new game, but unfortunately no copy has survived. An 1863 article in The
Cornhill Magazine describes badminton as "battledore and shuttlecock played with sides,
across a string suspended some five feet from the ground". This early use has cast doubt on
the origin through expatriates in India, though it is known that it was popular there in the
1870s and that the first rules were drawn up in Poonah in 1873.
As early as 1875, veterans returning from India started a club in Folkestone. Until
1887, the sport was played in England under the rules that prevailed in British India. The Bath
Badminton Club standardized the rules and made the game applicable to English ideas. J.H.E.
Hart drew up revised basic regulations in 1887 and, with Bagnel Wild, again in 1890. In 1893,
the Badminton Association of England published the first set of rules according to these
regulations, similar to today's rules, and officially launched badminton in a house called
"Dunbar" at 6 Waverley Grove, Portsmouth, England on September 13 of that year. They also
started the All England Open Badminton Championships, the first badminton competition in
the world, in 1899.
The International Badminton Federation (IBF) (now known as Badminton World
Federation) was established in 1934 with Canada, Denmark, England, France, the
Netherlands, Ireland, New Zealand, Scotland, and Wales as its founding members. India
joined as an affiliate in 1936. The BWF now governs international badminton and develops
the sport globally.
While initiated in England, competitive men's badminton in Europe has traditionally
been dominated by Denmark. Asian nations, however, have been the most dominant ones
worldwide. Indonesia, South Korea, China, and Malaysia along with Denmark are among the
nations that have consistently produced world-class players in the past few decades, with
China being the greatest force in both men's and women's competition in recent years.

B. Rules
The following information is a simplified summary of badminton rules based on the
BWF Statutes publication, Laws of Badminton.
Playing court dimensions
The court is rectangular and divided into halves by a net. Courts are usually marked
for both singles and doubles play, although badminton rules permit a court to be marked for
singles only. The doubles court is wider than the singles court, but both are of same length.
The exception, which often causes confusion to newer players, is that the doubles court has a
shorter serve-length dimension.
The full width of the court is 6.1 metres (20 ft), and in singles this width is reduced to
5.18 metres (17 ft). The full length of the court is 13.4 metres (44 ft). The service courts are
marked by a centre line dividing the width of the court, by a short service line at a distance of
1.98 metres (6 ft 6 inch) from the net, and by the outer side and back boundaries. In doubles,
the service court is also marked by a long service line, which is 0.76 metres (2 ft 6 inch) from
the back boundary.
The net is 1.55 metres (5 ft 1 inch) high at the edges and 1.524 metres (5 ft) high in the
centre. The net posts are placed over the doubles sidelines, even when singles is played. The
minimum height for the ceiling above the court is not mentioned in the Laws of Badminton.
Nonetheless, a badminton court will not be suitable if the ceiling is likely to be hit on a high
serve.

Equipment rules
Badminton rules restrict the design and size of racquets and shuttlecocks. Badminton rules
also provide for testing a shuttlecock for the correct speed:
3.1 To test a shuttlecock, use a full underhand stroke which makes contact with the
shuttlecock over the back boundary line. The shuttlecock shall be hit at an upward angle and
in a direction parallel to the side lines.
3.2 A shuttlecock of the correct speed will land not less than 530 mm and not more than 990
mm short of the other back boundary line.

Scoring
When the server serves, the shuttlecock must pass over the short service line on the
opponents' court or it will count as a fault.
If the score reaches 20-all, then the game continues until one side gains a two point
lead (such as 2422), up to a maximum of 30 points (3029 is a winning score).
At the start of a match, the shuttlecock is cast and the side towards which the shuttlecock is
pointing serves first. Alternatively, a coin may be tossed, with the winners choosing whether
to serve or receive first, or choosing which end of the court to occupy, and their opponents
making the leftover the remaining choice.
In subsequent games, the winners of the previous game serve first. Matches are best
out of three: a player or pair must win two games (of 21 points each) to win the match. For the
first rally of any doubles game, the serving pair may decide who serves and the receiving pair
may decide who receives. The players change ends at the start of the second game; if the
match reaches a third game, they change ends both at the start of the game and when the
leading player's or pair's score reaches 11 points.
The server and receiver must remain within their service courts, without touching the
boundary lines, until the server strikes the shuttlecock. The other two players may stand
wherever they wish, so long as they do not block the vision of the server or receiver.

