Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management

Vol. 30, No. 1, February 2008, 2539

Policy options for managing international student migration: the sending

countrys perspective
Cate Gribble*

RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia

A consequence of the dramatic rise in international student mobility is the

trend for international students to remain in the country in which they study
after graduation. Countries such as Australia, the UK and Canada stand
to benefit from international student migration, as they are able to fill skill
shortages with locally trained foreign students who also expand the demand for
goods and services and add to gross national production. The effects on the
sending country, however, are potentially less favourable and the emigration of
highly educated people can have a detrimental effect, depleting an already scarce
resource. However, more recently it has been suggested that an increasing
proportion of migratory movement is temporary and that sending countries may
benefit from circular or temporary migration via financial remittances,
technology transfer, entrepreneurial partnering, and the development of personal
networks and diplomatic ties. This paper will consider the impacts of
international student migration on sending countries and discuss the policy
responses that various sending countries have employed in attempt to regulate
student migration.
Keywords: brain drain; higher education policy; immigration policy; international
education; international student mobility; skilled migration

Introduction
A consequence of the dramatic rise in international student mobility is the growing
trend for international students to remain in the country in which they study after
graduation. Just a few decades ago, students who studied abroad did so largely via
aid programs and were expected to return home to become leaders, maintaining
close political, diplomatic and trade links with the countries where they studied.
International education was considered an opportunity to study for public rather
than individual gain. However, the profile of international students has shifted
significantly. Today, the large majority of international students are self-funded and,
although some do return home to make a positive contribution to their homeland,
there are indications that many are choosing to remain (Lowell et al., 2004; DIMA,
2006; OECD, 2006). Declining fertility rates, ageing populations and skill shortages
in key areas have led many receiving countries to view international students as a
tempting solution to labour shortages with many tailoring their immigration policies
to facilitate student migration. Many international students now consider overseas
study a stepping stone to permanent residency in a country offering a higher
standard of living along with better employment and research opportunities.
Although opinion varies on the overall impact of highly skilled migration, there
is a general consensus that the movement of the highly skilled is now a key feature of

*Email: cate.gribble@rmit.edu.au

ISSN 1360-080X print/ISSN 1469-9508 online

2008 Association for Tertiary Education Management
DOI: 10.1080/13600800701457830
http://www.informaworld.com
26 C. Gribble

increasingly globalised education and labour markets (OECD, 2002; Lowell et al.,
2004; Kapur & McHale, 2005). The challenge for many developing countries is to
formulate policies that take full advantage of the positive consequences of increased
student mobility while limiting any negative effects associated with an outflow of
highly educated people in the globalised education and labour markets. Although
some developing countries are grappling with the outflow of students and academic
labour, other countries have adopted policies that attempt to regulate the movement
of students. This paper maps the policy options currently employed by those sending
countries experiencing a significant outflow of tertiary students, revealing the
diversity of approaches available.

International student mobility: contributing factors, current and predicted trends

A number of factors have contributed to the recent growth in the number of students
studying abroad. In many developing countries there has been an under-supply of
university places, largely the result of emerging economies being unable to satisfy the
demand for tertiary education, leaving many students with no choice but to study
abroad. In addition, families and students in many developing countries expect that
foreign study will confer professional and business advantages. Falling costs in
transportation and advances in communication technology have also made studying
abroad more accessible. Tertiary education has become a major global export
commodity and developed countries have been quick to capitalise on the domestic
shortages in many developing countries by actively recruiting foreign students.
According to recent OECD data, in 2004 2.7 million tertiary students were enrolled
outside their country of citizenship (OECD, 2006a,b) and projections indicate that
this number may double by 2015 (IIE, 2005). The OECD estimates that the higher
education market in its member states is conservatively worth some US$40 billion
annually (UNESCOPRESS, 2005) with the USA, the UK and Australia leading the
way in the provision of international education (Hatakenaka, 2004).
For many developed countries the international student market has become not
only an important source of revenue for local economies but also a way of
addressing skill shortages in key areas. In Australia, for example, significant
numbers of international students are applying for permanent residency, taking
advantage of changes in Australias immigration policy. The policy, introduced in
2001, allows foreign students permanent residency if they apply within 6 months of
completing their course and if they meet the selection criteria (DIMA, 2006). The
New Zealand government also recently announced changes to their immigration
policy that will make international student graduates in areas of skill shortages
eligible for work permits (New Zealand Department of Labour, 2005). In 2005 the
Canadian government announced measures to boost international student numbers
and alleviate skilled labour shortages in rural areas. International students studying
in Canada are now able to work while studying and can apply for a 2-year work
permit upon graduation on the condition they work outside major cities (MacLeod,
2005). In the UK the government has adopted a managed migration policy;
migration policy designed to respond to the skill needs of the UK labour market.
Policy initiatives include the Science and Engineering Graduates Scheme aimed at
encouraging non-European Economic Area national science and engineering
graduates of UK universities to pursue their careers in the United Kingdom, and
 Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management 27