C. Equipment
Racquets
Badminton racquets are lightweight, with top quality racquets weighing between 70
and 95 grams (2.4 to 3.3 ounces) not including grip or strings. They are composed of many
different materials ranging from carbon fibre composite (graphite reinforced plastic) to solid
steel, which may be augmented by a variety of materials. Carbon fibre has an excellent
strength to weight ratio, is stiff, and gives excellent kinetic energy transfer. Before the
adoption of carbon fibre composite, racquets were made of light metals such as aluminium.
Earlier still, racquets were made of wood. Cheap racquets are still often made of metals such
as steel, but wooden racquets are no longer manufactured for the ordinary market, because of
their excessive mass and cost. Nowadays, nanomaterials such as fullerene and carbon
nanotubes are added to rackets giving them greater durability.
There is a wide variety of racquet designs, although the laws limit the racquet size and
shape. Different racquets have playing characteristics that appeal to different players. The
traditional oval head shape is still available, but an isometric head shape is increasingly
common in new racquets.

Strings
Badminton strings are thin, high performing strings in the range of about 0.62 to 0.73
mm thickness. Thicker strings are more durable, but many players prefer the feel of thinner
strings. String tension is normally in the range of 80 to 160 N (18 to 36 lbf). Recreational
players generally string at lower tensions than professionals, typically between 80 and 110 N
(18 and 25 lbf). Professionals string between about 110 and 160 N (25 and 36 lbf). Some
string manufacturers measure the thickness of their strings under tension so they are actually
thicker then than specified when slack. Ashaway Micropower is actually 0.7mm but Yonex
BG-66 is about 0.72mm.
It is often argued that high string tensions improve control, whereas low string tensions
increase power. The arguments for this generally rely on crude mechanical reasoning, such as
claiming that a lower tension string bed is more bouncy and therefore provides more power.
This is in fact incorrect, for a higher string tension can cause the shuttle to slide off the racquet
and hence make it harder to hit a shot accurately. An alternative view suggests that the
optimum tension for power depends on the player: the faster and more accurately a player can
swing their racquet, the higher the tension for maximum power. Neither view has been
subjected to a rigorous mechanical analysis, nor is there clear evidence in favour of one or the
other. The most effective way for a player to find a good string tension is to experiment.

Grip
The choice of grip allows a player to increase the thickness of his racquet handle and
choose a comfortable surface to hold. A player may build up the handle with one or several
grips before applying the final layer.
Players may choose between a variety of grip materials. The most common choices are
PU synthetic grips or towelling grips. Grip choice is a matter of personal preference. Players
often find that sweat becomes a problem; in this case, a drying agent may be applied to the
grip or hands, sweatbands may be used, the player may choose another grip material or change
his grip more frequently.
There are two main types of grip: replacement grips and overgrips. Replacement grips
are thicker, and are often used to increase the size of the handle. Overgrips are thinner (less
than 1 mm), and are often used as the final layer. Many players, however, prefer to use
replacement grips as the final layer. Towelling grips are always replacement grips.
Replacement grips have an adhesive backing, whereas overgrips have only a small patch of
adhesive at the start of the tape and must be applied under tension; overgrips are more
convenient for players who change grips frequently, because they may be removed more
rapidly without damaging the underlying material.

Shuttlecocks with feathers

A shuttlecock (often abbreviated to shuttle; also called a birdie) is a high-drag
projectile, with an open conical shape: the cone is formed from sixteen overlapping feathers
embedded into a rounded cork base. The cork is covered with thin leather or synthetic
material.
Synthetic shuttles are often used by recreational players to reduce their costs as
feathered shuttles break easily. These nylon shuttles may be constructed with either natural
cork or synthetic foam base, and a plastic skirt.

Shoes
Badminton shoes are lightweight with soles of rubber or similar high-grip, non-
marking materials.
Compared to running shoes, badminton shoes have little lateral support. High levels of
lateral support are useful for activities where lateral motion is undesirable and unexpected.
Badminton, however, requires powerful lateral movements. A highly built-up lateral support
will not be able to protect the foot in badminton; instead, it will encourage catastrophic
collapse at the point where the shoe's support fails, and the player's ankles are not ready for
the sudden loading, which can cause sprains. For this reason, players should choose
badminton shoes rather than general trainers or running shoes, because proper badminton
shoes will have a very thin sole, lower a person's centre of gravity, and therefore result in
fewer injuries. Players should also ensure that they learn safe and proper footwork, with the
knee and foot in alignment on all lunges. This is more than just a safety concern: proper
footwork is also critical in order to move effectively around the court.

D. Strategy
Doubles
Both pairs will try to gain and maintain the attack, smashing downwards when
possible. Whenever possible, a pair will adopt an ideal attacking formation with one player
hitting down from the rearcourt, and his partner in the midcourt intercepting all smash returns
except the lift. If the rearcourt attacker plays a dropshot, his partner will move into the
forecourt to threaten the net reply. If a pair cannot hit downwards, they will use flat strokes in
an attempt to gain the attack. If a pair is forced to lift or clear the shuttlecock, then they must
defend: they will adopt a side-by-side position in the rear midcourt, to cover the full width of
their court against the opponents' smashes. In doubles, players generally smash to the middle
ground between two players in order to take advantage of confusion and clashes.
At high levels of play, the backhand serve has become popular to the extent that
forehand serves have become fairly rare at a high level of play. The straight low serve is used
most frequently, in an attempt to prevent the opponents gaining the attack immediately. Flick
serves are used to prevent the opponent from anticipating the low serve and attacking it
decisively.
At high levels of play, doubles rallies are extremely fast. Men's doubles is the most
aggressive form of badminton, with a high proportion of powerful jump smashes.

Single
The singles court is narrower than the doubles court, but the same length. Since one
person needs to cover the entire court, singles tactics are based on forcing the opponent to
move as much as possible; this means that singles strokes are normally directed to the corners
of the court. Players exploit the length of the court by combining lifts and clears with drop
shots and net shots. Smashing tends to be less prominent in singles than in doubles because
the smasher has no partner to follow up his effort and is thus vulnerable to a skillfully placed
return. Moreover, frequent smashing can be exhausting in singles where the conservation of a
player's energy is at a premium. However, players with strong smashes will sometimes use the
shot to create openings, and players commonly smash weak returns to try to end rallies.
In singles, players will often start the rally with a forehand high serve or with a flick
serve. Low serves are also used frequently, either forehand or backhand. Drive serves are rare.
At high levels of play, singles demands extraordinary fitness. Singles is a game of
patient positional manoeuvring, unlike the all-out aggression of doubles.

E. Governing Bodies
The Badminton World Federation (BWF) is the internationally recognized governing
body of the sport. Five regional confederations are associated with the BWF:
Asia: Badminton Asia Confederation (BAC)
Africa: Badminton Confederation of Africa (BCA)
Americas: Badminton Pan Am (North America and South America belong to the same
confederation; BPA)
Europe: Badminton Europe (BE)
Oceania: Badminton Oceania (BO)
 FOOD/BEVERAGE
ICE CREAM

Ice cream (derived from earlier iced cream or cream ice) is a frozen dessert usually
made from dairy products, such as milk and cream, and often combined with fruits or other
ingredients and flavours. Most varieties contain sugar, although some are made with other
sweeteners. In some cases, artificial flavourings and colourings are used in addition to, or
instead of, the natural ingredients. The mixture of chosen ingredients is stirred slowly while
cooling, in order to incorporate air and to prevent large ice crystals from forming. The result is
a smoothly textured semi-solid foam that is malleable and can be scooped.
The meaning of the phrase "ice cream" varies from one country to another. Phrases
such as "frozen custard", "frozen yogurt", "sorbet", "gelato" and others are used to distinguish
different varieties and styles. In some countries, such as the United States, the phrase "ice
cream" applies only to a specific variety, and most governments regulate the commercial use
of the various terms according to the relative quantities of the main ingredients. In other
countries, such as Italy and Argentina, one word is used for all variants. Analogues made from
dairy alternatives, such as goat's or sheep's milk, or milk substitutes, are available for those
who are lactose intolerant, allergic to dairy protein, or vegan. The most popular flavours of ice
cream are vanilla and chocolate.

A. History
Ice cream's origins are known to reach back as far as the second century B.C., although
no specific date of origin nor inventor has been undisputably credited with its discovery. We
know that Alexander the Great enjoyed snow and ice flavored with honey and nectar. Biblical
references also show that King Solomon was fond of iced drinks during harvesting. During the
Roman Empire, Nero Claudius Caesar (A.D. 54-86) frequently sent runners into the
mountains for snow, which was then flavored with fruits and juices.
Over a thousand years later, Marco Polo returned to Italy from the Far East with a
recipe that closely resembled what is now called sherbet. Historians estimate that this recipe
evolved into ice cream sometime in the 16th century. England seems to have discovered ice
cream at the same time, or perhaps even earlier than the Italians. "Cream Ice," as it was called,
appeared regularly at the table of Charles I during the 17th century. France was introduced to
similar frozen desserts in 1553 by the Italian Catherine de Medici when she became the wife
of Henry II of France. It wasn't until 1660 that ice cream was made available to the general
public. The Sicilian Procopio introduced a recipe blending milk, cream, butter and eggs at
Caf Procope, the first caf in Paris.