the introduction of 2-year extensions for overseas graduates from Scottish

universities, who will be permitted to work or set up a business (Home Office, 2006).
The tendency for international students to seek temporary or permanent
migration status upon graduation is on the rise. Studies have shown that the
experience of studying abroad increases significantly the likelihood of being a skilled
migrant at some stage in the future (Vertovec, 2002). In the United States recent data
show that only 50% of overseas students return home after completing their
qualification (Lowell et al., 2004). Close to half the migrants who come to Australia
on the skilled migration programme are former students (DIMA, 2006) and,
according to a recent OECD report, student migration has increased in a number of
OECD countries, including Denmark, Sweden and Japan (DIMA, 2006; OECD,
2006ab). For many students, the choice to study abroad is often part of a deliberate
immigration strategy that is often facilitated by the immigration polices of the host
country (Tremblay, 2005).

Impact of international student migration on sending and receiving countries

Receiving countries stand to benefit considerably from international student
migration primarily via revenue generated through fee-paying international students
and the availability of locally qualified skilled migrants after graduation.
International student migrants often go on to make a considerable contribution to
their new country. For example, in the United States international students have
been pivotal to the advancement of science and engineering, as evidenced by the
numbers of patents, publications and Nobel prizes, and are integral to the US science
and engineering enterprise via their research and academic work in universities, as
well as in industry and government (National Academies, 2005).
The loss of students has traditionally been seen to have a detrimental impact on
sending countries by depleting an already scarce resource. Although most of the
literature focuses broadly on skilled migration, the discussion of academic migration
highlights its particular importance because of the critical role that academics and
students play in enhancing research and innovation and translating that innovation
into commercial ideas and products, as well as promoting organisational
development and planning (Nunn, 2005). Academic labour is also essential if a
country is to successfully train other vital professionals who will go on to contribute
to building institutions and developing social and human capacity for development
(Nunn, 2005). In sum, the migration of significant numbers of students and scholars
represents a potentially significant loss to the sending country.
Although some of the literature suggests that the impact of highly skilled
migration on sending countries is largely negative, a growing body of research
proposes that sending countries can also benefit from educating their citizens
abroad. The term brain circulation is used to describe the increasingly circular
nature of migration. A growing proportion of migratory movement is temporary,
with many migrants maintaining financial, cultural and sometimes political links
with their home country. Increased student mobility improves access to higher
education in sending countries by addressing unmet demand at little cost to the
sending country. Sending countries may also benefit from financial remittances,
technology transfer, entrepreneurial partnering, and the development of personal
networks and diplomatic ties (Hugo, 2003).
28 C. Gribble

However, others have warned against overstating the benefits that in-
creased student mobility and student migration may bring to sending countries.
In Give Us Your Best and Brightest Kapur and McHale (2005) challenge the idea
that developing countries stand to benefit from any significant outflow of
talent, emphasising the vital role that the highly educated play in en-
suring innovation, building institutions and implementing programmes that
they identify as the key pillars of long-term development. Others have
suggested that by focusing on countries like China and India, there is the
danger of painting an over-optimistic view of trends taking place in skilled
migration, stressing that few countries in the developing world have economies
the size of China and India, and that the relocation of production of knowledge-
intensive industries outside the industrial world is limited to but a few
nations (Egron-Polak, 2004). The flow of students across borders is set to continue
and with it the risk that a large proportion will remain. Sending countries concerned
by this potential loss of talent need to develop policies that will enable them to
manage the flow of international students, limiting any negative consequences and
allowing them to benefit from the positive elements of increased international
student mobility.

Policy options: retain, return and engage

An analysis of the literature surrounding international student migration reveals
that, from a policy perspective, sending countries have three main options when it
comes to regulating the flow of students. Governments can attempt to retain
students at the tertiary level by ensuring that they do the greater part of their tertiary
studies in their home country, therefore reducing the likelihood of student migration,
although not necessarily the graduate migration flow. The second option is to allow
or even encourage students to pursue tertiary studies abroad and then promote their
return home. This approach requires the adoption of polices that will facilitate
student repatriation. The third option is to accept that many students may not return
upon graduation and employ policies that will enable student migrants to contribute
to their home countrys development from afar. These three policy options will now
be examined in greater detail.

Retain
In order to retain tertiary students, sending countries need to gain an understanding
of the circumstances that have led to any student outflow, and develop appropriate
policy responses accordingly. Although the education and migration policies of
many receiving countries are clearly facilitating the growth in international student
migration, domestic circumstances are also very influential in determining a sending
countrys ability to retain tertiary students and academics. Insufficient domestic
supply, real or perceived advantages associated with foreign degrees, and a domestic
environment that fails to support and encourage research, innovation and
entrepreneurship are some of the factors that have been linked to increased student
mobility and subsequent migration. If sending countries are able to address these key
issues then they are more likely to succeed in containing any student brain drain that
may be taking place.
 Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management 29

Expanding and strengthening higher education

Expanding and strengthening domestic tertiary education options is critical for
sending countries wishing to limit the number of students who go abroad to study
and, therefore, reduce the level of international student migration. There are a
number of ways that sending countries can increase domestic capacity. One option is
to increase funding for the domestic tertiary sector. Beginning in the late 1990s,
China has invested heavily in higher education with the aim of making nine top
Chinese universities world-class. It appears that this investment is having the desired
effect with Chinese students, citing the improvement of Chinese higher education as
an important factor in their decision to stay home for advanced study (Ryan &
Dodd, 2005). However, China is an exceptional case and very few sending countries
have the type of budgetary resources required for this scale of investment. An
alternative for poorer countries is to pool their resources and make use of advances
in technology in order to expand domestic higher education.
Access to tertiary education is a serious problem in sub-Saharan Africa. The
region has the lowest tertiary enrolment rate and the highest outbound mobility rate
with one out of sixteen students studying abroad (UNESCO Institute for Statistics,
2006). However, there are examples of initiatives that aim to increase tertiary
participation levels and reduce outflows of tertiary students. The African Virtual
University (AVU) is an example of countries sharing resources in order to achieve
the common goal of increasing access to tertiary education on a continent where less
than 5% of students have access to tertiary education (Bloom et al., 2006). The AVU
began as a World Bank project and is now an independent inter-governmental
organisation linking 57 learning entres in 27 African countries. The AVUs mission is
to build capabilities in key areas by providing programmes in computer science and
business studies from leading international institutions through a technology-based
distance education network (African Virtual University, 2005). In 2004 approxi-
mately 1500 students were enrolled in AVU programmes, with the AVU aiming to
increase enrolments in degree/diploma programmes to 48 477 by the year 2009
(ONSD 2004). The project has had to overcome a number of challenges, including
the issue of accreditation, the high costs involved in delivering programmes via
satellite-broadcast technologies and the capacity for local telecommunications
systems to adequately support such a project. Some have also suggested that the
AVU model is not an appropriate cultural fit for the African context (Oketch, 2004).
Despite these hurdles and the criticisms levelled at the AVU, most commentators
agree that increasing domestic capacity in African institutions via ICT-based
distance education is a worthy approach if it takes into account the local context
(Juma, 2003).

Encourage and support cross-border provision

Encouraging cross-border provision is another option for sending countries wishing
to expand domestic capacity. Cross-border provision can take a number of forms.
Domestic institutions can partner with foreign providers to offer joint programmes,
foreign institutions can establish branch campuses or offer programmes through e-
learning or distance learning. Cross-border education can provide a number of
benefits to the sending country. Not only can foreign providers help cater for unmet
demand, they may also offer students study choices that are not available locally
30 C. Gribble

owing to budgetary constraints or lack of domestic expertise. Foreign providers may