Ice Cream for America

The first official account of ice cream in the New World comes from a letter written in
1744 by a guest of Maryland Governor William Bladen. The first advertisement for ice cream
in this country appeared in the New York Gazette on May 12, 1777, when confectioner Philip
Lenzi announced that ice cream was available "almost every day." Records kept by a Chatham
Street, New York, merchant show that President George Washington spent approximately
$200 for ice cream during the summer of 1790. Inventory records of Mount Vernon taken after
Washington's death revealed "two pewter ice cream pots." President Thomas Jefferson was
said to have a favorite 18-step recipe for an ice cream delicacy that resembled a modern-day
Baked Alaska. Check out President Jefferson's vanilla ice cream recipe here. In 1813, Dolley
Madison served a magnificent strawberry ice cream creation at President Madison's second
inaugural banquet at the White House.
Until 1800, ice cream remained a rare and exotic dessert enjoyed mostly by the elite.
Around 1800, insulated ice houses were invented. Manufacturing ice cream soon became an
industry in America, pioneered in 1851 by a Baltimore milk dealer named Jacob Fussell. Like
other American industries, ice cream production increased because of technological
innovations, including steam power, mechanical refrigeration, the homogenizer, electric power
and motors, packing machines, and new freezing processes and equipment. In addition,
motorized delivery vehicles dramatically changed the industry. Due to ongoing technological
advances, today's total frozen dairy annual production in the United States is more than 1.6
billion gallons.
Wide availability of ice cream in the late 19th century led to new creations. In 1874,
the American soda fountain shop and the profession of the "soda jerk" emerged with the
invention of the ice cream soda. In response to religious criticism for eating "sinfully" rich ice
cream sodas on Sundays, ice cream merchants left out the carbonated water and invented the
ice cream "Sunday" in the late 1890's. The name was eventually changed to "sundae" to
remove any connection with the Sabbath.
Ice cream became an edible morale symbol during World War II. Each branch of the
military tried to outdo the others in serving ice cream to its troops. In 1945, the first "floating
ice cream parlor" was built for sailors in the western Pacific. When the war ended, and dairy
product rationing was lifted, America celebrated its victory with ice cream. Americans
consumed over 20 quarts of ice cream per person in 1946.
In the 1940s through the 70s, ice cream production was relatively constant in the
United States. As more prepackaged ice cream was sold through supermarkets, traditional ice
cream parlors and soda fountains started to disappear. Now, specialty ice cream stores and
unique restaurants that feature ice cream dishes have surged in popularity. These stores and
restaurants are popular with those who remember the ice cream shops and soda fountains of
days past, as well as with new generations of ice cream fans.

B. Production
Before the development of modern refrigeration, ice cream was a luxury reserved for
special occasions. Making it was quite laborious; ice was cut from lakes and ponds during the
winter and stored in holes in the ground, or in wood-frame or brick ice houses, insulated by
straw. Many farmers and plantation owners, including U.S. Presidents George Washington and
Thomas Jefferson, cut and stored ice in the winter for use in the summer. Frederic Tudor of
Boston turned ice harvesting and shipping into a big business, cutting ice in New England and
shipping it around the world.
Ice cream was made by hand in a large bowl placed inside a tub filled with ice and salt.
This was called the pot-freezer method. French confectioners refined the pot-freezer method,
making ice cream in a sorbetire (a covered pail with a handle attached to the lid). In the pot-
freezer method, the temperature of the ingredients is reduced by the mixture of crushed ice
and salt. The salt water is cooled by the ice, and the action of the salt on the ice causes it to
(partially) melt, absorbing latent heat and bringing the mixture below the freezing point of
pure water. The immersed container can also make better thermal contact with the salty water
and ice mixture than it could with ice alone.
The hand-cranked churn, which also uses ice and salt for cooling, replaced the pot-
freezer method. The exact origin of the hand-cranked freezer is unknown, but the first U.S.
patent for one was #3254 issued to Nancy Johnson on September 9, 1843. The hand-cranked
churn produced smoother ice cream than the pot freezer and did it quicker. Many inventors
patented improvements on Johnson's design.
In Europe and early America, ice cream was made and sold by small businesses,
mostly confectioners and caterers. Jacob Fussell of Baltimore, Maryland was the first to
manufacture ice cream on a large scale. Fussell bought fresh dairy products from farmers in
York County, Pennsylvania, and sold them in Baltimore. An unstable demand for his dairy
products often left him with a surplus of cream, which he made into ice cream. He built his
first ice cream factory in Seven Valleys, Pennsylvania, in 1851. Two years later, he moved his
factory to Baltimore. Later, he opened factories in several other cities and taught the business
to others, who operated their own plants. Mass production reduced the cost of ice cream and
added to its popularity.
The development of industrial refrigeration by German engineer Carl von Linde during
the 1870s eliminated the need to cut and store natural ice, and, when the continuous-process
freezer was perfected in 1926, commercial mass production of ice cream and the birth of the
modern ice cream industry was underway.
The most common method for producing ice cream at home is to use an ice cream
maker, in modern times, in general, an electrical device that churns the ice cream mixture
while cooled inside a household freezer, or using a solution of pre-frozen salt and water,
which gradually melts while the ice cream freezes. Some more expensive models have an
inbuilt freezing element. A newer method of making home-made ice cream is to add liquid
nitrogen to the mixture while stirring it using a spoon or spatula. Some ice cream recipes call
for making a custard, folding in whipped cream, and immediately freezing the mixture.