also have a positive impact on the higher education sector in the importing country
by developing capacity in teaching, curriculum design and research. Foreign
providers may have access to research funds that stand to benefit domestic students,
academics and local business and industry. Research at domestic universities in
Hong Kong, China and Singapore has benefited considerably from links established
with international universities (Vincent-Lancrin, 2005).
Although courses offered by foreign providers are generally more expensive than
private domestic courses, the costs associated with programme and institution
mobility are certainly lower than those associated with student mobility, which
involves high living costs, the possibility of higher tuition fees and greater risk of
brain drain if the student remains abroad. The issue of equity may be addressed by
offering scholarships to disadvantaged students wishing to enrol in foreign
programmes or institutions. Another possibility is for sending country governments
to use development assistance funds to support cross-border education (Vincent-
Lancrin, 2005)
Malaysia is an excellent example of a country that has used cross-border
education as a way of catering for the unmet demand for tertiary education. The
rapid growth of Malaysias economy in recent years has resulted in a surge in
demand for tertiary education. In the past, the Malaysian government encouraged
students to study abroad by providing extensive scholarships. However, more
recently, the government has sought to attract foreign institutions and programmes
to Malaysia thereby creating more tertiary options for students locally, as well as
building the capacity of domestic institutions. This strategy has resulted in a reduced
outflow of students and foreign currency, as well as increased local capacity (Ziguras
& Law, 2006). There are also indications that Malaysia is drawing on its experience
as an importer of education to establish itself as an exporter of education, primarily
in the region but, increasingly, to other Islamic countries (Vincent-Lancrin, 2004).
Singapore, China and Hong Kong have successfully adopted similar capacity
building approaches.

Matching investment in higher education with investment in R&D

The availability of both high-quality education and attractive employment
opportunities is essential for sending countries wishing to retain students. It is
important that investment in higher education is matched with investment in
research and development, providing employment opportunities for graduates.
Brazil has been highly successful in both retaining students and attracting regional
talent by investing in higher education and research, as well as promoting domestic
opportunities. Brazil spends 1% of its GDP on research and development and the
current government aims to double this figure by the end of its term (Massarani,
2002). Brazil has also implemented a number of programmes aimed at growing the
sector by expanding funding, increasing the profile of science and technology and
supporting young scientists. Examples of such initiatives include a national
programme with the aim of popularising science and ProDoc, a programme that
provides jobs for young science and technology postgraduates (Massarani, 2002).
Diverting taxes from selected industries into spending on research and development
is another example of Brazils commitment to expanding this sector and therefore
 Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management 31

providing opportunities for graduates (Moreira, 2003). High-quality tertiary

education and an environment that supports and encourages research and
innovation has led Brazil to become a regional hub for higher education, attracting
large numbers of foreign students and researchers (Saravia & Miranda, 2004).
Singapores goal to build a world-class higher-education system that will feed
into its evolving and expanding knowledge economy has led the government to
invest heavily in education, establish strategic links with some of the worlds most
prestigious universities, as well as creating a research environment that is
characterised by outstanding infrastructure, generous research funding, lucrative
salaries and a promise of academic freedom. These policies have resulted in fewer
Singaporeans studying abroad and increasing numbers of students from outside of
Singapore, mainly from neighbouring Asian countries, deciding to study in
Singapore (AEI, 2005; Ping, 2006).

Return
Return migration is thought to generate significant benefits for the migrant sending
country. Students who go abroad acquire valuable skills and knowledge that can
contribute to development in the sending country. During their time abroad students
may also develop important links with overseas tertiary institutions, leading to
opportunities for cooperative research and future academic exchange. Links with
commerce and industry in the receiving country may also generate business and
commercial opportunities that benefit the sending country. Given the contribution
that returning students may make to their home country, the goal of many
developing countries is to encourage students to return home after graduation, if not
permanently, at least for the purpose of collaboration and sharing knowledge. There
are a number of policy options that sending countries can adopt in order to
encourage return migration.

Bonding arrangements and other stipulations

Requiring students to return home as a condition of assistance is a strategy used by
some sending countries, particularly for Government and aid agency-funded
students; however, such stipulations are often difficult to enforce. Some critics of
bonding arrangements have also warned of the dangers of restricting the movement
of students, noting that such policies may prevent the cross-fertilisation of ideas and
result in self-imposed intellectual isolation (CEC-UKOSA, 2000). The sandwich
training model is another strategy used to encourage students to remain in their
home country. A number of universities in Europe have pioneered the sandwich
training model as a means of lowering costs and increasing the returnee rate. This
approach allows PhD students in developing countries to take a year of postgraduate
course preparation at their home university, travel overseas for 12 to 18 months to
pursue further course work and then return home for thesis research. The student
and local co-supervisor travel between the home country and Europe as required
during the 4-year programme. This has the advantage of allowing the student to
focus on national priorities while building capacity and decreasing the chances of a
brain drain (Kupfer et al., 2004).
32 C. Gribble

Repatriation schemes
A number of developing countries have repatriation schemes to assist post-doctoral
scholars and scientists re-integrate. Some of these schemes are government funded
whereas others are a mix of government and private sector funding. These
programmes may include additional funding, as well as assistance in establishing
links with institutions. Mexicos National Council of Science and Technology has an
initiative that repatriates recent PhD graduates and increases the salaries of
productive academics (Lowell et al., 2004). Growing prosperity and extensive
government efforts have persuaded many Chinese students to return home. Under
the slogan improving services for returned students the government offers a range
of incentives, including employment introduction centres for returned students,
generous salary and housing packages, increased support for scientific research, and
greater contractual flexibility for students to move between jobs or research centres
(Zweig & Fung, 2004). However, programmes and facilities aimed at luring back
students and academics can raise the ire of those who stayed behind who, generally,
are not eligible for such programmes. In China programmes for returned students
and academics are said to have created some hostility between those who went
abroad and those who chose to remain behind (Zweig & Fung, 2004).

Fostering strong R&D environments

Sending countries need to create opportunities for returning students. Those newly
industrialised countries that have had considerable success in attracting returnees
have all invested considerably in research and innovation. China doubled its
spending on research and development between 1995 and 2002, and Korea has
committed to doubling its investment between 2003 and 2007. India is also
expanding its science and technology sector and this years budget included US$4.5
billion for science and technology research, an increase of 16% from the previous
year. Reduced bureaucracy, freedom to pursue unusual and innovative projects, and
an environment that fosters a collaborative and multidisciplinary approach to
scientific research are drawing many researchers back to India (Mayor, 2005).
Discussion of student brain drain is not limited to developing countries. The flow
of students to other parts of Europe or the United States is of major concern to
many European countries. According to a report published by the European
Commission, three-quarters of graduates who undertake doctoral studies in the
United States remain after qualifying, the majority from Britain and Germany. The
report cites cutting-edge research establishments, higher salaries and standards of
living, and a culture of entrepreneurship as the key factors drawing European
students and researchers to the United States (European Commission, 2003). Others
have suggested that conditions at home have also contributed to the outflow of
students. Italy, for example, has experienced an exodus of talent, particularly in the
sciences, largely as a result of the significant barriers to academic appointments, slow
career progression, low salaries, poor public funding, bureaucracy and a lack of
opportunities in the private sector (Pelizon, 2002). In contrast, Switzerland has had
much greater success in retaining students, encouraging their return and attracting
outside talent from abroad. Switzerlands success can be contributed to the countrys
high-quality tertiary education system, the support given to emerging researchers,
and a research environment that values collaboration between academia and
 Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management 33

industry, and recognises the importance of establishing a standing globally (German

Research Foundation, 2005).

Engage
Engaging with the Diaspora or the Diaspora option, as it is commonly referred to,
is widely regarded as the most effective way for skilled migrants to actively
contribute to the economic and social development of their home countries. It could
be argued that the processes of globalisation have resulted in the weakening of the
nation-states, with less importance being placed on a persons physical location and
greater emphasis on what contribution they are able to make to the social, cultural
and economic development of the countries with which they identify (Rizvi, 2004).
By maintaining links with their Diasporas, sending countries can encourage
expatriates to remit savings, act as bridges for foreign investment and trade, and
facilitate the transfer of skills and knowledge (Meyer & Brown, 1999). From a
human rights perspective, the Diaspora approach is also considered superior
because, rather than restricting movement, it recognises an individuals rights to
emigrate (Bhagwati, 2003). The challenge for sending countries is to devise ways of
successfully tapping in the valuable resources that the Diaspora represents.