C. Commercial Delivery
Ice cream can be mass-produced and thus is widely available in developed parts of the
world. Ice cream can be purchased in large cartons (vats and squrounds) from supermarkets
and grocery stores, in smaller quantities from ice cream shops, convenience stores, and milk
 bars, and in individual servings from small carts or vans at public events. In Turkey and
Australia, ice cream is sometimes sold to beach-goers from small powerboats equipped with
chest freezers. Some ice cream distributors sell ice cream products from traveling
refrigerated vans or carts (commonly referred to in the US as "ice cream trucks"), sometimes
equipped with speakers playing children's music. Ice cream vans in the United Kingdom
make a music box noise rather than actual music.

D. Dietary
In the USA, ice cream may have the following composition:
greater than 10% milkfat and usually between 10% and as high as 16% fat in some
premium ice creams
9 to 12% milk solids-not-fat: this component, also known as the serum solids, contains
the proteins (caseins and whey proteins) and carbohydrates (lactose) found in milk
12 to 16% sweeteners: usually a combination of sucrose and glucose-based corn syrup
sweeteners
0.2 to 0.5% stabilisers and emulsifiers
55% to 64% water, which comes from the milk or other ingredients.
These compositions are percentage by weight. Since ice cream can contain as much as
half air by volume, these numbers may be reduced by as much as half if cited by volume.
In terms of dietary considerations, the percentages by weight are more relevant. Even the
low-fat products have high caloric content: Ben and Jerry's No-Fat Vanilla Fudge contains
150 calories (630 kJ) per half-cup due to its high sugar content.

E. Ice Cream Cone

Mrs Marshall's Cookery Book, published in 1888, endorsed serving ice cream in
cones, but the idea definitely predated that. Agnes Marshall was a celebrated cookery writer of
her day and helped to popularise ice cream. She patented and manufactured an ice cream
maker and was the first person to suggest using liquefied gases to freeze ice cream after seeing
a demonstration at the Royal Institution.
Reliable evidence proves that ice cream cones were served in the 19th century, and
their popularity increased greatly during the St. Louis World's Fair in 1904. According to
legend, at the World's Fair an ice cream seller had run out of the cardboard dishes used to put
ice cream scoops in, so they could not sell any more produce. Next door to the ice cream
booth was a Syrian waffle booth, unsuccessful due to intense heat; the waffle maker offered to
make cones by rolling up his waffles and the new product sold well, and was widely copied by
other vendors.
 HEALTH AND DISEASE
HIV/AIDS

Human immunodeficiency virus infection / acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

(HIV/AIDS) is a disease of the human immune system caused by the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV). During the initial infection a person may experience a brief
period of influenza-like illness. This is typically followed by a prolonged period without
symptoms. As the illness progresses it interferes more and more with the immune system,
making people much more likely to get infections, including opportunistic infections, and
tumors that do not usually affect people with working immune systems.
HIV is transmitted primarily via unprotected sexual intercourse (including anal and
even oral sex), contaminated blood transfusions and hypodermic needles, and from mother to
child during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding. Some bodily fluids, such as saliva and
tears, do not transmit HIV. Prevention of HIV infection, primarily through safe sex and
needle-exchange programs, is a key strategy to control the spread of the disease. There is no
cure or vaccine; however, antiretroviral treatment can slow the course of the disease and may
lead to a near-normal life expectancy. While antiretroviral treatment reduces the risk of death
and complications from the disease, these medications are expensive and may be associated
with side effects.
Genetic research indicates that HIV originated in west-central Africa during the early
twentieth century. AIDS was first recognized by the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) in 1981 and its causeHIV infectionwas identified in the early part of
the decade. Since its discovery, AIDS has caused nearly 30 million deaths (as of 2009). As of
2010, approximately 34 million people have contracted HIV globally. AIDS is considered a
pandemica disease outbreak which is present over a large area and is actively spreading.
HIV/AIDS has had a great impact on society, both as an illness and as a source of
discrimination. The disease also has significant economic impacts. There are many
misconceptions about HIV/AIDS such as the belief that it can be transmitted by casual non-
sexual contact. The disease has also become subject to many controversies involving religion.