Establishing and maintaining diaspora networks

Establishing channels of communication between the sending country and the
Diaspora is an important step in the creation of Diaspora networks. These channels
of communication allow the sending country to provide information about
opportunities for employment, collaboration, investment and philanthropy. The
economic, political and social climate in the sending country may change over time,
which may result in the Diaspora being more inclined to return temporarily or
permanently, or engage with their home country from abroad. Diasporic networks
can be used to keep those living abroad abreast of changes taking place at home.
China has had considerable success in maintaining contact with its Diaspora.
The Chinese governments attitude towards international student mobility has
shifted radically in recent decades from viewing Chinese expatriates as unpatriotic,
to seeing them as a valuable resource to be harnessed. The government has
established numerous organisations throughout China to liaise with overseas
Chinese and encourage them to contribute to their homeland. By 2000, in Europe
alone there were more than one hundred organisations in over twenty countries
(Barabantseva, 2005). South Korea has actively sought engagement with overseas
Koreans. The Overseas Koreans Foundation, a non-profit organisation that is
affiliated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, has over 6 million
members and actively promotes both cultural and economic links. South Korea also
has a Committee of Korean Residents Abroad, which includes the Prime Minister
and other ministers among its 165 members (Senate Legal and Constitutional
References and Legislation Committees, 2004).

Transnational entrepreneurs
Sending countries can also benefit from the Diaspora by encouraging transnational
entrepreneurship. The networks that have developed between immigrant engineers
34 C. Gribble

and scientists in Silicon Valley and China, India and Taiwan, many of whom went to
the USA as students, highlight a positive consequence of international student
migration. Many of these student migrants have played a significant role in
transferring technology entrepreneurship to regions in China, India and Taiwan,
bringing considerable benefits to local economies. It is estimated that half of the
foreign-born entrepreneurs in Silicon Valley have business relations in their countries
of origin (Saxenian, 2005). Taiwan has probably had the most success in encouraging
its US-educated and -trained engineers to transfer the latest technology and market
information and help jump-start local entrepreneurship (ONeil, 2003).
Although much can be learned from the policy approach adopted by the
Taiwanese government in an effort to benefit from the knowledge and skills of its
Diaspora in order to create its own domestic high-tech industry, the conditions in
many other countries may not be so conducive to peripheral entrepreneurship. In
fact, there are other examples of immigrant groups in Silicon Valley who did not
establish business or professional connections with their home countries because of
economic instability, corruption or lack of an adequate skill base (Saxenian, 2005).
Diaspora involvement in the development of their home country is closely linked
with the prevailing political, social and economic conditions, and the policies of the
sending country can be very influential in promoting the involvement and
contribution of the Diaspora.

Knowledge and skills transfer

Although many students and academics may be reluctant to return home
permanently, they may be willing to return temporarily or virtually to transfer
knowledge, skills or technology. Knowledge networks that connect people via the
Internet are another way of involving expatriates in their home countrys
development. The growth of knowledge networks is a relatively recent phenomenon,
with most emerging in the late 980s and early 990s. Their emergence is largely owing
to increasing numbers of highly skilled expatriates from the same countries of origin,
resulting in greater contact and collective endeavours, and which are greatly aided
through advances in information and communication technologies. Knowledge,
particularly scientific and technological, is widely regarded as critical to develop-
ment, and the lack of knowledge and skills in key areas in many developing countries
has resulted in many opportunities for expatriates to make a positive contribution to
their homelands (Meyer & Brown, 1999).
However, the impact of these networks in unclear. A recent report by Lowell and
Gerova (2004) indicates that the Diasporas role in the development is somewhat
limited. The authors updated much cited research on Diaspora networks, revealing
that a significant percentage were inactive or had not been updated for several years.
A Canadian study reveals that many scientists and academics from developing
countries living in Canada would willingly contribute to scientific research and
development in their home countries if the means to do so existed (Seguin et al.,
2006). Although most of the recommendations were directed at the role developed
nations can play in harnessing the potential of the Diaspora, the study also revealed
that a lack of infrastructure and the failure of developing countries to seek support
from the Diaspora had prevented expatriate scientists and academics from providing
assistance (Seguin et al., 2006).
 Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management 35