A. Signs And Symptoms

Symptoms of AIDS are caused by the deterioration of the immune system and the decline
of CD4+ T cells, which are the immune system's key infection fighters. As soon as HIV
enters the body, it begins to destroy these cells. Some common symptoms include:
Diarrhea that lasts for more than a week
Dry cough
Memory loss, depression and neurological disorders
Pneumonia
Profound, unexplained fatigue
Rapid weight loss
 Recurring fever or profuse night sweats
Red, brown, pink or purplish blotches on or under the skin or inside the mouth, nose or
eyelids
Swollen lymph glands in the armpits, groin or neck
White spots or unusual blemishes on the tongue, in the mouth, or in the throat

Infections Associated with AIDS

Because people with AIDS have weakened immune systems, they're more prone to infections,
called opportunistic infections. Opportunistic infections are caused by organisms that typically
don't cause disease in healthy people but affect people with damaged immune systems. These
organisms attack when there's an opportunity to infect.
Deterioration of the immune system is caused by the decline in CD4+ T cells, which are key
infection fighters. As soon as HIV enters the body, it begins to destroy these cells.
Symptoms of opportunistic infections common with AIDS include:
Coma
Coughing and shortness of breath
Difficult or painful swallowing
Extreme fatigue
Fever
Mental symptoms such as confusion and forgetfulness
Nausea, abdominal cramps and vomiting
Seizures and lack of coordination
Severe, persistent diarrhea
Severe headaches
Vision loss
Weight loss
Many opportunistic infections associated with AIDS cause serious illness. Some may be
prevented. Below is a list of infections and how they affect the body.

B. Discovery
AIDS was first clinically observed in 1981 in the United States. The initial cases were
a cluster of injecting drug users and homosexual men with no known cause of impaired
immunity who showed symptoms of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP), a rare
opportunistic infection that was known to occur in people with very compromised immune
systems. Soon thereafter, an unexpected number of gay men developed a previously rare skin
cancer called Kaposi's sarcoma (KS). Many more cases of PCP and KS emerged, alerting U.S.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and a CDC task force was formed to
monitor the outbreak.
In the early days, the CDC did not have an official name for the disease, often referring
to it by way of the diseases that were associated with it, for example, lymphadenopathy, the
disease after which the discoverers of HIV originally named the virus. They also used
Kaposi's Sarcoma and Opportunistic Infections, the name by which a task force had been set
up in 1981. At one point, the CDC coined the phrase "the 4H disease", since the syndrome
seemed to affect Haitians, homosexuals, hemophiliacs, and heroin users. In the general press,
the term "GRID", which stood for gay-related immune deficiency, had been coined. However,
after determining that AIDS was not isolated to the gay community, it was realized that the
term GRID was misleading and the term AIDS was introduced at a meeting in July 1982. By
September 1982 the CDC started referring to the disease as AIDS.

Robert Gallo, co-discoverer of HIV in the early eighties among (from left to right)
Sandra Eva, Sandra Colombini, and Ersell Richardson.
In 1983, two separate research groups led by Robert Gallo and Luc Montagnier
independently declared that a novel retrovirus may have been infecting AIDS patients, and
published their findings in the same issue of the journal Science. Gallo claimed that a virus his
group had isolated from an AIDS patient was strikingly similar in shape to other human T-
lymphotropic viruses (HTLVs) his group had been the first to isolate. Gallo's group called
their newly isolated virus HTLV-III. At the same time, Montagnier's group isolated a virus
from a patient presenting with swelling of the lymph nodes of the neck and physical
weakness, two characteristic symptoms of AIDS. Contradicting the report from Gallo's group,
Montagnier and his colleagues showed that core proteins of this virus were immunologically
different from those of HTLV-I. Montagnier's group named their isolated virus
lymphadenopathy-associated virus (LAV). As these two viruses turned out to be the same, in
1986, LAV and HTLV-III were renamed HIV.

C. Transmissions
HIV is transmitted when the virus enters the body, usually by injecting infected cells or
semen. There are several possible ways in which the virus can enter.

Most commonly, HIV infection is spread by having sex with an infected partner. The
virus can enter the body through the lining of the vagina, vulva, penis, rectum, or mouth
during sex. Although intercourse is the primary risk factor, oral sex transmission is also
possible.