Conclusion
The trend for students to study abroad looks set to continue and with it the strong
likelihood that many will remain in the country in which they study. Success in the
knowledge economy rests on the availability of highly skilled and qualified people,
and the loss of the highly educated can have a deleterious effect on the social and
economic development of sending countries. Although the education and migration
policies of receiving countries are clearly a powerful force in determining the
movement of students, sending countries also have the potential to shape
international student flow.
Approaches to managing international student migration will vary depending on
the individual circumstances of each country. A countrys GDP has significant
bearing on levels of skilled migration, whereby middle-income countries experience
the highest rates of skilled migration (Docquier & Rapoport, 2005). Migration
experts often refer to the migration hump that occurs when wages start to rise in a
developing country, creating enough wealth to finance migration but are still low
enough to generate significant financial incentives to migrate to high-income
countries. As wages in middle-income countries increase, migration rates tend to
decline, resulting in the migration hump (De Haas, 2006). Middle-income countries
can promote return migration if appropriate policies are adopted. By fostering a
robust research and development sector, and by providing conditions and incentives
that will encourage both transnational investment and entrepreneurship, sending
countries may encourage students to return home once they have completed their
studies, allowing the sending countries to benefit from the skills, knowledge and
networks the student may have acquired during their time abroad.
Small island developing countries are more open to migration and, therefore,
more at risk of brain drain. Small island nations should consider joining forces in
order to share resources and develop curriculum that is pertinent to the specific
challenges they face. Information and communication technologies can also be
employed as a cost-effective way of delivering curricula and fostering important
research networks (The University of the West Indies Centre for Environment and
Development 2002). Mauritius, for example, is attempting to establish itself as a
cyber island and regional hub by attracting foreign IT firms from the West and
India. A key feature of its plan is a knowledge centre, at which more than fifty
foreign universities and professional bodies offer local programmes, mostly at
diploma or certificate level and in specialised fields (Altbach & Knight, 2006).
By removing barriers to inter-regional mobility and promoting inward mobility,
smaller countries may be able to mitigate the negative impact of outward migration.
Policy options that encourage inward mobility may include standardising work visa
and work permits and improved professional and education standards (Manning &
Sidorenko, 2006). Botswana has evolved from an impoverished migrant sending
country to a migrant receiving country, sustaining rapid economic growth largely via
its open migration policy, which allows relatively unrestricted entry to visitors,
tourists and job seekers (Lefko-Everett, 2004). Faced with a small population,
severely underdeveloped infrastructure, a lack of start-up capital and a largely
unskilled workforce, the governments open approach to migration policy was seen
as a way of overcoming some of these limitations (Lefko-Everett, 2004).
Historical and cultural bilateral ties also influence migration flows, whereby
many students choose to study in countries where there is a former colonial
36 C. Gribble

relationship, allowing students to benefit from a familiarity with the language and
culture of the host country (Dumont, 2006). For example, there are significant flows
of tertiary students to France from francophone Africa with over 30% of
international students in France originating from former French colonies in 2004
(IIE, 2006). Strong financial commitment from the French government has also
enabled new university institutions to be established abroad with the aim of
increasing the visibility and influence of French educational expertise abroad (Oudiz,
2006). Sending countries may wish to take advantage of these historical and cultural
ties by encouraging former colonial powers to participate in cross-border education
initiatives that have the potential to increase capacity in developing nations, as well
as promoting the language and culture of the partner country.
Globally, the competition for knowledge and skills is showing no signs of
abating. The long-term development risks for countries experiencing a significant
and permanent loss of students and academics are serious. Many developing
countries can ill afford to lose skilled labour that is critical to institution building and
the development of social and human capacity. For these sending countries, this loss
of talent demands an urgent analysis of international student flows, followed by
appropriate policy response to ensure that they are also able to share in the
considerable gains presented by international student mobility. This paper examined
some of the factors that contribute to high levels of international student migration
and provides an overview of some of the policy options open to sending countries.
Suggestions are also made as to how sending countries can adopt polices that will
best serve their individual circumstances. What is now required is accurate and
comprehensive data on trends in international student migration, as well as more in-
depth analysis of how specific countries are responding to international student
migration from a policy perspective.

Acknowledgements
This article is one output from an Australian Research Council Discovery Project Governing
International Trade in Higher Education: A Comparative Study of International Education
Policy Development. I thank Dr Christopher Ziguras (RMIT University), Dr Grant
McBurnie (Monash University) and Professor Simon Marginson (University of Melbourne),
who all provided constructive comments on an earlier draft.

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