HIV frequently spreads among injection-drug users who share needles or syringes that
are contaminated with blood from an infected person.

Women can transmit HIV to their babies during pregnancy or birth, when infected
maternal cells enter the baby's circulation, or through breastfeeding.

HIV can be spread in health-care settings through accidental needle sticks or contact with
contaminated fluids.
 Very rarely, HIV spreads through transfusion of contaminated blood or blood
components. All blood products are tested to minimize this risk. If tissues or organs from
an infected person are transplanted, the recipient may acquire HIV. Donors are now
tested for HIV to minimize this risk.

HIV has been spread when organs from an infected person are transplanted into an
uninfected recipient. Because donors are tested for HIV routinely in the United States,
this does not usually happen. However, a recent incident in Taiwan occurred when the
HIV test results for the donor were mistakenly thought to have been negative.

People who already have a sexually transmitted infections, such as syphilis,genital

herpes, chlamydial infection, human papillomavirus (HPV), gonorrhea, or bacterial
vaginosis, are more likely to acquire HIV infection during sex with an infected partner.

The virus does not spread through casual contact such as preparing food, sharing towels
and bedding, or via swimming pools, telephones, or toilet seats. The virus is also unlikely
to be spread by contact with saliva, unless it is contaminated with blood.

D. AIDS Treatments And Medications

At this time, there is no cure for AIDS, but medications are effective in fighting HIV
and its complications. Treatments are designed to reduce HIV in your body, keep your
immune system as healthy as possible and decrease the complications you may develop.

You and your doctor will work together to develop a treatment plan that best meets your
needs. Three main factors will be considered when designing your treatment plan:

Your willingness and readiness to begin therapy

The stage of your disease

Other health problems

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved a number of drugs for
treating HIV and AIDS. It's important that you take your medications exactly as prescribed.
This is a crucial part of your treatment success. Our program offers pharmacy services to help
you maintain your drug regimen and to answer any questions you may have.

Most medications have side effects, which your doctor will discuss with you.
Individuals respond differently to medications and side effects may vary. Our doctors, nurses
and pharmacists can help you manage these side effects.

Although there is no cure for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS),

medications have been highly effective in fighting HIV and its complications. Drug treatments
help reduce the HIV virus in your body, keep your immune system as healthy as possible and
decrease the complications you may develop.

Some of the drugs approved by the FDA for treating HIV and AIDS are listed below :

Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NRTI)

 Protease Inhibitors (PI)

Fusion Inhibitors

SOCIAL ISSUE

Pro Contra of Cloning

Cloning in biology is the process of producing similar populations of genetically

identical individuals that occurs in nature when organisms such as bacteria, insects or plants
reproduce asexually. Cloning in biotechnology refers to processes used to create copies of
DNA fragments (molecular cloning), cells (cell cloning), or organisms. The term also refers to
the production of multiple copies of a product such as digital media or software.
The term clone is derived from the Ancient Greek word (kln, twig), referring
to the process whereby a new plant can be created from a twig. In horticulture, the spelling
clon was used until the twentieth century; the final e came into use to indicate the vowel is a
"long o" instead of a "short o". Since the term entered the popular lexicon in a more general
context, the spelling clone has been used exclusively.
In botany, the term lusus was traditionally used.
In the United States, the human consumption of meat and other products from cloned
animals was approved by the FDA on December 28, 2006, with no special labeling required.
Such practice has met strong resistance in other regions, such as Europe, particularly over the
labeling issue.
Cloning is not new and experiments with frogs and toads date back to the 1970s .
Experiments involving plants and animal embryos have been performed for years, yet
experiments involving human beings have never been tried or thought possible, until "Dolly".
Her birth shocked the scientific community and has spurred discussion about the possibility of
human clones.
When the first cloned sheep, Dolly, hit the news, most eyes popped-out in sheer
disbelief. Decades back, cloning was only discussed in scientific circles and no one ever
imagined that it would soon become a reality. In simple terms, cloning can be understood as
production of genetic copies which can develop genetically identical human organisms. A
cloned organism, or group of organisms, is composed or cloned using the exact genetic
material as the original organism(s). Ever since cloning became a possibility, its pros and cons
have been fervently debated over on moral, ethical and technical grounds. In case you want to
know the possible advantages and disadvantages of cloning.

Cloning Pros
Cloning body parts can become a life-saver. The vital organs of human body can be
cloned and used as back-up in case of an organ failure. When a crucial body organ
such as kidney or heart fails to perform its normal functions, it can be replaced with a
cloned organ substitute.
 Cloning can also provide a viable solution to infertility in human beings. It can help
the infertile individuals in producing children. Cloned embryos can be planted into
womens bodies to produce babies. Also, cloning can make it possible to reproduce a
certain desirable trait in human beings through the cloned embryo.
Technologies used in cloning can also serve a useful purpose for the researchers in
genetics. Cloning technologies may help to understand the composition of genes and
their effect on human traits and behavior in a more comprehensive and elaborate
manner. Cloning can also make it possible to alter genetic constituents in cloned
humans, so as to simplify their analysis of genes. A wide range of genetic diseases can
be averted through cloning.
Genetic alteration of plants and animals can also be enabled by cloning. It can also
help to replicate animals that can be used for research purposes by scientists.

Cloning Cons
Since cloning creates identical genes and it is a process of replicating a complete
genetic constitution, it can significantly hamper the much needed DNA diversity in
human beings. The lessening of genes diversity will weaken our adaptation ability.
Similarly, cloning will also severely affect diversity in plants and animals. A cloned
species may not know how to react to viruses and other destructive agents as scientists
cannot predict such potential developments.
By allowing man to interfere with genetics in human beings, cloning raises a
concerning probability of deliberate reproduction of undesirable traits in human
beings, if so desired. Cloning of body organs opens the possibility of malpractices in
medical fraternity.
Technical and economic barriers need a consideration in cloning human organs for
transplant. Cloned organs may not be cost-effective for a good part of human society.
The benefits of cloning techniques reaching the common man remain a big question
mark.
On the moral and ethical front as well, cloning raises several serious questions. It
devalues man-kind, as a new birth is a natural process, and seriously undermines the
value of human life.

Advantages of Cloning
1. Potential benefits to modern medicine
Even today, the full potential of stem cells has not been fully explored. The issue of
stem cells has led to controversy because embryos are generally used and they have to be
destroyed for the cells to be used. However, a number of researchers believe that stem cells
will eventually change the face of medicine as we know it. Given the fact that the cells can be
manipulated to mimic other types of cells, this can provide new ways to treat diseases like
cancer and Alzheimers.
 Cloning also offers hope to persons needing organ transplants. People requiring organ
transplants to survive an illness often wait years for a suitable donor. In many cases these
patients die waiting, as there are long lists of people requiring organs. Theoretically, cloning
could eliminate this by producing more animals that can act as suitable donors. Pig livers have
been successfully transplanted to human beings, as an interim measure until a human liver is
found. Additionally, cloning of these animals not put a burden on the worlds food supply.
2. Helping interfile couples
Cloning offers couples dealing with fertility the chance to have a child of their own.
Many infertile couples cant be helped by the techniques currently available. In fact, although
some states have already banned human cloning because of ethical issues, more couples
struggling to have children are starting to consider the possibilities that cloning offer.
3. Reverse the aging process
Cloning is being touted as a future answer to reverse the effects of
aging.Theantiaging market is a prime target becuase it is alreay a multibillion industry.

4. Protecting Endangered Species

Despite the best efforts of conservationists worldwide, some species are nearing
extinction. The successful cloning of Dolly represents the first step in protecting endangered
wildlife.

5. Improving food supply

Cloning could provide a means of cultivating plants that are stronger and more
resistant to diseases, while producing more. The same could happen to livestock as well where
diseases such as foot and mouth disease could be eradicated.Cloning could therefore
effectively solve the worlds food problem and minimize or possible eadicate starvation.

Disadvantages of cloning

1. The Element of Uncertainty

While the cloning of Dolly was seen as a success story, many embryos were destroyed
before the desired result was achieved. The process started with 277 eggs, and Dolly was the
single successful outcome. Regardless of success in other areas, the field of cloning still has a
long way to go. Infertile couples for example, could go through the same heartache as they
would if in vitro fertilization failed.

2. Inheriting diseases

Cloning creates a copy of the original. A human clone would therefore inherit the
genetic traits of its predecessor. This includes genetic abnormalities and diseases. Dolly the
sheep for example exhibited signs of what some suggested were premature aging, although
this was firmly denied by her developers.
 3. The Potential for Abuse

If human cloning became a reality what checks and balances would be put in place to
prevent abuse? Would scientists go overboard with the technology? If a couple has a clone
that they are not happy with, what would they do next? These are all questions that must be
raised in any discussion on cloning. Some have expressed the view that clones could be grown
in a farm-like fashion simply for harvesting organs or stem cells. The potential for devaluing
human life cannot be ignored.

Cloning, like so many other issues that have faced modern science, must be carefully
evaluated. There will always be detractors, those who feel that anyone involved in cloning is
playing God. And this may not be too far from the truth. However, any discussion on cloning
must be looked at in the context of its inherent value to mankind.